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diff --git a/25457.txt b/25457.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..05701cb --- /dev/null +++ b/25457.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7421 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Manhood of Humanity. by Alfred Korzybski + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Manhood of Humanity. + +Author: Alfred Korzybski + +Release Date: May 13, 2008 [Ebook #25457] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANHOOD OF HUMANITY.*** + + + + + + *Manhood Of Humanity* + + The Science and Art of + + Human Engineering + + By + + Alfred Korzybski + + New York + + E. P. Dutton & Company + + 681 Fifth Avenue + + 1921 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Acknowledgement +Preface + Chapter I. Introduction + Chapter II. Childhood of Humanity + Chapter III. Classes of Life + Chapter IV. What Is Man? + Chapter V. Wealth + Chapter VI. Capitalistic Era + Chapter VII. Survival of the Fittest + Chapter VIII. Elements Of Power + Chapter IX. Manhood Of Humanity + Chapter X. Conclusion + Appendix I. Mathematics And Time-Binding + Appendix II. Biology And Time-Binding + Appendix III. Engineering And Time-Binding +Footnotes + + + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGEMENT + + +The author and the publishers acknowledge with gratitude the following +permissions to make use of copyright material in this work: + +Messrs. D. C. Heath & Company, for permission to quote from "Unified +Mathematics," by Louis C. Karpinski, Harry Y. Benedict and John W. +Calhoun. + +Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York and London, for permission to quote +from "Organism as a Whole" and "Physiology of the Brain," by Jacques Loeb. + +Messrs. Harper & Brothers, for permission to quote from "From the Life, +Imaginary Portraits of Some Distinguished Americans," by Harvey O'Higgins. + +Messrs. D. Appleton & Company, for permission to quote from "Corporation +Finance," by E. S. Mead. + +Messrs. J. B. Lippincott Company, for permission to quote from "Forced +Movements," by Jacques Loeb. + +Princeton University Press, for permission to quote from "Heredity and +Environment," by Edwin Grant Conklin. + +Columbia University Press, for permission to quote from "The Human Worth +of Rigorous Thinking," by C. J. Keyser. + +The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, for permission to quote +from _The Journal of Experimental Medicine_, Vol. 27. + +The New School for Social Research, for permission to quote from "An +Outline of the History of the Western European Mind," by James Harvey +Robinson. + +The Engineering Magazine Company, for permission to quote from "Mastering +Power Production," by Walter N. Polakov. + + + + + +PREFACE + + +This book is primarily a study of Man and ultimately embraces all the +great qualities and problems of Man. As a study of Man it takes into +consideration _all_ the characteristics which make Man what he is. If some +readers do note the absence of certain expressions familiar to them, it +does not mean that the author does not feel or think as many other +people--he does--and very much so; but in this book an effort has been made +to approach the problem of Man from a scientific-mathematical point of +view, and therefore great pains have been taken _not_ to use words +insufficiently defined, or words with many meanings. The author has done +his utmost to use such words as convey only the meaning intended, and in +the case of some words, such as "spiritual," there has been superadded the +word "so-called," not because the author has any belief or disbelief in +such phenomena; there is no need for _beliefs_ because some such phenomena +exist, no matter what we may think of them or by what name we call them; +but because the word "spiritual" is not scientifically defined, and every +individual understands and uses this word in a _personal_ and private way. +To be _im_personal the author has had to indicate this element by adding +"so-called." I repeat once again that this book is not a "materialistic" +or a "spiritualistic" book--it is a study of "Man" and therefore does and +_should_ include materialistic as well as spiritual phenomena because only +the complex of these phenomena constitutes the complex of Man. + +The problem has not been approached from the point of view of any private +doctrine or creed, but from a mathematical, an engineering, point of view, +which is impersonal and passionless. It is obvious that to be able to +speak about the great affairs of Man, his spiritual, moral, physical, +economic, social or political status, it must first be ascertained what +Man is--what is his real nature and what are the basic laws of his nature. +If we succeed in finding the laws of human nature, all the rest will be a +comparatively easy task--the ethical, social, economic and political status +of Man should be in accord with the laws of his nature; then civilization +will be a human civilization--a permanent and peaceful one--not before. + +It is useless to argue if electricity be "natural" or "_super_natural," of +"material" or of "spiritual" origin. As a matter of fact we do not ask +these questions in studying electricity; we endeavor to find out the +natural laws governing it and in handling live wires we do not argue or +speculate about them--we use rubber gloves, etc. It will be the same with +Man and the great affairs of Man--we have, first of all, to know what Man +is. + +Though this book has been written with scrupulous care to avoid words or +terms of vague meaning--and though it often may seem coldly critical of +things metaphysical, it has not been written with indifference to that +great, perhaps the greatest, urge of the human heart--the craving for +spiritual truth--our yearning for the higher potentialities of that which +we call "mind," "soul" and "spirit"--but it has been written with the deep +desire to find the source of these qualities, their scientific +significance and a scientific proof of them, so that they may be +approached and studied by the best minds of the world without the +digressions, and misinterpretations that are caused by the color and the +confusion of personal emotions; and if the book be read with care, it will +be seen that, though the clarifying definition of the classes of life has +been chiefly used in the book for its great carrying power in the +_practical_ world, its greatest help will ultimately be in guiding the +investigation, the right valuation and especially the control and use of +the higher human powers. + +In writing this book I have been not only introducing new ideas and new +methods of analysis, but I have been using a tongue new to me. The +original manuscript was very crude and foreign in form, and I am greatly +indebted to various friends for their patient kindness in correcting the +many errors of my poor English. + +I am also under great obligations to Walter Polakov, Doctor of +Engineering, for his exceedingly helpful suggestions, not only in giving +me a thorough criticism from the point of view of the Engineer, but also +in devoting his energies to organizing the first "Time-binding Club" where +these problems have been discussed and criticized, with great practical +results. + +To all those who have read and criticized the manuscript or helped +otherwise--Professors E. H. Moore, C. J. Keyser, J. H. Robinson, Burges +Johnson, E. A. Ross, A. Petrunkevitch; and Doctors J. Grove-Korski, +Charles P. Steinmetz, J. P. Warbasse; Robert B. Wolf, Vice-President of +the American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Champlain L. Riley, +Vice-President of the American Society of Heating and Ventilating +Engineers; Miss Josephine Osborn; to the authors, L. Brandeis, E. G. +Conklin, C. J. Keyser, J. Loeb, E. S. Mead, H. O'Higgins, W. Polakov, J. +H. Robinson, R. B. Wolf, for their kind permission to quote them, I wish +to express my sincere appreciation. + +I wish also to acknowledge the deepest gratitude to my wife, formerly Mira +Edgerly, who has found in this discovery of the natural law for the human +class of life, the solution of her life long search, and who, because of +her interest in my work, has given me incomparably inspiring help and +valuable criticism. It is not an exaggeration to state that except for her +steady and relentless work and _her time, which saved my time_, this book +could not have been produced in such a comparatively short time. + +Mr. Walter Polakov of New York City, Industrial Counsellor and Industrial +Engineer in New York City, has kindly consented at my request to act, with +my authority, as my representative to whom any further queries should be +addressed in my absence from America. + +To all other friends who have helped in many personal ways I express +thankfulness, as I wish also to thank John Macrae, Esq., the +Vice-President of E. P. Dutton & Co., for his unusual attitude toward +publishing the book. + +A. K. +_January 17, 1921_ +_New York City._ + + + + +Chapter I. Introduction. Method and Processes of Approach to a New Concept +of Life + + + "For a while he trampled with impunity on laws human and divine + but, as he was obsessed with the delusion that two and two makes + five, he fell, at last a victim to the relentless rules of humble + Arithmetic. + + "Remember, O stranger, Arithmetic is the first of the sciences and + the mother of safety." + + BRANDEIS. + + +It is the aim of this little book to point the way to a new science and +art--the science and art of Human Engineering. By Human Engineering I mean +the science and art of directing the energies and capacities of human +beings to the advancement of human weal. It need not be argued in these +times that the establishment of such a science--the science of human +welfare--is an undertaking of immeasurable importance. No one can fail to +see that its importance is supreme. + +It is evident that, if such a science is to be established it must be +founded on ascertained facts--it must accord with what is _characteristic_ +of Man--it must be based upon a just conception of what Man is--upon a right +understanding of Man's place in the scheme of Nature. + +No one need be told how indispensable it is to have true ideas--just +concepts--correct notions--of the things with which we humans have to deal; +everyone knows for example, that to mistake solids for surfaces or lines +would wreck the science and art of geometry; anyone knows that to confuse +fractions with whole numbers would wreck the science and art of +arithmetic; everyone knows that to mistake vice for virtue would destroy +the foundation of ethics; everyone knows that to mistake a desert mirage +for a lake of fresh water does but lure the fainting traveler to dire +disappointment or death. Now, it is perfectly clear that of all the things +with which human beings have to deal, the most important by far is Man +himself--humankind--men, women and children. It follows that for us human +beings nothing else can be quite so important as a clear, true, just, +scientific concept of Man--a right understanding of what we as human beings +really are. For it requires no great wisdom, it needs only a little +reflection, to see that, if we humans radically misconceive the nature of +man--if we regard man as being something which he is not, whether it be +something higher than man or lower--we thereby commit an error so +fundamental and far reaching as to produce every manner of confusion and +disaster in individual life, in community life and in the life of the +race. + +The question we have, therefore, to consider first of all is +fundamentally: What is Man? What is a man? What is a human being? What is +the defining or characteristic mark of humanity? To this question two +answers and only two have been given in the course of the ages, and they +are both of them current to-day. One of the answers is biological--man is +an animal, a certain kind of animal; the other answer is a mixture partly +biological and partly mythological or partly biological and partly +philosophical--man is a combination or _union_ of animal with something +supernatural. An important part of my task will be to show that both of +these answers are radically wrong and that, beyond all things else, they +are primarily responsible for what is dismal in the life and history of +humankind. This done, the question remains: What is Man? I hope to show +clearly and convincingly that the answer is to be found in the patent fact +that human beings possess in varying degrees a certain natural faculty or +power or capacity which serves at once to give them their appropriate +dignity as human beings and to discriminate them, not only from the +minerals and the plants but also from the world of animals, this peculiar +or characteristic human faculty or power or capacity I shall call the +_time-binding_ faculty or _time-binding_ power or _time-binding_ capacity. +What I mean by time-binding will be clearly and fully explained in the +course of the discussion, and when it has been made clear, the +question--What Is Man?--will be answered by saying that man is a being +naturally endowed with time-binding capacity--that a human being is a +time-binder--that men, women and children constitute the time-binding class +of life. + +There will then remain the great task of indicating and in a measure +sketching some of the important ways in which the true conception of man +as man will transform our views of human society and the world, affect our +human conduct and give us a growing body of scientific wisdom regarding +the welfare of mankind including all posterity. + +The purpose of this introductory chapter is to consider certain general +matters of a preliminary nature--to indicate the spirit of the +undertaking--to provide a short course of approach and preparation--to clear +the deck, so to speak, and make ready for action. + +There are two ways to slide easily through life: Namely, to believe +everything, or to doubt everything; both ways save us from thinking. The +majority take the line of least resistance, preferring to have their +thinking done for them; they accept ready-made individual, private +doctrines as their own and follow them more or less blindly. Every +generation looks upon its own creeds as true and permanent and has a +mingled smile of pity and contempt for the prejudices of the past. For two +hundred or more generations of our historical past this attitude has been +repeated two hundred or more times, and unless we are very careful our +children will have the same attitude toward us. + +There can be no doubt that humanity belongs to a class of life which to a +large extent determines its own destinies, establishes its own rules of +education and conduct, and thus influences every step we are free to take +within the structure of our social system. But the power of human beings +to determine their own destinies is limited by natural law, Nature's law. +It is the counsel of wisdom to discover the laws of nature, including the +laws of human nature, and then to live in accordance with them. The +opposite is folly. + +A farmer must know the natural laws that govern his wheat, or corn, or +cow, as otherwise he will not have satisfactory crops, or the quality and +abundance of milk he desires, whereas the knowledge of these laws enables +him to produce the most favorable conditions for his plants and animals, +and thereby to gain the desired results. + +Humanity must know the natural laws for humans, otherwise humans will not +create the conditions and the customs that regulate human activities which +will make it possible for them to have the most favorable circumstances +for the fullest human development in life; which means the release of the +maximum natural-creative energy and expression in mental, moral, material +and spiritual and all the other great fields of human activities, +resulting in happiness in life and in work--collectively and +individually--because the conditions of the earning of a livelihood +influence and shape all our mental processes and activities, the quality +and the form of human inter-relationship. + +Every human achievement, be it a scientific discovery, a picture, a +statue, a temple, a home or a bridge, has to be conceived in the mind +first--the plan thought out--before it can be made a reality, and when +anything is to be attempted that involves any number of +individuals--methods of coordination have to be considered--the methods +which have proven to be the best suited for such undertakings are +engineering methods--the engineering of _an idea_ toward a complete +_realization_. Every engineer has to know the materials with which he has +to work and the natural laws of these materials, as discovered by +observation and experiment and formulated by mathematics and mechanics; +else he can not calculate the forces at his disposal; he can not compute +the resistance of his materials; he can not determine the capacity and +requirements of his power plant; in short, he can not make the most +profitable use of his resources. Lately in all industries and particularly +during the late World War, which was itself a gigantic industrial process, +another factor manifested itself and proved to be of the utmost +importance: namely, the human factor, which is not material but is mental, +moral, psychological. It has been found that maximum production may be +attained when and only when the production is carried on in conformity +with certain psychological laws, roughly determined by the analysis of +human nature. + +Except for productive human labor, our globe is too small to support the +human population now upon it. Humanity must produce or perish. + +Production is essentially a task for engineers; it essentially depends +upon the discovery and the application of natural laws, including the laws +of human nature. It is, therefore, not a task for old fashioned +philosophical speculation nor for barren metaphysical reasoning _in +vacuo_; it is a scientific task and involves the coordination and +cooperation of all the sciences. This is why it is an engineering task. + +For engineering, rightly understood, is the coordinated sum-total of human +knowledge gathered through the ages, with mathematics as its chief +instrument and guide. Human Engineering will embody the theory and +practice--the science and art--of all engineering branches united by a +common aim--the understanding and welfare of mankind. + +Here I want to make it very clear that mathematics is not what many people +think it is; it is not a system of mere formulas and theorems; but as +beautifully defined by Professor Cassius J. Keyser, in his book _The Human +Worth of Rigorous Thinking_ (Columbia University Press, 1916), mathematics +is the science of "Exact thought or rigorous thinking," and one of its +distinctive characteristics is "precision, sharpness, completeness of +definitions." This quality alone is sufficient to explain why people +generally do not like mathematics and why even some scientists bluntly +refuse to have anything to do with problems wherein mathematical reasoning +is involved. In the meantime, mathematical philosophy has very little, if +anything, to do with mere calculations or with numbers as such or with +formulas; it is a philosophy wherein precise, sharp and rigorous thinking +is essential. Those who deliberately refuse to think "rigorously"--that is +mathematically--in connections where such thinking is possible, commit the +sin of preferring the worse to the better; they deliberately violate the +supreme law of intellectual rectitude. + +Here I have to make it clear that for the purpose of Human Engineering the +old concepts of matter, space and time are sufficient to start with; they +are sufficient in much the same way as they have been sufficient in the +old science of mechanics. Figuratively speaking Human Engineering is a +higher order of bridge engineering--it aims at the spanning of a gap in +practical life as well as in knowledge. The old meanings of matter, space +and time were good enough to prevent the collapse of a bridge; the same +understanding of space and time as used in this book will protect society +and humanity from periodical collapses. The old mechanics lead directly to +such a knowledge of the intrinsic laws governing the universe as to +suggest the new mechanics. Human Engineering will throw a new light on +many old conceptions and will help the study and understanding of matter, +space and time in their relative meanings, and perhaps will ultimately +lead to an understanding of their absolute meanings. + +Philosophy in its old form could exist only in the absence of engineering, +but with engineering in existence and daily more active and far reaching, +the old verbalistic philosophy and metaphysics have lost their reason to +exist. They were no more able to understand the "production" of the +universe and life than they are now able to understand or grapple with +"production" as a means to provide a happier existence for humanity. They +failed because their venerated method of "speculation" can not _produce_, +and its place must be taken by mathematical thinking. Mathematical +reasoning is displacing metaphysical reasoning. Engineering is driving +verbalistic philosophy out of existence and humanity gains decidedly +thereby. Only a few parasites and "speculators" will mourn the +disappearance of their old companion "speculation." The world of +producers--the predominating majority of human beings--will welcome a +philosophy of ordered thought and production. + +The scientists, all of them, have their duties no doubt, but they do not +fully use their education if they do not try to broaden their sense of +responsibility toward all mankind instead of closing themselves up in a +narrow specialization where they find their pleasure. Neither engineers +nor other scientific men have any right to prefer their own personal peace +to the happiness of mankind; their place and their duty are in the front +line of struggling humanity, not in the unperturbed ranks of those who +keep themselves aloof from life. If they are indifferent, or discouraged +because they feel or think that they know that the situation is hopeless, +it may be proved that undue pessimism is as dangerous a "religion" as any +other blind creed. Indeed there is very little difference in kind between +the medieval fanaticism of the "holy inquisition," and modern intolerance +toward new ideas. All kinds of intellect must get together, for as long as +we presuppose the situation to be hopeless, the situation will indeed be +hopeless. The spirit of Human Engineering does not know the word +"hopeless;" for engineers know that wrong methods are alone responsible +for disastrous results, and that every situation can be successfully +handled by the use of proper means. The task of engineering science is not +only to know but to know how. Most of the scientists and engineers do not +yet realize that their united judgment would be invincible; no system or +class would care to disregard it. Their knowledge is the very force which +makes the life of humanity pulsate. If the scientists and the engineers +have had no common base upon which to unite, a common base must be +provided. To-day the pressure of life is such that we cannot go forward +without their coordinating guidance. But first there must be the desire to +act. One aim of this book is to furnish the required stimulus by showing +that Human Engineering will rescue us from the tangle of private opinions +and enable us to deal with all the problems of life and human society upon +a scientific basis. + +If those who know why and how neglect to act, those who do not know will +act, and the world will continue to flounder. The whole history of mankind +and especially the present plight of the world show only too sadly how +dangerous and expensive it is to have the world governed by those who do +not know. + +In paying the price of this war, we have been made to realize that even +the private individual can not afford to live wrapped up in his own life +and not take his part in public affairs. He must acquire the habit of +taking his share of public responsibility. This signifies that a very +great deal of very simple work, all pointing in the direction of a greater +work, must be done in the way of educating, not engineers and scientific +men only, but the general public to cooperate in establishing the practice +of Human Engineering in all the affairs of human society and life. + +In writing this book I have had to wrestle with tremendous difficulties in +expressing new thoughts and in indicating new methods. The reader who +stops to criticize words or expressions because of their more or less +happy or unhappy use will miss the whole point of the work. The reading of +it should be done with a view to seeing how much can be found in it of +what is new and good that may be elaborated further, and put into better +form. This new enterprise is too difficult and too vast for the unaided +labor of one man--life is too short. + +The method used in this book in analysing life phenomena is essentially an +engineering method, and as physics and mechanics always suggest to +mathematicians new fields for analysis, it is not improbable that Human +Engineering will give mathematicians new and interesting fields for +research. The humblest role of mathematicians in Human Engineering may be +likened to that of "Public accountants" who put _in order_ the affairs of +business. + +In relation to mathematics Bertrand Russell has said: "Logic is the youth +of mathematics, mathematics is the manhood of logic." This brilliant _mot_ +of the eminent philosopher of mathematics is no doubt just and is +profoundly significant; the least it can teach us is that it is useless to +try to find a dividing line between logic and mathematics, for no such +line exists; to seek for one serves merely to betray one's ignorance of +mathematical philosophy. Elsewhere Mr. Russell says: "The hope of +satisfaction to our more human desires, the hope of demonstrating that the +world has this or that ethical characteristic, is not one which, so far as +I can see, philosophy can do anything whatever to satisfy." By +"philosophy" he means mathematical philosophy--a philosophy that is +rigorously scientific, not vaguely speculative. I am entirely unable to +agree with him that such a philosophy can make no contribution to ethics. +On the contrary, I contend, and in this book I hope to show, that by +mathematical philosophy, by rigorously scientific thinking, we can arrive +at the true conception of what a human being really is and that in thus +discovering the characteristic nature of man we come to the secret and +source of ethics. Ethics as a science will investigate and explain the +essential nature of man and the obligations which the essential nature of +man imposes upon human beings. It will be seen that to live righteously, +to live ethically, is to live in accordance with the laws of human nature; +and when it is clearly seen that man is a natural being, a part of nature +literally, then it will be seen that the laws of human nature--the only +possible rules for ethical conduct--are no more _super_natural and no more +_man_-made than is the law of gravitation, for example, or any other +natural law. + +It is no cause for wonder that mathematical thinking should lead to such a +result; for Man is a _natural_ being, man's mind is a _natural agency_, +and the results of rigorous thinking, far from being artificial fictions, +are natural facts--natural revelations of natural law. + +I hope I have not given the impression, by repeated allusion to +mathematical science, that this book is to be in any technical sense a +mathematical treatise. I have merely wished to indicate that the task is +conceived and undertaken in the mathematical spirit, which must be the +guiding spirit of Human Engineering; for no thought, if it be +non-mathematical in spirit, can be trusted, and, although mathematicians +sometimes make mistakes, the spirit of mathematics is always right and +always sound. + +Whilst I do not intend to trouble the reader with any highly technical +mathematical arguments, there are a few simple mathematical considerations +which anyone of fair education can understand, which are of exceedingly +great importance for our purpose, and to which, therefore, I ask the +reader's best attention. One of the ideas is that of an _arithmetical +progression_; another one is that of a _geometrical progression_. Neither +of them involves anything more difficult than the most ordinary arithmetic +of the secondary school or the counting house, but it will be seen that +they throw a flood of light upon many of the most important human +concerns. + +Because we are human beings we are all of us interested in what we call +progress--progress in law, in government, in jurisprudence, in ethics, in +philosophy, in the natural sciences, in economics, in the fine arts, in +the practical arts, in the production and distribution of wealth, in all +the affairs affecting the welfare of mankind. It is a fact that all these +great matters are interdependent and interlocking; it is therefore a fact +of the utmost importance that progress in each of the cardinal matters +must keep abreast of progress in the other cardinal matters in order to +keep a just equilibrium, a proper balance, and so to maintain the +integrity and continued prosperity of the whole complex body of our social +life; it is a fact, a fact of observation, that in some of the great +matters progress proceeds in accordance with one law and one rate of +advancement and in others in accordance with a very different law and +rate; it is a fact, a fact of observation and sad experience, a fact +attested by all history and made evident by reason, that owing to the +widely differing laws and rates of progress in the great essential +concerns of humanity, the balance and equilibrium among the parts is +disturbed, the strain gradually increases until a violent break ensues in +the form of social conflicts, insurrections, revolutions and war; it is a +fact that the readjustment that follows, as after an earthquake, does +indeed establish a kind of new equilibrium, but it is an equilibrium born +of violence, and it is destined to be again disturbed periodically without +end, unless by some science and art of Human Engineering progress in all +the great matters essential to human weal can be made to proceed in +accordance with one and the same law having its validity in the nature of +man. + +Taken in combination, the facts just stated are so extremely important +that they deserve to be stated with the utmost emphasis and clarity. To +this end I beg the reader to consider very carefully and side by side the +two following series of numbers. The first one is a simple geometrical +progression--denoted by (_GP_); the second one is a simple arithmetical +progression--denoted by (_AP_): + +_GP_: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, etc.; +_AP_: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, etc. + +For convenience of comparison I let them begin with the same number and +for simplicity I have taken 2 for this initial term; observe that in the +(_GP_) each term is got from the preceding term by _multiplying_ by 2 and +that in the (_AP_) each term is got from its predecessor by adding 2; in +the first series the multiplier 2 is called the common _ratio_ and in the +second series the repeatedly added 2 is called the common _difference_; it +is again for the convenience of comparison that I have chosen the same +number for both common ratio and common difference and for the sake of +simplicity that I have taken for this number the easy number 2. Other +choices would be logically just as good. + +Why have I introduced these two series? Because they serve to illustrate +perfectly two widely different _laws of progress_--two laws representing +vastly different _rates_ of growth, increase, or _advancement_. + +Do not fail to observe in this connection the following two facts. One of +them is that the magnitude of the terms of any geometric progression whose +ratio (no matter how small) is 2 or more will overtake and surpass the +magnitude of the corresponding terms of any arithmetical progression, no +matter how large the common difference of the latter may be. The other +fact to be noted is that the greater the ratio of a geometric progression, +the more rapidly do its successive terms increase; so that the terms of +one geometric progression may increase a thousand or a million or a +billion times faster than the corresponding terms of another geometric +progression. As any geometric progression (of ratio equal to 2 or more), +no matter how slow, outruns every arithmetic progression, no matter how +fast, so one geometric progression may be far swifter than another one of +the same type. + +To every one it will be obvious that the two progressions differ in pace; +and that the difference between their corresponding terms becomes +increasingly larger and larger the farther we go; for instance, the sum of +the first six terms of the geometrical progression is 126, whereas the sum +of the first six terms of the arithmetical progression is only 42, the +difference between the two sums being 84; the sum of 8 terms is 510 for +the (_GP_) and 72 for the (_AP_), the difference between these sums (of +only 8 terms each) being 438, already much larger than before; if now we +take the sums of the first 10 terms, they will be 2046 and 110 having a +difference of 1936; etc., etc. + +Consider now any two matters of great importance for human +weal--jurisprudence for example, and natural science--or any other two major +concerns of humanity. It is as plain as the noon-day sun that, if progress +in one of the matters advances according to the law of a geometric +progression and the other in accordance with a law of an arithmetical +progression, progress in the former matter will very quickly and ever more +and more rapidly outstrip progress in the latter, so that, if the two +interests involved be interdependent (as they always are), a strain is +gradually produced in human affairs, social equilibrium is at length +destroyed; there follows a period of readjustment by means of violence and +force. It must not be fancied that the case supposed is merely +hypothetical. The whole history of mankind and especially the present +condition of the world unite in showing that far from being merely +hypothetical, the case supposed has always been actual and is actual +to-day on a vaster scale than ever before. My contention is that while +progress in some of the great matters of human concern has been long +proceeding in accordance with the law of a rapidly increasing geometric +progression, progress in the other matters of no less importance has +advanced only at the rate of an arithmetical progression or at best at the +rate of some geometric progression of relatively slow growth. To see it +and to understand it we have to pay the small price of a little +observation and a little meditation. + +Some technological invention is made, like that of a steam engine or a +printing press, for example; or some discovery of scientific method, like +that of analytical geometry or the infinitesimal calculus; or some +discovery of natural law, like that of falling bodies or the Newtonian law +of gravitation. What happens? What is the effect upon the progress of +knowledge and invention? The effect is stimulation. Each invention leads +to new inventions and each discovery to new discoveries; invention breeds +invention, science begets science, the children of knowledge produce their +kind in larger and larger families; the process goes on from decade to +decade, from generation to generation, and the spectacle we behold is that +of advancement in scientific knowledge and technological power according +to the law and rate of a rapidly increasing geometric progression or +logarithmic function. + +And now what must we say of the so-called sciences--the pseudo sciences--of +ethics and jurisprudence and economics and politics and government? For +the answer we have only to open our eyes and behold the world. By virtue +of the advancement that has long been going on with ever accelerated +logarithmic rapidity in invention, in mathematics, in physics, in +chemistry, in biology, in astronomy and in applications of them, time and +space and matter have been already conquered to such an extent that our +globe, once so seemingly vast, has virtually shrunken to the dimensions of +an ancient province; and manifold peoples of divers tongues and traditions +and customs and institutions are now constrained to live together as in a +single community. There is thus demanded a new ethical wisdom, a new legal +wisdom, a new economical wisdom, a new political wisdom, a new wisdom in +the affairs of government. For the new visions our anguished times cry +aloud but the only answers are reverberated echoes of the wailing cry +mingled with the chattering voices of excited public men who know not what +to do. Why? What is the explanation? The question is double: Why the +disease? And why no remedy at hand? The answer is the same for both. And +the answer is that the so-called sciences of ethics and jurisprudence and +economics and politics and government have not kept pace with the rapid +progress made in the other great affairs of man; they have lagged behind; +it is because of their lagging that the world has come to be in so great +distress; and it is because of their lagging that they have not now the +needed wisdom to effect a cure. + +Do you ask why it is that the "social" sciences--the so-called sciences of +ethics, etc.--have lagged behind? The answer is not far to seek nor +difficult to understand. They have lagged behind, partly because they have +been hampered by the traditions and the habits of a bygone world--they have +looked backward instead of forward; they have lagged behind, partly +because they have depended upon the barren methods of verbalistic +philosophy--they have been metaphysical instead of scientific; they have +lagged behind, partly because they have been often dominated by the lusts +of cunning "politicians" instead of being led by the wisdom of enlightened +statesmen; they have lagged behind, partly because they have been +predominantly concerned to protect "vested interests," upon which they +have in the main depended for support; the _fundamental_ cause, however, +of their lagging behind is found in the astonishing fact that, despite +their being by their very nature most _immediately_ concerned with the +affairs of mankind, they have not discovered what Man really is but have +from time immemorial falsely regarded human beings either as animals or +else as combinations of animals and something supernatural. With these two +monstrous conceptions of the essential nature of man I shall deal at a +later stage of this writing. + +At present I am chiefly concerned to drive home the fact that it is the +great _disparity_ between the rapid progress of the natural and +technological sciences on the one hand and the slow progress of the +metaphysical, so-called social "sciences" on the other hand, that sooner +or later so disturbs the equilibrium of human affairs as to result +periodically in those social cataclysms which we call insurrections, +revolutions and wars. The reader should note carefully that such +cataclysmic changes--such "jumps," as we may call them--such violent +readjustments in human affairs and human relationships--are recorded +throughout the history of mankind. And I would have him see clearly that, +because the _disparity_ which produces them increases as we pass from +generation to generation--from term to term of our progressions--the "jumps" +in question occur not only with increasing violence but with increasing +frequency. This highly significant fact may be graphically illustrated in +the following figure: + +[ A horizontal line, with numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 above, and markings +_a'_, _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_ in the corresponding locations below. ] + +Geometric evolution of the natural and technological sciences.--Peaceful +progress. + + +[ A horizontal line, again marked with numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, but with +gaps between 6 and (unprinted) 7, 8 and (unprinted) 9, 10 and (unprinted) +11. Above are markings: _A'_ above 2 and _A_ above 4; _B_ above 6 and _C_ +above 7; _D_ above 8 and _E_ above 9; _F_ above 10 and _G_ at the far +right end. The steady progress areas, 2 to 4, 7 to 8, 9 to 10, are marked +"Peaceful", while the gaps are labeled "Jump, Revolution or War." ] + +Arithmetical evolution of the so-called social "sciences," accelerated by +violent "jumps."--Non-peaceful social progress. + + +_a'2_, _2a_, _ab_, _bc_, _cd_, represent the geometrical law of +progression in the natural and technological sciences (peaceful +evolution). + +_A'2_, _2A_, _AB_, _CD_, _EF_, represent the lagging arithmetical law of +progression in the so-called social sciences (peaceful evolution). + +Both of these during the same periods of time. + +_BC_, _DE_, _FG_, represent revolutions or wars, with the aftermath of +revolution of ideas--the "jump"--violent readjustment of ideas to +facts--forced by events. + +_ab_, _bc_, _cd_, and _AB_, _CD_, _EF_, take the same amount of time, but +the second progression being much slower than the first one, the "jumps" +or revolutions occur at shorter intervals as time goes on and thus more +frequently force us to coordinate our ideas to facts. Periods of peace or +seeming peace alternate more and more frequently with periods of violence; +the mentioned _disparity_ of progress in peaceful times is the hatching +seed of future violence.(1) + +As a matter of fact these few mathematical considerations can hardly be +called mathematics or mathematical philosophy; nevertheless, without +bringing attention to these very simple mathematical ideas we should not +be able to proceed any further than in the past. Our life problems have +always been "solved" by verbalists and rhetorical metaphysicians who +cleverly played with vague words and who always ignored the supremely +important matter of dimensions because they were ignorant of it. There was +no possible way to arrive at an agreement on the significance of words, or +even the understanding of them. Let us take, for instance, such words as +"good" or "bad" or "truth;" volumes upon volumes have been written about +them; no one has reached any result universally acceptable; the effect has +been to multiply warring schools of philosophy--sectarians and partisans. +In the meantime _something_ corresponding to each of the terms "good," +"bad," "truth" exists as matter of fact; but what that something is still +awaits scientific determination. If only these three words could be +scientifically defined, philosophy, law, ethics and psychology would cease +to be "private theories" or verbalism and they would advance to the rank +and dignity of sciences. + +Here I may quote a characteristic of life as expressed by one of the +"heroes" of my esteemed friend Harvey O'Higgins, in his book, _From the __ +Life, Imaginary Portraits of Some Distinguished Americans_ (Harper, N. +Y.). + + + "Warren never philosophized; he handled facts as an artisan + handles his tools; but if he _had_ philosophized, his theory of + life would probably have been something like this: 'There is no + justice, there is no morality, in nature or in natural laws; + justice and morality are laws only of human society. But society, + natural life, and all civilization are subject in their larger + aspects to natural laws--which contradict morality and outrage + justice--and the statesman has to move with those laws and direct + his people in accordance with them, despite the lesser by-laws of + morality and justice.' " + + +If such are the creeds of "distinguished people" anywhere, what better can +we expect than that which we see in the history of humanity? + +But the fact that the old philosophy, law, ethics, psychology, politics +and sociology could not solve the practical problems of humanity, is not +any reason whatsoever why we should despair. The problems can be solved. + +To follow the reasoning of this book, it is not necessary to be a highly +trained specialist; the only qualifications required are candor, an open +mind, freedom from blinding prejudice, thoughtfulness, a real desire for +truth, and enough common sense to understand that to talk of adding three +quarts of milk to three-quarters of a mile is to talk nonsense. + + + + +Chapter II. Childhood of Humanity + + +The conclusion of the World War is the closing of the period of the +childhood of humanity. This childhood, as any childhood, can be +characterized as devoid of any real understanding of values, as is that of +a child who uses a priceless chronometer to crack nuts. + +This childhood has been unduly long, but happily we are near to the end of +it, for humanity, shaken by this war, is coming to its senses and must +soon enter its manhood, a period of great achievements and rewards in the +new and real sense of values dawning upon us. + +The sacred dead will not have died for naught; the "red wine of youth," +the wanton waste of life, has shown us the price of life, and we will have +to keep our oath to make the future worthy of their sweat and blood. + +Early ideas are not necessarily true ideas. + +There are different kinds of interpretations of history and different +schools of philosophy. All of them have contributed something to human +progress, but none of them has been able to give the world a basic +philosophy embracing the whole progress of science and establishing the +life of man upon the abiding foundation of Fact. + +Our life is bound to develop according to evident or else concealed laws +of nature. The evident laws of nature were the inspiration of genuine +science in its cradle; and their interpretations or misinterpretations +have from the earliest times formed systems of law, of ethics, and of +philosophy. + +Human intellect, be it that of an individual or that of the race, forms +conclusions which have to be often revised before they correspond +approximately to facts. What we call progress consists in coordinating +ideas with realities. The World War has taught something to everybody. It +was indeed a great reality; it accustomed us to think in terms of reality +and not in those of phantom speculation. Some unmistakable truths were +revealed. Facts and force were the things that counted. Power had to be +produced to destroy hostile power; it was found that the old political and +economic systems were not adequate to the task put upon them. The world +had to create new economic conditions; it was obliged to supplement the +old systems with special boards for food, coal, railroads, shipping, +labor, etc. The World War emergency compelled the nations to organize for +producing greater power in order to conquer power already great. + +If there is anything which this war has proved, it is the fact that the +most important asset a nation or an individual can have, is the ability +"to do things." + +"In Flanders Fields the poppies blow ...," that is too true; they blow and +they are strong and red. But the purpose of this writing is not the +celebration of poetry, but the elucidation and right use of facts. + +Normally, thousands of rabbits and guinea pigs are used and killed, in +scientific laboratories, for experiments which yield great and tangible +benefits to humanity. This war butchered millions of people and ruined the +health and lives of tens of millions. Is this climax of the pre-war +civilization to be passed unnoticed, except for the poetry and the +manuring of the battle fields, that the "poppies blow" stronger and better +fed? Or is the death of ten men on the battle field to be of as much worth +in knowledge gained as is the life of one rabbit killed for experiment? Is +the great sacrifice worth analysing? There can be only one answer--yes. +But, if truth be desired, the analysis must be scientific. + +In science, "opinions" are tolerated when and only when facts are lacking. +In this case, we have all the facts necessary. We have only to collect +them and analyse them, rejecting mere "opinions" as cheap and unworthy. +Such as understand this lesson will know how to act for the benefit of +all. + +At present the future of mankind is dark. "Stop, look, and listen"--the +prudent caution at railroad crossings--must be amended to read "stop, look, +listen, and THINK"; not for the saving of a few lives in railroad +accidents, but for the preservation of the life of humanity. Living +organisms, of the lower and simpler types, in which the differentiation +and the integration of the vital organs have not been carried far, can +move about for a considerable time after being deprived of the appliances +by which the life force is accumulated and transferred, but higher +organisms are instantly killed by the removal of such appliances, or even +by the injury of minor parts of them; even more easily destroyed are the +more advanced and complicated _social_ organizations. + +The first question is: what are to be the scientific methods that will +eliminate diverse opinions and creeds from an analysis of facts and ensure +correct deductions based upon them? A short survey of facts concerning +civilization will help to point the way. + +Humanity, in its cradle, did not have science; it had only the faculties +of observation and speculation. In the early days there was much +speculative thinking, but it was without any sufficient basis of facts. +Theology and philosophy flourished; their speculations were often very +clever, but all their primitive notions about facts--such as the structure +of the heavens, the form of the earth, mechanical principles, +meteorological or physiological phenomena--were almost all of them wrong. + +What is history? What is its significance for humanity? Dr. J. H. Robinson +gives us a precise answer: "Man's abject dependence on the past gives rise +to the continuity of history. Our convictions, opinions, prejudices, +intellectual tastes; our knowledge, our methods of learning and of +applying for information we owe, with slight exceptions, to the past--often +to the remote past. History is an expansion of memory, and like memory it +alone can explain the present and in this lies its most unmistakable +value."(2) + +The savage regards every striking phenomenon or group of phenomena as +caused by some personal agent, and from remotest antiquity the mode of +thinking has changed only as fast as the relations among phenomena have +been established.(3) + +Human nature was always asking "why"? and not being able to answer why, +they found their answer through another factor "who." The unknown was +called, Gods or God. But with the progress of science the "why" became +more and more evident, and the question came to be "how." From the early +days of humanity, dogmatic theology, law, ethics, and science in its +infancy, were the monopolies of one class and the source of their +power.(4) + +The first to break this power were the exact sciences. They progressed too +rapidly to be bound and limited by obscure old writings and prejudices; +life and realities were their domain. Science brushed aside all sophistry +and became a reality. Ethics is too fundamentally important a factor in +civilization to depend upon a theological or a legal excuse; ethics must +conform to the _natural_ laws of human _nature_. + +Laws, legal ideas, date from the beginning of civilization. Legal +speculation was wonderfully developed in parallel lines with theology and +philosophy before the natural and exact sciences came into existence. Law +was always made by the few and in general for the purpose of preserving +the "existing order," or for the reestablishment of the old order and the +punishment of the offenders against it. + +Dogmatic theology is, by its very nature, unchangeable. The same can be +said in regard to the spirit of the law. Law was and is to protect the +past and present status of society and, by its very essence, must be very +conservative, if not reactionary. Theology and law are both of them static +by their nature.(5) + +Philosophy, law and ethics, to be effective in a dynamic world must be +dynamic; they must be made vital enough to keep pace with the progress of +life and science. In recent civilization ethics, because controlled by +theology and law, which are static, could not duly influence the dynamic, +revolutionary progress of technic and the steadily changing conditions of +life; and so we witness a tremendous downfall of morals in politics and +business. Life progresses faster than our ideas, and so medieval ideas, +methods and judgments are constantly applied to the conditions and +problems of modern life. This discrepancy between facts and ideas is +greatly responsible for the dividing of modern society into different +warring classes, which do not understand each other. Medieval legalism and +medieval morals--the basis of the old _social_ structure--being by their +nature conservative, reactionary, opposed to change, and thus becoming +more and more unable to support the mighty social burden of the modern +world, must be adjudged responsible in a large measure for the +circumstances which made the World War inevitable. + +Under the flash of explosives some of the workings of those antiquated +ideas were exposed or crushed. The World War has profoundly changed +economic conditions and made it necessary to erect new standards of +values. We are forced to realize that evolution by transformation is a +cosmic process and that reaction, though it may retard it, can not +entirely stop it.(6) + +The idea that organic species are results of special creation has no +scientific standard whatever. There is not one fact tending to prove +special or separate creation; the evidence, which is overwhelming, is all +of it on the other side. The hypothesis of special creation is a mere +fossil of the past. Evolution is the only theory which is in harmony with +facts and with all branches of science: life is dynamic, not static. + +Philosophy, as defined by Fichte, is the "science of sciences." Its aim +was to solve the problems of the world. In the past, when all exact +sciences were in their infancy, philosophy had to be purely speculative, +with little or no regard to realities. But if we regard philosophy as a +Mother science, divided into many branches, we find that those branches +have grown so large and various, that the Mother science looks like a hen +with her little ducklings paddling in a pond, far beyond her reach; she is +unable to follow her growing hatchlings. In the meantime, the progress of +life and science goes on, irrespective of the cackling of metaphysics. +Philosophy does not fulfill her initial aim to bring the results of +experimental and exact sciences together and to solve world problems. +Through endless, scientific specialization scientific branches multiply, +and for want of coordination the great world-problems suffer. This failure +of philosophy to fulfill her boasted mission of scientific coordination is +responsible for the chaos in the world of general thought. The world has +no collective or organized higher ideals and aims, nor even fixed general +purposes. Life is an accidental game of private or collective ambitions +and greeds.(7) + +Systematic study of chemical and physical phenomena has been carried on +for many generations and these two sciences now include: (1) knowledge of +an enormous number of facts; (2) a large body of natural laws; (3) many +fertile working hypotheses respecting the causes and regularities of +natural phenomena; and finally (4) many helpful theories held subject to +correction by further testing of the hypotheses giving rise to them. When +a subject is spoken of as a science, it is understood to include all of +the above mentioned parts. Facts alone do not constitute a science any +more than a pile of stones constitutes a house, not even do facts and laws +alone; there must be facts, hypotheses, theories and laws before the +subject is entitled to the rank of a science. + +The primal function of a science is to enable us to anticipate the future +in the field to which it relates. Judged by this standard, neither +philosophy nor its kindred--the so-called social sciences--have in the past +been very effective. There was, for example, no official warning of the +coming of the World War--the greatest of catastrophes. The future was not +anticipated because political philosophers did not possess the necessary +basis of knowledge. To be just we must admit that philosophy has been but +little aided financially because it is commonly regarded as unnecessary. +The technical branches of science have been strongly backed and generally +supported by those to whom they have brought direct profit; and so they +have had better opportunities for development. + +Ethics in the stifling grip of myth and legalism is not convincing enough +to exercise controlling influence. Such is the situation in which we find +ourselves. Being still in our childhood and thinking like savages, we +looked upon the World War as a personal creation of a "war-lord," because +those interested in it told us so. We neglected to use our common sense +and look deeper into its origins; to perform for ourselves the duty which +political philosophy did not perform for us--the duty of thinking in terms +of facts and not in terms of metaphysical speculations. Knowledge of facts +would have told us that the war lords were only the representatives of the +ruling classes. A system of social and economic order built exclusively on +selfishness, greed, "survival of the fittest," and ruthless competition, +must cease to exist, or exist by means of war. The representatives of this +system determined to continue to exist, and so war was the consequence. +The ruling classes carried the whole system under which they lived to its +logical conclusion and natural issue, which is "grab what you can." This +motto is not peculiar to any one country; it is the motto of our whole +civilization and is the inevitable outcome of our stupid philosophy +regarding the characteristic nature of man and the proper potentialities +of human life. Where are we to find the true doctrines? Where the true +philosophy? If we go back over the history of civilization, we find that +in all "sciences," except the exact ones, private opinions and theories +have shaped our beliefs, colored our mental processes and controlled our +destinies; we see, for example, pessimism opposed to optimism, materialism +to spiritualism, realism to idealism, capitalism to socialism, and so on +endlessly. Each of the disputatious systems has a large number of +followers and each faction looks upon the others as deprived of truth, +common sense and knowledge. All of them play with the words "natural law" +which they ignorantly presume to have as the basis and content of their +own particular doctrine. + +It is the same in the realm of religions; there are approximately 291 +million Confucianists, or Taoists, 261 million Roman Catholics, 211 +million Mohammedans, 209 million Hindus, 177 million Protestants, 157 +million Animists, 137 million Buddhists, 115 million Orthodox +Christians--to speak only of the most important religions. Each group, and +they are rather large groups, believes its theory or its faith to be +infallible and all the others to be false. + +Bacon seems a bit remote, but the idols and medieval fetishes which he so +masterfully describes are equally venerated to-day. + + + (_Novum Organum_, by Francis Bacon.) + + 34. "Four species of idols beset the human mind, to which (for + distinction's sake) we have assigned names, calling the first + Idols of the Tribe, the second Idols of the Den, the third Idols + of the Market, the fourth Idols of the Theatre. + + 40. "The information of notions and axioms on the foundation of + true induction is the only fitting remedy by which we can ward off + and expel these idols. It is, however, of great service to point + them out; for the doctrine of idols bears the same relation to the + interpretation of nature as that of the confutation of sophisms + does to common logic. + + 41. "The idols of the tribe are inherent in human nature and the + very tribe or race of man; for man's sense is falsely asserted to + be the standard of things; on the contrary, all the perceptions + both of the senses and the mind bear reference to man and not to + the Universe, and the human mind resembles these uneven mirrors + which impart their own properties to different objects, from which + rays are emitted and distort and disfigure them. + + 42. "The idols of the den are those of each individual; for + everybody (in addition to the errors common to the race of man) + has his own individual den or cavern, which intercepts and + corrupts the light of nature, either from his own peculiar and + singular disposition, or from his education and intercourse with + others, or from his reading, and the authority acquired by those + whom he reverences and admires, or from the different impressions + produced on the mind, as it happens to be preoccupied and + predisposed, or equable and tranquil, and the like; so that the + spirit of man (according to its several dispositions), is + variable, confused, and, as it were, actuated by chance; and + Heraclitus said well that men search for knowledge in lesser + worlds, and not in the greater or common world. + + 43. "There are also idols formed by the reciprocal intercourse and + society of man with man, which we call idols of the market, from + the commerce and association of men with each other; for men + converse by means of language, but words are formed at the will of + the generality, and there arises from a bad and unapt formation of + words a wonderful obstruction to the mind. Nor can the definitions + and explanations with which learned men are wont to guard and + protect themselves in some instances afford a complete + remedy--words still manifestly force the understanding, throw + everything into confusion, and lead mankind into vain and + innumerable controversies and fallacies. + + 44. "Lastly, there are idols which have crept into men's minds + from the various dogmas of peculiar systems of philosophy, and + also from the perverted rules of demonstration, and these we + denominate idols of the theatre: for we regard all the systems of + philosophy hitherto received or imagined, as so many plays brought + out and performed, creating fictitious and theatrical worlds. Nor + do we speak only of the present systems, or of the philosophy and + sects of the ancients, since numerous other plays of a similar + nature can be still composed and made to agree with each other, + the causes of the most opposite errors being generally the same. + Nor, again, do we allude merely to general systems, but also to + many elements and axioms of sciences which have become inveterate + by tradition, implicit credence, and neglect."(8) + + +Metaphysical speculation and its swarming progeny of blind and selfish +political philosophies, private opinions, private "truths," and private +doctrines, sectarian opinions, sectarian "truths" and sectarian doctrines, +querulous, confused and blind--such is characteristic of the _childhood_ of +humanity. The period of humanity's _manhood_ will, I doubt not, be a +scientific period--a period that will witness the gradual extension of +scientific method to all the interests of mankind--a period in which man +will discover the essential nature of man and establish, at length, the +science and art of directing human energies and human capacities to the +advancement of human weal in accordance with the laws of human nature. + + + + +Chapter III. Classes of Life + + +The problems to be dealt with in this chapter are not easy, but they are +exceedingly important. To classify phenomena correctly, they must be +correctly analysed and clearly defined. For the sake of clearness I will +use the simplest illustrations and, avoiding as much as possible the +difficulties of technical terms, will use language easily to be understood +by every one. In some cases the words will indeed have a technical meaning +and it will be necessary to exercise great care against the danger of +giving false impressions; for clear ideas are essential to sound thinking. +As a matter of fact our common daily speech is ill adapted for the precise +expression of thought; even so-called "scientific" language is often too +vague for the purpose and requires further refining. Some may say that it +is useless and unnecessary to lay so much stress on correct thinking and +precise expression; that it has no practical value; for they say that +"business" language is good enough to "talk business," or to put +"something over" the other fellow. But a little explanation will show that +precision is often of the greatest importance. + +Humanity is a peculiar class of life which, in some degree, determines its +own destinies; therefore in practical life _words_ and _ideas_ become +_facts_--facts, moreover, which bring about important practical +consequences. For instance, many millions of human beings have defined a +stroke of lightning as being the "punishment of God" of evil men; other +millions have defined it as a "natural, casual, periodical phenomenon"; +yet other millions have defined it as an "electric spark." What has been +the result of these "non-important" definitions in practical life? In the +case of the first definition, when lightning struck a house, the +population naturally made no attempt to save the house or anything in it, +because to do so would be against the "definition" which proclaims the +phenomenon to be a "punishment for evil," any attempt to prevent or check +the destruction would be an impious act; the sinner would be guilty of +"resisting the supreme law" and would deserve to be punished by death. + +Now in the second instance, a stricken building is treated just as any +tree overturned by storm; the people save what they can and try to +extinguish the fire. In both instances, the behavior of the populace is +the same in one respect; if caught in the open by a storm they take refuge +under a tree--a means of safety involving maximum danger but the people do +not know it. + +Now in the third instance, in which the population have a scientifically +correct definition of lightning, they provide their houses with lightning +rods; and if they are caught by a storm in the open they neither run nor +hide under a tree; but when the storm is directly over their heads, they +put themselves in a position of minimum exposure by lying flat on the +ground until the storm has passed. + +Such examples could be given without end, but there is another example of +sufficient vital importance to be given here, as it has to do with our +conception of the social and economic system, and the state. If our +institutions are considered "God-given"--sacred and therefore static--every +reformer or advocate of change should be treated as a criminal or "a +danger to the existing order" and hanged or at least put in jail for life. +But now, if our institutions are "man made," imperfect and often foolish, +and subject to change all the time steadily and dynamically in obedience +to some known or unknown law; then of course all reactionaries would be a +"danger to the natural order" and they should be treated the same way. The +importance of definitions can be seen in all other fields of practical +life; definitions create conditions. To know the world in which we live, +we have to analyse facts by help of such facts as we know in daily +practice and such facts as are established in scientific laboratories +where men do not jump to conclusions. In some places it will be necessary +to make statements that will have to await full justification at a later +stage of the discussion. This will be necessary to indicate the trend of +the analysis. + +The aim of the analysis is to give us just conceptions, correct +definitions, and true propositions. The process is slow, progressive, and +endless. The problems are infinitely many, and it is necessary to select. +Fortunately the solution of a few leads automatically to the solution of +many others. Some of the greatest and most far-reaching scientific +discoveries have been nothing else than a few correct definitions, a few +just concepts and a few true propositions. Such, for example, was the work +of Euclid, Newton and Leibnitz--a few correct definitions, a few just +concepts, a few true propositions; but these have been extended and +multiplied, sometimes by men of creative genius, and often almost +automatically by men of merely good sense and fair talent. + +The matter of definition, I have said, is very important. I am not now +speaking of _nominal_ definitions, which for convenience merely give names +to known objects. I am speaking of such definitions of phenomena as result +from correct analysis of the phenomena. Nominal definitions are mere +conveniences and are neither true nor false; but analytic definitions are +definitive _propositions_ and are true or else false. Let us dwell upon +the matter a little more. + +In the illustration of the definitions of lightning, there were three; the +first was the most mistaken and its application brought the most harm; the +second was less incorrect and the practical results less bad; the third +under the present conditions of our knowledge, was the "true one" and it +brought the maximum benefit. This lightning illustration suggests the +important idea of _relative_ truth and _relative_ falsehood--the idea, that +is, of degrees of truth and degrees of falsehood. A definition may be +neither absolutely true nor absolutely false; but of two definitions of +the same thing, one of them may be truer or falser than the other. + +If, for illustration's sake, we call the first "truth" _A_, (alpha 1), the +second one _A_2 (alpha 2), the third one _A_3 (alpha 3), we may suppose +that a genius appears who has the faculty to surpass all the other +relative truths _A_1, _A_2, _A_3, ... _A_n and gives us an absolute or +final truth, VALID IN INFINITY (_A_infinity) say a final definition, that +lightning is so ... and so ..., a kind of energy which flows, let us say, +through a glass tube filled with charcoal. Then of course this definition +would immediately make obvious what use could be made of it. We could +erect glass towers filled with charcoal and so secure an unlimited flow of +available free energy and our whole life would be affected in an untold +degree. This example explains the importance of correct definitions. + +But to take another example: there is such a thing as a phenomenon called +the "color" red. Imagine how it might be defined. A reactionary would call +it a "Bolshevik" (_A_1); a Bolshevik would say "My color" (_A_2); a +color-blind person would say "such a thing does not exist" (_A_3); a +Daltonist would say "that is green" (_A_4); a metaphysician would say +"that is the soul of whiskey" (_A_5); an historian would say "that is the +color of the ink with which human history has been written" (_A_6); an +uneducated person would say "that is the color of blood" (_A_7); the +modern scientist would say "it is the light of such and such wave length" +(_A_8). If this last definition be "valid in infinity" or not we do not +know, but it is, nevertheless, a "scientific truth" in the present +condition of our knowledge. + +This final but unknown "truth valid in infinity" is somehow perceived or +felt by us as an ideal, for in countless years of observation we have +formed a series of less and less false, more and more nearly true "ideas" +about the phenomenon. The "ideas" are _reflexes_ of the phenomenon, +reflected in our midst as in a mirror; the reflexes may be distorted, as +in a convex or concave mirror, but they suggest an ideal reflex valid in +infinity. It is of the utmost importance to realize that the words which +are used to express the ideas and the ideals are THE MATERIALIZATION of +the ideas and ideal; it is only by words that we are enabled to give to +other human beings an exact or nearly exact impression which we have had +of the phenomenon. + +It may be helpful to illustrate this process by an example. Let us suppose +that a man makes an experiment of doing his own portrait from a mirror, +which may be plane, concave or convex. If he looks into a plane mirror, he +will see his true likeness; even so, if he be a poor designer, he will +draw the likeness badly. Let us suppose that the man has beautiful +features but because the drawing is very poor, it will not convey the +impression that the features of the original were beautiful. If this poor +designer were to look into and work from a concave or convex mirror, the +drawing of his likeness would have practically no resemblance to his +original features. + +For correct analysis and true definitions of the cardinal classes of life +in our world it is necessary to have some just ideas about dimensions or +dimensionality. The Britannica gives us some help in this connection. I +will explain briefly by an example. Measurable entities of different kinds +can not be compared directly. Each one must be measured in terms of a unit +of its own kind. A line can have only length and therefore is of one +dimension: a surface has length and width and is therefore said to have +two dimensions; a volume has length, width and thickness and is, +therefore, said to have three dimensions. If we take, for example, a +volume--say a cube--we see that the cube has surfaces and lines and points, +but a volume is not a surface nor a line nor a point. Just these +dimensional differences have an enormous unrealized importance in +practical life, as in the case of taking a line of five units of length +and building upon it a square, the measure of this square (surface) will +not be 5, it will be 25; and the 25 will not be 25 linear units but 25 +square or surface units. If upon this square we build a cube, this cube +will have neither 5 nor 25 for its measure; it will have 125, and this +number will not be so many units of length nor of surface but so many +solid or cubic units. + +It is as plain as a pike staff that, if we confused _dimensions_ when +computing lengths and areas and volumes, we would wreck all the +architectural and engineering structures of the world, and at the same +time show ourselves stupider than block-heads. + +To analyse the classes of life we have to consider two very different +kinds of phenomena: the one embraced under the collective name--Inorganic +chemistry--the other under the collective name--Organic chemistry, or the +chemistry of hydro-carbons. These divisions are made because of the +peculiar properties of the elements chiefly involved in the second class. +The properties of matter are so distributed among the elements that three +of them--Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Carbon--possess an ensemble of unique +characteristics. The number of reactions in inorganic chemistry are +relatively few, but in organic chemistry--in the chemistry of these three +elements the number of different compounds is practically unlimited. Up to +1910, we knew of more than 79 elements of which the whole number of +reactions amounted to only a few hundreds, but among the remaining three +elements--Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen--the reactions were known to be +practically unlimited in number and possibilities; this fact must have +very far reaching consequences. As far as energies are concerned, we have +to take them as nature reveals them to us. Here more than ever, +mathematical thinking is essential and will help enormously. The reactions +in inorganic chemistry always involve the phenomenon of heat, sometimes +light, and in some instances an unusual energy is produced called +electricity. Until now, the radioactive elements represent a group too +insufficiently known for an enlargement here upon this subject. + +The organic compounds being unlimited in number and possibilities and with +their unique characteristics, represent of course, a different class of +phenomena, but being, at the same time, _chemical_ they include the basic +chemical phenomena involved in all chemical reactions, but being unique in +many other respects, they also have an infinitely vast field of unique +characteristics. Among the energetic phenomena of organic chemistry, +besides the few mentioned above there are NEW AND UNIQUE energetic +phenomena occurring in this dimension. + +Of these phenomena, mention may be made of the phenomenon "life," the +phenomenon of the "instincts" and of the "mind" in general. These +energetic phenomena are unique for the unique chemistry of the three +unique elements. It is obvious that this "uniqueness" is the reason why +these phenomena must be classified as belonging to or having a higher +dimensionality than belongs to the phenomena of inorganic chemistry just +as the uniqueness of the properties of a volume as compared with surface +properties depends upon the fact that a volume has a higher dimensionality +than a surface. Just as this difference of dimensions makes the whole +difference between the geometry of volumes and the geometry of surfaces, +the difference between the two chemistries involves a difference of +dimensionality. + +The higher energies of the chemistries of the higher dimensionality are +very difficult to define; my descriptions are no better than the +description of life given by Professor Wilhelm Roux, in his _Der Kampf der +Teile im Organismus_, Leipzig, 1881, which are equally unsatisfactory. In +want of a better, I quote him. He defines a living being as a natural +object which possesses the following nine characteristic autonomous +activities: Autonomous change, Autonomous excretion, Autonomous ingestion, +Autonomous assimilation, Autonomous growth, Autonomous movement, +Autonomous multiplication, Autonomous transmission of hereditary +characteristics and Autonomous development. The words "Autonomous +activities" are important because they hint at the dimensional differences +of these energies. But a better word should be found to define the +dimensional differences between the activities found in inorganic +chemistry and those found in organic chemistry. We see it is a mistake to +speak about "life" in a crystal, in the same sense in which we use the +word life to name the curious AUTONOMOUS phenomenon of ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, +WHICH IS OF ANOTHER DIMENSION than the activities in inorganic chemistry. +For the so-called life in the crystals--the _not_ AUTONOMOUS (or +anautonomous) activities of crystals--another word than life should be +found. In the theory of crystals the term life is purely rhetorical: its +use there is very injurious to sound science. These old ideas of "life" in +crystals are profoundly unscientific and serve as one of the best examples +of the frequent confusion or intermixing of dimensions--a confusion due to +unmathematical, logically incorrect ways of thinking. If crystals "live," +then _volumes are surfaces_, and 125 cubic units=25 square +units--absurdities belonging to the "childhood of humanity." + + + "Crystals can grow in a proper solution, and can regenerate their + form in such a solution when broken or injured; it is even + possible to prevent or retard the formation of crystals in a + supersaturated solution by preventing 'germs' in the air from + getting into the solution, an observation which was later utilized + by Schroeder and Pasteur in their experiments on spontaneous + generation. However, the analogies between a living organism and a + crystal are merely superficial and it is by pointing out the + fundamental differences between the behavior of crystals and that + of living organisms that we can best understand the specific + difference between non-living and living matter. It is true that a + crystal can grow, but it will do so only in a supersaturated + solution of its own substance. Just the reverse is true for living + organisms. In order to make bacteria or the cells of our body + grow, solutions of the split products of the substances composing + them and not the substances themselves must be available to the + cells; second, these solutions must not be supersaturated, on the + contrary, they must be dilute; and third, growth leads in living + organisms to cell division as soon as the mass of the cell reaches + a certain limit. This process of cell division can not be claimed + even metaphorically to exist in a crystal. A correct appreciation + of these facts will give us an insight into the specific + difference between non-living and living matter. The formation of + living matter consists in the synthesis of the proteins, nucleins, + fats, and carbohydrates of the cells, from split products.... + + "The essential difference between living and non-living matter + consists then in this: the living cell synthesizes its own + complicated specific material from indifferent or non-specific + simple compounds of the surrounding medium, while the crystal + simply adds the molecules found in its supersaturated solution. + This synthetic power of transforming small 'building stones' into + the complicated compounds specific for each organism is the + 'secret of life' or rather one of the secrets of life." (_The + Organism as a Whole_, by Jacques Loeb.) + + +It will be explained later that one of the energetic phenomena of organic +chemistry--the "mind," which is one of the energies characteristic of this +class of phenomena, is "autonomous," is "self-propelling" and true to its +dimensionality. If we analyse the classes of life, we readily find that +there are three cardinal classes which are radically distinct in function. +A short analysis will disclose to us that, though minerals have various +activities, they are not "living." The plants have a very definite and +well known function--the transformation of solar energy into organic +chemical energy. They are a class of life which appropriates one kind of +energy, converts it into another kind and stores it up; in that sense they +are a kind of storage battery for the solar energy; and so I define THE +PLANTS AS THE CHEMISTRY-BINDING class of life. + +The animals use the highly dynamic products of the _chemistry-binding_ +class--the plants--as food, and those products--the results of +plant-transformation--undergo in animals a further transformation into yet +higher forms; and the animals are correspondingly a more dynamic class of +life; their energy is kinetic; they have a remarkable freedom and power +which the plants do not possess--I mean the freedom and faculty to move +about in _space_; and so I define ANIMALS AS THE SPACE-BINDING CLASS OF +LIFE. + +And now what shall we say of _human_ beings? What is to be our definition +of Man? Like the animals, human beings do indeed possess the +_space-binding_ capacity but, over and above that, human beings possess a +most remarkable capacity which is entirely peculiar to them--I mean the +capacity to summarise, digest and appropriate the labors and experiences +of the past; I mean the capacity to use the fruits of past labors and +experiences as intellectual or spiritual capital for developments in the +present; I mean the capacity to employ as instruments of increasing power +the accumulated achievements of the all-precious lives of the past +generations spent in trial and error, trial and success; I mean the +capacity of human beings to conduct their lives in the ever increasing +light of inherited wisdom; I mean the capacity in virtue of which man is +at once the heritor of the by-gone ages and the trustee of posterity. And +because humanity is just this magnificent natural agency by which the past +lives in the present and the present for the future, I define HUMANITY, in +the universal tongue of mathematics and mechanics, to be the TIME-BINDING +CLASS OF LIFE. + +These definitions of the cardinal classes of life are, it will be noted, +obtained from direct observation; they are so simple and so important that +I cannot over-emphasize the necessity of grasping them and most especially +the definition of Man. For these simple definitions and especially that of +Humanity will profoundly transform the whole conception of human life in +every field of interest and activity; and, what is more important than +all, the definition of Man will give us a starting point for discovering +the _natural_ laws of human nature--of the human class of life. The +definitions of the classes of life represent the different classes as +distinct in respect to dimensionality; and this is extremely important for +no measure or rule of one class can be applied to the other, _without +making grave mistakes_. For example, to treat a human being as an +animal--as a mere space-binder--because humans have certain animal +propensities, is an error of the same type and grossness as to treat a +cube as a surface because it has surface properties. It is absolutely +essential to grasp that fact if we are ever to have a science of human +nature. + +We can represent the different classes of life in three life coordinates. +The minerals, with their inorganic activities would be the Zero (0) +dimension of "life"--that is the _lifeless_ class--here represented by the +point _M_. + +The plants, with their "autonomous" growth, to be represented by the ONE +DIMENSIONAL line _MP_. + +The animals, with their "autonomous" capacity to grow and to be active in +space by the TWO DIMENSIONAL plane _PAM_. + +The humans, with their "autonomous" capacity to grow, to be active in +space AND TO BE ACTIVE IN TIME, by the THREE DIMENSIONAL region _MAPH_. + +[ A drawing, like labeling the axes of a three-dimensional space. At the +center is "(Minerals) M". At the top of the Z axis is "H (Humans)". At the +end of the X axis is "P (Plants)". At the end of the Y axis is "A +(Animals)". ] + +Such diagrammatic illustrations must not be taken too literally; they are +like figures of speech--helpful if understood--harmful if not understood. +The reader should reflect upon the simple idea of dimensions until he sees +clearly that the idea is not merely a thing of interest or of convenience, +but is absolutely essential as a means of discriminating the cardinal +classes of life from one another and of conceiving each class to be what +it is instead of mixing it confusedly with something radically different. +It will greatly help the reader if he will retire to the quiet of his +cloister and there meditate about as follows. A line has one dimension; a +plane has two; a plane contains lines and so it has line +properties--_one_-dimensional properties--but it has other +properties--_two_-dimensional properties--and it is these that are peculiar +to it, give it its own character, and make it what it is--a plane and not a +line. So animals have some plant properties--they grow, for example--but +animals have other properties--autonomous mobility, for example,--properties +of higher dimensionality or type--and it is these that make animals +_animals_ and not plants. Just so, human beings have certain animal +properties--autonomous mobility, for example, or physical appetites--but +humans have other properties or propensities--ethical sense, for example, +logical sense, inventiveness, progressiveness--properties or propensities +of higher dimensionality, level, or type--and it is these propensities and +powers that make human beings _human_ and _not_ animal. When and only when +this fact is clearly seen and keenly realized, there will begin the +_science of man_--the science and art of _human nature_--for then and only +then we shall begin to escape from the age-long untold immeasurable evils +that come from regarding and treating human beings as animals, as mere +binders of space, and we may look forward to an ethics, a jurisprudence +and economics, a governance--a science and art of human life and +society--based upon the laws of human nature because based upon the just +conception of humanity as the time-binding class of life, creators and +improvers of good, destined to endless advancement, in accord with the +potencies of Human Nature.(9) + +Humanity is still in its childhood; we have "bound" so little time in the +course of the centuries, which are so brief in the scheme of the universe. +At the bottom of every human activity, historical fact or trend of +civilization, there lies some doctrine or conception of so-called "truth." +Apples had fallen from trees for ages, but without any important results +in the economy of humanity. The fact that a fallen apple hit Newton, led +to the discovery of the theory of gravitation; this changed our whole +world conception, our sciences and our activities; it powerfully +stimulated the development of all the branches of natural and +technological knowledge. Even in the event of the Newtonian laws being +proved to be not quite correct, they have served a great purpose in +enabling us to understand natural phenomena in a sufficiently approximate +way to make it possible to build up modern technology and to develop our +physical science to the point where it was necessary and possible to make +a correction of the Newtonian laws. + +A similar organic change in our conception of human life and its phenomena +is involved in the foregoing definitions of the classes of life; they will +replace basic errors with scientific truths of fundamental importance; +they will form the basis for scientific development of a permanent +civilization in place of the periodically convulsive so-called +civilizations of the past and present. To know the cause of evil and error +is to find the cure. + + + + +Chapter IV. What Is Man? + + +Man has ever been the greatest puzzle to man. There are many and important +reasons for this fact. As the subject of this book is not a theoretical, +academic study of man, of which too many have already been written, I will +not recount the reasons, but will confine myself to the more pressing +matters of the task in hand, which is that of pointing the way to the +science and art of Human Engineering. The two facts which have to be dealt +with first, are the two which have most retarded human progress: (1) there +has never been a true definition of man nor a just conception of his role +in the curious drama of the world; in consequence of which there has never +been a proper principle or starting point for a science of humanity. It +has never been realized that man is a being of a dimension or type +different from that of animals and the characteristic nature of man has +not been understood; (2) man has always been regarded either as an animal +or as a supernatural phenomenon. The facts are that man is not +_super_natural but is literally a part of nature and that human beings are +not animals. We have seen that the animals are truly characterized by +their autonomous mobility--their space-binding capacity--animals are +space-binders. We have seen that human beings are characterized by their +creative power, by the power to make the past live in the present and the +present for the future, by their capacity to bind time--human beings are +time-binders. These concepts are basic and impersonal; arrived at +mathematically, they are mathematically correct. + +It does not matter at all _how_ the first man, the first time-binder, was +produced; the fact remains that he was somewhere, somehow produced. To +know anything that is to-day of fundamental interest about man, we have to +analyse man in three coordinates--in three capacities; namely, his +chemistry, his activities in space, and especially his activities in time; +whereas in the study of animals we have to consider only two factors: +their chemistry and their activities in space. + +Let us imagine that the aboriginal--original human specimen was one of two +brother apes, _A_ and _B_; they were alike in every respect; both were +animal space-binders; but something strange happened to _B_; he became the +first time-binder, a human. No matter how, this "something" made the +change in him that lifted him to a higher dimension; it is enough that in +some-wise, over and above his animal capacity for binding space, there was +superadded the marvelous new capacity for binding-time. He had thus a new +faculty, he belonged to a new dimension; but, of course, he did not +realize it; and because he had this new capacity he was able to analyze +his brother "_A_"; he observed "_A_ is my brother; he is an animal; but he +is my brother; therefore, _I_ AM AN ANIMAL." This fatal first conclusion, +reached by false analogy, by neglecting a fact, has been the chief source +of human woe for half a million years and it still survives. The +time-binding capacity, first manifest in _B_, increased more and more, +with the days and each generation, until in the course of centuries man +felt himself increasingly somehow different from the animal, but he could +not explain. He said to himself, "If I am an animal there is also in me +something higher, a spark of some thing _super_natural." + +With this conclusion he estranged himself, as something apart from nature, +and formulated the impasse, which put him in a cul-de-sac of a double +life. He was neither true to the "supernatural" which he could not know +and therefore, could not emulate, nor was he true to the "animal" which he +scorned. Having put himself outside the "natural laws," he was not really +true to any law and condemned himself to a life of hypocrisy, and +established speculative, artificial, unnatural laws. + +"How blind our familiar assumptions make us! Among the animals, man, at +least, has long been wont to regard himself as a being quite apart from +and not as part of the cosmos round about him. From this he has detached +himself in thought, he has estranged and objectified the world, and lost +the sense that he is of it. And this age-long habit and point of view, +which has fashioned his life and controlled his thought, lending its +characteristic mark and color to his whole philosophy and art and +learning, is still maintained, partly because of its convenience, no +doubt, and partly by force of inertia and sheer conservatism, in the very +teeth of the strongest probabilities of biological science. Probably no +other single hypothesis has less to recommend it, and yet no other so +completely dominates the human mind." (Cassius J. Keyser, loc. cit.) And +this monstrous conception is current to-day: millions still look upon man +as a mixture of animal and something supernatural. + +There is no doubt that the engineering of human society is a difficult and +complicated problem of tremendous ethical responsibility, for it involves +the welfare of mankind throughout an unending succession of generations. +The science of Human Engineering can not be built upon false conceptions +of human nature. It can not be built on the conception of man as a kind of +animal; it can not be built on the conception of man as a mixture of +natural and supernatural. It must be built upon the conception of man as +being at once natural and higher in dimensionality than the animals. It +must be built upon the scientific conception of mankind as characterized +by their time-binding capacity and function. This conception radically +alters our whole view of human life, human society, and the world. + +It must be obvious to any one that time-binding is the only natural +criterion and standard for the time-binding class of life. This mighty +term--time-binding--when comprehended, will be found to embrace the WHOLE of +the natural laws, the natural ethics, the natural philosophy, the natural +sociology, the natural economics, the natural governance, to be brought +into the education of time-binders; then really peaceful and progressive +civilization, without periodical collapses and violent readjustments, will +commence; not before. Everything which is really "time-binding" _is in_ +the HUMAN DIMENSION; therefore, it will represent every quality that is +implied in such words as--_good_, _just_, _right_, _beautiful_; while +everything that is merely space-binding will be classified as "animal" and +be thus assessed at its proper value. Those ignorant "masters of our +destinies" who regard humans as animals or as monstrous hybrids of natural +and supernatural must be dethroned by scientific education. + +Humans can be literally poisoned by false ideas and false teachings. Many +people have a just horror at the thought of putting poison into tea or +coffee, but seem unable to realize that, when they teach false ideas and +false doctrines, they are poisoning the time-binding capacity of their +fellow men and women. One has to stop and think! There is nothing mystical +about the fact that ideas and words are energies which powerfully affect +the physico-chemical base of our time-binding activities. Humans are thus +made untrue to "human nature." Hypnotism is a known fact. It has been +proved that a man can be so hypnotized that in a certain time which has +been suggested to him, he will murder or commit arson or theft; that, +under hypnotic influence, the personal morale of the individual has only a +small influence upon his conduct; the subject obeys the hypnotic +suggestions, no matter how immoral they are. The conception of man as a +mixture of animal and supernatural has for ages kept human beings under +the deadly spell of the suggestion that, animal selfishness and animal +greediness are their essential character, and the spell has operated to +suppress their REAL HUMAN NATURE and to prevent it from expressing itself +naturally and freely. + +On the other hand, when human beings are educated to a lively realization +that they are by _nature_ time-binding creatures, then they will +spontaneously live in accordance with their time-binding nature, which, as +I have said, is the source and support of the highest ideals. + +What is achieved in blaming a man for being selfish and greedy if he acts +under the influence of a social environment and education which teach him +that he is an animal and that selfishness and greediness are of the +essence of his nature? + +Even so eminent a philosopher and psychologist as Spencer tells us: "Of +self-evident truths so dealt with, the one which here concerns us is that +a creature must live before it can act ... Ethics has to recognize the +truth that egoism comes before altruism." This is true for ANIMALS, +because animals die out from lack of food when their natural supply of it +is insufficient because they have NOT THE CAPACITY TO PRODUCE +ARTIFICIALLY. But it is not true for the HUMAN DIMENSION. + +Why not? Because humans through their time-binding capacity are first of +all _creators_ and so their number is not controlled by the supply of +unaided nature, but only by men's artificial productivity, which is THE +MATERIALIZATION OF THEIR TIME-BINDING CAPACITY + +Man, therefore, by the very intrinsic character of his being, MUST ACT +FIRST, IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO LIVE (through the action of parents--or +society) which is not the case with animals. The misunderstanding of this +simple truth is largely accountable for the evil of our ethical and +economic systems or lack of systems. As a matter of fact, if humanity were +to live in _complete_ accord with the animal conception of man, artificial +production--time-binding production--would cease and ninety per cent of +mankind would perish by starvation. It is just because human beings are +not animals but are time-binders--not mere finders but creators of food and +shelter--that they are able to live in such vast numbers. + +Here even the blind must see the effect of higher dimensionality, and this +effect becomes in turn the cause of other effects which produce still +others, and so on in an endless chain. WE LIVE BECAUSE WE PRODUCE, BECAUSE +WE ARE ACTING IN TIME AND ARE NOT MERELY ACTING IN SPACE--BECAUSE MAN IS +NOT A KIND OF ANIMAL. It is all so simple, if only we apply a little sound +logic in our thinking about human nature and human affairs. If human +ethics are to be human, are to be in the human dimension, the postulates +of ethics must be changed; FOR HUMANITY IN ORDER TO LIVE MUST ACT FIRST; +the laws of ethics--the laws of right living--are _natural_ laws--laws of +human nature--laws having their whole source and sanction in the +time-binding capacity and time-binding activity peculiar to man. Human +excellence is excellence in time-binding, and must be measured and +rewarded by time-binding standards of worth. + +Humanity, in order to live, must produce creatively and therefore must be +guided by applied science, by technology; and this means that the +so-called social sciences of ethics, jurisprudence, psychology, economics, +sociology, politics, and government must be emancipated from medieval +metaphysics; they must be made scientific; they must be _technologized_; +they must be made to progress and to function in the proper dimension--the +human dimension and not that of animals: they must be made time-binding +sciences. + +Can this be done? I have no doubt that it can. For what is human life +after all? + +To a general in the battlefield, human life is a factor which, if properly +used, can destroy the enemy. To an engineer human life is an equivalent to +energy, or a capacity to do work, mental or muscular, and the moment +something is found to be a source of energy and to have the capacity of +doing work, the first thing to do, from the engineer's point of view, is +to analyse the generator with a view to discovering how best to conserve +it, to improve it, and bring it to the level of maximum productivity. +Human beings are very complicated energy-producing batteries differing +widely in quality and magnitude of productive power. Experience has shown +that these batteries are, first of all, chemical batteries producing a +mysterious energy. If these batteries are not supplied periodically with a +more or less constant quantity of some chemical elements called food and +air, the batteries will cease to function--they will die. In the +examination of the structure of these batteries we find that the chemical +base is very much accentuated all through the structure. This chemical +generator is divided into branches each of which has a very different role +which it must perform in harmony with all the others. The mechanical parts +of the structure are built in conformity to the rules of mechanics and are +automatically furnished with lubrication and with chemical supplies for +automatically renewing worn-out parts. The chemical processes not only +deposit particles of mass for the structure of the generator but produce +some very powerful unknown kinds of energies or vibrations which make all +the chemical parts function; we find also a mysterious apparatus with a +complex of wires which we call brain glands, and nerves; and, finally, +these human batteries have the remarkable capacity of reproduction. + +These functions are familiar to everybody. From the knowledge of other +physical, mechanical and chemical phenomena of nature, we must come to the +conclusion, that this human battery is the most perfect example of a +complex engine; it has all the peculiarities of a chemical battery +combined with a generator of a peculiar energy called life; above all, it +has mental or spiritual capacities; it is thus equipped with both mental +and mechanical means for producing work. The parts and functions of this +marvelous engine have been the subject of a vast amount of research in +various special branches of science. A very noteworthy fact is that both +the physical work and the mental work of this human engine are always +accompanied by both physical and chemical changes in the structure of its +machinery--corresponding to the wear and tear of non-living engines. It +also presents certain sexual and spiritual phenomena that have a striking +likeness to certain phenomena, especially wireless phenomena, to +electricity and to radium. This human engine-battery is of unusual +strength, durability and perfection; and yet it is very liable to damage +and even wreckage, if not properly used. The controlling factors are very +delicate and so the engine is very capricious. Very special training and +understanding are necessary for its control. + +The reader may wish to ask: What is the essence of the time-binding power +of Man? Talk of essences is metaphysical--it is not scientific. Let me +explain by an example. + +What is electricity? The scientific answer is: electricity is that which +exhibits such and such phenomena. Electricity means nothing but a certain +group of phenomena called electric. We are studying electricity when we +are studying those phenomena. Thus it is in physics--there is no talk of +essences. So, too, in Human Engineering--we shall not talk of the _essence_ +of time-binding but only of the phenomena and the laws thereof. What has +led to the development of electric appliances is knowledge of electrical +phenomena--not metaphysical talk about the electrical essence. And what +will lead to the science and art of Human Engineering is knowledge of +time-binding phenomena--not vain babble about an essence of time-binding +power. There is no mystery about the word time-binding. Some descriptive +term was necessary to indicate that human capacity which discriminates +human beings from animals and marks man as man. For that use--the +appropriateness of the term time-binding becomes more and more manifest +upon reflection. + +What are the conditions of life upon this earth? Is there war or peace in +daily life? All living beings require food; they multiply in a geometrical +ratio; and so the _natural_ productivity of the soil becomes increasingly +inadequate. The tendency to increase in geometrical ratio is true of all +life--vegetable, animal and human, but the tendency is checked by various +counteracting influences, natural and artificial. A short time ago these +checks had so operated to annul the law of increase as almost to stop the +growth of human population. It is only by the time-binding capacity of +man--by scientific progress and technological invention--that the checks +have been overcome. And so in the last century the population of Europe +increased more than it had increased in several centuries before. +Impoverished soil, excessive heat or cold, excessive moisture, the lack of +rain-fall, and many other factors are hostile to life. It is evident, +therefore, that human life must especially struggle for existence; it must +carry on a perpetual contest for self preservation. It seems obvious that, +if there is perpetual war in every-day life, war methods must be applied. + +We have just passed through a tremendous world-wide _military_ war and we +developed special ways of producing power to overcome the enemy. We were +thus driven to discover some of the hidden sources of power and all of our +old habits and ideas were bent toward military methods and military +technology. The war of every-day life against hostile elements is war for +the subjugation of physical nature and not for the conquest of people. It +is a war carried on by the time-binding power of men pitted against +natural obstacles, and its progressive triumph means progressive +advancement in human weal. + +The lesson of the World War should not be missed through failure to +analyse it. When nations war with nations, the normal daily war of +millions and millions of individuals to subjugate natural resources to +human uses is interrupted, and the slow-gathered fruits of measureless +toil are destroyed. + +But peaceful war, war for the conquest of nature, involves the use of +methods of technology and, what is even more important, technological +philosophy, law and ethics. + +What I want to emphasize in this little book, is the need of a +thoroughgoing revision of our ideas; and the revision must be made by +engineering minds in order that our ideas may be made to match facts. If +we are ill, we consult a physician or a surgeon, not a charlatan. We must +learn that, when there is trouble with the producing power of the world, +we have to consult an engineer, an expert on power. Politicians, +diplomats, and lawyers do not understand the problem. What I am advocating +is that we must learn to ask those who know how to produce things, instead +of asking those whose profession is to fight for the division of things +produced by nature or by other human beings. + +As a matter of fact our civilization has been for a long time disorganized +to the point of disease. Lately through the whirl of changing conditions, +due to the great release of power in the new-born giant technology, the +disorganization has become acute. The sick seldom know the cure for +themselves. If the cure is to be enduring, we have to go to the source, +and this can be done only by men familiar, not only with effects but also +with the causes. + +Money is not the wealth of a nation, but production is wealth; so _ordered +production_ is the main object for humanity. But to have the maximum of +production, it is necessary to have production put on a sound basis. No +mere preaching of brotherly love, or class hatred, will produce one single +brick for the building of the future temple of human victory--the temple of +_human_ civilization. Ordered production demands analysis of basic facts. + +This era is essentially an industrial era. To produce we have to have: (1) +raw material or soil; (2) instruments for production--tools and machines; +and (3) the application of power. + +The three requirements may be briefly characterized and appraised as +follows: + +(1) Raw material and soil are products of nature; humanity simply took +them and had the use of them for nothing, because it is impossible to call +a prayer of thanksgiving (if any) addressed to a "creator" as payment to +gods or men. But raw material and soil, in the conditions in which nature +produces them, are of very little immediate benefit to humanity, because +unfilled soil produces very little food for humans, and raw material such +as wood, coal, oil, iron, copper, etc., are completely useless to humanity +until after human work is applied to them. It is necessary to cut a tree +for the making of timber; it is necessary to excavate the minerals, and +even then, only by applying further human work is it possible to make them +available for any human use. So, it is obvious that even raw materials in +the form in which nature has produced them, are mostly of no value and +unavailable for use, unless reproduced through the process of "human +creative production." Therefore, we may well conclude that "raw material" +must be divided into two very distinct classes: (_a_) raw material as +produced by nature--nature's free gift--which in its original form and place +has practically no use-value; and (_b_) raw material reproduced by man's +mental and muscular activities, by his "time-binding" capacities. Raw +materials of the second class have an enormous use-value; indeed they make +the existence of humanity possible. + +As to the second requirement for production, namely: + +(2) Tools and machines, it is obvious that "tools and machines" are made +of raw material by human work, mental and muscular. + +And, finally: + +(3) The application of power. Different sources of natural energy and +power are known. The most important available source of energy for this +globe is the sun--the heat of the sun. This solar heat is the origin of +water power, of wind power, and of the power bound up in coal, of the +chemistry, growth and transforming agency of plants.(10) + +All foods which the animals as well as the humans use are, already, the +result of the solar energy transformed into what may be called chemical +energy. Transformation of energies is building up of life. + +It is to be clearly seen that the only source of energy which can be +directly appropriated and used by man or animal is vegetable food found in +the wilderness; no other sources of power are available for _direct_ use; +they have first to be mastered and directed by human brain. The same is +true in regard to the getting of animal food, the creation of a water- or +windmill, or a steam engine, or the art of using a team of horses, or a +bushel of wheat; these are not available except by the use of the human +"time-binding" power. + +This short survey of facts, known to everybody, brings us to the +conclusion that all problems of production come ultimately to the analysis +of + +(1) Natural resources of raw material and natural energy, freely supplied +by nature, which, as we have seen, in the form as produced by nature +alone, have very little or no value for humanity; + +(2) The activity of the human brain (because human muscles are always +directed by the brain) which gives value to the otherwise useless raw +materials and energies. + +Hence, to understand the processes of production, it is essential to +realize that humanity is able to survive only by virtue of the capacity of +humans to exploit natural resources--to convert the products of nature into +forms available for human needs. If humanity had only the capacity of +apes, depending exclusively on wild fruits and the like, they would be +confined to those comparatively small regions of the globe where the +climate and the fertility of the soil are specially favorable. But in the +case supposed, humans would not be humans, they would not be +time-binders--they would be animals--mere space-binders. + +There are other facts which must be kept constantly in mind. One of them +is that, in the world in which we live, there are natural laws of +inorganic as well as organic phenomena. Another of the facts is, as before +said, that the human class of life has the peculiar capacity of +establishing the social laws and customs which regulate and influence its +destinies, which help or hinder the processes of production upon which the +lives and happiness of mankind essentially and fundamentally depend. + +It must not be lost sight of in this connection that the human class of +life is a part and a product of nature, and that, therefore, there must be +_fundamental laws which are natural for this class of life_. A stone obeys +the natural laws of stones; a liquid conforms to the natural law of +liquids; a plant, to the natural laws of plants; an animal, to the natural +laws of animals; it follows inevitably that there _must_ be natural laws +for humans. + +But here the problem becomes more complicated; for the stone, the plant +and the animal do not possess the intellectual power to create and +initiate and so must blindly obey the laws that are natural for them; they +are not free to determine their own destinies. Not so with man; man has +the capacity and he can, through ignorance or neglect or mal-intent, +deviate from, or misinterpret, the natural laws for the human class of +life. Just therein lies the secret and the source of human chaos and woe--a +fact of such tremendous importance that it cannot be over-emphasized and +it seems impossible to evade it longer. To discover the nature of Man and +the laws of that _nature_, marks the summit of human enterprises. For to +solve this _problem is to open the way to everything which can be of +importance to humanity_--to human welfare and happiness. + +The great problem has been felt as a powerful impulse throughout the ages +of human striving, for in all times it has been evident to thinkers that +upon the right solution of the problem must forever depend the welfare of +mankind. Many "solutions" have been offered; and, though they have +differed widely, they agree in one respect--they have had a common fate--the +fate of being false. What has been the trouble? The trouble has been, in +every instance, a radical misconception of what a human being really is. +The problem is to discover the natural laws of the human class of life. +All the "solutions" offered in the course of history and those which are +current to-day are of two and only two kinds--_zoological_ and +_mythological_. The zoological solutions are those which grow out of the +false conception according to which human beings are animals; if humans +are animals, the laws of human nature are the laws of animal nature; and +so the social "sciences" of ethics, law, politics, economics, government +become nothing but branches of zoology; as sciences, they are the studies +of animal life; as arts, they are the arts of managing and controlling +animals; according to this zoological philosophy, human wisdom about human +beings is animal wisdom about animals. + +The mythological "solutions" are those which start with the monstrous +conception according to which human beings have no proper place in nature +but are mixtures of natural and _super_natural--unions or combinations of +animality and divinity. Such "solutions" contain no conception of +_natural_ law; scientifically judged, they are mythological +absurdities--muddle-headed chattering of crude and irresponsible +metaphysics--well-meaning no doubt, but silly, and deadly in their effects +upon the interests of mankind, vitiating ethics, law, economics, politics +and government. + +Such have been and still are the regnant philosophies of human nature. +What is the remedy? How are the laws of human nature to be discovered? + +It is evident that the enterprise, like all other scientific enterprises, +must be based upon and guided by realities. It is essential to realize +that the great, central, dominant, all-embracing reality is the reality of +_human nature_. If we misconceive this fundamental matter, the enterprise +must fail; that is both logically clear and clear in the sad light of +history; but if we conceive it aright, we may confidently expect the +enterprise to prosper. That is why, in the chapter on "The Classes of +Life," I have laid so much stress on the absolute necessity of conceiving +Man as being what he really is, and not something else. And we have +discovered what man is: we have discovered that man is characterized by +the capacity or power to bind time, and so we have _defined_ humanity as +the time-binding class of life. That concept is fundamental. It contains +the germ of the science and art of Human Engineering. The problem of +discovering and applying the "laws of human nature" is the problem of +discovering and applying to the conduct of life the laws of +time-binding--of time-binding activity--of time-binding _energy_. This fact +must be firmly seized and kept steadily in mind. + +Energy, we have noted, is the capacity to do work. In human economy work +may be (1) _useful_ or (2) _neutral_ or (3) _harmful_. These words have no +significance except in human economy. The energy of the human intellect is +a time-binding energy, for it is able to direct, to use, to transform +other energies. This time-binding energy is of higher rank--of higher +dimensionality--than the other natural energies which it directs, controls, +uses, and transforms. This higher energy--which is commonly called the +mental or spiritual power of man--_is_ time-binding because it makes past +achievements live in the present and present activities in time-to-come. +It is an energy that initiates; it is an energy that creates; it is an +energy that can understand the past and foretell the future--it is both +historian and prophet; it is an energy that loads _abstract_ time--the +vehicle of events--with an ever-increasing burden of intellectual +achievements, of spiritual wealth, destined for the civilization of +posterity. And what is the natural law of the increase? What is the +natural law of human advancements in all great matters of human concern? + +The question is of utmost importance both theoretically and practically, +for the law--whatever it be--is a _natural_ law--a law of human nature--a law +of the time-binding energy of man. What _is_ the law? We have already +noted the law of arithmetical progression and the law of geometric +progression; we have seen the immense difference between them; and we have +seen that the natural law of human progress in each and every cardinal +matter is a law like that of a rapidly increasing geometric progression. +In other words, the natural law of human progress--the natural law of +amelioration in human affairs--the fundamental law of human nature--the +basic law of the time-binding energy peculiar to man--is a Logarithmic +law--a law of logarithmic increase. I beg the reader not to let the term +bewilder him but to make it his own. It is easy to understand; and its +significance is mighty and everlasting. Even its mathematical formulation +can be understood by boys and girls. Let us see how the formulation looks. + +Suppose _PR_ to denote the amount of progress made in some important field +by a given generation--which we may call the "first" generation; where _R_ +denotes the common ratio--the ratio of improvement--that is, the number by +which the progress of one generation must be multiplied to give the amount +of progress made by the next generation; then the amount of progress made +by the second generation will be _PR__2_; that made by the third +generation will be _PR__3_; and so on; now denote by _T_ the number of +generations, counting the first one and all that follow in endless +succession. Then the following series will show the law of human progress +in the chosen field: + +_PR, PR__2__, PR__3__, PR__4__, PR__5__, ..., PR__T__, PR__T+1__, ..._; + +notice how it goes; the first generation ends with PR; the second +generation starts with _PR_, adds _PR__2_, and ends with _PR + PR__2_; the +third generation starts with _PR + PR__2_, adds _PR__3_ and ends with _PR ++ PR__2__ + PR__3_; and so on and on; the _gain_ made in the _T__th_ +generation is _PR__T_; _the total gain_ made in _T_ generations is + +_PR + PR__2__ + PR__3__ + ... + PR__T_; + +this total gain is given by the formula, + +Total gain in T generations = (R / R-1) (PRT-P). + +If we take _R_ to be 2 (which is a very small ratio, requiring the +progress of each generation to be merely double that of the preceding one) +and if we take _T_ to be (say) 10, then we see that the progress made by +the single 10th generation is _P_ x 210, which is 1024 times the progress +made in the "first" generation; and we readily compute that the total gain +in 10 generations is 2046 times the progress made in the "first" +generation. Moreover, to gain a just sense of the impressiveness of this +law, the reader must reflect upon the fact that it operates, not merely on +one field, but in all fields of human interest. "Operates in all fields" I +have just now said; as a matter of fact, as before pointed out, it does +not so operate _now_ in _all_ fields nor has it ever done so. My point is +that it _will_ so operate when we once acquire sense enough to let it do +so. That sense we shall have when and only when we discover that by nature +we are time-binders and that the _effectiveness_ of our time-binding +capacity is not only a function of time but is, as I have explained, a +logarithmic or exponential function of time--a function in which time (_T_) +enters as an _exponent_, as in the expression _PR__T_, so that we humans +are, unlike animals, naturally qualified not only to progress, but to +progress more and more rapidly, with an always _accelerating +acceleration_, as the generations pass. + +This great fact is to be at once the basis, the regulator and guide in the +science and art of Human Engineering. Whatever squares with that law of +time-binding human energy, is right and makes for human weal; whatever +contravenes it, is wrong and makes for human woe. + +And so I repeat that the world will have uninterrupted, peaceful progress +when and only when the so-called social "sciences"--the life-regulating +"sciences" of ethics, law, philosophy, economics, religion, politics, and +government--are technologized; when and only when they are made genuinely +scientific in spirit and method; for then and only then will they advance, +like the natural, mathematical and technological sciences, in conformity +to the fundamental exponential law of the time-binding nature of man; then +and then only, by the equal pace of progress in all cardinal matters, the +equilibrium of social institutions will remain stable and social +cataclysms cease. + + + + +Chapter V. Wealth + + +I beg the reader to allow me to begin this chapter with a word of warning. +The reader is aware that Criticism--by which I mean Thought--may be any one +of three kinds: it may be purely destructive; it may be purely +constructive; or it may be both destructive and constructive at the same +time. Purely destructive criticism is sometimes highly useful. If an old +idea or a system of old ideas be false and therefore harmful, it is a +genuine service to attack it and destroy it even if nothing be offered to +take its place, just as it is good to destroy a rattlesnake lurking by a +human pathway, even if one does not offer a substitute for the snake. But, +however useful destructive criticism may be, it is not an easy service to +render; for old ideas, however false and harmful, are protected alike by +habit and by the inborn conservatism of many minds. Now, habit indeed is +exceedingly useful--even indispensable to the effective conduct of life--for +it enables us to do many useful things automatically and therefore easily, +without conscious thinking, and thus to save our mental energy for other +work; but for the same reason, habit is often very harmful; it makes us +protect false ideas automatically, and so when the destructive critic +endeavors to destroy such ideas by reasoning with us, he finds that he is +trying to reason with automats--with machines. Such is the chief difficulty +encountered by destructive criticism. On the other hand, purely +constructive criticism--purely constructive thought--consists in introducing +new ideas of a kind that do not clash, or do not seem to clash, with old +ones. Is such criticism or thought easy? Far from it. It has difficulties +of its own. These are of two varieties: the difficulty of showing people +who are content with their present stock of old ideas that the new ones +are interesting or important; and the great difficulty of making _new_ +ideas clear and intelligible, for the art of being clear and perfectly +intelligible is very, very hard to acquire and to practise. The third kind +of criticism--the third kind of thought--the kind that is at once both +destructive and constructive--has a double aim--that of destroying old ideas +that are false and that of replacing them with new ideas that are true; +and so the third kind of criticism or thought is the most difficult of +all, for it has to overcome both the difficulty of destructive criticism +and that of constructive thought. + +The reader, therefore, if he will be good enough to reflect a little upon +the matter, can not fail to appreciate the tremendous difficulties which +beset the writing of this little book, for he must perceive, not only that +the work belongs to the third kind of critical thought, but--what is much +more--the errors it aims to destroy are fundamental, world-wide and old, +while the true ideas it seeks to substitute for them are fundamental and +new. This great difficulty, felt at _every_ stage of this writing, is, for +a reason to be presently explained, greatly enhanced and felt with +especial keenness in the present chapter. I therefore beg the reader to +give me here very special cooperation--the cooperation of open-mindedness, +candor and critical attention. It is essential to keep in mind the nature +of our enterprise as a whole, which is that of pointing the way to the +science and art of Human Engineering and laying the foundations thereof; +we have seen Human Engineering, when developed, is to be the science and +art of so directing human energies and capacities as to make them +contribute most effectively to the advancement of human welfare; we have +seen that this science and art must have its basis in a true conception of +human nature--a just conception of what Man really is and of his natural +place in the complex of the world; we have seen that the ages-old and +still current conceptions of man--zoological and mythological conceptions, +according to which human beings are either animals or else hybrids of +animals and gods--are mainly responsible for the dismal things in human +history; we have seen that man, far from being an animal or a compound of +natural and supernatural, is a perfectly natural being characterized by a +certain capacity or power--the capacity or power to bind time; we have seen +that humanity is, therefore, to be rightly conceived and scientifically +defined as the time-binding class of life; we have seen that, therefore, +the laws of time-binding energies and time-binding phenomena are the laws +of human nature; we have seen that this conception of man--which must be +the basic concept, the fundamental principle and the perpetual guide and +regulator of Human Engineering--is bound to work a profound transformation +in all our views on human affairs and, in particular, must radically alter +the so-called social "sciences"--the life-regulating "sciences" of ethics, +sociology, economics, politics and government--advancing them from their +present estate of pseudo sciences to the level of genuine sciences and +technologizing them for the effective service of mankind. I call them +"life-regulating," not because they play a more important part in human +affairs than do the genuine sciences of mathematics, physics, chemistry, +astronomy and biology, for they are not more important than these, but +because they are, so to say, closer, more immediate and more obvious in +their influence and effects. These life-regulating sciences are, of +course, not independent; they depend ultimately upon the genuine sciences +for much of their power and ought to go to them for light and guidance; +but what I mean here by saying they are not independent is that they are +dependent upon each other, interpenetrating and interlocking in +innumerable ways. To show _in detail_ how the so-called sciences will have +to be transformed to make them accord with the right conception of man and +qualify them for their proper business will eventually require a large +volume or indeed volumes. + +In this introductory work I cannot deal fully with one of those "sciences" +nor in suitable outline with each of them separately. I must be content +here to deal, very briefly, with one of them by way of illustration and +suggestion. Which one shall it be? + +Now among these life-regulating "sciences" there is one specially marked +by the importance of its subject, by its central relation to the others +and by its prominence in the public mind. I mean Economics--the "dismal +science" of Political Economy. For that reason I have chosen to deal with +economics. In the present chapter I shall discuss three of its principal +terms--Wealth, Capital and Money--with a view to showing that the current +meanings and interpretations of these familiar terms must be very greatly +deepened, enlarged and elevated if they are to accord with facts and laws +of human nature and if the so-called "science" which employs them is to +become a genuine science properly qualified to be a branch of Human +Engineering. It is to be shown that the meanings currently attached by +political economists and others to the terms in question belong to what I +have called the period of humanity's childhood; and it is to be shown that +the new meanings which the terms must receive belong to the period of +humanity's manhood. It will be seen that the new meanings differ so +radically from the old ones as to make it desirable for the sake of +clarity to give the new meanings new names. But this, however +scientifically desirable, is impracticable because the old terms--wealth, +capital, money--are so deeply imbedded in the speech of the world. And here +comes into view the very special difficulty alluded to above and which led +me to request the reader's special cooperation in this chapter. The +difficulty is not merely that of destroying old ideas that are false; it +is not merely that of replacing them with true ideas that are new; it is +that of causing people habitually to associate meanings that are new and +true with terms associated so long, so universally, so uniformly with +meanings that are false. + +The secret of philosophy, said Leibnitz, is to treat familiar things as +unfamiliar. By the secret of "philosophy" Leibnitz meant the secret of +what we call science. Let us apply this wholesome maxim in our present +study; let us, in so far as we can, regard the familiar terms--wealth, +capital and money--as unfamiliar; let us deal with them afresh; let us +examine openmindedly the facts--the phenomena--to which the terms relate and +ascertain scientifically the significance the terms must have in a genuine +science of human economy. Examine "the facts" I say--examine "the +phenomena"--for bending facts to theories is a vital danger, while bending +theories to facts is essential to science and the peaceful progress of +society. + +Human beings have always had some sense of values--some perception or +cognition of values. In order to express or measure values, it was +necessary to introduce units of measure, or units of exchange. People +began to measure values by means of agricultural and other products, such +as cattle, for example. The Latin word for cattle was _pecus_, and the +word _pecunia_, which came to signify money, accounts for the meaning of +our familiar word pecuniary. The earliest units for measuring became +unsuited to the increasing needs of growing trade, "business," or traffic. +Finally a unit called money was adopted in which the base was the value of +some weight of gold. Thus we see that money came to mean simply the +accepted unit for measuring, representing and expressing values of and in +wealth. + +But what is wealth? I have said that the old conceptions of wealth, +capital and money--the conceptions that are still current throughout the +world--belong to the period of humanity's childhood--they are childish +conceptions. I have said that they must be replaced by scientific +conceptions--by conceptions fit for humanity's manhood. The change that +must be made in our conceptions of the great terms is tremendous. It is +necessary to analyse the current conceptions of wealth, capital, and +money--the childish conceptions of them--in order to reveal their falseness, +stupidity and folly. To do this we must enter the field of Political +Economy--a field beset with peculiar difficulties and dangers. All the +Furies of private interests are involved. One gains the impression that +there is little or no real desire to gain a true conception--a scientific +conception--of wealth. Everybody seems to prefer an emotional definition--a +definition that suits his personal love of wealth or his hatred of it. +Many definitions of wealth, capital and money are to be found in modern +books of political economy--definitions and books belonging to humanity's +childhood. For the purpose of this writing they all of them look +alike--they sufficiently agree--they are all of them childish. Mill, for +example, tells us that wealth consists of "useful or agreeable things +which possess exchangeable value." Of capital one of the simplest +definitions is this: + + + "Capital is that part of wealth which is devoted to obtaining + further wealth." (Alfred Marshall, _Economics of Industry_.) + + +Walker (in his _Money, Trade and Industry_) defines money as follows: + + + "Money is that which passes freely from hand to hand throughout + the community in final discharge of debts and full payment for + commodities, being accepted equally without reference to the + character or credit of the person who offers it, and without the + intention of the person who receives it to consume it, or to enjoy + it, or apply it to any other use than, in turn, to tender it to + others in discharge of debts or full payment for commodities." + + +Political economy has many different schools of thought and methods of +classification. Its reasonings are mainly speculative, metaphysical, and +legalistic; its ethics is zoological ethics, based on the zoological +conception of man as an animal. The elements of natural logic and natural +ethics are absent. The sophisticated ideas about the subject of political +economy, bluntly do not correspond to facts. Our primitive forefather in +the jungle would have died from hunger, cold, heat, blood poisoning or the +attacks of wild animals, if he had not used his brain and muscles to take +some stone or a piece of wood to knock down fruit from trees, to kill an +animal, so as to use his hide for clothes and his meat for food, or to +break wood and trees for a shelter and to make some weapons for defense +and hunting. + + + "In the first stone which he (the savage) flings at the wild + animal he pursues, in the first stick that he seizes to strike + down the fruit which hangs above his reach, we see the + appropriation of one article for the purpose of aiding in the + acquisition of another and thus we discover the origin of + capital." (R. Torrens, _An Essay on the Production of Wealth_.) + + +Our primitive forefather's first acquaintance with fire was probably +through lightning; he discovered, probably by chance, the possibility of +making fire by rubbing together two pieces of wood and by striking +together two pieces of stone; he established one of the first facts in +technology; he felt the warm effect of fire and also the good effect of +broiling his food by finding some roasted animals in a fire. Thus nature +revealed to him one of its great gifts, the stored-up energy of the sun in +vegetation and its primitive beneficial use. He was already a time-binding +being; evolution had brought him to that level. Being a product of nature, +he was reflecting those natural laws that belong to his class of life; he +had ceased to be static--he had become dynamic--progressiveness had got into +his blood--he was above the estate of animals. + +We also observe that primitive man produced commodities, acquired +experiences, made observations, and that some of the produced commodities +had a use-value for other people and remained good for use, even after his +death. + +The produced commodities were composed of raw material, freely supplied by +nature, combined with some mental work which gave him the conception of +how to make and to use the object, and some work on his part which finally +shaped the thing; all of this mental and manual work consumed an amount of +time. It is obvious that all of these elements are indispensable to +produce anything of any value, or of any use-value. His child not only +directly received some of the use-values produced by him, but was +initiated into all of his experiences and observations. (As we know, +power, as defined in mechanics, means the ratio of work done to the time +used in doing it.) + +All those things are time-binding phenomena produced by the time-binding +capacity of man; but man has _not_ known that _this capacity_ was his +_defining mark_. We must notice the strange fact that, from the +engineering point of view, humanity, though very developed in some ways, +is childishly undeveloped in others. Humanity has some conceptions about +dimensions and talks of the world in which we live as having three +dimensions; yet even in its wildest imagination it can not picture +tangibly a _fourth_ dimension; nay, humanity has not learned to grasp the +real meanings of things that are basic or fundamental. All of our +conceptions are relative and comparative; all of them are based upon +matters which we do not yet understand; for example, we talk of time, +space, electricity, gravity, and so on, but no one has been able to define +them in terms of the data of sensation; nevertheless--and it is a fact of +the greatest importance--we learn how to use many things which we do not +fully understand and are not yet able to define. + +In political economy the meagreness of our understanding is especially +remarkable; we have not yet grasped the obvious fact--a fact of +immeasurable import for all of the social sciences--that with little +exception the wealth and capital possessed by a given generation are not +produced by its own toil but are the inherited fruit of dead men's toil--a +free gift of the past. We have yet to learn and apply the lesson that not +only our material wealth and capital but our science and art and learning +and wisdom--all that goes to constitute our civilization--were produced, not +by our own labor, but by the time-binding energies of past generations. + +Primitive man used natural laws without knowing them or understanding +them, but he was able to cause nature to express itself, by finding a way +to release nature's stored up energy. Through the work of his brain and +its direction in the use of his muscles, he found that some of his +appliances were not good; he made better ones, and thus slowly at first, +the progress of humanity went on. I will not enlarge upon the history of +the evolution of civilization because it is told in many books. + +In the earliest times the religious, philosophical, legal and ethical +systems had not been invented. The morale at that time was a natural +morale. Humans knew that they did not create nature. They did not feel it +"proper" to "expropriate the creator" and legalistically appropriate the +earth and its treasure for themselves. They felt, in their unsophisticated +morale, that being called into existence they had a natural right to exist +and to use freely the gifts of nature in the preservation of their life; +and that is what they did. + +After the death of a man, some of the objects produced by him still +survived, such as weapons, fishing or hunting instruments, or the caves +adapted for living; a baby had to be nourished for some years by its +parents or it would have died. Those facts had important consequences; +objects made by someone for some particular use could be used by someone +else, even after the death of one or more successive users; again the +experiences acquired by one member of a family or a group of people were +taught by example or precept to others of the same generation and to the +next generation. Such simple facts are the corner stones of our whole +civilization and they are the direct result of the HUMAN CAPACITY OF +TIME-BINDING. + +The world to-day is full of controversy about wealth, capital, and money, +and because humanity, through its peculiar time-binding power, binds this +element "time" in an ever larger and larger degree, the controversy +becomes more and more acute. Civilization as a process is the process of +binding time; progress is made by the fact that each generation adds to +the material and spiritual wealth which it inherits. Past achievements--the +fruit of bygone time--thus live in the present, are augmented in the +present, and transmitted to the future; the process goes on; time, the +essential element, is so involved that, though it increases +arithmetically, its fruit, civilization, advances geometrically. + +But there is another peculiarity in wealth and money: If a wooden or iron +"inch" be allowed to rot or rust quietly on some shelf, this "inch" does +not represent anything besides this piece of wood or iron. But if we take +the MENTAL value of an inch, this unit of one of the measures of space, +and use it, with other quantities, in the contemplation of the skies for +the solving of an astronomical problem, it gives a prophetic answer that, +in a certain place there is a star; this star, may be for years looked for +in vain. Was it that the calculation was wrong? No, for after further +search with telescopes of greater power, the star is found and the +calculation thus verified. + +It is obvious that the "unit"--inch--has no value by itself, but is very +precious as a unit for measuring the phenomenon of length, which it +perfectly represents, and that is why it was introduced. + +It is exactly the same with money if the term be rightly understood. +Understood aright, money, being the measure and representative of wealth, +is in the main, the measure and the representative of dead men's toil; +for, rightly understood, wealth is almost entirely the product of the +labor of by-gone generations. This product, we have seen, involves the +element of time as the chief factor. And so we discover how money, +properly understood, is connected with time--the main function of money is +to measure and represent the accumulated products of the labor of past +generations. Hoarded money is like an iron "inch" upon a shelf--a useless +lump; but when used as a measure and representative of wealth rightly +understood, money renders invaluable service, for it then serves to +measure and represent the living fruit of dead men's toil. + +For this reason, it is useless to argue who is the more important, the +capitalist who has legal possession of most of the material fruit of dead +men's toil, or the laborer who has legal possession of but little of it. +In the laborer, we do not now really look for his physical muscular labor +ALONE; for this is replaced by mechanical or animal power as soon as it +can be. What we do need from labor, and what we will always need, is his +BRAIN--HIS TIME-BINDING POWER. + +The population of the world may be divided into different classes; if the +classes are not here enumerated in the customary way, it is because it is +necessary to classify human beings, as nearly as possible according to +their "power-value." There is no assertion that this is an ideal +classification, but if someone is moved to exclaim--"what a foolish, +unscientific division!"--I will answer by saying: "I grant that the +division is foolish and unscientific; but IT IS THE ONLY DIVISION WHICH +CORRESPONDS TO FACTS IN LIFE, and it is not the writer's fault. By this +'foolishness' some good may be accomplished." + +From an engineer's point of view humanity is apparently to be divided into +three classes; (1) the intellectuals; (2) the rich; and (3) the poor. This +division would seem to be contrary to all the rules of logic, but it +corresponds to facts. Of course some individuals belong to two of the +classes or even to all three of them, an after-war product, but +essentially, they belong to the one class in proportion to the +characteristic which is the most marked in their life; that is, in the +sense of social classes--BASED ON MAGNITUDE OF VALUES. + +(1) The intellectuals are the men and women who possess the knowledge +produced by the labor of by-gone generations but do not possess the +material wealth thus produced. In mastering and using this inheritance of +knowledge, they are exercising their time-binding energies and making the +labor of the dead live in the present and for the future. + +(2) The rich are those who have possession and control of most of the +_material_ wealth produced by the toil of bygone generations--wealth that +is dead unless animated and transformed by the time-binding labor of the +living. + +(3) The poor are those who have neither the knowledge possessed by the +intellectuals nor the material wealth possessed by the rich and who, +moreover, because nearly all their efforts, under present conditions, are +limited to the struggle for mere existence, have little or no opportunity +to exercise their time-binding capacity. + +Let us now try to ascertain the role of the time-binding class of life as +a whole. We have by necessity, to go back to the beginning--back to the +savage. We have seen what were the conditions of his work and progress; we +saw that for each successful achievement he often had to wrestle with a +very large number of unsuccessful achievements, and his lifetime being so +limited, the total of his successful achievements was very limited, so +that he was able to give to his child only a few useful objects and the +sum of his experience. Generally speaking, each successor did not start +his life at the point where his father started; he started somewhere near +where his father left off. His father gave, say, fifty years to discover +two truths in nature and succeeded in making two or three simple objects; +but the son does not need to give fifty years to discover and create the +same achievements, and so he has time to achieve something _new_. He thus +adds his own achievements to those of his father in tools and experience; +this is the mathematical equivalent of adding his parent's years of life +to his own. His mother's work and experience are of course included--the +name father and son being only used representatively. + +This stupendous fact is the definitive mark of humanity--the power to roll +up continuously the ever-increasing achievements of generation after +generation endlessly. We have seen that this time-binding power is an +exponential power or function of time. Time flows on, increasing in +arithmetical progression, adding generation unto generation; but the +results of human energies working in time do not go on arithmetically; +they pile up or roll up more and more rapidly, augmenting in accordance +with the law of a more and more rapidly increasing geometric progression. +The typical term of the progression is _PR__T_ where _PR_ denotes the +ending progress made in the generation with which we agree to start our +reckoning, _R_ denotes the ratio increase, and _T_ denotes the number of +generations after the chosen "start." The quantity, _PR__T_ of progress +made in the _Tth_ generation contains _T_ as an exponent, and so the +quantity, varying as time _T_ passes, is called an exponential function of +the time. + +Nature is the source of all energy. Plants, the lowest form of life, have +a definite role to perform in the economy of nature. Their function is the +forming of albuminoids and other substances for higher purposes. All of +their nitrates are high-explosives, or low explosives, but explosives +anyway. They are powerful sources of some new energy. Animal life uses +these "explosives" as food and is correspondingly more dynamic, but in +animal life time does not play the role it plays in human life. Animals +are limited by death permanently. If animals make any progress from +generation to generation, it is so small as to be negligible. A beaver, +for example, is a remarkable builder of dams, but he does not progress in +the way of inventions or further development. A beaver dam is always a +beaver dam. + +Finally humanity, the highest known class of life, has time-binding +capacity as its characteristic, its discriminant, its peculiar and +definitive mark. It is an unrealized fact that in this higher class of +life, _the law of organic growth develops into the law of +energy-growth--the mind--the time-binding energy--an increasing exponential +function of time._ That fact is of basic importance for the science and +art of Human Engineering. In mechanics we have the well-known formula + +(1) Work / Time = Power. + +We have seen that, in accordance with the law of geometric progression, +_PR__T_ represents the progress made--the work done--in the _Tth_ generation +(_T_ being counted from some generation taken as starting point of +reckoning); this progress, achievement, or _work_, being done in _one_ +generation, we have by (1) + +(2) ( Work = PRT ) / ( Time = 1) = Power, + +that is, _PR__T_ = Power; this means that the number _PR__T_, which +measures the work done in a given generation, is also the measure of the +power that does the work. Now, the total work, _W_, done in the _T_ +generations is + +(3) _W = PR__1__ + PR__2__ + PR__3__ + ... + PR__T_; + +that is, + +(4) _W_ = _R_ / (_R_-1) x (_PR_T - _P_) + +It should be noticed that by (2) this expression for _W_ may also be +regarded as the sum of _T_ different powers _PR_, _PR__2_, etc., each +working during one and only one generation; if we divided this sum by _T_, +the quotient would be a power that would have to act through _T_ +generations to produce _W_. The reader should not fail to notice very +carefully that the expression (4) for _W_ is an expression for the total +progress made--the total work done--the total wealth produced--in the course +of _T_ generations and he should especially note how the expression +involves the exponential function of time (_T_), namely _PR__T_. + +The formula makes mathematically evident the time-binding capacity +characteristic of the human class of life. Properly understood, _wealth_ +consists of the fruits or products of this time-binding capacity of man. +Animals do not produce wealth; it is produced by Man and only Man. The +foregoing basic formulation should lead to further similar developments +throwing much light upon the process of civilization and serving to +eliminate "private opinion" from the conduct of human affairs. (In this +writing it is not important to look deeper into these proposed series. The +fact remains that _P_, as well as _R_, are peculiarly increasing series of +a geometrical character--the precise form will be developed in another +writing.) + +Human achievements and progress, because cumulative, are knocking out the +barriers of time. This fact is the vital and dynamic difference between +animal life and human life. As plants gather in and store up solar energy +into sheaves for the use and growth of animal and man--so humans are +gathering and binding the knowledge of past centuries into sheaves for the +use and development of generations yet unborn. + +We have seen that the term wealth, rightly understood, means the fruit of +the time-binding work of humanity. Wealth is of two kinds: one is +material; the other is knowledge. Both kinds have use-value. The first +kind perishes--the commodities composing it deteriorate and become useless. +The other is permanent in character; it is imperishable; it may be lost or +forgotten but it does not wear out. + +The one is limited in time; the other, unlimited in time; the former I +call POTENTIAL USE-VALUE; the latter, KINETIC USE-VALUE. Analysis will +justify the names. The energy of a body which is due to its position, is +called potential energy. The energy of a body which is due to its motion, +is called kinetic energy. Here the material use-value has value through +its position, shape and so forth; it is immobile if not used, and has not +the capacity to progress. Mental use-values are not static but permanently +dynamic; one thought, one discovery, is the impulse to others; they follow +the law of an increasing _potential_ function of time. (See app. II.) This +is why these names correspond to the two names of the two mentioned +classes of energy. + +Here I must return to the current conceptions of wealth and capital, +before cited. "Wealth," we are told, "is any useful or agreeable thing +which possesses _ex_change_able value_." And we are told that "Capital is +that part of wealth which is devoted to obtaining further wealth." I have +said that such conceptions--such definitions--of wealth and capital are +childish--they belong to the period of humanity's childhood. That they are +indeed childish conceptions the reader can not fail to see if he will +reflect upon them and especially if he will compare them with the +scientific conception according to which wealth consists of those +things--whether they be material commodities or forms of knowledge and +understanding--that have been produced by the time-binding energies of +humanity, and according to which _nearly all the wealth of the world at +any given time_ is the _accumulated fruit of the toil of past +generations_--the living work of the dead. It seems unnecessary to warn the +reader against confusing the "_making_" of money by hook or crook, by +trick or trade, with the _creating_ of wealth, by the product of labor. In +calling the old conceptions childish, I do not mean that they contain no +element of truth whatever; I mean that they are shallow, scientifically or +spiritually meagre, narrow in their vision, wrong in their accent; I +especially mean that they are dumb, because they are blind, regarding the +central matter that wealth is the natural offspring of Time and Human +Toil. The old conceptions do indeed imply that wealth and capital involve +both potential and kinetic use-values, and in so far they are right. But +how do such use-values arise? + +The potential use-values in wealth are created by human work operating in +time upon raw material given by nature. The use-values are produced by +time-taking transformations of the raw materials; these transformations +are wrought by human brain labor and human muscular labor directed by the +human brain acting in time. The kinetic use-values of wealth are also +created by human toil--mainly by the intellectual labor of observation, +experimentation, imagination, deduction and invention, all consuming the +precious time of short human lives. It is obvious that in the creation of +use-values whether potential or kinetic, the element of _time_ enters as +an absolutely essential factor. The fundamental importance of time as a +factor in the production of wealth--the fact that wealth and the use-values +of wealth are literally the natural offspring of the spiritual union of +time with toil--has been completely overlooked, not only by the economics, +but by the ethics, the jurisprudence and the other branches of speculative +reasoning, throughout the long period of humanity's childhood. In the +course of the ages there has indeed been much "talk" about time, but there +has been no recognition of the basic significance of time as essential in +the conception and in the very constitution of human values. + +It is often said that "Time is Money"; the statement is often false; but +the proposition that Money is Time is always true. It is always true in +the profound sense that Money is the measure and symbol of Wealth--the +product of Time and Toil--the crystallization of the time-binding human +capacity. IT IS THUS TRUE THAT MONEY IS A VERY PRECIOUS THING, THE MEASURE +AND SYMBOL OF WORK--IN PART THE WORK OF THE LIVING BUT, IN THE MAIN, THE +LIVING WORK OF THE DEAD. + +Nature's laws are supreme; we cannot change them; we can deviate from them +for a while, but the end is evil. That is the lesson we must learn from +the history of Humanity's childhood. False conceptions of Man--ignorance of +the laws of human nature--have given us unscientific economies, +unscientific ethics, unscientific law, unscientific politics, unscientific +government. These have made human history the history of social +cataclysms--insurrections, wars, revolutions--sad tokens not so much of +human lust as of human ignorance of the laws of human nature. There is but +one remedy, one hope--a science and art of Human Engineering based upon the +just conception of humanity as the time-binding class of life and +conforming to the laws of nature including the laws of human nature. + + + + +Chapter VI. Capitalistic Era + + +The immortal work done by Descartes, Newton and Leibnitz was to discover +powerful methods for mathematics--the only fit language for expressing the +laws of nature. + +Human Engineering will be the science by which the great social problems +will be solved. For the first time since the first day of man, humanity +will really understand its own nature and status; and will learn to direct +scientifically the living and the non-living forces for construction, +avoiding unnecessary destruction and waste. + +It may seem strange but it is true that the time-binding exponential +powers, called humans, do not die--their bodies die but their achievements +live forever--a permanent source of power. All of our precious +possessions--science, acquired by experience, accumulated wealth in all +fields of life--are kinetic and potential use-values created and left by +by-gone generations; they are humanity's treasures produced mainly in the +past, and conserved for our use, by that peculiar function or power of man +for the binding of time. That the natural trend of life and the progress +of the development of this treasury is so often checked, turned from its +natural course, or set back, is due to ignorance of human nature, to +metaphysical speculation and sophistry. Those who, with or without +intention, keep the rate of humanity's mental advancement down to that of +an arithmetic progression are the real enemies of society; for they keep +the life-regulating "sciences" and institutions far behind the gallop of +life itself. The consequence is periodic social violence--wars and +revolutions. + +Let us carry the analysis of potential and kinetic use-values a little +further. All potential use-values left to us by the dead are temporal and +differ in utility. Many potential use-values are found in museums and have +very limited value to-day in practical life. On the other hand some roads +or water-ways built by the ancients have use-value to-day; and an almost +endless list of modern potential use-values have or will have use-values +for a long time to come, such as buildings, improved lands, railroad +tracks, certain machines or tools; the use-value of some such items of +material wealth will last for more than one generation. Kinetic use-values +are permanent in their character, for, though they may become antiquated, +they yet serve as the foundation for the developments that supersede them, +and so they continue to live in that to which they lead. + +I would draw attention at this point to one of the most important kinetic +and potential use-values produced by humanity--the invention of the steam +engine. Through this invention, humanity has been able to avail itself, +not only of the living fruits of dead men's toil, but also of the +inconceivably vast amounts of solar energy and time bound up in the growth +of vegetable life and conserved for use in the form of coal and other +fuels of vegetable origin. This invention has revolutionized our life in +countless directions. To be brief, I will analyse only the most salient +effects. Human Engineering has never existed except in the most embryonic +form. In remote antiquity the conception and knowledge of natural law was +wholly absent or exceedingly vague. Before the invention of the steam +engine, people depended mainly upon human powers--that is, upon "living +powers"--the powers of living men, and the living fruits of the labor of +the dead. Even then there were manifold complications. + +The invention of the steam engine released for human use a new power of +tremendous magnitude--the stored-up power of solar energy and ages of time. +But we must not fail to note carefully that we to-day are enabled to use +this immense new power of bound-up solar energy and time by a human +invention, a product of the dead. + +The full significance of the last statement requires reflection. The now +dead inventor of the steam engine could not have produced his ingenious +invention except by using the living powers of other dead men--except by +using the material and spiritual or mental wealth created by those who had +gone before. In the inventor's intellectual equipment there was actively +present the kinetic use-value of "bound-up-time," enabling him to discover +the laws of heat, water, and steam; and he employed both the potential and +kinetic use-values of mechanical instruments, methods of work, and +scientific knowledge of his time and generation--use-values of wealth +created by the genius and toil of by-gone generations. This invention was +not produced, let us say 6000 years ago, because civilization was not then +sufficiently advanced: mathematically considered, the production of this +great use-value had to await all the accumulated work of six thousand +years of human ingenuity and human labor. So, if we choose, the steam +engine may be considered a kinetic use-value in which the factor of time +is equal to something like 6000 years, or let us say roughly 200 +generations. + +It is obvious that, in one life time, even a genius of the highest order, +could not, in aboriginal conditions, have invented and built a steam +engine, when everything, even iron, was unknown. Of course if the same +inventor could have had a life of several thousands of years and could +have consecutively followed up all the processes, unhampered by the +prejudices of those days, and been able to make all of these inventions by +himself, he would represent in himself all the progress of civilization. + +By this illustration we see the profound meaning of the words--the living +powers of the dead; we see the grave importance in human life of the +factor TIME; we behold the significance of the time-binding capacity of +man. The steam engine is to be seen anew, as in the main the accumulated +production of dead-men's work. The life of one generation is short, and +were it not for our human capacity to inherit the material and spiritual +fruit of dead men's toil, to augment it a little in the brief span of our +own lives, and to transmit it to posterity, the process of civilization +would not be possible and our present estate would be that of aboriginal +man. Civilization is a creature, its creator is the time-binding power of +man. Animals have it not, because they belong to a lower type or dimension +of life. + +Sophistry avails nothing here; a child, left in the woods, would be and +remain a savage, matching his wits with gorillas. He becomes a civilized +man only by the accumulation of, and acquaintance with dead men's work; +for then and only then can he start where the preceding generation left +off. This capacity is peculiar to men; the fact can not be repeated too +often. + +It is untrue to say that _A_ started his life aided exclusively by the +achievements of (say) his father, for his father's achievements depended +on the achievements of _his_ immediate predecessors; and so on all the way +back through the life of humanity. This fact, of supreme ethical +importance, applies to _all_ of us; none of us may speak or act as if the +material or spiritual wealth we have were produced by us; for, if we be +not stupid, we must see that what we call _our_ wealth, _our_ +civilization, everything we use or enjoy, is in the main the product of +the labor of men now dead, some of them slaves, some of them "owners" of +slaves. The metal spoon or the knife which we use daily is a product of +the work of many generations, including those who discovered the metal and +the use of it, and the utility of the spoon. + +And here arises a most important question: Since the wealth of the world +is in the main the free gift of the past--the fruit of the labor of the +dead--to whom does it of right belong? The question can not be evaded. Is +the existing monopoly of the great inherited treasures produced by dead +men's toil a normal and natural evolution? + +Or is it an artificial status imposed by the few upon the many? Such is +the crux of the modern controversy. + +It is generally known that the invention of the steam engine and other +combustion engines which release sun-power for mechanical use, has +revolutionized the economic system; for the building of engines in the +scale of modern needs, it is necessary to concentrate a great number of +living men in one place, to build factories, to set up machines used in +producing the engines, and all this requires the use of vast amounts of +money. That is why this era is called the capitalistic era. But it is +necessary to stop here and analyse the factors of value in the engine to +be made and in the money used for the purpose of making use of the +stored-up energies of the sun. We have found that the major part of the +engine and all factors connected with its production are the combined +power of dead men's labor. We have found that wealth or capital and its +symbol, money, are also, in the main, the bound-up power of dead men's +labor; so that the only way to obtain the benefit in the release of +sun-power, is by using the product of the toil of the dead. It is further +obvious that only the men or organizations that are able to concentrate +the largest amounts of money, representing the work of the dead, can have +the fullest use of the stored-up energies of time and the ancient sun. +Thus the monopoly of the stored-up energies of the sun arises from +monopolizing the accumulated fruits of dead men's toil. These problems +will, in the future, be the concern of the science and art of Human +Engineering. + +Let us glance briefly at the problems from another angle. The power +developed in the combustion of one pound of coal is theoretically equal to +11,580,000 foot pounds. But by our imperfect methods of utilization, not +more than 1,500,000 foot pounds are made available. This is about the +amount of physical power exerted by a man of ordinary strength during a +day's work. Hence 300 pounds of coal will represent the labor of a man for +a year. The current production of coal in the world is about 500,000,000 +tons (1906). If we suppose that only half of this coal goes for mechanical +use, this will give us approximately the number as 1,600,000,000 +man-powers that are producers but not consumers. + +Let us take a still broader view of resources; we have approximately +1,600,000,000 living human beings (all censuses available between 1902 and +1906); a wealth of approximately $357,000,000,000 (_Social Progress_, +1906, page 221) which in our analysis is dead men's work; and sun-power +equal, in work, to the work of our whole living population, or equal to +1,600,000,000 sun man-powers. Taking, for simplicity's sake, $35.70 as the +average living expenses per annum for each one of the _world's_ +population, we will have: + +(1) 1,600,000,000 living men. + +(2) 10,000,000,000 living man-powers of the dead. + +(3) 1,600,000,000 sun man-powers. + +Such classification needs a reflection: man is intrinsically an increasing +exponential power and always produces two use-values--the potential and the +kinetic. All living men have in some degree this type of power; _they are +able to direct and use basic powers_. + +So we see that this world is really populated to-day by three different +populations, all of them dynamic and active: to wit, 1,600,000,000 living +men; 10,000,000,000 living man-powers of the dead; 1,600,000,000 sun +man-powers. + +Thus it is obvious beyond any argument, _that this additional producing +but not consuming_ population, has been produced mainly by the work of all +our past generations. It is said "mainly" because, if we were the first +generation, we would be just aboriginal savages having nothing and +progressing very slowly. The reason why we progress very rapidly, in this +stage of civilization, is explained very clearly by the mathematical law +of a geometrical progression, with an ever increasing number of terms, the +magnitude of the terms increasing more rapidly all the time.(11) + +This fact is the reason why the old unscientific and artificial social +system requires and must undergo profound transformation. Human progress, +in many directions, is so far advanced that social institutions can not +much longer continue to lag so far behind. Static ethics, static +jurisprudence, static economics, and the rest must become dynamic; if they +do not continue to progress peacefully in accordance with the law of the +progress of science, they will be forced by violent readjustments, +recurring with ever increasing frequency. + +Here we have a problem of very high importance and enormous magnitude. To +serve 1,600,000,000 living men, we have 11,600,000,000 dead man-powers and +all the sun man-powers--SEVEN SERVANTS TO EACH LIVING MAN, WOMAN AND CHILD +included. It looks like the millennium. It would be so if we but used all +this power in a constructive way, eliminating waste and controversy and +all those factors which hamper production and progress. The present +economic system does not realize even the beginning of the magnitude of +this truth and the tremendous results which are to be achieved through the +adjustment of it. The problem will be solved by Human Engineering, for +this will establish the right understanding of values and will show how to +manage world problems scientifically; it will give a scientific foundation +to Political Economy and transform so-called "scientific shop management" +into genuine "scientific world management."(12) + +There is a chasm between "Capital" and "Labor," but nature does not know +"Capital" or "Labor" at all. Nature knows only matter, energy, "space," +"time," potential and kinetic use-values, forces in all their direct and +indirect expression, the energies of living men, living powers of dead +men, and the bound-up powers of Time and the ancient Sun. Nature made man +an increasing exponential function of time, a time-binder, a power able to +transform and direct basic powers. Sometimes we hypocritically like to +delude ourselves, if our delusions are agreeable--and profitable. We call +human work "manual labor" and we pretend that we need the laborer for his +muscular service, but when we thus speak, we are thoughtless, stupid, or +insincere. What we look for in the worker is his _control_ of his muscles; +mechanical work is or can be replaced almost entirely by machinery. What +we will never be able to replace by machinery is a Man, because man +belongs to the level of a dimension above machinery. Engine-power, sun +man-power, and capital--mainly the work of the dead--are inanimate; they +become productive only when quickened by the time-binding energies of +living men and women. Then only are the results proportional to the ever +growing magnitude of exponential power. In nature's economy the +time-binders are the intelligent forces. There is none else known to us, +and from the engineer's point of view, Edison and the simplest laborer, +Smith or Jones, are basically the same; their powers or capacities are +exponential, and, though differing in degree, are the same in kind. This +may seem optimistic but all engineers are optimists. They deal only with +fact and truth. If they make mistakes, if their bridges break down, then, +no matter how clever their sophistry, they are adjudged criminal. Like +severity must be made the rule and practice toward all those who control +the institutions and great affairs of human society. Periodical +break-downs must be prevented. The engineers of human society must be held +responsible, as the bridge engineer is held to-day. + +Things are often simpler than they appear at the first glance. There may +be fire and plenty of coal in a stove, yet no heat; the fire does not burn +well; an engineer will remove the natural causes of obstruction of the +natural process; even such a simple thing as the removal of ashes may +solve the problem. It seems simple enough. The truth is often clear and +simple, if only it be not obscured and complicated by sophistry. + +"Capitalistic" reasoning and "Socialistic" reasoning--Nature does not know +such things. Nature has only one "reasoning" in all its functions. Our +falsifying of nature's laws makes the controversy. Socialism exists as an +_ism_ because Capitalism exists as an _ism_; the clash is only an +expression of the eternal law of action and reaction. + +We are living in a world of wealth, a world enriched by many generations +of dead men's toil; between the lust of the one to _keep_ and the lust of +others to _get_, there is little to choose; such contentions of lust +against lust are _sub_-human--animalistic; such ethics is zoological +ethics--the righteousness of tooth and claw; below the human dimensions of +life, utterly unworthy of the creative energy--the time-binding capacity--of +humanity. Socialism feels keenly and sees dimly that human affairs are not +conducted in conformity with natural laws. Capitalism neither sees it nor +keenly feels it. Neither the one nor the other stops to investigate +natural laws--nature's laws--laws of human nature--scientifically. They both +of them use the same speculative methods in their arguments, and there can +be no issue. Against one old-fashioned, speculative argument, there is +always a speculative answer. They both speak about the truth, but their +methods can not find the truth nor their language express it. They speak +of "justice," "right" and so forth, not knowing that their conceptions of +those terms are based on a wrong understanding of values. There is one and +but one remedy, and that remedy consists in applying scientific method to +the study of the subject. Sound reasoning, once introduced, will overrun +humanity as the fields turn green in the spring; it will eliminate the +waste of energy in controversies; it will attract all forces toward +construction and the exploitation of nature for the common weal. + +There are capitalists and capitalists; there are socialists and +socialists. Among the capitalists there are those who want wealth--mainly +the fruit of dead men's toil--for themselves. Among the socialists there +are those--the orthodox socialists--who seek to disperse it. The former do +not perceive that the product of the labor of the dead is itself dead if +not quickened by the energies of living men. The orthodox socialists do +not perceive the tremendous benefits that accrue to mankind from the +accumulation of wealth, if _rightly used_. + +Whether we be capitalists or socialists or neither, we must learn that to +prey upon the treasury left by the dead is to live, not the life of a +human being, but that of a _ghoul_. Legalistic title--documentary +ownership--does not alter the fact. Neither does lust for the same. + +When we have acquired the just conception of what a human being is we +shall get away from the Roman conception according to which a human being +is _instrumentum vocale_; an animal, _instrumentum semivocale_: and a +tool, _instrumentum mutum_. To regard human beings as tools--as +instruments--for the use of other human beings is not only unscientific but +it is repugnant, stupid and short sighted. Tools are made by man but have +not the autonomy of their maker--they have not man's time-binding capacity +for initiation, for self-direction, and self-improvement In their own +nature, tools, instruments, machines belong to a dimension far lower than +that of man. + +Talk of dimensions or dimensionality is by no means theoretical rubbish. +The right understanding of dimensions is of life-and-death importance in +practical life. The intermixing of dimensions leads to wrong conclusions +in our thought and wrong conclusions lead to disasters. + +Consider the classes of life as representing three dimensions (as +explained in an earlier chapter), then human production belongs +essentially to the human or as I call it the third dimension. With the +base of (say) 5, we produce in the third dimension a result of 125 units, +and so when humans are paid but 25 units in accordance with the standards +of the second dimension (that of animals), humanity is deprived of the +benefit of 100 units of produced wealth. That is an illustration of what a +part dimensions play in practical life. The reflective reader may analyse +for himself what effect these same rules would have, if expressed and +applied in the human "time-binding" dimension, time being the supreme +test. The following table gives the visual shock: + +1st Dimension 2nd Dimension 3rd Dimension +5 25 125 +10 100 1,000 +100 10,000 1,000,000 +1,000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000 + +This explains why the intermixing of dimensions is the source of +tremendous evil. + +Who can now assert that the problem of dimensions is one only of theory? +It is not even a question of limitation of mind, but it becomes a question +of limitation of eyesight, not to be able to see the overwhelming +differences between the laws of development of the first, second, and the +third dimension. + +Dollars, or pounds sterling, or other units of money follow the same +rules: the strength and in fact the source of power of modern capitalism, +is found in just this difference in dimensions--in the difference between +what is given and what is taken, in the difference between what is earned +and what is "made." The problem of dimensions is, therefore, a key which +unlocks the secrets of the power of capitalism and opens the door to a new +civilization where the understanding of dimensions will establish order +out of the chaos. + +We have seen that kinetic and potential use-values, produced mainly by the +dead, are bound up in wealth, which is measured and symbolized by money. +This being true, it is obvious that money is a measure and symbol of +power, of work done, of bound-up time. + +The _space_-binding _animal_ standard of miscivilization has brought us to +an impasse--a blind alley--for the simple physical reason that there is no +more space to "bind." Practically all the habitable lands, and practically +all the natural resources, are already divided among private legalistic +owners. What hope is there for the ever increasing population? + +But we have these 1,600,000,000 living men; 10,000,000,000 living +man-powers of the dead; and 1,600,000,000 sun man-powers: that is indeed a +tremendous power to PRODUCE WEALTH FOR ALL, IF WISELY DIRECTED, but to-day +it is ignorantly and shamefully misdirected, because human beings are not +treated in accordance with their nature as the time-binding class of life. + +Much more is to be gained in exploiting nature aimfully, all the time, +with a full mobilization of our living, dead, and sun-powers, than by +exploiting man all the time and nature occasionally. Selfishness and +ignorance--is it these that prevent full mobilization of the producing +powers of the world? + +Such as contribute most to human progress and human enlightenment--men like +Gutenberg, Copernicus, Newton, Leibnitz, Watts, Franklin, Mendeleieff, +Pasteur, Sklodowska-Curie, Edison, Steinmetz, Loeb, Dewey, Keyser, +Whitehead, Russell, Poincare, William Benjamin Smith, Gibbs, Einstein, and +many others--consume no more bread than the simplest of their fellow +mortals. Indeed such men are often in want. How many a genius has perished +inarticulate because unable to stand the strain of social conditions where +animal standards prevail and "survival of the fittest" means, not survival +of the "fittest in time-binding capacity," but survival of the strongest +in ruthlessness and guile--in space-binding competition! + +Wealth is produced by those who work with hand or brain and by no others. +The great mass of the wealth of the world has been thus produced by +generations that have gone. We know that the greatest wealth +producers--immeasurably the greatest--have been and are scientific men, +discoverers and inventors. If an invention, in the course of a few years +after it is made, must become public property, then the wealth produced by +the _use_ of the invention should also become public property in the +course of a like period of years after it is thus produced. Against this +proposition no sophistry can avail. + +One of the greatest powers of modern times is the Press; it commands the +resources of space and time; it affects in a thousand subtle ways the form +of our thoughts. It controls the exchange of news throughout the world. +Unfortunately the press is often controlled by exploiters of the "living +powers of the dead," and so what is presented as news is frequently so +limited, colored and distorted by selfish interests as to be falsehood in +the guise of truth. Honest, independent papers are frequently starved by +selfish conspirators and forced to close down. Thus the press, which is +itself the product in the main of dead men's toil, is made a means for the +deception and exploitation of the living. Indeed the bitter words of +Voltaire seem to be too true: "Since God created man in his own image, how +often has man endeavored to render similar service to God." Those who want +to use such "God-like" powers to rule the world are modern Neros, who in +their wickedness and folly fancy themselves divine. To deceive, and +through deception, to exploit, rob and subjugate living men and women, and +to do it by prostituting the living powers created by the dead, is the +work, I will not say of men, but of _mad_ men, greedy, ignorant and blind. +What is the remedy? Revolution? Revolution is also mad. The only remedy is +enlightenment--knowledge, knowledge of nature, knowledge of human nature, +scientific education, science applied to all the affairs of man--the +science and art of Human Engineering. + + + + +Chapter VII. Survival of the Fittest + + +Humanity is a dynamic affair, nay, the most dynamic known, because it is +able to transform and direct basic powers. Where power is produced there +must be an issue for it. Power must perforce express itself in some form. +Electricity produced in the skies comes down in an often disastrous +manner. Electricity, produced aimfully, runs our railroads; just so the +enormous power produced by humanity must be used aimfully, in a +constructive way or it will burst into insurrections, revolutions and +wars. + +Hitherto we have been guided by those bottomless sciences having only +mythological ideas of power--by ideas moulded by personal ambitions, +personal interests, or downright ignorance. Periodically we have had all +the evils of the lack of a common aim and scientific guidance. Power has +been held by the "God-given" or the "cleverest"; seldom has the power been +given to the "fittest" in the sense of the most capable "to do." Those who +speak of the "survival of the fittest," as in the Darwinian theory of +animals, bark an animal language. This rule, being natural only in the +life of plants and animals and appropriate only to the lower forms of +physical life, cannot, except with profound change of meaning, be applied +to the time-binding class of life, without disaster. + +The modern vast accumulation of wealth for private purposes, justifies +itself by using the argument of the "survival of the fittest." Very well, +where there is a "survival," there must be victims; where there are +victims, there has been fighting. Is this what the users of this argument +mean? Like the Kaiser, they talk peace and make war. This method of doing +things is not in any way new. The world has been accustomed to it for a +very long while. + +Personally I believe that most of the masters of speculative +semi-sciences, such as economics, law, ethics, politics and government are +honest in their beliefs and speculations. Simply the right man believes in +the wrong thing; if shown the right way out of the mess he will cease to +hamper progress; he will be of the greatest value to the new world built +by Human Engineers, where human capacities, exponential functions of time, +will operate naturally; where economy, law, ethics, politics and +government will be _dynamic_, not _static_. There is a world of difference +between these two words. + +The immediate object of this writing is to show the way to directing the +time-binding powers of mankind for the benefit of all. Human technology, +as an art and science, does not yet exist; some basic principles were +required as a foundation for such a science. Especially was it necessary +to establish a _human_ standard, and thus make it certain and clear that +"space-binders"--the members of the _animal_ world--are "outside of the +human law"--outside the natural laws for the human class of life. + +Present civilization is a very complicated affair; although many of our +social problems are very badly managed, sudden changes could not be made +without endangering the welfare and life of all classes of society. In the +meantime, changes must be made because the world can not proceed much +longer under pre-war conditions; they have been too well exposed by facts +for humanity to allow itself to be blindly led again. + +In the World War humanity passed through a tremendous trial and for those +years was under the strain of an extensive mobilization campaign. The +necessity of increasing power was manifest; the importance of a common +base or aim became equally manifest. In this case the base, the common +aim, was found in "war patriotism." This common base enabled all the +states to add up individual powers and build maximum efficiency into a +_collective_ power. This expression is used, not only as a social truth, +but as a known mathematical truth. Those high ideals, which were given +"Urbi et orbi" in thousands of speeches and in millions of propaganda +papers, had a much greater educational importance and influence than most +people are aware of. People have been awakened and have acquired the taste +for those higher purposes which in the past were available only for the +few. + +Many old worn-out idols, ideas and ideals have fallen; but what is going +to take their place? We witness an unrest which will not be eliminated +until something essential is done to adjust it. Calm often betokens a +coming storm. The coming storm is not the work of any "bad man," but it is +the inevitable consequence of a "bad system." It is dangerous to hide our +heads in the sand, like an ostrich, and fancy we are safe. + +"Survival of the fittest" in the commonly used animal sense is not a +theory or principle for a "time-binding" being. This theory is only for +the physical bodies of animals; its effect upon humanity is sinister and +degrading (see App. II). We see the principle at work all about us in +criminal exploitation and profiteering. As a matter of fact, the ages-long +application of this animal principle to human affairs has degraded the +whole human morale in an inconceivably far-reaching way. Personal greed +and selfishness are brazenly owned as principles of conduct. We shrug our +shoulders in acquiescence and proclaim greed and selfishness to be the +very core of human nature, take it all for granted, and let it pass at +that. We have gone so far in our degradation that the prophet of +capitalistic principles, Adam Smith, in his famous _Wealth of Nations_, +arrives at the laws of wealth, not from the phenomena of wealth nor from +statistical statements, but from the phenomena of selfishness--a fact which +shows how far-reaching in its dire influence upon all humanity is the +theory that human beings are "animals." Of course the effect is very +disastrous. The preceding chapters have shown that the theory is false; it +is false, not only because of its unhappy effects, but it belies the +characteristic nature of man. Human nature, this time-binding power, not +only has the peculiar capacity for perpetual progress, but it has, over +and above all animal propensities, certain qualities constituting it a +distinctive dimension or type of life. Not only our whole collective life +proves a love for higher ideals, but even our dead _give_ us the rich +heritage, material and spiritual, of all their toils. There is nothing +mystical about it; to call SUCH a class a _naturally_ selfish class is not +only nonsensical but monstrous. + +This capacity for higher ideals does not originate in some +"_super_natural" outside factor; it is _not_ of extraneous origin, it is +the expression of the time-binding element which we _inherently_ possess, +independently of our "will"; it is an inborn capacity--a _gift_ of nature. +We simply are made this way and not in any other. There is indeed a fine +sense in which we can, if we choose, apply the expression--survival of the +fittest--to the activity of the time-binding energies of man. Having the +peculiar capacity to survive in our deeds, we have an inclination to use +it and we survive in the deeds of our creation; and so there is brought +about the "survival in time" of higher and higher ideals. The moment we +consider Man in his proper dimension--active in TIME--these things become +simple, stupendous, and beautiful. + + + "Note the radical character of the transformation to be effected. + The world shall no longer be beheld as an alien thing, beheld by + eyes that are not its own. Conception of the whole and by the + whole shall embrace _us_ as _part_, really, literally, + consciously, as the latest term, it may be, of an advancing + sequence of developments, as occupying the highest rank perhaps in + the ever-ascending hierarchy of being, but, at all events, as + emerged and still emerging _natura naturata_ from some propensive + source within. I grant that the change in point of view is hard to + make--old habits, like walls of rock, tending to confine the tides + of consciousness within their accustomed channels--but it can be + made and, by assiduous effort, in the course of time, maintained. + Suppose it done. By that reunion, the whole regains, while the + part retains, the consciousness the latter purloined.... In the + whole universe of events, none is more wonderful than the birth of + wonder, none more curious than the nascence of curiosity itself, + nothing to compare with the dawning of consciousness in the + ancient dark and the gradual extension of psychic life and + illumination throughout a cosmos that before had only _been_. An + eternity of blindly acting, transforming, unconscious existence, + assuming at length, through the birth of sense and intellect, + without loss or break of continuity, the abiding form of fleeting + time." (C. J. Keyser, loc. cit.) + + +It must be emphasized that the development of higher ideals is due to the +_natural_ capacity of humanity; the impulse is simply time-binding +impulse. As we have seen, by analysing the functions of the different +classes of life, every class of life has an impulse to exercise its +peculiar capacity or function. Nitrogen resists compound combinations and +if found in such combinations it breaks away as quickly as ever it can. +Birds have wings--they fly. Animals have feet--they run. Man has the +capacity of time-binding--he binds time. It does not matter whether we +understand the very "essence" of the phenomenon or not, any more than we +understand the "essence" of electricity or any other "essence." Life shows +that man has time-binding capacity as a natural gift and is naturally +impelled to use it. One of the best examples is procreation. Conception is +a completely incomprehensible phenomenon in its "essence," nevertheless, +having the capacity to procreate we use it without bothering about its +"essence." Indeed neither life nor science bothers about "essences"--they +leave "essences" to metaphysics, which is neither life nor science. It is +sufficient for our purpose that idealization is in fact a natural process +of time-binding human energy. And however imperfect ethics has been owing +to the prevalence of animal standards, such merits as our ethics has had +witness to the natural presence of "idealization" in time-binding human +life. + + + "It is thus evident that ideals are not things to gush over or to + sigh and sentimentalize about; they are not what would be left if + that which is hard in reality were taken away; ideals are + themselves the very flint of reality, beautiful no doubt and + precious, without which there would be neither dignity nor hope + nor light; but their aspect is not sentimental and soft; it is + hard, cold, intellectual, logical, austere. Idealization consists + in the conception or the intuition of ideals and in the pursuit of + them. And ideals, I have said, are of two kinds. Let us make the + distinction clearer. Every sort of human activity--shoeing horses, + abdominal surgery, or painting profiles--admits of a peculiar type + of excellence. No sort of activity can escape from its own type + but within its type it admits of indefinite improvement. For each + type there is an ideal--a dream of perfection--an unattainable limit + of an endless sequence of potential ameliorations within the type + and on its level. The dreams of such unattainable perfections are + as countless as the types of excellence to which they respectively + belong and they together constitute the familiar world of our + human ideals. To share in it--to feel the lure of perfection in one + or more types of excellence, however lowly--is to be human; not to + feel it is to be sub-human. But this common kind of idealization, + though it is very important and very precious, does not produce + the great events in the life of mankind. These are produced by the + kind of idealization that corresponds to what we have called in + the mathematical prototype, limit-begotten generalization--a kind + of idealization that is peculiar to creative genius and that, not + content to pursue ideals within established types of excellences, + creates new types thereof in science, in art, in philosophy, in + letters, in ethics, in education, in social order, in all the + fields and forms of the spiritual life of man." (Quoted from the + manuscript of the forthcoming book, _Mathematical Philosophy_, by + Cassius J. Keyser.) + + +"Survival of the fittest" has a different form for different classes of +life. Applying animal standards to time-binding beings is like applying +inches to measuring weight. As a matter or fact, we cannot raise one class +to a higher class, unless we add an entirely new function to the former; +we can only improve their lower status; but if we apply the reverse +method, we can degrade human standards to animal standards. + +Animal standards belong to a class of life whose capacity is _not_ an +_exponential_ function of _Time_. There is nothing theological or +sentimental in this fact; it is a purely mathematical truth. + +It is fatal to apply the "survival of the fittest" theory in the same +sense to two radically different classes of life. The "survival of the +fittest" for animals--for _space_-binders--is survival _in space_, which +means fighting and other brutal forms of struggle; on the other hand, +"survival of the fittest" for human beings _as such_--that is, for +_time-binders_--is survival _in time_, which means intellectual or +spiritual competition, struggle for excellence, for making the _best_ +survive. The-fittest-in-time--those who make the best survive--are those who +do the most in producing values for all mankind including _posterity_. +This is the scientific base for natural ethics, and ethics from which +there can be no side-stepping, or escape. + +Therefore time-binders can not use "_animal_" logic without degrading +themselves from their proper status as human beings--their status as +established by nature. "Animal" logic leads to "animal" ethics and +"animal" economics; it leads inevitably to a brutalized industrial system +in which cunning contrives to rob the living of the fruit of the dead. + +_Human_ logic points to human ethics and human economics; it will lead to +a humanized industrial system in which competition will be competition in +science, in art, in justice: a competition and struggle for the attainment +of excellence in human life. The time-binding capacity, which manifests +itself in drawing from the PAST, through the PRESENT for the FUTURE gives +human beings the means of attaining a precious kind of immortality; it +enables them to fulfill the law of their own class of life and to survive +everlastingly in the fruits of their toil, a perpetual blessing to endless +generations of the children of men. This is the truth we instinctively +recognize when we call a great man "immortal." We mean that he has done +deeds that _survive in time_ for the perpetual weal of mankind. + +Human logic--mathematical logic, the logic _natural_ for man--will thus show +us that "good" and "just" and "right" are to have their significance +defined and understood entirely in terms of human _nature_. Human +nature--not animal nature--is to be the basis and guide of Human +Engineering. Thus based and guided, Human Engineering will eliminate +"wild-cat schemers," gamblers and "politicians." It will put an end to +industrial violence, strikes, insurrections, war and revolutions. + +The present system of social life is largely built upon misconceptions or +misrepresentations. For all work we need the human brain, the human +time-binding power, yet we continue to call it "hand-labor" and treat it +as such. Even in mechanical science, in the use of the term "horse-power," +we are incorrect in this expression. How does this "horse" look in +reality? Let us analyse this "horse." All science, all mechanical +appliances have been produced by "man" and man alone. Everything we +possess is the production of either dead men's or living men's work. The +enslavement of the solar man-power is purely a human invention in theory +and practice. Everything we have is evidently therefore a time-binding +product. What perfect nonsense to call a purely human achievement the +equivalent of so much "horse-power"! Of course it does not matter +mathematically what name we give to a unit of power; we may call it a Zeus +or a Zebra; but there is a very vicious implication in using the name of +an animal to denote a purely human product. Everything in our civilization +was produced by MAN; it seems only reasonable that this unit of power +which is the direct product of Man's work, should be correctly named after +him. The educational effect would be wholesome and tremendous. The human +value in work would be thus emphasized again and again, and respect for +human work would be taught, from the beginning in the schools. This +"horse-power" unit causes us to forget the human part in it and it +degrades human work to the level of a commodity. This is an example of the +degrading influence of wrong conceptions and wrong language. I said +"educational" because even our subconscious mind is affected by this. (See +App. II.) + +Human Engineering will not interfere with any scientific research; on the +contrary, it will promote it in many ways. Grown-ups, it is to be hoped, +will stop the nonsense of intermixing dimensions, for which we chastise +children. It is the same kind of blundering as when we intermix +phenomena--measuring "God" by human standards, or human beings by animal +standards. The relationship, if any, between these phenomena or the +overlapping of different classes, is interesting and important; but in +studying such relationships of classes, it is fatal to mix the classes; +for example, if we are studying the relations between surfaces and solids, +it is fatal to mistake solids for surfaces; just so, too, if we stupidly +confuse humans with animals. + +In the reality of life, we are interested only in the values of the +function of the phenomena by themselves and to arrive at right conclusions +we have to use units appropriate to the phenomena. The intermixing of +units gives us a wrong conception of the values of each phenomenon; the +results of our calculations are wrong and the outcome is a misconception +of the process of human life. The fact once realized, we will cease +applying animal measures to man; even theology will abandon the monstrous +habit. + +Animal units and standards are to be applied to animals, human standards +to man, "Divine" standards to "God." + +In the dark ages, with the complete innocence or misunderstanding of +science, the "why" of things was explained by the "who" of things; therein +investigation culminated; man was regarded as _homo sapiens_ and homo +sapiens = animal x spark of _super_natural; this monstrous formula was +accepted as a final truth--as an answer to the question: What is Man? This +type of answer became in the hands of church and state a powerful +instrument for keeping the people in subjection. + +The tendency of the masses to let others think for them is not really a +_natural_ characteristic--quite the opposite. The habit of not thinking for +one's self is the result of thousands of years of subjection. Those in +authority, in general, used their ingenuity to keep the people from +thinking. The most vital reason why many humans appear to be, and are +often called, "stupid," is that they have been spoken to in a language of +speculation which they instinctively dislike and distrust; thus there +arose the proverb that speech was made to conceal the truth. It is no +wonder that they appear "stupid," the wonder is that they are not more +"stupid." The truth is that they will be found to be far less stupid when +addressed in the natural language of ascertainable fact. My whole theory +is based upon, and is in harmony with, the natural feelings of man. The +conceptions I introduce are based on human _nature_. Natural language--so +different from the speech of metaphysical speculation--will lead to mutual +understanding and the disappearance of warring factions. + + + "Discrimination, as the proverb rightly teaches, is the beginning + of mind. The first psychic product of that initial psychic act is + _numerical_: to discriminate is to produce _two_, the simplest + possible example of multiplicity. The discovery, or better the + invention, better still the production, best of all the creation, + of multiplicity with its correlate of number, is, therefore, the + most primitive achievement or manifestation of mind.... Let us, + then, trust the arithmetic instinct as fundamental and, for + instruments of thought that shall not fail, repair at once to the + domain of number." (C. J. Keyser, Loc. Cit.) + + +The thinking few knew the power there is in "thinking"; they wanted to +have it and to keep the advantage of it for themselves; witness the late +introduction of public schools. Belief in the inferiority of the masses +became the unwritten law of the "privileged classes"; it was forced upon, +rubbed into, the subconscious mind of the masses by church and state +alike, and was humbly and dumbly accepted by the "lower orders" as their +"destiny." Ignorance was proclaimed as a bliss. + +As time went on, this "coefficient of ignorance" became so useful to some +people and some classes of people that no effort was spared to keep the +world in ignorance. It gave a legalistic excuse to imprison, burn and hang +people for expressing an opinion which the ruling classes did not like. +The elimination from church, from school, from universities, of any +teacher, any professor or any minister who dared to exemplify or encourage +fearless investigation and freedom of speech became very common. It is +less common in our generation, but there remains much to win in the way of +freedom. + +Freedom, rightly understood, is the aim of Human Engineering. But freedom +is not license, it is not licentiousness. Freedom consists in _lawful_ +living--in living in accord with the laws of human _nature_--in accord with +the _natural_ laws of Man. A plant is free when it is not prevented from +living and growing according to the natural laws of plant life; an animal +is free when it is not prevented from living according to the natural laws +of animal life; human beings are free when and only when they are not +prevented from living in accord with the natural laws of human life. I say +"when not prevented," for human beings will live _naturally_ and, +therefore, in freedom, when they are not prevented from thus living by +ignorance of what human nature is and by artificial social systems +established, maintained, and protected by such ignorance. Human freedom +consists in exercising the time-binding energies of man in accordance with +the natural laws of such natural energies. Human freedom is thus the aim +of Human Engineering because Human Engineering is to be the science of +human nature and the art of conducting human affairs in accordance with +the laws of human nature. Survival of the fittest, where _fittest_ means +_strongest_, is a _natural_ law for brutes, for animals, for the class of +mere _space_-binders. Survival of the fittest, where _fittest_ means +_best_ in science and art and wisdom, is a _natural_ law for mankind, the +time-binding class of life. + + + + +Chapter VIII. Elements Of Power + + +In the World War Germany displayed tremendous _power_. Restraining our +emotions as much as possible, let us endeavor to analyse that power with +mathematical dispassionateness. + +Why did Germany display more power than any other single nation? Because +in the establishment of her "ethics," her political system, and her +economic structure, Germany availed herself, in larger measure than any +other nation, of scientific achievements and scientific methods. It is a +very common, very erroneous, and very harmful belief that war was created +solely by a "war-lord." Every idea or movement doubtless originates with +somebody but back of such "originations" or initiations there are favoring +conditions, forces and impulsions. The stage is set by life and the ages; +the actor enters and the show begins. In the instance in question, the +stage was set by our whole modern system of civilization. The war lords +were the "Deus ex machina"--the show was a real one--a tragedy. + +The true origin of this war must be looked for in the economic field. Our +economic system is the very complicated result of all our creeds, +philosophies and social customs. It is therefore impossible to understand +the working of the economic forces without understanding the foundation +upon which this system of forces is based. A short list of works on the +subject is given at the end of this book. A plain statement here will be +enough. + +Germany was committed to a policy of indefinite industrial expansion. This +artificial expansion had reached its limits. Germany was on the verge of +bankruptcy. Only a victorious war could avoid a national catastrophe; she +played her last card, and lost despite her gigantic power, the greatest +ever displayed by any nation. The leading European states were not able to +overpower her for a long time. This writing is not intended as an apology +for Germany, much less to praise her or her war lords. German purposes +were nationally narrow and nationally selfish to the root; her methods +were inhuman but Germany displayed power; and without the understanding of +power, Human Engineering is impossible. + +It is possibly a fault of the writer's military training, but it seems to +him that the "General Staff" point of view has as much claim to +consideration as any other among the many different interpretations of +history--perhaps it has more. It is not the primary aim of the general +staff to "fight," very far from it. Their primary aim is "victory" and all +the better if victory be possible without a fight. Strategy, brain-work, +intelligence, knowledge of facts--these are the chief weapons; brutal +fighting is only a last resort. It is highly important to bear that in +mind. Soldiers and engineers do not argue--they act. Germany affords the +first example of a philosophy or a society having for its main purpose the +generating of power to "do things." It seems only reasonable and +intelligent to analyse the history of the war from the engineer's point of +view, which, in this case, happens to coincide with the military point of +view. It must be clearly understood that the modern general staff, or +military, point of view has very little or nothing to do with the romance +or poetry of war. War to-day is a grim business--but "business" before all +else. It has to mobilize all the resources of a nation and generate power +to the limit of its capacity. The conduct of war to-day is a technological +affair--its methods have to be engineering methods. To crush an obstacle, +there is need of a giant hammer, and the more mass that can be given it +and the greater the force put behind it, the more deadly will be the blow. +Prior to the World War technology had not been mobilized on so vast a +scale nor confronted with a task so gigantic. Mobilized technology has +revealed and demonstrated the fact that it is possible to generate almost +unlimited power and has shown the way to do it; at the same time it has +demonstrated the measureless potency of engineering and our utter +helplessness without it. Technology is comparatively a new science; by +some it is called a "semi-science" because it deals primarily with the +application of science to practical issues. But when it became necessary +"to do things," an engineer had to be called; the general staff had to +adopt his view, and all other practices and traditions were bent to his +ideas. + +I have already repeatedly pointed out that the progress of technology +proceeds according to a law like that of a rapidly increasing geometrical +progression, and I have stressed the danger of inattention to any +phenomena, force or movement that conforms to such a law. We have only to +recollect the story of the simple but very greedy farmer who was very +happy to make a contract with a laborer for a month's work, paying him +only one cent the first day, twice as much the second, twice for the +third, and so on to the end. Behold! The bill for the month ran into +millions of dollars and the farmer was ruined. Such is the deadly secret +of the geometrical progression. Violent readjustments await any society +whose ethics, jurisprudence and the like do not keep pace with the +developments of engineering. + +Engineers are the wizards who, using the results of scientific research, +can subjugate or release the concealed powers of nature. The supreme +factor is the use of the mind--the exponential function of time--the +time-binding energy of man. From that we have to take our start because +that is the source of human power. + +The German philosophy, as a whole, has its definite place in the history +of philosophy; and the first thing to consider are those philosophic +writers who directly and indirectly have contributed to the building up of +German power. Hegel greatly affected the building up of the German +mind--strange as it may seem; but Hegel was greatly under the influence of +the work of Fichte, and Fichte in turn under that of Spinoza. All of them +were, in a way, mathematicians in their methods and philosophy, as much as +they could be in their time. I said "strange," because it is significant +that the mathematical part of their philosophy was just the part which +built up the German power. But if we look into it, it is not strange. + +It had to be so, because mathematical and mechanical methods are the only +ones by which power can be understood and built. Hegel in 1805 lectured on +history of philosophy, pure mathematics and natural law. It would be hard +to find a better combination for a philosophy of power. That is precisely +what this philosophy was. It influenced not only German philosophy but +even German theology, and through these channels it sank deep into the +national consciousness. It affected every phase of life. An immense cult +of disciples arose. Each one added something to that philosophy of power. +One of the most brilliant representatives of this movement is Professor +Oswald, who in his _Monist Sermons_ gave the famous advice: "Do not waste +energy but give it value." The German understanding of the great value of +technology directly applied that principle to their philosophy, law, +ethics, politics, and so on. + +With increase of population, the problem of the State becomes more and +more pressing. There are many theories about the state. For the purpose of +the moment it is important to realize that a state is the governing center +of an accumulation of human beings--of time-binding powers--increasing +exponential functions of time. These powers, though the same in kind, +differ in degree and in respect of individuality. If they are to be united +so as to constitute a whole, they must be given a common aim; they must, +so to speak, be reduced to a common base; if they be respectively _X__m_, +_Y__n_, _Z__p_, and so on, we can not unite them and compute the whole by +adding the exponents; but if we give them a common base--a common aim or +purpose--then we can readily represent the magnitudes of the whole +constituted by them; if we take _X_ to be their common aim or base, then, +if _Y_ = _aX_, _Z_ = _bX_, and so on, we shall have: + +_X__m_ x _Y__n_ x _Z__p_ ... = _X__m_ x _a__n_ x _X__n_ x _b__p_ x _X__p_ +... = (_a__n_ x _b__p_ ...)_X__m+n+p_ ... + +The last expression, where the parenthetical coefficient is the product of +individualities, serves to represent the united powers of all in terms of +_X_, the common base, purpose or aim. + +Let us look at the matter in another way. One mechanical "horse-power" is +less than the power of one living horse. One living horse can do more work +than one mechanical horse-power, but in using more than one living horse +at one time we get less work than by using the same number of mechanical +horse-powers; the reason is very obvious. The mechanical horse-powers are +the same in kind, equal, and constant, but living horses differ in +character, they are not equal, and each one is a variable. Hence +mechanical horse-powers can be added or multiplied arithmetically, but the +powers of living horses can not, except very roughly; the living horses of +a team interfere with each other; they do not pull together, as we say, +and energy is lost. + +The German mathematical philosophy or theory of the state did not express +itself in just this way, but the foregoing gives a clue to it. Germany +united the powers of living men and women and children; it gave them a +common base; it gave them one common "social" mood and aim; they all +became consolidated in service of that which is called the State; they +studied and taught for the State; they worked, lived and died for the +State: the State was their idol, King and God. + +Such was the aim of German philosophy, theology, law and science. The +establishment of ONE AIM for all was the decisive factor. It is obvious +that if we want to inspire 60 Millions of individuals with one aim, this +aim can not be private or personal. It must be a higher aim, collective, +general, impersonal, in some way uniting and including all personal aims. +I shall call it simply a _collective_ aim. But collective aims may differ +profoundly in kind; out of personal or egoistic aims there grows a series +of collective aims, increasing in generality, such as: (1) Family aims; +(2) association, congregation, club aims; (3) class or professional aims; +(4) national or race aims; and finally (5) HUMAN AIMS--the natural aims for +the time-binding class of life. The fatal error of German political +philosophy was an error of aim--her aim was too low--too narrow--the welfare +of a state instead of the welfare of Humanity. + +In the case of Germany, the national aim was equivalent to the state aim. +German philosophy made the "state" equivalent to the "good" and equivalent +to "power." Of course such philosophy influenced the whole national life +in every detail; in consequence Germany proclaimed herself the first +nation of the world, and this soon evolved into a plan for the conquest of +the world. The German General Staff as an institution had, par excellence, +as its aim and first object, "power," "concentration of power" and +"efficiency." It took the leadership in all branches of life and industry. +Militarism and industrialism are almost synonymous from the mechanical +point of view; they are both of them power. They both have to use the same +scientific methods and in the _present_ conditions of the world they are +dependent upon each other, for war cannot be waged without strong +industries. Here we have to face the fact that geometrically progressing +industry can not live without new markets, which under present conditions +have been largely acquired, directly or indirectly, by the power of the +army; and this has been the case with Germany. If we curse Germany for +being a "military nation" we can, with no less justice, curse her for +being a _completely_ "industrialized nation." If we add to that her +nationally selfish and narrow national aim, we will readily understand +this "world peach." Those who have tasted it know something of its +sweetness. + +There is no need to go into further details. Special books give us all the +data. That which is of interest is the impersonal fact that what was the +_strength_ and _power_ of Germany is the best possible illustration we +have had of what science and a sort of mathematical philosophy are able to +accomplish, even when directed, not to the welfare of Humanity, but to +that of a relatively small group of people. The above-cited political +philosophies had a very pronounced effect upon Marx. One of the branches +of socialism is the so-called state socialism. State socialists, as the +name indicates, believe that the state should assume the most important +functions in society. It is obvious that in monarchical countries where +"god-given" rulers represent the state, such a theory is not unwelcome, as +it gives the rulers an opportunity to show a sort of "advanced +liberalism," which serves to strengthen their power. The astute Bismarck +can not be suspected of being a progressionist in the modern sense but, +being a product of German culture and philosophy, all his ideals were +those of a strong state. He was a proclaimed advocate of state socialism. +Since 1879 at least, Bismarck was considered almost the leading spirit of +paternal state socialism. He was a believer and promoter of the close +relation of the state and the railways, keeping always in view a thorough +nationalization which he finally accomplished. This fact eliminated from +German public life all that phase of corruption which private ownership of +railroads brings in any country, the railroad being the very life of any +country. + +To sum up: Germany applied the most scientific methods to build up her +national power; she understood the elements of "power," for they were +disclosed to her by her science and her philosophy. She applied +technological methods in every part of her civil life, and thus built her +gigantic power. Her industrial life followed the military way; her +military strength was built on industrial power. And so the vicious +circle. Germany adopted a _collective_ aim instead of a personal +individualistic aim, and because of this broader aim, she was able to +mobilize and to keep mobilized all her moral, political and industrial +forces for long years before the war. The direct effect of this system of +continuous mobilization was over-production. For this she desperately +needed new markets. The cheapest and quickest way to acquire them, if they +were not to be grabbed otherwise, was to conquer them by a victorious war. +Her plans progressed according to the program, all except the victory in +the battle fields. + +This war was a calamity of unprecedented magnitude for the world and it is +our duty to study it dispassionately and learn the lesson of it, if we do +not want to be moral accomplices of this great modern crime, by letting +the world drift into an even worse catastrophe. We have to arouse +ourselves from our inertia and go to the bottom of this problem and +analyse it ruthlessly, no matter whether the analysis be pleasant or not. +We must value everyone of our "ten sacred dead" at least as much as we +value one rabbit killed in scientific laboratories, and take the lesson to +heart or be prepared for a repetition of world slaughter. + +If Human Engineering had been established long ago our social system would +have been different, our civilization would have been much higher, this +war would have been avoided. We do not need to delude ourselves. The World +War was the result of badly balanced social and economic forces. The world +needs other "balances of power" than such as are devised by lawyers and +politicians, by single-selfish or group-selfish interests. Humanity is +reaching out for a science and art of human guidance based upon a right +understanding of human nature. + + + + +Chapter IX. Manhood Of Humanity + + +In a previous chapter I have said that the World War marks the end of one +vast period in the life of humankind and marks the beginning of another. +It marks the end of Humanity's Childhood and the beginning of Humanity's +Manhood. + +Our human Past is a mighty fact of our world. Many facts are unstable, +impermanent, and evanescent--they are here to-day, and to-morrow they are +gone. Not so with the great fact of our human Past. Our past abides. + + + "It is permanent. It can be counted on. It is nearly eternal as + the race of man. Out of that past we have come. Into it we are + constantly returning. Meanwhile, it is of the utmost importance to + our lives. It contains the _roots_ of all we are, and of all we + have of wisdom, of science, of philosophy, of art, of + jurisprudence, of customs and institutions. It contains the record + or ruins of all the experiments that man has made during a quarter + or a half million years in the art of living in this world." + (Keyser, _Human Worth of Rigorous Thinking_.) + + +In our relation to the past there are three wide-open ways in which one +may be a fool. One of the ways is the way of ignoring the past--the way of +remaining blankly ignorant of the human past as the animals are blankly +ignorant of _their_ past and so of drifting through life as animals do, +without reference to the experience of bygone generations. Fools of this +type may be called drifting fools or Drifters. Another way to be a fool--a +very alluring way--is that of falsifying the past by _idealizing_ it--by +stupidly disregarding its vices, misery, ignorance, slothfulness, and +folly, and stupidly magnifying its virtues, happiness, knowledge, +achievements and wisdom; it is the way of the self-complacent--the way of +those who, being comfortably situated and prosperous, are opposed to +change; the past, they say, was wise for it produced the present and the +present is good--let us alone. Fools of this type may be called idolatrous +fools, worshiping the Past; or static fools, contented with the Present; +or cowardly fools, opposed to change, fearful of the Future. A third way +to be a fool--which is also alluring--is the opposite of the foregoing; it +is the way of those who falsify the past by stupidly and contemptuously +disregarding its virtues, its happiness, its knowledge, its great +achievements, and its wisdom, and by stupidly or dishonestly magnifying +its vices, its misery, its ignorance, its great slothfulness, and its +folly; it is apt to be the way of the woeful, the unprosperous, the +desperate--especially the way of such as find escape from the bore of +routine life in the excitements of unrest, turbulence, and change; the +past, they say, was all wrong, for it produced the present and the present +is thoroughly bad--let us destroy it, root and branch. Fools of this type +may be called scorning fools, Scorners of the Past; or destroying fools, +Destroyers of the Present; or dynamic fools, Revelers in the excitements +of Change. + +Such are the children of folly: (1) Drifting fools--ignorers of the +past--disregarders of race experience--thoughtless floaters on the shifting +currents of human affairs; (2) Static fools--idealizers of the +past--complacent lovers of the present--enemies of change--fearful of the +future; (3) Dynamic fools--scorners of the past--haters of the +present--destroyers of the works of the dead--most _modest_ of fools, each +of them saying: "What ought to be begins with _Me_; I will make the world +a paradise; but my genius must be free; _now_ it is hampered by the +existing 'order'--the bungling work of the past; I will destroy it; I will +start with chaos; we need light--the Sun casts shadows--I will begin by +blotting out the Sun; then the world will be full of glory--the light of my +genius." + +In striking contrast with that three-fold division of Folly, the counsel +of Wisdom is one, and it is one with the sober counsel of Common Sense. +What is that counsel? What is the united counsel of wisdom and common +sense respecting the past? The answer is easy and easy to understand. The +counsel is this: Do not ignore the past but study it--study it diligently +as being the mightiest factor among the great factors of our human world; +endeavor to view the past justly, to contemplate it as it was and is, to +see it _whole_--to see it in true perspective--magnifying neither its good +nor its evil, neither its knowledge nor its ignorance, neither its +enterprise nor its slothfulness, neither its achievements nor its +failures; as the salient facts are ascertained, endeavor to account for +them, to find their causes, their favoring conditions, to explain the +facts to understand them, applying always the question _Why?_ Centuries of +centuries of cruel superstition--Why? Centuries of centuries of almost +complete ignorance of natural law--Why? Centuries of centuries of monstrous +misconceptions of human nature--Why? Measureless creations, wastings and +destructions of wealth--Why? Endless rolling cycles of enterprise, +stagnation, and decay--Why? Interminable alterations of peace and war, +enslavements and emancipations--Why? Age after age of world-wide worship of +man-made gods, silly, savage, enthroned by myth and magic, celebrated and +supported by poetry and the wayward speculations of ignorant "sages"--Why? +Age upon age of world-wide slow developments of useful inventions, +craftsmanship, commerce, and art--Why? Ages of dark impulsive groping +before the slow discovery of reason, followed by centuries of belief in +the sufficiency of ratiocination unaided by systematic observation and +experiment--Why? At length the dawn of scientific method and science, the +growth of natural knowledge, immeasurable expansion of the universe _in +Time_ and _in Space_, belief in the lawfulness of Nature, rapidly +increasing subjugation of natural forces to human control, growing faith +in the limitless progressibility of human knowledge and in the limitless +perfectibility of human welfare--Why? The widely diverse peoples of the +world constrained by scientific progress to live together as in one +community upon a greatly shrunken and rapidly shrinking planet, the +unpreparedness of existing ethics, law, philosophy, economics, politics +and government to meet the exigencies thus arising--Why? + +Such I take to be the counsel of wisdom--the simple wisdom of sober common +sense. To ascertain the salient facts of our immense human past and then +to explain them in terms of their causes and conditions is not an easy +task. It is an exceedingly difficult one, requiring the labor of many men, +of many generations; but it must be performed; for it is only in +proportion as we learn to know the great facts of our human past and their +causes that we are enabled to understand our human present, for the +present is the child of the past; and it is only in proportion as we thus +learn to understand the present that we can face the future with +confidence and competence. Past, Present, Future--these can not be +understood singly and separately--they are welded together indissolubly as +_one_. + +The period of humanity's childhood has been long--300,000 to 500,000 years, +according to the witness of human relics, ruins and records of the caves +and the rocks--a stretch of time too vast for our imaginations to grasp. Of +that immense succession of ages, except a minute fraction of it including +our own time, we have, properly speaking, no history; we have only a rude, +dim, broken outline. Herodotus, whom we call "the father of history" +proper, lived less than 2500 years ago. What is 2500 years compared with +the whole backward stretch of human time? We have to say that the father +of human history lived but yesterday--a virtual contemporary of those now +living. Our humankind groped upon this globe for probably 400,000 years +before the writing of what we call history had even begun. If we regard +history as a kind of _racial memory_, what must we say of our race's +memory? It is like that of a man of 20 years whose recollection extends +back less than 3 months or like that of a man of 60 years whose +recollection fails to reach any event of the first 59 years of his life. +Owing to the work of geologists, paleontologists, ethnologists and their +co-workers, the history of prehistoric man will grow, just as we know +to-day more about the life of mankind in the time of Herodotus than +Herodotus himself knew. Meanwhile we must try to make the best use of such +historical knowledge of man as we now possess. + +Even if the story of humanity's childhood were fully recorded in the +libraries of the world, it would not be possible in this brief writing to +recount the story in even the most summary fashion. Except the tale of +recent years, the story is known as I have said, only in outline, rude, +dim and broken, but for the present purpose this will suffice. Countless +multitudes of details are lost--most of them doubtless forever. But we need +not despair. The really great facts of our racial childhood--the massive, +dominant, outstanding facts--are sufficiently clear for our guidance in the +present enterprise. And what do we know? + +We know that the period of our human childhood has been inconceivably +long; we know that in the far distant time, the first specimens of +humankind--the initial members of the time-binding race of man--were +absolutely without human knowledge of the hostile world in which they +found themselves; we know that they had no conception of what they +themselves were; we know that they had neither speech nor art nor +philosophy nor religion nor science nor tools nor human history nor human +tradition; we know, though we to-day can hardly imagine it, that their +_sole_ equipment for _initiating_ the career of the human race was that +peculiar faculty which made them human--the capacity of man for binding +time; we know that they actually did that work of initiation, without any +guidance or example, maxim or precedent; and we know that they were able +to do it just because the power of initiation--the power to originate--is a +time-binding power. + +What else do we know of the earliest part of humanity's childhood? We know +that in that far-distant age, our ancestors--being, not animals, but human +creatures--not only _began_ to live in the human dimension of life--forever +above the level of animals--but _continued_ therein, taking not only the +first step, but the second, the third, and so on indefinitely; we know, in +other words, that they were progressive creatures, that they made +advancement; we know that their progress was _natural_ to them--as natural +as swimming is to fishes or as flying is to birds--for both the impulse and +the ability to progress--to make improvement--to do greater things by help +of things already done--are of the very nature of the time-binding capacity +which makes humans human. + +We know that time-binding capacity--the capacity for accumulating racial +experience, enlarging it, and transmitting it for future expansion--is the +peculiar power, the characteristic energy, the definitive nature, the +defining mark, of man; we know that the mental power, the time-binding +capacity, of our pre-historic ancestors, was the same in _kind_ as our +own, if not in degree; we know that it is natural for this capacity, the +highest known agency of Nature, to produce ideas, inventions, insights, +doctrines, knowledge and other forms of wealth; we know that progress in +what we call civilization, which is nothing but progress in the production +and right use of material and spiritual wealth, has been possible and +actual simply and solely because the products of time-binding work not +only _survive_, but naturally tend to propagate their kind--ideas begetting +ideas, inventions leading to other inventions, knowledge breeding +knowledge; we therefore, know that the amount of progress which a single +generation can make, if it have an adequate supply of raw material and be +unhampered by hostile circumstances, depends, not only upon its native +capacity for binding time, but also--and this is of the utmost +importance--upon the total progress made by preceding generations--upon the +inherited fruit, that is, of the time-binding toil of the dead; +accordingly we know that the amount of progress a single generation can +thus make is what mathematicians call an increasing function of time, and +not only an increasing function but an increasing _exponential_ function +of time--a function like _PR__T_, as already explained; we know, too, that +the _total_ progress which _T_ successive generations can thus make is: + +_R/R-1_(_PR__T-P_) + +which is also an increasing exponential function of time; we know from the +differential calculus that these functions--which represent natural laws, +laws of human _nature_, laws of the time-binding energies of man--are very +remarkable functions--not only do they increase with time but their _rates_ +of increase are also exponential functions of time and so the rates of +increase themselves increase at rates which are, again, exponential +functions, and so on and on without limit; that, I say, is a marvelous +fact, and it is for us a fact of immeasurable significance; for it means +that the time-binding power of man is such that, if it be allowed to +operate naturally, civilization--the production and right use of material +and spiritual wealth--will not only grow towards infinity (as +mathematicians say), but will thus grow with a _swiftness_ which is not +constant but which itself grows towards infinity with a swiftness which, +again, is not constant but increases according to the same law, and so on +indefinitely. We thus see, if we will only retire to our cloisters and +contemplate it, that the proper life of man _as man_ is not life-in-space +like that of animals, but is life-in-time; we thus see that in +distinctively human life, in the life of man as man, the past is present +and the dead survive destined to greet and to bless the unborn +generations: time, bound-up time, is literally of the core and substance +of civilization. So it has been since the beginning of man. + +We know that the total progress made in the long course of humanity's +childhood, though it is absolutely great, is relatively small; we know +that, compared with no-civilization, our present civilization is vast and +rich in many ways; we know, however, that, if the time-binding energies of +humanity had been always permitted to operate unhampered by hostile +circumstances, they would long ere now have produced a state of +civilization compared with which our present estate would seem mean, +meagre, savage. For we know that those peculiar energies--the +civilization-producing energies of man--far from being always permitted to +operate according to the laws of their nature, have _never_ been permitted +so to operate, but have always been hampered and are hampered to-day by +hostile circumstances. And, if we reflect, we may know well enough what +the enemies--the hostile circumstances--have been and are. We know that in +the beginning of humanity's childhood--in its babyhood, so to speak--there +was, as already said, no _capital_ whatever to start with--no material +wealth--no spiritual wealth in the form of knowledge of the world or the +nature of man--no existing fruit of dead men's toil--no bound-up +time--nothing but wild and raw material, whose very location, properties +and potencies had all to be discovered; even now, because we have +inherited so much bound-up time and because our imaginations have been so +little disciplined to understand realities, we can scarcely picture to +ourselves the actual conditions of that far-off time of humanity's +babyhood; still less do we realize that present civilization has hardly +begun to be that of enlightened men. We know, moreover, that the +time-binding energies of our remote ancestors were hampered and baulked, +in a measure too vast for our imaginations, by immense geologic and +climatic changes, both sudden and secular, unforeseen and irresistible--by +earthquake and storm, by age-long seasons of flood and frost and heat and +drought, not only destroying both natural resources and the slowly +accumulated products of by-gone generations but often extinguishing the +people themselves with the centers and abodes of struggling civilization. + +Of all the hostile circumstances, of all the causes which throughout the +long period of humanity's childhood have operated to keep civilization and +human welfare from progressing in full accord with the natural laws of the +time-binding energies of man, the most potent cause and most disastrous, a +cause still everywhere in operation, remains to be mentioned. I mean human +ignorance. I do not mean ignorance of physical facts and the laws of +physical nature for this latter ignorance is in large measure the effect +of the cause I have in mind. The ignorance I mean is far more fundamental +and far more potent. I mean human ignorance of _Human Nature_--I mean man's +ignorance of what Man is--I mean false conceptions of the rightful place of +man in the scheme of life and the order of the world. What the false +conceptions are I have already pointed out. They are two. One of them is +the conception according to which human beings are animals. The other one +is the conception according to which human beings have no place in Nature +but are hybrids of natural and _super_natural, animals combined with +something "divine." Both of them are characteristic of humanity's +childhood; both of them are erroneous, and both of them have done infinite +harm in a thousand ways. Whose is the fault? In a deep sense, it is the +fault of none. Man started with no capital--on knowledge--with nothing but +his physical strength and the natural stirring within of the capacity for +binding time; and so he had to grope. It is not strange that he was +puzzled by himself. It is not strange that he thought himself an animal; +for he has animal propensities as a cube has surfaces, and his animal +propensities were so obtrusive, so very evident to physical sense--he was +born, grew, had legs and hair, ate, ran, slept, died--all just like +animals--while his distinctive mark, his time-binding capacity, was subtle; +it was spiritual; it was not a _visible organ_ but an _invisible +function_; it was the energy called intellect or mind, which the physical +senses do not perceive; and so I say it is not strange--it is indeed very +sad and very pathetic--but it is not to be wondered at that human beings +have falsely believed themselves to be animals. So, too, of the rival +belief--the belief that humans are neither natural nor supernatural but are +both at once, at once brutal and divine, hybrid offspring of beast and +god. The belief is monstrous, it is very pathetic and very sad, but its +origin is easy to understand; once invented, it became a powerful +instrument for evil men, for impostors, but it was not invented by them; +it was only an erroneous result of an honest effort to understand and to +explain. For the obvious facts created a real puzzle to be explained: On +the one hand, men, women and children--animal-hunting and animal-hunted +human beings--certainly resembled animals physically in a hundred +unmistakable ways; on the other hand, it became more and more evident that +the same animal-resembling human beings could do many things which animals +never did and could not do. Here was a puzzle, a mystery. Time-binding +curiosity demanded an explanation. What was it to be? Natural science had +not yet arisen; critical conception--conception that avoids the mixing of +dimensions--was in the state of feeble infancy. It is easy to understand +what the answer had to be--childish and mythical; and so it was--humans are +neither animals nor gods, neither natural nor _super_natural, they are +both at once, a mixture, a mysterious union of animal with something +"divine." + +Such, then, are the two rival answers which, in the long dark, groping +course of humanity's childhood, human beings have given to the most +important of all questions--the question: What is Man? I have said that the +answers, no matter how sincere, no matter how honestly arrived at, are +erroneous, false to fact, and monstrous. I have said, and I repeat, that +the misconceptions involved in them have done more throughout the by-gone +centuries, and are doing more to-day, than all other hindering causes, to +hamper and thwart the _natural_ activity of the time-binding energies of +man and thus to retard the _natural_ progress of civilization. It is not +merely our privilege, it is our high and solemn duty, to examine them. To +perform the great duty is not an easy task. The misconceptions in question +have come down to us from remote antiquity; they have not come down +singly, separately, clean-cut, clear and well-defined; they have come +_entangled_ in the complicated mesh of traditional opinions and creeds +that constitute the vulgar "philosophy"--the mental fog--of our time. If we +are to perform the duty of examining them we have first of all to draw +them forth, to disengage them from our inherited tangle of beliefs and +frame them in suitable words; we have next to bring ourselves to realize +vividly and keenly that the conceptions, thus disentangled and framed, are +in fact, whether they be true or false, at the very heart of the social +philosophy of the world; we have in the third place to detect the +fundamental character of the blunder involved in them--to see clearly and +coldly wherein they are wrong and why they are ruinous; we have, finally, +to trace, if we can, their deadly effects both in the course of human +history and in the present status of our human world. + +The task of disengaging the two monstrous misconceptions from the tangled +skein of inherited beliefs and framing them in words, I have already +repeatedly performed. Let us keep the results in mind. Here they are in +their nakedness: (1) Human beings--men, women, and children--are animals +(and so they are natural): (2) human beings are neither natural nor +_super_natural, neither wholly animal nor wholly "divine," but are _both_ +natural and _super_natural _at once_--a sort of mysterious hybrid compound +of brute and gods. + +The second part of our task--which is the reader's task as much as mine--is +not so easy; and the reason is evident. It is this: The false creeds in +question--the fatal misconceptions they involve--are so _familiar_ to +us--they have been so long and so deeply imbedded in our thought and speech +and ways of life--we have been so thoroughly _bred_ in them by home and +school and church and state--that we _habitually_ and _unconsciously_ take +them for granted and have to be virtually _stung_ into an awareness of the +fact that we do actually hold them and that they do actually reign to-day +throughout the world and have so reigned from time immemorial. We have, +therefore, to shake ourselves awake, to _prick_ ourselves into a +realization of the truth. + +I assume that the reader is at once hard-headed, rational, I mean, and +interested in the welfare of mankind. If he is not, he will not be a +"reader" of this book. He, therefore, knows that the third task--the task +of detecting and exposing the fundamental error of the misconceptions in +question--is a task of the utmost importance. What is that error? It is, I +have said, an error in logic. But logical errors are not all alike--they +are of many kinds. What is the "kind" of _this_ one? It is the kind that +consists in what mathematicians call "confusion of types," or "mixing of +dimensions." The answer can not be made too clear nor too emphatic, for +its importance in the criticism of _all_ our thinking is great beyond +measure. There are millions of examples that help to make the matter +clear. I will again employ the simplest of them--one so simple that a child +can understand it. It is a mathematical example, as it ought to be, for +the whole question of logical types, or dimensions, is a mathematical one. +I beg the reader not to shy at, or run away from, the mere word +mathematical, for, although most of us have but little mathematical +_knowledge_, we all of us have the mathematical _spirit_, for else we +should not be human--we are all of us mathematicians _at heart_. Let us, +then, proceed confidently and at once to our simple example. Here is a +_surface_, say a _plane_ surface. It has length and breadth--and so it has, +we say, _two_ dimensions; next consider a _solid_, say a _cube_. It has +length, breadth and thickness--and so _it_ has, we say, _three_ dimensions. +Now we notice that the cube _has_ surfaces and so _has certain surface +properties_. Do we, therefore, say that a solid _is_ a surface? That the +cube is a member of the class of surfaces? If we did, we should be +fools--type-confusing fools--dimension-mixing fools. That is evident. Or +suppose we notice that solids have certain _surface_ properties and +certain properties that surfaces do _not_ have; and suppose we say the +_surface_ properties of solids are _natural_ but the other properties are +so mysterious that they must be "_super_natural" or somehow "divine"; and +suppose we then say that solids are unions, mixtures, compounds or hybrids +of surfaces and something divine or _super_natural; is it not evident +that, if we did that, we should be again blundering like fools? +Type-confusing fools? Dimension-mixing fools? That such would be the case +any one can see. Let us now consider animals and human beings, and let us +look squarely and candidly at the facts. To get a start, think for a +moment of plants. Plants are living things; they take, transform and +appropriate the energies of sun, soil, and air, but they have _not_ the +_autonomous_ power to move about in space; we may say that plants +constitute the lowest order or class or type or dimension of life--the +dimension _one_; plants, we see are binders of the _basic_ energies of the +world. What of animals? Like the plants, animals, too, take in, transform +and appropriate the energies of sun, soil and air, though in large part +they take them in forms already prepared by the plants themselves; but, +_unlike_ the plants, animals possess the _autonomous_ power to move about +in space--to creep or crawl or run or swim or fly--it is thus evident that, +compared with plants, animals belong to a higher order, or higher class, +or higher type, or higher dimension of life; we may therefore say that the +type of animal life is a type of _two_ dimensions--a two-dimensional type; +I have called them space-binders because they are distinguished, or +marked, by their autonomous power to move about in space, to abandon one +place and occupy another and so to appropriate the natural fruits of many +localities; the life of animals is thus a life-in-space in a sense +evidently not applicable to plants. And now what shall we say of _Man_? +Like the animals, human beings have indeed the power of mobility--the +autonomous power to move--the capacity for binding space, and it is obvious +that, if they possessed no capacity of higher order, men, women and +children would indeed be animals. But what are the facts? The facts, if we +will but note them and reflect upon them, are such as to show us that the +chasm separating human nature from animal nature is even wider and deeper +than the chasm between animal life and the life of plants. For man +improves, animals do not; man progresses, animals do not; man invents more +and more complicated tools, animals do not; man is a creator of material +and spiritual wealth, animals are not; man is a builder of civilization, +animals are not; man makes the _past live in the present and the present +in the future_, animals do not; man is thus a _binder of time_, animals +are not. In the light of such considerations, if only we will attend to +their mighty significance, it is as clear as anything can be or can +become, that the life of man--the time-binder--is as radically distinct from +that of animals--mere space-binders--as animal life is distinct from that of +plants or as the nature of a solid is distinct from that of a surface, or +that of a surface from that of a line. It is, therefore, perfectly +manifest that, when we regard human beings as animals or as mixtures of +animal nature with something mysteriously _super_natural, we are guilty of +the same _kind_ of blunder as if we regarded animals as plants or as +plants touched by "divinity"--the same _kind_ of blunder as that of +regarding a solid as a surface or as a surface miraculously transfigured +by some mysterious influence from outside the universe of space. It is +thus evident that our guilt in the matter is the guilt of a blunder that +is _fundamental_--a confusing of types, a mixing of dimensions. + +Nothing can be more disastrous. For what are the consequences of that kind +of error? Let the reader reflect. He knows that, if our ancestors had +committed that kind of error regarding lines and surfaces and solids, +there would to-day be no science of geometry; and he knows that, if there +were no geometry, there would be no architecture in the world, no +surveying, no railroads, no astronomy, no charting of the seas, no +steamships, no engineering, nothing whatever of the now familiar +world-wide affairs made possible by the scientific conquest of space. I +say again, let the reader reflect; for if he does not, he will here miss +the gravity of a most momentous truth. He readily sees, in the case +supposed, how very appalling the consequences would have been if, +throughout the period of humanity's childhood, there had occurred a +certain confusion of types, a certain mixing of dimensions, and he is +_enabled_ to see it just because, happily, the blunder was _not_ made or, +if made, was not persisted in, for, if it had been made and persisted in, +then the great and now familiar things of which it would have deprived the +world would not be here; we should not now be able even to imagine them, +and so we could not now compute even roughly the tremendous magnitude of +the blunder's disastrous consequences. Let the reader not deviate nor +falter nor stagger here; let him shoulder the burden of the mighty +argument and bear it to the goal. He easily perceives the truly appalling +consequences that _would_ have inevitably followed from the error of +confusing types--the error of mixing dimensions--in the matter of lines and +surfaces and solids, _if_ that error had been committed and persisted in +throughout the centuries; he _can_ perceive those consequences just +because the error was _not_ made and hence the great things of which (had +the blunder been made) it would have deprived the world are here, so that +he can say: "Behold those splendid things--the science of geometry and its +manifold applications everywhere shining in human affairs--imagine all of +them gone, imagine the world if they had never been, and you will have a +measure of the consequences that would have followed violation of the law +of types, the law of dimensions, in the matter of lines, surfaces and +solids." But, now, in regard to the exactly similar error respecting the +nature of man, the situation is reversed; for this blunder, unlike the +other one, is not merely hypothetical; we have seen that it was actually +committed and has been actually persisted in from time immemorial; not +merely for years or for decades or for centuries but for _centuries_ of +_centuries_ including our own day, it has lain athwart the course of human +progress; age after age it has hampered and baulked the natural activity +of the time-binding energies--the civilization-producing energies--of +humanity. How are we to estimate its consequences? Let the reader keep in +mind that the error is fundamental--a type-confusing blunder (like that +supposed regarding geometric entities); let him reflect, moreover, that it +affects, not merely one of our human concerns, but _all_ of them, since it +is an error regarding the _center_ of them all--regarding the very _nature_ +of man himself; and he will know, as well as anything can be known, that +the consequences of the ages-old blunder have been and are very momentous +and very terrible. Their measure is indeed beyond our power; we cannot +describe them adequately, we cannot delineate their proportions, for we +cannot truly imagine them; and the reason is plain: it is that those +advancements of civilization, those augmentations of material and +spiritual wealth, all of the glorious achievements of which the tragic +blunder has deprived the world, are none of them here; they have not been +produced; and so we cannot say, as in the other case: "Look upon these +splendid treasures of bound-up time, imagine them taken away, and your +sense of the appalling loss will give you the measure required." It is +evident that the glories of which the misconceptions of human nature have +deprived manhood must long remain, perhaps forever, in the sad realm of +dreams regarding great and noble things that might have been. + +I have said that the duty of examining the misconceptions imposes upon us +four obligations. Three of these we have performed: we have disengaged the +beliefs in question from the complicated tangle of opinions in which they +have come down to us from remote antiquity; we have recognized the +necessity and the duty of virtually stinging ourselves into an awareness +of the fact that we have actually held them for true and that from time +immemorial they have poured their virus into the heart of ethics, +economics, politics and government throughout the world; we have seen not +only that the beliefs are false but that their falseness is due to a +blunder of the most fundamental kind--the blunder of mixing dimensions or +confusing types. As already said, the fourth one of the mentioned tasks is +that of tracing, if we can, the blunder's deadly effects both in human +history and in the present status of the world. We have just reached the +conclusion that this task cannot be _fully_ performed; for there can be no +doubt, as we have seen, that, if the blunder had not been committed and +persisted in, the world would now possess a civilization so far advanced, +so rich in the spiritual fruits of time and toil, as to be utterly beyond +our present power to conceive or imagine it. + +But, though we cannot perform the task fully, our plight is far from +hopeless. The World War has goaded us into thinking as we never thought +before. It has constrained us to think of realities and especially to +think of the supreme reality--the reality of Man. That is why the great +Catastrophe marks the close of humanity's childhood. The period has been +long and the manner of its end is memorable forever--a sudden, flaming, +world-wide cataclysmic demonstration of fundamental ignorance--human +ignorance of human nature. It is just that tragic _demonstration_, brutal +as an earthquake, pitiless as fate or famine, that gives us ground for +future hope. It has forced us to think of realities and it is thought of +reality that will heal the world. And so I say that these days, despite +their fear and gloom, are the beginning of a new order in human +affairs--the order of permanent peace and swift advancement of human weal. +For we know at length what human beings are, and the knowledge can be +taught to men and women and children by home and school and church and +press throughout the world; we know at length, and we can teach the world, +that man is neither an animal nor a miraculous mixture of angel and beast; +we know at length, and we can teach, that, throughout the centuries, these +monstrous misconceptions have made countless millions mourn and that they +are doing so to-day, for, though we cannot compute the _good_ of which +they have _deprived_ mankind, we can trace the dark ramifications of their +positive _evil_ in a thousand ways; we know at length, and we can teach, +that man, though he is not an animal, is a natural being, having a +definite place, a rank of his own, in the hierarchy of natural life; we +know at length, and we can teach the world, that what is _characteristic_ +of the human class of life--that which makes us _human_--is the power to +create material and spiritual wealth--to beget the light of reasoned +understanding--to produce civilization--it is the unique capacity of man for +binding time, uniting past, present and future in a _single growing +reality_ charged at once with the surviving creations of the dead, with +the productive labor of the living, with the rights and hopes of the yet +unborn; we know at length, and we can teach, that the _natural_ rate of +human progress is the rate of a swiftly increasing exponential function of +time; we know, and we can teach, that what is good in _present_ +civilization--all that is precious in it, sacred and holy--is the fruit of +the time-binding toil struggling blindly through the ages against the +perpetual barrier of human ignorance of human nature; we know at length, +we can teach, and the world will understand, that in proportion as we rid +our ethics and social philosophy of monstrous misrepresentations of human +nature, the time-binding energies of humanity will advance civilization in +accordance with their natural law _PR__T_, the forward-leaping function of +time. + +Such knowledge and such teaching will inaugurate the period of humanity's +manhood. It can be made an endless period of rapid developments in True +civilization. All the developments must grow out of the true conception of +human beings as constituting the time-binding class of life, and so the +work must begin with a campaign of education wide enough to embrace the +world. The cooperation of all educational agencies--the home, the school, +the church, the press--must be enlisted to make known the fundamental truth +concerning the nature of man so that it shall become the guiding _light_ +and _habit_ of men, women, and children everywhere. Gradual indeed but +profound will be the transformations wrought in all the affairs of +mankind, but especially and first of all in the so-called arts and +sciences of ethics, economics, politics and government. + +The ethics of humanity's manhood will be neither "animal" ethics nor +"_super_natural" ethics. It will be a natural ethics based upon a +knowledge of the laws of human nature. It will not be a branch of zoology, +the ethics of tooth and claw, the ethics of profiteering, the ethics of +space-binding beasts fighting for "a place in the sun." It will be a +branch of humanology, a branch of Human Engineering; it will be a +time-binding ethics, the ethics of the entirely natural +civilization-producing energies of humanity. Whatever accords with the +natural activity of those energies will be _right_ and _good_; whatever +does not, will be _wrong_ and _bad_. "Survival of the fittest" in the +sense of the _strongest_ is a space-binding standard, the ethical standard +of beasts; in the ethics of humanity's manhood survival of the fittest +will mean survival of the _best_ in competitions for excellence, and +excellence will mean time-binding excellence--excellence in the production +and right use of material and spiritual wealth--excellence in science, in +art, in wisdom, in justice, in promoting the weal and protecting the +rights both of the living and of the unborn. The ethics that arose in the +dark period of humanity's childhood from the conception of human beings as +mysterious unions of animality and divinity gave birth to two repulsive +species of traffic--traffic in men regarded as animals, fit to be slaves, +and traffic in the "supernatural," in the sale of indulgences in one form +or another and the "divine wisdom" of ignorant priests. It is needless to +say that in the natural ethics of humanity's manhood those species of +commerce will not be found. + +And what shall we say in particular of economics, of "industry," "business +as usual," and the "finance" of "normalcy"? There lies before me an +established handbook of _Corporation Finance_, by Mr. E. S. Mead, Ph.D. +(Appleton, N. Y.), whose purpose is not that of adverse criticism but is +that of showing the generally accepted "sound" bases for prosperous +business. I can hardly do better than to ask the reader to ponder a few +extracts from that work, showing the established, and amazing theories, +for then I have only to say that in the period of humanity's manhood the +moral blindness of such "principles," their space-binding spirit of +calculating selfishness and greed, will be regarded with utter loathing as +slavery is regarded to-day. Behold the picture: + + + "Since the bondholder is solely interested in the security of his + principal, and regular payment of his interest, and since both + security and interest depend upon the permanence of income, other + things being equal the companies with the most stable earnings or + a market ... furnish the best security for bonds. Stability of + earnings depends upon (1) the possession of a monopoly.... + _Monopoly is exclusive or dominant control over a market. The more + complete this control, the more valuable is the monopoly._ The + advantage of monopoly lies in the fact that the prices of services + or commodities are controlled by the producers (_meaning + owners--Author_), rather than by the consumer.... Monopolies are of + various origins. The most familiar are (1) franchises, the right + to use _public property_ for _private purposes_, for example, the + furnishing of light, water and transportation, (2) _control of + sources of raw material_ ... , (3) patents, ... (4) high cost of + duplicating plant.... In manufacturing industries, for example, + those enterprises which _produce raw materials_ and the + _necessities of life_ have a more stable demand.... Railroads + furnish perhaps the best basis of bond issue because of the + stability of the demand for the transportation service ... the + high cost of duplicating the railroad plant, ... enables them to + fix their rates on freight and passenger traffic.... The security + of the creditors is here the profitableness of the business _which + is carried on in the factory_. Furthermore, a business is not an + aggregate of physical property but consists of physical + property--buildings, boilers, machine tools--plus an industrial + opportunity, plus the organization and ability to operate + business." (Italics indicated by the author.) + + +There we see the animal standards in their studied perfection. Comment +would be superfluous. + +In the period of humanity's manhood, the so-called "science" of economics, +the "dismal science" of political economy, will become a genuine science +based upon the laws of the time-binding energies of humanity; it will +become the light of Human Engineering--promoter, guardian, and guide of +human weal. For it will discover, and will teach that a _human_ life, a +time-binding life, is not merely a _civilized_ life but a _civilizing_ +life; it will know and will teach that a civilizing life is a life devoted +to the production of potential and kinetic use-values--to the creation, +that is, of material and spiritual wealth; it will know and will teach +that wealth--both material and spiritual wealth--is a natural +phenomenon--offspring of the marriage of Time and human Toil; it will know +and will teach that the wealth in the world at any given moment is almost +wholly the _inherited_ fruit of time and the labor of the dead; and so it +will ask: To whom does the inheritance rightly belong? Does it of right +belong to Smith and Brown? If so, _why_? Or does it of right belong to +man--to humanity? If so, _why_? And what does "humanity" include? Only the +living, who are relatively few? Or both the living and unborn? The +Economics of humanity's manhood will not only ask these questions but it +will answer them and answer them aright. In seeking the answers, it will +discover some obvious truths and many old words will acquire new meanings +consistent with the time-binding nature of man. It will discover and will +teach that the time-binders of a given generation are _posterity_ and +_ancestry_ at once--posterity of the dead, ancestry of all the generations +to come; it will discover and will teach that in this time-binding double +relationship uniting past and future in a single living growing Reality, +are to be found the obligations of time-binding ethics and the seat of its +authority; economics will know and will teach that _human_ +posterity--time-binding posterity--can not inherit the fruits of time and +dead men's toil _as animals inherit the wild fruits of the earth, to fight +about them and to devour them_, but only as _trustees_ for the generations +to come; it will know and will teach that "capitalistic" lust to _keep_ +for SELF and "proletarian" lust to _get_ for SELF are both of them +_space-binding_ lust--animal lust--beneath the level of time-binding life. +The economics of humanity's manhood will know and will teach that the +characteristic energies of man as man are by _nature_ civilizing energies, +wealth-producing energies, time-binding energies, the peaceful energies of +inventive mind, of growing knowledge and understanding and skill and +light; it will know and will teach that these energies of existing men +united with one billion six hundred million available "sun-man" powers +united with the ten billion living "man-powers of the dead," if they be +not wasted by ignorance and selfishness, by conflict and competition +characteristic of beasts, are more than sufficient to produce a high order +of increasing prosperity everywhere throughout the world; in the period of +its manhood economics will discover and will teach that to produce world +prosperity, cooperation--not the fighting of man against man--but the +peaceful cooperation of all is both _necessary_ and sufficient; it will +know and will teach that such cooperation demands _scientific_ leadership +and a common _aim_; it will know, however, and will teach, for the lesson +of Germany is plain, that scientific knowledge and a common aim are not +alone sufficient; it will know and teach and all will understand that the +common aim, the unifying principle, the basis of cooperation, cannot be +the welfare of a family nor that of a province or a state or a race, but +must be the welfare of _all_ mankind, the prosperity of humanity, the weal +of the world--the peaceful production of Wealth without the destruction of +War. + +In humanity's manhood, patriotism--the love of country--will not perish--far +from it--it will grow to embrace the world, for your country and mine will +be the world. Your "state" and mine will be the Human State--a Cooperative +Commonwealth of Man--a democracy in fact and not merely in name. It will be +a natural organic embodiment of the civilizing energies--the +wealth-producing energies--characteristic of the human class of life. Its +larger affairs will be guided by the science and art of Human +Engineering--not by ignorant and grafting "politicians"--but by scientific +men, by honest men who _know_. + +Is it a dream? It _is_ a dream, but the dream will come true. It is a +scientific dream and science will make it a living reality. + +How is the thing to be done? No one can foresee all the details, but in +general outline the process is clear. Violence is to be avoided. There +must be a period of transition--a period of adjustment. A natural first +step would probably be the establishment of a new institution which might +be called a Dynamic Department--Department of Coordination or a Department +of Cooperation--the name is of little importance, but it would be the +_nucleus_ of the new civilization. Its functions would be those of +encouraging, helping and protecting the people in such cooperative +enterprises as agriculture, manufactures, finance, and distribution. + +The Department of Cooperation should include various sections, which might +be as follows: + +(1) _The Section of Mathematical Sociology_ or _Humanology_: composed of +at least one sociologist, one biologist, one mechanical engineer, and one +mathematician. Their work would be the development of human engineering +and mathematical sociology or humanology; promoting the progress of +science; providing and supervising instruction in the theory of values and +the rudiments of humanology for elementary schools and the public at +large. _The members of the section would be selected by the appropriate +scientific societies for a term fixed by the selectors._ + +(2) _The Section of Mathematical Legislation_: composed of (say) one +lawyer, one mathematician, one mechanical engineer, selected as above. +Their task would be to recommend legislation, to provide means for +eliminating "Legalism" from the theory and practice of law, and to bring +jurisprudence into accord with the laws of time-binding human nature and +the changing needs of human society. Their legislative proposals, if +ratified in a joint session of sections (1) and (2), would then be +recommended to the appropriate legislative bodies. + +(3) _The Educational Section_: composed of two or three teachers, one +sociologist, one mechanical engineer, one mathematician, selected as +above. They would elaborate educational projects and revise school methods +and books; their decisions being subject to the approval of the joint +session of sections (1), (2), and (3). + +(4) _The Cooperative Section_: composed of mechanical engineers, chemical +engineers, production engineers, expert bookkeepers, accountants, business +managers, lawyers and other specialists in their respective lines. This +section would be an "Industrial Red Cross" (Charles Ferguson) giving +expert advice when asked for by any cooperative society. + +(5) _The Cooperative Banking Section_: composed of financial experts, +sociologists, and mathematicians; its task being to help with expert +advice new cooperative people's banks. + +(6) _The Promoters' Section_: composed of engineers whose duty would be to +study all of the latest scientific facts, collect data, and elaborate +plans. Those plans would be published, and no private person, but only +cooperative societies, would be permitted by law to use them. The +department would also study and give advice respecting the general +conditions of the market and the needs in the various lines of production. +This section would regulate the duplication of production. + +(7) _The Farming Section_: composed of specialists in scientific and +cooperative agriculture. + +(8) _The Foreign Section_: for inter-cooperative foreign relations. + +(9) _The Commercial Section_. + +(10) _The News Section_: to edit a large daily paper giving _true_, +_uncolored_ news with a special supplement relating to progress in the +work of Human Engineering. This paper would give daily news about the +whole cooperative movement, markets, etc., etc. + +All men selected to the places for this work should be the very best men +in the nation. They should be well paid to enable them to give their full +energy and time to their duties. All the selections for this work should +be made in the same manner as mentioned above--through proven merits not +clever oratory. Such appointments should be considered the highest honor +that a country can offer to its citizens. Every selection should be a +demonstration that the person selected was a person of the highest +attainments in the field of his work. + +The outline of this plan is vague; it aims merely at being suggestive. Its +principal purpose is to accentuate the imperative necessity of +establishing a national time-binding agency--a Dynamic Department for +stimulating, guiding and guarding the civilizing energies, the wealth +producing energies, the time-binding energies, in virtue of which human +beings are human. For then and only then human welfare, unretarded by +monstrous misconceptions of human nature, by vicious ethics, vicious +economics and vicious politics, will advance peacefully, continuously, and +rapidly, under the leadership of human engineering, happily and without +fear, in accord with the exponential law--the _natural_ law--of the +time-binding energies of Man. + + + + +Chapter X. Conclusion + + + "In Europe we know that an age is dying. Here it would be easy to + miss the signs of coming changes, but I have little doubt that it + will come. A realization of the _aimlessness_ of life lived to + labor and to die, having achieved nothing but avoidance of + starvation, and the birth of children also doomed to the weary + treadmill, has seized the minds of millions." _Sir Auckland + Geddes, British Ambassador to the U. S. 1920._ + + +In conclusion let me say very briefly, as I said in the beginning, that +this little book has aimed to be only a sketch. The Problem of Life is +old. I have endeavored to approach it afresh, with a new method, in a new +spirit, from a new point of view. The literature of the subject is vast. +It displays great knowledge and skill. Much of it is fitted to inform and +to inspire such as really read with a genuine desire to understand. Its +weakness is due to the absence of a true conception of what human beings +are. That is what I miss in it and it is that lack of fundamental and +central thought that I have striven to supply. If I have succeeded in +that, I have no fear--all else will follow quickly, inevitably, as a matter +of course. For a fundamental conception, once it is formed and expressed, +has a strange power--the power of enlisting the thought and cooperation of +many minds. And no conception can have greater power in our human world +than a _true_ conception of the nature of Man. For that most important of +truths the times are ripe; the world is filled with the saddest of +memories, with gloom, forebodings and fear. Without the truth in this +matter, there can be no rational hope--history must go on in its dismal +course; but _with_ the truth, there is not only hope but certitude that +the old order has passed and that humanity's manhood dates from the +present day. That I have here presented the truth in this matter--the true +conception of the human class of life--I have personally no doubt; and I +have no doubt that that conception is to be the base, the guide, the +source of light, of a new civilization. Whether I am mistaken or not, time +will decide. I feel as Buckle felt in writing his _History of +Civilization_: + + + "Whether or not I have effected anything of real value ... is a + question for competent judges to decide. Of this, at least, I feel + certain, that whatever imperfections may be observed, the fault + consists, not in the method proposed, but in the extreme + difficulty of any single man putting into full operation all the + parts of so vast a scheme. It is on this point, and on this alone, + that I feel the need of great indulgence. But, as to the plan + itself, I have no misgivings. Of defects in its execution I am not + unconscious. I can only plead the immensity of the subject, the + shortness of a single life and the imperfection of every single + enterprise. I, therefore, wish this work to be estimated, not + according to the finish of its separate parts, but according to + the way in which those parts have been fused into a complete and + symmetrical whole. This, in an undertaking of such novelty and + magnitude, I have a right to expect, and I would moreover, add, + that if the reader has met with opinions adverse to his own, he + should remember, that his views are, perhaps, the same as those + which I too once held, and which I have abandoned, because, after + a wider range of study, I found them unsupported by solid proof, + subversive of the interest of Man, and fatal to the progress of + his knowledge. To examine the notions in which we have been + educated, and to turn aside from those which will not bear the + test, is a task so painful, that they who shrink from the + sufferings should pause before they reproach those by whom the + suffering is undergone.... Conclusions arrived at in this way are + not to be overturned by stating that they endanger some other + conclusions; nor can they be even affected by allegation against + their supposed tendency. The principles which I advocate are based + upon distinct arguments supported by well ascertained facts. The + only points, therefore, to be ascertained, are, whether the + arguments are fair, and whether the facts are certain. If these + two conditions have been obeyed, the principles follow by an + inevitable inference." + + +And why have I sought throughout to follow the spirit of mathematics? +Because I have been dealing with ideas and have desired, above all things +else, to be right and clear. Ideas have a character of their own--they are +right or wrong independently of our hopes and passions and will. In the +connection of ideas there is an unbreakable thread of destiny. That is why +in his _Mathematical Philosophy_ Professor Keyser has truly said: + + + "Mathematics is the study of Fate--not fate in a physical sense, + but in the sense of the binding thread that connects thought with + thought and conclusions with their premises. Where, then, is our + freedom? What do you love? Painting? Poetry? Music? The muses are + _their_ fates. Whoso loves them is free. Logic is the muse of + Thought." + + +No doubt mathematics is truly impersonal in method; too impersonal maybe +to please the sentimentalists before they take the time to think; +mathematical analysis of life phenomena elevates our point of view above +passion, above selfishness in any form, and, therefore, it is the only +method which can tell us genuine truths about ourselves. Spinosa even in +the 17th Century had well realized this fact and although imperfect in +many ways, his was an effort in the right direction and this quoted +conclusion may well be a conclusion for ourselves in the 20th century: + + + "The truth might forever have remained hid from the human race, if + mathematics, which looks not to the final cause of figures, but to + their essential nature and the properties involved in it, had not + set another type of knowledge before them.... When I turned my + mind to this subject, I did not propose to myself any novel or + strange aim, but simply to demonstrate by certain and indubitable + reason, those things which agree best with practice. And in order + that I might enquire into the matters of the science with the same + freedom of mind with which we are wont to treat lines and surfaces + in mathematics; I determined not to laugh or to weep over the + actions of men, but simply to understand them; and to contemplate + their affections and passions, such as love, hate, anger, envy, + arrogance, pity and all other disturbances of soul not as vices of + human nature, but as properties pertaining to it in the same way + as heat, cold, storm, thunder pertain to the nature of the + atmosphere. For these, though troublesome, are yet necessary, and + have certain causes through which we may come to understand them, + and thus, by contemplating them in their truth, gain for our minds + much joy as by the knowledge of things that are pleasing to the + senses." + + +If only this little book will _initiate_ the scientific study of Man, I +shall be happy; for then we may confidently expect a science and art that +will know how to direct the energies of man to the advancement of human +weal. + +What else? Many topics have not even been broached. Time-binding +energy--what may it not achieve in course of the aeons to come? What light +may it not yet throw upon such fundamental phenomena as _Space_, _Time_, +_Infinity_, and so on? What, if any, are the limits of Time-binding? In it +are somehow involved all the higher functions of mind. Is Time identical +with Intelligence? Is either of them the other's cause? Is Time _in_ the +Cosmos or is the latter in the former? Is the Cosmos intelligent? Many no +doubt and marvelous are the fields which the scientific study of man will +open for research. + + + + +Appendix I. Mathematics And Time-Binding + + +The purpose of this appendix is to give an expression of some new ideas +which evolve directly out of the fact that humans are time-binders and +which may serve as suggestions for the foundation of _scientific +psychology_. The problem is of exceeding difficulty to give expression to +in any form and therefore much more difficult to express in any exact or +correct form, and so I beg the reader's patience in regard to the language +because some of the ideas are in themselves correct and sometimes very +suggestive in spite of the language used. I am particularly interested +that mathematicians, physicists and metaphysicians should read it +carefully, forgive me the form, and look into the suggestions, because +scientific psychology if such a science is to exist, would by necessity +have to be a branch of physics. I particularly beg the mathematicians and +physicists not to discard this appendix with too hasty a judgment of "Oh! +metaphysics," and also the metaphysicians not to do the same with an +equally hasty judgment "Oh! mathematics." I hope that if this appendix is +sympathetically understood, mathematicians and physicists will be moved to +investigate the problem. If mathematicians and physicists would be more +tolerant toward metaphysics and if metaphysicians would be moved to study +mathematics, both would find tremendous fields to work in. + +Some scientists are very pedantic and therefore intolerant in their +pedantry and they may say "the fellow should learn first how to express +himself and then ask our attention." My answer is that the problems +involved are too pressing, too vital, too fundamental for humankind, to +permit me to delay for perhaps long years before I shall be able to +present the subject in a correct and satisfactory form, and also that the +problems involved cover too vast a field for a single man to work it +conclusively. It seems best to give the new ideas to the public in a +suggestive form so that many people may be led to work on them more fully. + +The old word "metaphysics" is an illegitimate child of ignorance and an +unnecessary word in the scientific study of nature. Every phenomenon of +nature can be classed and studied in physics or chemistry or mathematics; +the problem, therefore, is not in any way _super_natural or +_super_physical, but belongs rather to an unknown or an undeveloped branch +of physics. The problem, therefore, may be not that of some _new_ science, +but rather that of a new branch of mathematics, or physics, or chemistry, +etc., or all combined. + +It is pathetic that only after many aeons of human existence the +dimensionality of man has been discovered and his proper status in +_nature_ has been given by the definition of "time-binder." The old +metaphysics, in spite of its being far from exact, accomplished a great +deal. What prevented metaphysics from achieving more was its use of +unmathematical method, or, to be more explicit, its failure to understand +the importance of dimensions. Metaphysics used words and conceptions of +multi-dimensional meanings which of necessity resulted in hopeless +confusion, in "a talking" about words, in mere verbalism. An example will +serve to make this clear. If we were to speak of a cow, a man, an +automobile, and a locomotive as "pullers," and if we were not to use any +other names in connection with them, what would happen? If we +characterized these things or beings, by one common characteristic, +namely, "to pull," havoc would be introduced into our conceptions and in +practical life; we would try to milk an automobile or we would try to +extract gasoline from a cow, or look for a screw in a man, or we would +speculate about any or all of these things. Too obviously nonsensical--but +exactly the same thing happens, in a much more subtle way, when we use +such words as "life in a crystal" or "memory in animals"; we are thus +mentally making a mistake no less nonsensical than the talk of "milking an +automobile" would be. Laymen are baffled by the word dimension. They +imagine that dimensions are applicable only to space, which is three +dimensional, but they are mistaken; a moving object is +four-dimensional--that is, it has three dimensions as any object at rest, +but, when the object is moving, a fourth dimension is necessary to give +its _position_ at any one instant. We see, therefore, that a moving body +has four dimensions, and so on. As a matter of fact, scientific psychology +will very much need mathematics, but a special _humanized_ mathematics. +Can this be produced? It seems to me that it can. + +It is a well known fact that experimental sciences bring us to face facts +which require further theoretical elaboration; in this way experimental +sciences are a permanent source of inspiration to mathematicians because +new facts bring about the need of new methods of analysis. + +In this book a new and experimental fact has been disclosed and analysed. +It is the fact that humanity is a time-binding class of life where the +time-binding capacity or the time-binding ENERGY is the highest function +of humanity, including all the so-called mental, spiritual, will, etc., +powers. In using the words mental, spiritual, and will powers, I +deliberately accept and use them in the popular, ordinary sense without +further analysing them. + +Once the word and concept _Time_ enters, the ground for analysis and +reasoning at once becomes very slippery. Mathematicians, physicists, etc., +may feel that the expression is just a "well adapted one," and they may +not be very much inclined to look closer into it or attentively to analyse +it. Theologians and metaphysicians probably will speculate a great deal +about it vaguely, with undefined terms and incoherent ideas with +incoherent results; which will not lead us toward a scientific or true +solution, but will keep us away from the discovery of truth. + +In the meantime two facts remain facts: namely, mathematicians and +physicists have almost all agreed with Minkowski "that space by itself and +time by itself, are mere shadows, and only a kind of blend of the two +exists in its own right." The other fact--psychological fact--is that _time_ +exists psychologically by itself, undefined and not understood. One chief +difficulty is always that humans have to sit in judgment upon their own +case. The psychological time as such, is our own human time; scientific +time as such, is also our own human time. Which one of them is the best +concept--which one more nearly corresponds to the truth about "time"? What +is time (if any) anyway? Until now we have gone from "Cosmos" to "Bios," +from "Bios" to "Logos," now we are confronted with the fact that +"Logos"--Intelligence--and Time-binding are dangerously near to akin to each +other, or may be identical. Do we in this way approach or go back to +"Cosmos"? Such are the crucial questions which arise out of this new +concept of Man. One fact must be borne in mind, that "the principles of +dynamics appeared first to us, as experimental truths; but we have been +obliged to use them as definitions. It is by definition that force is +equal to the product of mass by acceleration, or that action is equal to +reaction." (_The Foundation of Science_, by Henri Poincare); and +mathematics also has its whole foundation in a few axioms, "self evident," +but _psychological facts_. It must be noted that the time-binding +energy--the higher or highest energies of man (one of its branches anyway, +for sake of discrimination let us call it "_M_") when it works properly, +that is, mathematically, does _not_ work _psychologically_ but works +ABSTRACTLY: the higher the abstraction the less there is of the +psychological element and the more there is, so to say, of the pure, +impersonal time-binding energy (_M_). The definition of a man as a +time-binder--a definition based on facts--suggests many reflections. One of +them is the possibility that one of the functions of the time-binding +energy in its pure form, in the highest abstraction (_M_), works +automatically--machine-like, as it were, shaping _correctly_ the product of +its activity, but whether _truly_ is another matter. Mathematics does not +presume that its conclusions are true, but it does assert that its +conclusions are correct; that is the inestimable value of mathematics. +This becomes a very comprehensive fact if we approach and analyse the +mathematical processes as some branch (_M_) of the time-binding process, +which they are; then this process at once becomes impersonal and cosmic, +because of the time-binding involved in it, no matter what _time_ is (if +there is such a thing as time). + +Is the succession of cosmos, bios, logos, time-binding taking us right +back to cosmos again? Now if we put _psychological_ axioms into the +time-binding apparatus, it will thrash out the results _correctly_, but +whether the results are _true_ is another question. + +To be able to talk about these problems I have to introduce three new +definitions, which are introduced only for practical purposes. It may +happen that after some rewording these definitions may become scientific. + +I will try to define "truth" and for this purpose I will divide the +concept "truth" into three types: + +(1) Psychological, or private, or relative truth, by which I will mean +such conceptions of the truth as any one person possesses, but different +from other types of truth ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}1, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}2, ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}n) + +(2) Scientific truth ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}s), by which I will mean a psychological truth when +it is approved by the time-binding faculties or apparatus in the present +stage of our development. This scientific truth represents the +"bound-up-time" in our present knowledge; and finally, + +(3) The absolute truth, which will be the _final definition_ of a +phenomenon based upon the final knowledge of _primal causation valid in +infinity_. + +For simplicity's sake I will use the signs {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}1, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}2, ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}n for the +"psychological," "private," or "relative" truths, between which, for the +moment, I will not discriminate. + +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}s1, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}s2, ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}sn, will be used for scientific truths, and finally +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}infinity for the absolute truth valid in infinity. + +To make it easier to explain, I will illustrate the suggestions by an +example. Let us suppose that the human time-binding capacities or energies +in the _organic_ chemistry correspond to radium in the _inorganic_ +chemistry; being of course of different dimensions and of absolutely +different character. It may happen, for it probably is so, that the +complex time-binding energy has many different stages of development and +different kinds of "rays" _A_, _B_, _C_, ... _M_.... + +Let us suppose that the so-called mental capacities are the _M_ rays of +the time-binding energy; the "spiritual" capacities, the _A_ rays; the +"will" powers, the _B_ rays; and so on. Psychological truths will then be +a function of all rays together, namely _A_ _B_ _C_ ... _M_ ... or _f_ +(_A_ _B_ _C_ ... _M_ ...), the character of any "truth" in question will +largely depend upon which of these elements prevail. + +If it were possible to isolate completely from the other rays the "mental" +process--the "logos"--the _M_ rays--and have a complete abstraction (which in +the present could only be in mathematics), then the work of _M_ could be +compared to the work of an impersonal machine which always gives the same +_correctly_ shaped product _no matter what is_ the material put into it. + +It is a fact that mathematics is correct--impersonal--passionless. Again, as +a matter of fact, all the basic axioms which underlie mathematics are +"psychological axioms"; therefore it may happen that these "axioms" are +not of the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}infinity type but are of the _f_ (_A_ _B_ _C_ ...) personal +type and this may be why mathematics cannot account for psychological +facts. If psychology is to be an _exact science_ it must be mathematical +in principle. And, therefore, mathematics must find a way to embrace +psychology. Here I will endeavor to outline a way in which this can be +done. To express it correctly is more than difficult: I beg the +mathematical reader to tolerate the form and look for the sense or even +the feelings in what I attempt to express. To make it less shocking to the +ear of the pure mathematician, I will use for the "infinitesimals" the +words "very small numbers," for the "finite" the words "normal numbers" +and for the "transfinite" the words "very great numbers." Instead of using +the word "number" I will sometimes use the word "magnitude" and under the +word "infinity" I will understand the meaning as "limitless." The base of +the whole of mathematics or rather the starting point of mathematics was +"psychological truths," axioms concerning normal numbers, and magnitudes +that were tangible for the senses. Here to my mind is to be found the +kernel of the whole trouble. The _base_ of mathematics was _f_ (_A_ _B_ +_C_ ... _M_ ...); the _work_, or the development, of mathematics is _f_ +(_M_); this is the reason for the "ghosts" in the background of +mathematics. The _f_ (_M_) evolved from this _f_ (_A_ _B_ _C_ ... _M_ ...) +_base_ a wonderful abstract theory absolutely correct for the normal, the +very small, and for the very great numbers. But the rules which govern the +small numbers, the normal, or psychological numbers, and the great +numbers, are not the same. As a matter of fact, in the meantime, the +physical world, the psychological world, is composed exclusively of very +great numbers and of very small magnitudes (atoms, electrons, etc.). It +seems to me that, if we want really to understand the world and man, we +shall have to start from the beginning, from 0, then take the next very +small number as the first _finite_ or "normal number"; then the old +finites or the normal numbers would become very great numbers and the old +very-great numbers would become the very great of the second order and so +on. Such transposed mathematics would become psychological and philosophic +mathematics and mathematical philosophy would become philosophic +mathematics. The immediate and most vital effect would be, that the +_start_ would be made not somewhere in the middle of the magnitudes but +from the beginning, or from the limit "zero," from the "0"--from the +intrinsic "to be or not to be"--and the next to it would be the very first +small magnitude, the physical and therefore psychological continuum (I use +the words physical continuum in the way Poincare used them) would become a +mathematical continuum in this new philosophic mathematics. This new +branch of philosophic, psychological mathematics would be absolutely +rigorous, correct and _true_ in addition to which, maybe, it would change +or enlarge and make humanly tangible for the layman, the concept of +numbers, continuum, infinity, space, time and so on. Such a mathematics +would be the mathematics for the time-binding psychology. Mathematical +philosophy is the highest philosophy in existence; nevertheless, it could +be changed to a still higher order in the way indicated here and become +philosophic or psychological mathematics. This new science, of course, +would not change the ordinary mathematics for ordinary purposes. It would +be a special mathematics for the study of Man dealing only with the +"natural finites" (the old infinitesimals) and great numbers of different +orders (including the normal numbers), but starting from a real, common +base--from 0, and next to it very small number, which is a common +_tangible_ base for _psychological_ as well as _analytical_ truths. + +This new philosophic mathematics would eliminate the concept of +"infinitesimals" as such, which is an _artificial_ concept and is not as a +_concept_ an element of Nature. The so-called _infinitesimals are Nature's +real, natural finites_. In mathematics the infinitesimals were an +analytical--an "_M_"--time-binding--necessity, because of our starting point. +I repeat once again that this transposition of our starting point would +not affect the normal mathematics for normal purposes; it would build +rather a new philosophic mathematics rigorously correct where analytical +facts would be also psychological facts. This new mathematics would not +only give correct results but also _true_ results. Keeping in mind _both_ +conceptions of time, the scientific time and the psychological time, we +may see that the human capacity of "Time-binding" is a very practical one +and that this time-binding faculty is a _functional_ name and definition +for what we broadly mean by human "intelligence"; which makes it obvious +that time (in any understanding of the term) is somehow very closely +related to intelligence--the mental and spiritual activities of man. _All +we know about _"time"_ will explain to us a great deal about Man, and all +we know about Man will explain to us a great deal about time_, if we +consider _facts_ alone. The "ghosts" in the background will rapidly vanish +and become intelligible facts for philosophic mathematics. The most vital +importance, nevertheless, is that taking zero as the limit and the next to +it very small magnitude for the real starting point, it will give us a +mathematical science from a natural base where _correct_ formulas will be +also true formulas and will correspond to psychological truths. + +We have found that man is an exponential function where time enters as an +exponent. If we compare the formula for organic growth _y==e__kt_, with +the formula "_P R__T_," we see that they are of the same type and the _law +of organic growth_ applies to the human _time-binding energy_. We see, +too, that the time-binding energy is also "_alive_" and multiplying in +larger and larger families. The formula for the decomposing of radium is +the same--only the exponent is negative instead of positive. This fact is +indeed very curious and suggestive. Procreation, the organic growth, is +also some function of time. I call "time-linking" for the sake of +difference. Whether the energy of procreation or that of "time-linking" +can be accounted for in units of chemical energy taken up in food, I do +not know. Not so with the mind--this "time-binding," higher exponential +energy, "able to direct basic powers." If we analyse this energy, free +from any speculation, we will find that this higher energy which is +somehow directly connected with "time"--no matter what time is--is able to +_produce_, by transformation or by drawing on other sources of energy, new +energies unknown to nature. Thus the solar energy transformed into coal +is, for instance, transformed into the energy of the drive of a piston, or +the rotary energy in a steam engine, and so on. It is obvious that no +amount of _chemical_ energy in food can account for such an energy as the +time-binding energy. There is only one supposition left, namely, that the +time-binding apparatus has a source for its tremendous energy in the +_transformation of organic atoms_, and--what is very characteristic--the +results are _time_-binding energies. + +This supposition is almost a certainty because it seems to be the only +possible supposition to account for that energy. This supposition, which +seems to be the only supposition, would bring us to face striking facts, +namely, the transformation of organic atoms, which means a direct drawing +upon the cosmic energy; and this cosmic energy--time--and intelligence are +somehow connected--if not indeed equivalent. Happily these things can be +verified in scientific laboratories. Radium was discovered only a few +years ago and is still very scarce, but the results for science and life +are already tremendous because scientific methods were applied in the +understanding and use of it. We did not use any zoological or theological +methods, but just direct, correct and scientific methods. There is no +scarcity in "human radium," but, to my knowledge, physicists have never +attempted to study this energy from that point of view. I am confident +that, if once they start, there will be results in which all the so-called +"supernatural, spiritual, psychic" phenomena, such as are not fakes, will +become scientifically understood and will be consciously utilized. Now +they are mostly wasted or only played with. It may happen that the science +of Man--as the science of time-binding--will disclose to us the inner and +final secrets--the final truth--of nature, valid in infinity. + +It is very difficult to give in such a book as this an adequate list of +the literature which may help to orient the reader in a general way in the +great advance science has made in the last few years. This book is a +pioneer book in its own way, and so there are no books dealing directly +with its subject. There are two branches of science and one art which are +fundamental for the further development of the subject; these two sciences +are (1) Mathematical philosophy and (2) Scientific biology, the art is the +art of creative engineering. + +In mathematical philosophy there are to my knowledge only four great +mathematical writers who treat the subject as a distinct science. They are +two English scientists, Bertrand Russell and A. N. Whitehead; one +Frenchman, Henri Poincare (deceased); and one American, Professor C. J. +Keyser. Messrs. Russell and Whitehead approach the problems from a purely +logical point of view and therein lies the peculiar value of their work. +Henri Poincare was a physicist (as well as a mathematician) and, +therefore, approaches the problems somewhat from a physicist's point of +view, a circumstance giving his philosophy its particular value. Professor +Keyser approaches the problems from both the logical and the warmly human +points of view; in this is the great human and practical value of his +work. + +These four scientists are unique in their respective elaborations and +elucidations of mathematical philosophy. It is not for me to advise the +reader what selections to make, for if a thorough knowledge of the subject +is desired the reader should read all these books, but not all readers are +willing to make that effort toward clear thinking (which in the meantime +will remain of the _highest_ importance in science). Some readers will +wish to select for themselves and to facilitate their selection I will lay +out a "Menu" of this intellectual feast by giving in some cases the +chapter heads. + +For many temporary reasons I was not able, before going into print, to +give a fuller list of the writings of those four unique men; but there is +no stroke of their pen but which should be read with great +attention--besides which there is a very valuable literature about their +work. + + + +(1) The purely mathematical foundation: + + +RUSSELL, BERTRAND. + + +"The Principles of Mathematics." Cambridge University, 1903. + +(I am not giving any selections from the contents of this book because +this book should, without doubt, be read by every one interested in +mathematical philosophy.) + +"The Problems of Philosophy." H. Holt & Co., N. Y., 1912. + +"Our Knowledge of the External World, as a Field for Scientific Method in +Philosophy." Chicago, 1914. + +"Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy." Macmillan, N. Y. + +Selection from contents: Definition of number. The Definition of order. +Kinds of relations. Infinite cardinal numbers. Infinite series and +ordinals. Limits and continuity. The axiom of infinity and logical types. +Classes. Mathematics and logic. + +"Mysticism and Logic." Longmans Green & Co. 1919. N. Y. + +Selection from contents: Mathematics and the metaphysicians. On scientific +method in philosophy. The ultimate constituents of matter. On the notion +of cause. + + +WHITEHEAD, ALFRED N. + + +"An Introduction to Mathematics." Henry Holt & Co. 1911. N. Y. + +"The Organization of Thought Educational and Scientific." London, 1917. + +Selections from contents: The principles of mathematics in relation to +elementary teaching. The organization of thought. The anatomy of some +scientific ideas. Space, time, and relativity. + +"An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge." Cambridge, +1919. + +Selection from contents: The traditions of science. The data of science. +The method of extensive abstraction. The theory of objects. + +"The Concept of Nature." Cambridge, 1920. + +Selection from contents: Nature and thought. Time. The method of extensive +abstraction. Space and motion. Objects. The ultimate physical concepts. + +"Principia Mathematica." By A. N. Whitehead and Bertrand Russell. +Cambridge, 1910-1913. + +This monumental work stands alone. "As a work of constructive criticism it +has never been surpassed. To every one and especially to philosophers and +men of natural science, it is an amazing revelation of how the familiar +terms with which they deal plunge their roots far into the darkness +beneath the surface of common sense. It is a noble monument to the +critical spirit of science and to the idealism of our time." + +"Human Worth of Rigorous Thinking." C. J. Keyser. + + + +(2) The physicist's point of view: + + +POINCARE, HENRI. + + +"The Foundations of Science." The Science Press, N. Y., 1913. + +Selection from contents: Science and hypothesis. Number and magnitude. +Space. Force. Nature. II. The value of science. The mathematical sciences. +The physical sciences. The objective value of science. III. Science and +method. Science and the scientist. Mathematical reasoning. The new +mechanics. Astronomic science. + + + +(3) The human, civilizing, practical life, point of view: + + +KEYSER, CASSIUS J. + + +"Science and Religion: The Rational and the Super-rational." The Yale +University Press. + +"The New Infinity and the Old Theology." The Yale University Press. + +"The Human Worth of Rigorous Thinking." Essays and Addresses. Columbia +University Press, 1916. + +Selection from contents: The human worth of rigorous thinking. The human +significance of mathematics. The walls of the world; or concerning the +figure and the dimensions of the Universe of space. The universe and +beyond. The existence of the hypercosmic. The axiom of infinity: A new +presupposition of thought. Research in American Universities. Mathematical +productivity in the United States. + +"Mathematical Philosophy, the Study of Fate and Freedom. Lectures for +Educated Laymen." Forthcoming Book. + +Selection from contents of general interest: The mathematical obligations +of philosophy. Humanistic and industrial education. Logic the muse of +thought. Radiant aspects of an over-world.--Verifiers and falsifiers. +Significance and nonsense.--Distinction of logical and psychological. A +diamond test of harmony.--Distinction of doctrine and method.--Theoretical +and practical doubt.--Mathematical philosophy in the role of critic. A +world uncriticised--the garden of the devil. "Supersimian" Wisdom. +Autonomous truth and autonomous falsehood. Other Varieties of truth and +untruth. Mathematics as the study of fate and freedom. The prototype of +reasoned discourse often disguised as in the Declaration of Independence, +the Constitution of the United States, the Origin of Species, the Sermon +on the Mount.--Nature of mathematical transformation. No transformation, no +thinking. Transformation law essentially psychological, Relation function +and transformation as three aspects of one thing. Its study, the common +enterprise of science. The static and the dynamic worlds. The problem of +time and kindred problems. Importation of time and suppression of time as +the classic devices of sciences.--The nature of invariance. The ages-old +problem of permanence and change. The quest of what abides in a fluctuant +world as the binding thread of human history. The tie of comradeship among +the enterprises of human spirit.--The concept of a group. The notion simply +exemplified in many fields, is "Mind" a group. The philosophy of the +cosmic year.--Limits and limit processes omnipresent as ideals and +idealization, in all thought and human aspiration. Ideals the flint of +reality.--Mathematical infinity, its dynamic and static aspects. Need of +history of the Imperious concept. The role of infinity in a mighty +poem.--Meaning of dimensionality. Distinction of imagination and +conception. Logical existence and sensuous existence. Open avenues to +unimaginable worlds.--The theory of logical types. A supreme application of +it to definition of man, and the science of human welfare.--The psychology +of mathematics and the mathematics of psychology. Both of them in their +infancy. Consequent retardation of science. The symmetry of thought. The +asymmetry of imagination.--Science and engineering. Science as engineering +in preparation. Engineering as science in action. Mathematics the guide of +the engineer. Engineering the guide of humanity. Humanity the civilizing +or Time-Binding class of life. Qualities essential to engineering +leadership. The ethics of the art. The engineer as educator, as scientist, +as philosopher, as psychologist, as economist, as statesman, as +mathematical thinker--as a Man. + + + + +Appendix II. Biology And Time-Binding + + +The life of one man is short, and to very few is it given to achieve much +in their lifetime. Extensive achievements are made almost entirely by many +men taking up the work done by a discoverer. In such a case, we arrive at +a _complete_ "truth," not by the production of one man but by a chain of +men, but the initial discovery not only has to be produced but correctly +defined before it can be used and that is the important point to be made. +What we do not realize is the tremendous amount of mental work that is +lost by an incorrect use of words. + +Human thought--that unique, subtle and yet most energetic phenomenon of +nature--is in the main wantonly wasted, because we do not use, or take +pains to use, suitable language; at the same time, false definitions lead +to consequences not merely wasteful but positively harmful. When ideas and +facts are falsely defined, they tend to bring us to false conclusions, and +false conclusions lead us in wrong directions, and life and knowledge +greatly suffer in consequence. Our progress is not a well ordered pursuit +after truth, as pure chance plays too large a part in it. + +Until lately, logic was supposed to be the science of correct thinking, +but modern thought has progressed so far that the old logic is not able to +handle the great accumulated volume--the great complicated mass of existing +ideas and facts--and so we are forced to look for another instrument much +more expedient and powerful. There is no need to establish a new science +to replace logic; we simply have to look closer into the sciences at hand +and realize the fact, which was with us all the time, namely, that +mathematics and mathematical reasoning is nothing else than the true logic +of nature--nature's universal tongue--the one means of expression that is +the same for all peoples. This is not a play on words, it is a fact which, +after investigation, everybody must admit. Everybody who wants to think +logically must think mathematically or give up any pretense of correct +thinking--there is no escape and all who refuse to investigate the justice +of this statement put themselves outside the pale of logically thinking +people. The application of rigorous thinking to life will even +revolutionize scientific methods by the introduction of right definitions, +correct classifications, just language, and so will lead to trustworthy +results. Very probably all our doctrines and creeds will have to be +revised; some rejected, some rectified, some broadened; bringing about +unanimity of all sciences and thus greatly increasing their effectiveness +in the pursuit of truth. This application of mathematics to life will even +revolutionize mathematics itself. In App. I it is suggested tentatively +how this may be accomplished. + +As the seemingly ultimate and highest experimentally known energy is the +human time-binding energy, this new concept may lead to a change in our +present concepts of matter, space and time, in much the same way as the +discovery of radium has affected them. This problem can be solved only by +_scientific_ experiments with the _time_-binding energy. + +In many, even in most, of the cases, the analysis of these phenomena +presents great technical difficulty, but why confuse our minds by being +afraid of, or being a slave of words? If instead of calling wine _wine_, +we called it by its chemical formula, would this, in any way, change the +quality of wine? Of course not. All the "qualities" will remain because +they are facts, and cannot be altered by words. + +A most pathetic picture of the havoc and chaos which wrong use of words +brings into life and science is exhibited in all fields of thought by the +endless and bitter fighting over words not well defined. Mathematics has +been able to make its most stupendous achievements because of its method +of exact analysis of the continuum, dimensions, classes, relations, +functions, transfinite numbers, etc., and also of space and time. +Hitherto, not all of these conceptions in their sharply defined form have +had direct application to our daily life or to our world conception. The +thoughts expressed in App. I may suggest this "missing link"--connecting +mathematics more intimately with life. + +Modern science knows that all energies can be somehow transformed from one +kind to another and that all of them represent one type of energetic +phenomena, no matter what is the origin of each. For example, a galvanic +or chemical battery produces the same kind of electricity as the +mechanical process of friction or the interaction of cosmic laws as in the +dynamo. In some instances, when our systems are suitably adjusted, the +transformations are reversible, that is, the energy results in a chemical +process--an accumulator; the chemical process results in electricity--the +galvanic battery; motion results in electricity--the dynamo; electricity +results in motion--the electric motor; etc. We know all energies are +somehow related to each other, in that their transformation is possible. +The effects produced by the same type of energy are absolutely the same--no +matter what its origin. The marvel of an electric lamp is the same marvel, +whether the origin of the electricity be chemical, mechanical or cosmic as +in the dynamo. The experiments in scientific biology have proved this to +be true in living organisms and just this is the tremendous importance of +the discoveries in scientific biology. Light and other energies react on +organisms in the same way as the chemical reactions and these phenomena +are reversible. More than that, living complex organisms have been +produced which grew to maturity through a chemical or mechanical treatment +of the egg, and this has been accomplished in the infancy of scientific +biology! (See _The Organisms as a Whole_, by Jacques Loeb.) + +All phenomena _in nature_ are _natural_ and should be approached as +_such_. The human mind is at least an energy which can direct other +energies; it is incorrect and misleading to call it _super_natural. It is +of course true that we do not fully understand the nature of the human +mind and we shall learn to understand it when and only when we acquire +sense enough to recognize it as _natural_. If we persist in saying and +believing that the "spiritual evidences cannot be explained on a material +base," this statement should be equally applicable to electricity or +radium. If this statement is false for these phenomena, it is equally +false for the mind or the so-called spiritual and will powers. The +scientific understanding of these phenomena will not "degrade" these +phenomena, _because that cannot be done. Facts remain facts and no +scientific explanation of a phenomenon can lower or degrade that which is +a fact._ Electricity is electricity and nothing else, no matter what its +origin; human time-binding energies (embracing all faculties) are the +highest of the known energies--equally magnificent and astonishing--no +matter what the base; and the scientific understanding of them will only +_add_ to our respect for them and for ourselves; it will unmistakably help +us to develop them indefinitely by mathematical analysis. The _base_ is +not the phenomenon--sulphuric acid and zinc _are not_ electricity; +time-binding energies _are not_ a pound of beefsteak, although a pound of +beefsteak may help to save life and be therefore _instrumental_ in the +production of a poem or of a sonata; but by no means can a beefsteak be +taken for either of them. + +I have attempted, with some measure of success I trust, to solve these +problems in science and life; the results are astonishing, as they lead us +to a much higher and more embracing ethics than society has ever had. By +this analysis I prove that the understanding of this most stupendous but +NATURAL phenomenon of human life brings us to the scientifical source of +ethics and I prove that the so-called "highest ideals of humanity" have +nothing of "sentimentalism" or of the "_super_natural" in them, but are +exclusively the _fulfilment_ of the _natural laws_ for the _human class of +life_. The recognition of the fact that the phenomena of the human mind +are natural and as such conform to natural law has the further advantage +over the "supernatural" attitude in that we can no more evade a law of +human nature than the law of gravity; in other words, human ethics will +have the validity of natural law. With the supernatural attitude, it was +simple enough to avoid the issues of life, by a simple statement--"I do not +believe"--and that was enough to break all bonds and be free from the +"supernatural morale"--but to get away from the "natural morale" and +_remain_ HUMAN is IMPOSSIBLE. Whereas, with an artificially formulated +morale it was easy enough to break away by a simple mental speculation, +and feel perfectly satisfied as long as one escaped the jail; with a +morale made clear that it is a NATURAL LAW for the human class of life, +the curtain of sophistry and speculation is removed and everyone who +breaks away from the NATURAL LAWS FOR HUMANS, WILL KNOW BY HIMSELF, THAT +HE IS OUTSIDE THE LAW--FOR HUMANS. + +Engineers are not metaphysicians, their field is not one of clever +argument but one of proved facts; their work is not to befog the air with +cloudy expressions or sophistry, but to create; their method is scientific +and their tool is mathematics. It is known that in remote antiquity, in +some temples electrical phenomena were known and were used to keep the +ignorant masses in awe and obedience. Shall we follow the methods used by +those magicians or shall we squarely face facts? Shall we look upon life, +and the usually so-called mental, spiritual phenomena, etc., as +_super_natural, simply because we do not understand them? It seems evident +that everything which _exists in nature, is natural_, no matter how simple +or complicated a phenomenon it is; and on no occasion can the so-called +"_super_natural" be anything else than a completely natural law, though it +may, at the moment, be above or beyond our present understanding. The +attitude of mind which admits the _super_natural blinds and frustrates any +analysis or any attempt at analysis. The unprejudiced analysis of the +so-called "supernatural" does not _alter_ any part of the strange and high +functions of it. The phenomena of the human time-binding energy are and +will remain the most precious, subtle and highest of known functions, no +matter what the origin. _Facts_ may not be _denied_ or _falsified_ if +analysis is to arrive at correct conclusions. The high dimensionality of +the human mind, the so-called spiritual and will powers, _are facts_ and +must be _accepted_ as such. It is about time to establish an exact science +to deal with them. The problems of animal life were approached without +prejudice, no supernatural "spark" was bothering us in our analysis--an +animal was an animal and nothing else--we did not intermix dimensions, +therefore we see that the "social structure" of the animals on a farm +never breaks down as they are managed on a scientific base with an +understanding of _their_ proper standards. Animals to-day live more +happily than man. We don't allow animals to practice the "survival of the +fittest," or "competition," which is far too destructive. Our present +social system imposes these disastrous methods upon man alone, and the +result is that the hideous proverb "Homo homini lupus" has become true. + +In modern science facts are not wanting, we have first but to know them. +If we take, for example, sulphuric acid and zinc and make what we call a +galvanic battery, we see that from two chemical substances a third--a +salt--is made in addition to which we have a peculiar energy produced +called electricity. Who does not know the marvelous properties of this +phenomenon? + +Scientific biology has made tremendous progress lately; engineers cannot +afford to ignore the facts established in laboratory researches. The +problem of "life" and of other energies, hitherto considered +"_super_natural," is well in hand, and proves to be none the less +astonishing though entirely natural. A number of scientists all over the +world are working at this problem and the scientific facts which they have +established, and which cannot now be denied, belong to-day to the realm of +practical life. Engineers, of course, have to know these facts; +mathematicians have to establish correct dimensions in the study of all +the sciences and people will have to study mathematical philosophy; only +then can the process of integration in any phase of thought be made +without mistakes. There is no escape from that, if _truth_ is what we +really want. But here one objection may be raised, an objection which for +some is a serious one indeed; namely, what will take the place of the old +philosophy, law and ethics, if human life is nothing else than a +physico-chemical process? To quote Doctor Jacques Loeb from his +_Mechanistic Conception of Life_: "If on the basis of a serious survey, +this question (_that all life phenomena can be unequivocally explained in +physico-chemical terms_--Author) can be answered in the affirmative, our +social and ethical life will have to be put on a scientific basis and our +rules of conduct must be brought into harmony with the results of +scientific biology. Not only is the mechanistic conception of life +compatible with ethics, it seems the only conception of life which can +lead to an understanding of the source of ethics." + +I hope to have proved in this book that _scientific_ ethics is based on +natural laws for the human class of life; that it is based on the +experimentally proved fact that Man is a Time-binder, naturally active as +such in time; and that this concept or definition of Man is rigorously +scientific and accounts for the highest functions of man--the highest of +the mental and spiritual perfections--without the need of any +"_super_natural" hypothesis. + +Scientific biology proves the fact that life and all of its phenomena are +the results of some special physico-chemical processes, which manifest +themselves in some peculiar energies, of which the human mind is the +highest known form. These processes are known to be reversible, in that +some of these peculiar energies cause physico-chemical changes in their +own base; the process involved I propose to call biolysis, as I propose to +call biolyte the substances produced. These phenomena have a parallel +analogy in inorganic chemistry--in electricity--the difference being only in +the scale or dimension. When an electric current is passed through a +special battery called an accumulator or reversible battery, chemical +changes occur, in that new compounds are formed which possess a reversible +capacity; namely, in reproducing the former materials--that is, electricity +is generated. This process of forming chemical substances by the passing +of an electrical current is called electrolysis and the product so +produced is called electrolyte. At the same time it is a known fact that +organic chemistry is infinitely more complicated and variable than +inorganic chemistry. The energy produced by the reactions of some organic +chemical groups are, therefore, of a more complicated character and of +another dimension. One of these energies of organic chemistry which lately +has come into the scope of scientific analysis is called life--its +physico-chemical base is the protoplasm, which _result_ I call the +"time-linking" capacity or energy. This name is important for the +consequences it will bring about later on. The time-binding capacity or +energy of man (no matter what time is--if it is), which is unique to man, +is a most subtle complex; it is the highest known energy and probably has +many subdivisions. Ears are sensitive to the vibration of the air. Eyes +are sensitive to the more subtle vibrations of light; in a similar way, +the time-binding apparatus is sensitive to the most subtle energies; +besides which it has the capacity to register not only all of our +sensations but also the time-binding energies of other people; and it +apparently has the capacity to register the energies of the universe. + +Here again we see the same continuity of phenomena; the protoplasm as a +complex organic physico-chemical unit which has the peculiarity to "live," +to grow and multiply "autonomously" and this same autonomous peculiarity +_applies_ to the _time-binding energy_; it grows and multiplies +"autonomously" in its own dimension. The time-binding energy is a complex +radiating energy somewhat like the emanations of radium and it probably +also has many different subdivisions. _Note that the transformation of the +atom_ or the transformation of _radio-active substances after passing +different stages, is not complete but probably ends in lead, whereas the +transformation which occurs in the production of the time-binding energy +probably is complete or nearly complete and is that which I call the +time-binding energy. (See _App. I_.)_ All the higher characteristics of +man which it is customary to call the "mental, spiritual and will powers," +etc., are embraced in this exact definition of energy--in the capacity of +time-binding. A diagram will better explain the continuity, evolution and +mechanism of this time-binding energy. + +[ A series of circles, connected by lines, the leftmost circle being C1, +then next C2, and so on to C7. The first is connected to the second by +line T1, the second to the third by T2, etc. Each circle after the first +has within it an energy indication, E1, E2, etc. ] + +Biology and Time-Binding. + + +_C__1_ is the physico-chemical base (for simplicity I represent the whole +complex as one base) of the human time-binding energy. _T__1_ is the +thought produced by a physico-chemical process (corresponding, for +illustration's sake only, to electricity produced by a galvanic battery). +The thought _T__1_ in turn produces a physico-chemical effect _E__1_ on +the base _C__1_ (corresponding for the same reason to electrolysis and +electrolyte in electricity). _C__1_ and _E__1_ combined, or _C__2_ +produces _T__2_ which again in turn affects the base and produces a +physico-chemical effect _E__2_, this new combination produces the energy +_T__3_, and so on ... theoretically without limits, as long as there is +_any source_ of energy upon which this special energy can draw. This +theory which I call the "spiral theory" represents a suggestive working +mechanism of the time-binding energy and is in accord with the latest +scientific discoveries. It explains the processes of all the mental and +so-called spiritual energies which have been such a puzzle to humanity, +and it also explains other phenomena which, until now, have had no +scientific explanation whatever. + +The animals are _not_ time-binding, they have _not_ the capacity of the +"spiral"; therefore, they have not autonomous progress. At the same time, +it will be obvious that if we teach humans false ideas, we affect their +time-binding capacities and energies very seriously, by affecting in a +wrong way the physico-chemical base. This energy is so peculiar that it +embraces, if I may use the old expression, the highest ideals (when the +time-binding energy is unobstructed and is allowed to work normally), and +also the most criminal ideas (when the time-binding energy is obstructed +by false teachings and in consequence works abnormally). We cannot make +animals moral or immoral because they have not this time-binding capacity. +Whereas human progress can be very seriously affected by false ideas; in +other words, the biolyte of false teachings in the animal dimension must +be very different from the biolyte of true ideas in the human dimension. +Nature or nature's laws happily cannot be completely deviated from or +violated--the time-binding energy cannot be completely suppressed in the +time-binding class of life. The false teachings that we are animals and +essentially brutal and selfish can, of course, degrade human nature not +only down to the animal level but lower still. Happily now science can +explain and prove how fundamentally fiendish in effect are these teachings +in the life and progress of human beings. It will be a shock to those who +teach, preach and practice animal standards and in the same breath +contradict themselves in any talking about "immortality" and "salvation"; +a little thought makes it perfectly clear that "animal standards" and +"salvation" or "immortality" simply exclude each other. With the natural +law of time-binding realized, the way is open to entering scientifically +upon the problem of immortality. The time-binding energies as well as +"life" follow the same type of exponential function. "The constant +synthesis then of specific material from simple compounds of a +non-specific character is the chief feature by which living matter differs +from non-living matter.... This problem of synthesis leads to the +assumption of immortality of the living cell, since there is no _a priori_ +reason why this synthesis should ever come to a standstill of its own +accord as long as enough food is available and the proper outside physical +conditions are guaranteed.... The idea that the body cells are naturally +immortal and die only if exposed to extreme injuries such as prolonged +lack of oxygen or too high a temperature helps to make one problem more +intelligible. The medical student, who for the first time realizes that +life depends upon that one organ, the heart, doing its duty incessantly +for the seventy years or so allotted to man, is amazed at the +precariousness of our existence. It seems indeed uncanny that so delicate +a mechanism should function so regularly for so many years. The mysticism +connected with this and other phenomena of adaptation would disappear if +we would be certain that all cells are really immortal and that the fact +which demands an explanation is not the continued activity but the +cessation of activity in death. Thus we see that the idea of the +immortality of the body cell if it can be generalized may be destined to +become one of the main supports for a complete physico-chemical analysis +of life phenomena since it makes the durability of organisms +intelligible...." (_The Organism as a Whole_, by Jacques Loeb.) + +The outlook for those who live and profess selfish, greedy, "space-binding +animal standards" is not very promising as disclosed by the "spiral," but +unhappily we cannot help them; only time-binding--only fulfilling the +natural laws for humans--can give them the full benefit of their natural +capacities by which they will be able to raise themselves above animals +and their fate. + +The results obtained in scientific biological researches are growing very +rapidly and every advance in their knowledge proves this theory to be +true. If they differ in a few instances it is not because the principles +of this theory are wrong, but because they intermix dimensions and use +words not sufficiently defined which always results in confusion and the +checking of the progress of science. + +Most of the problems touched upon in this appendix from a mathematical +point of view are based upon laboratory facts. We have only to collect +them and there is little need of imagination to see their general bearing. +Since we have discovered the fact that Man is a time-binder (no matter +what time is) and have introduced the sense of dimensionality into the +study of life phenomena in general, a great many facts which were not +clear before become very clear now. + +I wrote this book on a farm without any books at hand and I had been out +of touch with the progress of science for the five years spent in the war +service and war duties. My friend Dr. Grove-Korski, formerly at Berkeley +University, drew my attention particularly to the books of Dr. Jacques +Loeb. I found there a treasury of laboratory facts which illustrate as +nothing better could, the correctness of my theory. I found with deep +satisfaction that the new "scientific biology" is scientific because it +has used mathematical methods with notable regard to dimensionality--they +do not "milk an automobile." + +For the mathematician and the engineer, the "tropism theory of animal +conduct," founded by Dr. J. Loeb, is of the greatest interest, because +this is a theory which analyses the functions and reactions of an organism +_as a whole_ and therefore there is no chance for confusion of ideas or +the intermixing of dimensions. + + + "Physiologists have long been in the habit of studying not the + reactions of the whole organism but the reactions of isolated + segments; the so-called reflexes. While it may seem justifiable to + construct the reactions of the organism as a whole from the + individual reflexes, such an attempt is in reality doomed to + failure, since the reactions produced in an isolated element + cannot be counted upon to occur when the same element is part of + the whole, on account of the mutual inhibitions which the + different parts of the organism produce upon each other when in + organic connection; and it is, therefore, impossible to express + the conduct of a whole animal as the algebraic sum of the reflexes + of its isolated segments.... It would, therefore, be a + misconception to speak of tropism as of reflexes, since tropisms + are reactions of the organism as a whole, while reflexes are + reactions of isolated segments. Reflexes and tropisms agree, + however, in one respect, inasmuch as both are obviously of a + purely physico-chemical character." _Forced Movements--Tropism and + Animal Conduct._ By Jacques Loeb. + + +I will quote here only a very few passages, but these books are of such +importance that every mathematician and engineer should read them. They +are, if I may say so, a "mathematical biology"--the survey of a life long +study of "tropisms," which is the name given to express "forced movements" +in organisms. They give the quintessence of laboratory experiments as to +what are the effects of different energies such as light (heliotropism), +electricity (galvanotropism), gravity (geotropism), etc., in their +reaction and influence upon the movements and actions of living organisms. +These experiments are conclusive and the conclusions arrived at cannot be +overlooked or evaded. The tremendous practical results of such scientific +methods are based upon two principles, namely: that, (1) the scientists +must think mathematically, their studies of the phenomena must be in +"systems" as a complex whole, and they must not intermix dimensions; (2) +they must see the danger and not be afraid of old words with wrong +meanings, but must use clear and rigorous thinking to eliminate the +prejudices in science--the poison of metaphysical speculating with words, +or verbalism. These books give ample proofs of how misleading and +obscuring are the words used and how basically wrong are the conclusions +arrived at by such scientists as still persist in using the +anthropomorphic or teleological methods of analysis. If a sceptical or +doubtful reader is interested to see an ample proof of how deadly is the +effect which an incorrect or unmathematical manner of thinking brings into +science and life--he also may be referred to these books. The following +quotations prove biologically that man is of a totally different +dimension--a totally different being than an animal. From Dr. Conklin I +quote only from his _Heredity and Environment_ and to save a repetition of +the title of the book, I will indicate the quotations by using only his +name. (All italics are indicated by A. K.) + + + "It would be of the greatest importance to show directly that the + _homologous proteins of different species are different_. _This + has been done_ for hemoglobins of the blood by Reichert and Brown, + who have shown by crystallographic measurements that the + hemoglobins of any species are definite substances for that + species.... The following sentences by Reichert and Brown seem to + indicate that this may be true for the crystals of hemoglobin. + '_The hemoglobins of any species are different substances for that + species._ But upon comparing the corresponding substances + hemoglobins in different species of a genus it is generally found + that they differ the one from the other to a greater or less + degree; the differences being such that when complete + crystallographic data are available the different _species can be + distinguished_ by these _differences in their hemoglobins_'.... + The facts thus far reported imply the suggestion that heredity of + the genus is determined by the proteins of a definite constitution + differing from the proteins of other genera. This constitution of + the proteins would therefore be responsible for the genus + heredity. The different species of a genus have all the same genus + proteins, but the proteins of each species of the same genus are + apparently different again in chemical constitution and hence they + may give rise to the specific biological or immunity reactions." + _The Organism as a Whole_, by Jacques Loeb. + + "_All peculiarities which are characteristic of a race, species, + genus, order, class and phylum are of course inherited_, otherwise + there would be no constant characteristics of these groups and no + possibility of classifying organisms. The chief characters of + every living thing are unalterably fixed by heredity. Men do not + gather grapes of thorns nor figs of thistles. Every living thing + produces off-spring after its own kind, Men, horses, cattle; + birds, reptiles, fishes; insects, mollusks, worms; polyps, + sponges, micro-organisms,--all of the million known species of + animals and plants differ from one another because of inherited + peculiarities, _because they have come from different kinds of + germ cells_." Conklin. + + "The entire organism consisting of structures and functions, body + and mind, develops out of the germ, and the organization of the + germ determines all the possibilities of development of the mind + no less than of the body, though the actual realization of any + possibility is dependent also upon environmental stimuli."... + Conklin. + + "The development of the mind _parallels that of the body_; + whatever the ultimate relation of the mind and body may be, there + can be _no_ reasonable _doubt_ that the two develop together from + the germ. It is a curious fact that many people who are seriously + disturbed by scientific teaching as to the evolution or gradual + development of the human race accept with equanimity the universal + observation as to the development of the human individual,--mind as + well as body. The animal ancestry of the race is surely no more + disturbing to philosophical or religious beliefs than the germinal + origin of the individual, and yet the latter is a fact of + universal observation which cannot be relegated to the domain of + hypothesis or theory, and which can not be successfully denied.... + Now we know that the child comes from the germ cells which are not + made by the bodies of the parents but have arisen by the division + of the antecedent germ cell. _Every cell comes from a pre-existing + cell_ by a process of division, and _every germ cell comes from a + pre-existing germ cell_. Consequently it is not possible to hold, + that the body generates germ cells, nor that the soul generates + souls. The only possible scientific position is that the _mind_ or + soul as well as the body develops from the _germ_. + + "No fact in human experience is more certain than that the mind + develops by gradual and natural processes from a simple condition + which can scarcely be called mind at all; no fact in human + experience is fraught with greater practical and philosophical + significance than this, and yet no fact is more generally + disregarded." Conklin. + + "Doubtless the elements of which _consciousness_ develops are + _present in the germ cells_, in the same sense that the elements + of the other psychic processes or of the organs of the body are + there present; not as a miniature of the adult condition, but + rather in the form of elements or factors, which by long series of + combinations and transformations, due to interactions with one + another and with the environment, give rise to the fully developed + condition.... It is an interesting fact that in man, and in + several other animals which may be assumed to have a sense of + identity, the nerve cells, especially those of the _brain_, _cease + dividing_ at an early age, and these identical cells persist + throughout the remainder of life."... + + "The hen does not produce the egg, but the egg produces the hen + and also other eggs. Individual traits are not transmitted from + the hen to the egg, but they develop out of germinal factors which + are carried along from _cell to cell, and from generation to + generation_...." + + "The germ is the undeveloped organism which forms the bond between + successive generations; the person is the developed organism which + arises from the germ under the influence of environmental + conditions, the person develops and dies in each generation; the + germ-plasm is the continuous stream of living substance which + connects all generations. The person nourishes and protects the + germ, and in this sense the person is merely the carrier of the + germ-plasm, the _mortal trustee_ of an immortal substance." + Conklin. + + +This is what I call "time-linking." (Author.) + + + "Through intelligence and social cooperation he is able to control + environment for particular ends, in a manner quite impossible in + other organisms.... Other animals develop much more rapidly than + man but that development sooner comes to an end. The children of + lower races of man develop more rapidly than those of higher races + but in such cases they also cease to develop at an earlier age. + The prolongation of the period of infancy and of immaturity in the + human race greatly increases the importance of environment and + training as _factors of development_." Conklin. + + +Another sidelight given on the "Spiral theory." (Author.) + + + "In education also we are strangely blind to proper aims and + methods. Any education is bad which leads to the formation of + habits of idleness, carelessness, failure, instead of habits of + industry, thoroughness and success. Any religious or social + institution is bad which leads to habits of pious make-believe, + insincerity, slavish regard for authority and disregard for + evidence, instead of habits of sincerity, open-mindedness and + independence...." + + "All that man now is he has come to be without conscious human + guidance. If evolution has progressed from the am[oe]ba to man + without human interference, if the great progress from ape-like + men to the most highly civilized races has taken place without + conscious human control, the question may well be asked: Is it + possible to improve on the natural method of evolution? It may not + be possible to improve on the method of evolution and yet by + intelligent action it may be possible to facilitate that method. + _Man can not change a single law of nature but he can put himself + into such relations to natural laws that he can profit by them._" + Conklin. + + +This proves the great importance of KNOWING THE NATURAL LAWS for the human +class of life, and making natural time-binding impulses conscious, for +then only will the spiral give a logarithmical accumulation of the right +kind, otherwise the biolyte will be "animal" in substance as well as in +effect. Here it is immaterial how the first "time-binder" was produced; +the fact that he is of another dimension is of the greatest importance. + + + "From sands to stars, from the immensity of the universe to the + minuteness of the electron, in living things no less than in + lifeless ones, science recognizes everywhere the inevitable + sequence of cause and effect, the universality of natural + processes, the reign of natural law. _Man also is a part of + Nature, a part of the great mechanism of the_ universe, and all + that he is and _does is limited and prescribed by laws of nature_. + Every human being comes into existence by a process of + development, every step of which is determined by antecedent + causes.... Our anatomical, physiological, psychological + possibilities were predetermined in the _germ cells_ from which we + came...." Conklin. + + +This shows the importance of keeping the study of humans in their own +dimensionality, and also the importance of finding the IMPERSONAL NATURAL +LAWS for the human class of life. Now it can be realized that all the +so-called human ideals are none else than the ever growing fulfillment of +the NATURAL "TIME-BINDING" LAWS. This understanding will enable man to +discover new "time-binding" laws for their conduct, their business +relations, their state, which will not be a contradiction of the real, +NATURAL LAWS but will be in accord with them; then and only then human +progress will have a chance to develop peacefully. + + + "Adult characteristics are potential and not actual in the germ, + and their actual appearance depends upon many complicated + reactions of the germinal units with one another and with the + environment. In short, our actual personalities are not + predetermined in the germ cells, but our possible personalities + are.... The influence of environment upon the minds and morals of + men is especially great. To a large extent our habits, words, + thoughts; our aspirations, ideals, satisfactions; our + responsibility, morality, religion are the results of the + environment and education of our early years...." + + "Owing to this vastly greater power of memory, reflection and + inhibition man is much freer than any other animal. Animals which + learn little from experience have little freedom and the more they + learn the freer they become...." Conklin. + + +It may be added here that the "spiral theory" explains how our reactions +can be accelerated and elaborated by ourselves, and how truly we are the +masters of our destinies. + + + "Because we can find no place in our philosophy and logic for self + determination shall we cease to be scientists and close our eyes + to the evidence? The first duty of science is to appeal to fact + and to settle later with logic and philosophy...." Conklin. + + +There will be no difficulty in the settlement of facts with the new +philosophy of "Human Engineering." + + + "The analysis of instinct from a purely physiological point of + view ultimately furnishes the data for a scientific ethics. Human + happiness is based upon the possibility of a natural and + harmonious satisfaction of the instincts.... It is rather + remarkable that we should still be under the influence of an + ethics which considers the human instincts in themselves low and + their gratification vicious. That such an ethics must have had a + comforting effect upon the orientals, whose instincts were + inhibited or warped through the combined effects of an enervating + climate, despotism and miserable economic conditions is + intelligible, and it is perhaps due to a continuation of the + unsatisfactory economic conditions that this ethics still prevails + to some extent.... Lawyers, criminologists and philosophers + frequently imagine that only want makes man work. This is an + erroneous view. We are instinctively forced to be active in the + same way as ants or bees. The instinct of workmanship would be the + greatest source of happiness if it were not for the fact that our + present social and economic organization allows only a few to + satisfy this instinct. Robert Mayer has pointed out that any + successful display or setting free of energy is a source of + pleasure to us. This is the reason why the satisfaction of the + instinct of workmanship is of such importance in the economy of + life, for the play and learning of the child, as well as for the + scientists or commercial work of the man.... We can vary at will + the instincts of animals. A number of marine animals ... go away + from the light, can be forced to go to light in two ways, first by + lowering the temperature and second by increasing the + concentration of the sea water, whereby the cells of the animals + lose water. This instinct can be again reversed by raising the + temperature or by lowering the concentration of the sea water. I + have found repeatedly that by the same conditions by which + phenomena of growth and organization can be controlled the + instincts are controlled also. This indicates that there is a + common basis for both classes of life phenomena. This common base + is the physical and chemical character of the mixture of + substances which we call protoplasm.... _The greatest happiness in + life_ can be obtained only if _all instincts_, that of workmanship + included, can be maintained at a certain _optimal intensity_. But + while it is certain that the individual can ruin or diminish the + value of its life by a onesided development of its instincts, + e.g., dissipation, it is at the same time true that the _economic + and social conditions can ruin or diminish the value of life for a + great number of individuals_. It is no doubt true that in our + present social and economic conditions more than ninety per cent + of human beings lead an existence whose value is far below what it + should be. They are compelled by want to sacrifice a number of + instincts especially the most valuable among them, that of + workmanship, in order to save the lowest and most imperative, that + of eating. If those who amass immense fortunes could possibly + intensify their lives with their abundance, it might perhaps be + rational to let many suffer in order to have a few cases of true + happiness. But for an increase of happiness only that amount of + money is of service which can be used for the harmonious + development and satisfaction of inherited instincts. For this, + comparatively little is necessary. The rest is of no more use to a + man than the surplus of oxygen in the atmosphere. As a matter of + fact, the only true satisfaction a multimillionaire can possibly + get from increasing his fortunes, is the satisfaction of the + instinct of workmanship or the pleasure that is connected with a + successful display of energy. The scientist gets this satisfaction + without diminishing the value of life of his fellow being, and the + same should be true for the business man.... Although we recognize + no metaphysical free-will, we do not deny personal responsibility. + We can fill the memory of the young generation with such + associations as will prevent wrong doing or dissipation.... + Cruelty in the penal code and the tendency to exaggerate + punishment are sure signs of a low civilization and of an + imperfect educational system.... It seems to me that we can no + more expect to unravel the mechanism of associative memory by + histological or morphological methods than we can expect to + unravel the dynamics of electrical phenomena by microscopic study + of cross-sections through a telegraph wire or by counting and + locating the telephone connections in a big city. If we are + anxious to develop a dynamic of the various life-phenomena, we + must remember that the colloidal substances are the machines which + produce the life phenomena, but the physics of these substances is + still a science of the future.... Physiology gives us no answer to + the latter question. The idea of specific energy has always been + regarded as the terminus for the investigation of the sense + organs. Mach expressed the opinion that chemical conditions lie at + the foundation of sensation in general...." _Comparative + Physiology of the Brain_, by Jacques Loeb. + + +Here it may be added that the "Instinct of Workmanship" in the animal +class, becomes in the time-binding class of life the instinct of +_creation_, and is nothing else than the expression of the natural impulse +of the "Time-binding" energy. In the present social and economic system +very few have a possibility to satisfy this instinct; scientific +management is or may be satisfying the animal instinct of workmanship, but +it is not satisfactory to the instinct of creation. "Time-binding" in its +last analysis is creation and only such a social and economic system as +will satisfy this want--this natural impulse--will satisfy Humans--the +"Time-binders"--and will bring about their fullest growth in work and +happiness. + +"LAWS OF GROWTH" (from _Unified Mathematics_, by Louis C. Karpinski, +Ph.D.). "_Compound interest function_.--The function _S_ = _P_(1 + _i_)_n_ +is of fundamental importance in other fields than in finance. Thus the +growth of timber of a large forest tract may be expressed as a function of +this kind, the assumption being that in a large tract the rate of growth +may be taken as uniform from year to year. In the case of bacteria growing +under ideal conditions in a culture, _i.e._ with unlimited food supplied, +the increase in the number of bacteria per second is proportional to the +number of bacteria present at the beginning of that second. Any function +in which the rate of change or rate of growth at any instant _t_ is +directly proportional to the value of the function at the instant _t_ +obeys what has been termed the 'law of organic growth,' and may be +expressed by the equation, + +_y = ce__kt_, + +wherein _c_ and _k_ are constants determined by the physical facts +involved, and _e_ is a constant of nature analogous to {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}. The constant _k_ +is the proportionality constant and is negative when the quantity in +question decreases; _c_ is commonly positive; + +_e_ = 2.178.... + +"The values of the function of _x, ce__kx__, increase according to the +terms of a geometrical progression as the variable x increases in +arithmetical progression_.... + +"The most immediate application of a function in which the growth is +proportional to the function itself is to the air. The decrease in the +pressure of the air at the distance _h_ above the earth's surface is +proportional to _h_. + +"The expression _P = 760 e__-h/7990_ gives the numerical value of the +pressure in millimeters of mercury for _h_ measured in meters. The +negative exponent indicates that the pressure decreases as _h_ increases. +In inches as units of length of the mercury column, _h_ in feet, + +_P = 29.92e__-h/26200_ + +This is known as Halley's law. + +"The growth of bean plants within limited intervals and the growth of +children, again between quite restricted limits, follow approximately the +law of organic growth. Radium in decomposing follows the same law; the +rate of decrease at any instant being proportional to the quantity. In the +case of vibrating bodies, like a pendulum, the rate of decrease of the +amplitude follows this law; similarly in the case of a noise dying down +and in certain electrical phenomena, the rate of decrease is proportional +at any instant to the value of the function at the instant.... + +"_The Curve of Healing of a Wound._--Closely allied to the formulas +expressing the law of organic growth, _y = e__kt_, and the law of 'organic +decay,' _y = e__-kt_, is a recently discovered law which connects +algebraically by an equation and graphically by a curve, the surface-area +of a wound, with time expressed in days, measured from the time when the +wound is aseptic or sterile. When this aseptic condition is reached, by +washing and flushing continually with antiseptic solutions, two +observations at an interval commonly of four days give the 'index of the +individual,' and this index, and the two measurements of area of the +wound-surface, enable the physician-scientist to determine the normal +progress of the wound-surface, the expected decrease in area, for this +wound-surface of this individual. The area of the wound is traced +carefully on transparent paper, and then computed by using a mathematical +machine, called a planimeter, which measures areas. + +"The areas of the wound are plotted as ordinates with the respective times +of observation measured in days as abscissas. After each observation and +computation of area the point so obtained is plotted to the same axes as +the graph which gives the ideal or prophetic curve of healing. + +"When the observed area is found markedly greater than that determined by +the ideal curve, the indication is that there is still infection in the +wound.... A rather surprising and unexplained situation occurs frequently +when the wound-surface heals more rapidly than the ideal curve would +indicate; in this event secondary ulcers develop which bring the curve +back to normal.... + +"This application of mathematics to medicine is largely due to Dr. Alexis +Carrel of the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research. He noted that the +larger the wound-surface, the more rapidly it healed, and that the rate of +healing seemed to be proportional to the area. This proportionality +constant is not the same for all values of the surface or we would have an +equation of the form, + +_S = S__1__e__-kt_ + +in which _S_, is the area at the time that the wound is rendered sterile +and observations to be plotted really begin.... + +"The data given are taken from the Journal of Experimental Medicine, +reprints kindly furnished by Major George A. Stewart of the Rockefeller +Institute. The diagrams are reproduced from the issue of Feb. 1, 1918, pp. +171 and 172, article by Dr. T. Tuffier and R. Desmarres, Auxiliary +Hospital 75, Paris.... + +[ A graph, showing the progress of healing of a surface wound of the right +leg of a 31-year-old patient. It shows that as time passes, the wounded +area decreases. ] + +Progress of healing of a surface wound of the right leg, patient's age 31 +years. + + +"WAVE MOTION. General.--In nature there are two types of recurrent motion, +somewhat closely connected mathematically, in which repetition of motion +occurs at regular intervals. + +"One type of this motion, in cycles as we may say, repeats the motion in +one place, and is in a sense stationary. The tuning fork in motion moves +through the same space again and again; a similar movement is the motion +of a vibrating string. Of this stationary type may be mentioned the +heartbeats, the pulse, the respiration, the tides, and the rotation of a +wheel about its axis. + +"The second type of recurrent motion transmits or carries the vibratory +impulse over an extent of space as well as time. The waves of the sea are +of this character. Sound waves, electrical vibrations or waves, and +radiant energy vibrations are transmitted by a process similar to that by +which the waves of the sea are carried. + +"Both of these types of motion are representable mathematically by +equations involving a sequence of trigonometric functions. To the +fundamental and basic function involved, _y_ = sin _x_, we will direct our +attention in the next section and to simple applications in other sections +of this chapter.... + +"Sound Waves.--If a tuning fork for note lower C is set to vibrating, the +free bar makes 129 complete, back-and-forth, vibrations in one second. By +attaching a fine point to the end of the bar and moving under this bar at +a uniform rate, as it vibrates, a smoke-blackened paper, a sinusoidal +curve is traced on the paper. Our curve is traced by a bar vibrating 50 +times in 1 second. + +[ A graph, showing a wavy line. "Tuning fork vibrations recorded on smoked +paper." ] + +Tuning fork vibrations recorded on smoked paper. + + +"Corresponding to each movement of the vibrating rod there is a movement +of the air. As the bar moves to the right it compresses the layer of air +to its right and that _compression_ is immediately communicated to the +layer of air to the right; as the bar moves back and to the left, the +pressure on the adjacent air is released and a _rarefaction_ takes place. +In 1/50 of 1 second you have the air adjacent to the rod _compressed_, +back to normal, and _rarefied_; during this time the neighboring air is +affected and the compression is communicated a distance which is the _wave +length_ of this given sound wave. In 1 second this disturbance is +transmitted 1100 feet at 44 deg. Fahrenheit. The wave length for this sound +wave then is 1100/50 = 22 feet. + +"The wave length is commonly designated by {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}. If _V_ is the velocity, and +_t_ the time of one vibration, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~} = _Vt_." + +[ A graph, showing five wavy lines, labeled "a", "ou", "r", "E", and "a". +"Vibration records produced by the voice: 'a' as in 'ate'; 'ou' as in +'about'; 'r' in 'relay'; 'e' in 'be'; and 'a' in 'father'. The tuning fork +record, frequency 50 per second, gives the vibration frequencies." ] + +"Vibration records produced by the voice: 'a' as in 'ate'; 'ou' as in +'about'; 'r' in 'relay'; 'e' in 'be'; and 'a' in 'father'. The tuning fork +record, frequency 50 per second, gives the vibration frequencies." + + +This last drawing may help to visualize the fact in what manner wrong +expressions and untrue teachings hamper the true progress of humanity. +Every word has its energy and produces some physico-chemical effects in +the time-binding apparatus in accord with the idea which we associate with +the sound of the word. If we teach ideas which are untrue, then the +physico-chemical effects produced are not proper--in other words the human +mind does NOT WORK PROPERLY, that is, it does not work _naturally_ or +_normally_ or true to the human dimension. There is every reason why the +standards in our civilization are so low, because we have "poisoned," in a +literal sense of the word, our minds with the physico-chemical effects of +wrong ideas. This correct NATURAL APPROACH to the "Time-binding" energies +will make it obvious how unmeasured is the importance of the manner in +which we handle this subtle mechanism, as the poisoning with wrong ideas +or with careless or incorrect words does not in any way differ in +consequences from poisoning with any other stupor-producing or wrongly +stimulating poison. + +Monographs on Experimental Biology and Physiology + +LOEB, J.: "Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative +Psychology." New York, 1900. + +LOEB, J.: "Studies in General Physiology." Chicago, 1905. + +LOEB, J.: "The Dynamics of Living Matter." New York, 1906. + +LOEB, J.: "The Mechanistic Conception of Life." Chicago, 1912. + +Selection from contents: I. The Mechanistic Conception of Life. II. The +Significance of Tropisms for Psychology. III. Some Fundamental Facts and +Conceptions concerning the Comparative Physiology of the Central Nervous +System. IV. Pattern Adaptation of Fishes and the Mechanism of Vision. V. +On Some Facts and Principles of Physiological Morphology. VI. On the +Nature of the Process of Fertilization. VII. On the Nature of Formative +Stipulation (Artificial Parthenogenesis). VIII. The Prevention of the +Death of the Egg through the Act of Fertilization. IX. The Role of Salts +in the Preservation of Life. X. Experimental Study of the Influence of +Environment on Animals. + +LOEB, J.: The Organism as a Whole. G. P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1916. + +Selection from contents: I. Introductory Remarks. II. The Specific +Difference between Living and Dead Matter and the Question of the Origin +of Life. III. The Chemical Basis of Genus and Species: 1. The +Incompatibility of Species not Closely Related. 2. The Chemical basis of +Genus and Species and of Species Specificity. IV. Specificity in +Fertilization. V. Artificial Parthenogenesis. VI. Determinism in the +Formation of an Organism from an Egg. VII. Regeneration. VIII. +Determination of Sex, Secondary Sexual Characters and Sexual Instincts: 1. +The Cytological Basis of Sex Determination. 2. The Physiological Basis of +Sex Determination. IX. Mendelian Heredity and its Mechanism. X. Animal +Instincts and Tropisms. XI. The Influence of Environment. XII. Adaptation +to Environment. XIII. Evolution. XIV. Death and Dissolution of the +Organism. + +LOEB, J.: "Forced Movements, Tropisms, and Animal Conduct." J. B. +Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1918. + +Selection from contents: I. Introduction. II. The Symmetry Relations of +the Animal Body as the Starting Point for the Theory of Animal Conduct. +III. Forced Movements. IV. Galvanotropism. V. Heliotropism. The Influence +of One Source of Light. 1. General Facts. 2. Direct Proof of the Muscle +Tension Theory of Heliotropism in Motile Animals. 3. Heliotropism of +Unicellular Organisms. 4. Heliotropism of Sessile Animals. VI. An +Artificial Heliotropic Machine. VII. Asymmetrical Animals. VIII. Two +Sources of Light of Different Intensity. IX. The Validity of the +Bunsen-Roscoe Law for the Heliotropic Reactions of Animals and Plants. X. +The Effect of Rapid Changes in Intensity of Light. XI. The Relative +Heliotropic Efficiency of Light of Different Wave Lengths. XII. Change in +the Sense of Heliotropism. XIII. Geotropism. XIV. Forced Movements Caused +by Moving Retina Images: Rheotropism: Anemotropism. XV. Stereotropism. +XVI. Chemotropism. XVII. Thermotropism. XVIII. Instincts. XIX. Memory +Images and Tropisms. + +A list of _554 books on this subject_, in which any reader interested will +find a vast storehouse of exact knowledge in this line. Author. + +CONKLIN, EDWIN GRANT: "Heredity and Environment in the Development of +Men." Princeton University Press, 1915. + +Selection from contents: I. Facts and Factors of Development. +Introduction. A. Phenomena of Development. B. Factors of Development. II. +Cellular Basis of Heredity and Development. A. Introductory. B. The Germ +Cells. C. The Mechanism of Heredity. D. The Mechanism of Development. III. +Phenomena of Inheritance. A. Observations on Inheritance. B. Statistical +Study of Inheritance. C. Experimental Study of Inheritance. IV. Influence +of Environment. A. Relative Importance of Heredity and Environment. B. +Experimental Modifications of Development. C. Functional Activity as a +Factor of Development. D. Inheritance or Non-inheritance of Acquired +Characters. E. Applications to Human Development: Euthenics. V. Control of +Heredity: Eugenics. A. Domesticated Animals and Cultivated Plants. B. +Control of Human Heredity. VI. Genetics and Ethics. + + + Glossary of books on this subject; for those who desire to be more + fully acquainted with the subjects of heredity and development. + Author. + + +MORGAN, T. H., "Physical Basis of Heredity." + +EAST, E. M., and JONES, D. F., "Inbreeding and Outbreeding," etc. + +PARKER, G. H., "The Elementary Nervous System." + +HARVEY, E. N., "The Nature of Animal Light." + + + + +Appendix III. Engineering And Time-Binding + + +The Arts of Engineering, by their very nature, are derived from the work +of dead men and destined to serve not only the present but the future. +They are freer than any other human activity from the errors of +intermixing dimensions and from the fallacy of belief in individualistic +accomplishment and pride. The simple steel structure of a bridge, familiar +to us in every day life, is a clear reminder to us all of the arts of +Hephaestus and the bound-up knowledge of countless generations of smiths +and mechanics, metallurgists and chemists, mathematicians and builders, +teachers and engineers who toiled for many thousands of years to make +possible the riveted steel beams which are the elements of modern +structure. These structures do not collapse unless the natural laws for +their construction are transgressed; which seldom happens--for no one is +entrusted with the work unless he has bound up in his knowledge the +accumulated experience of the past; yet the transgressors of these natural +laws are punished with all the severity of the common law. When a bridge +is opened and tested, the written laws in some countries and the unwritten +in others, and the pride and the sense of responsibility of the designer +and builder of the bridge demand that he, the creator of the bridge, be +the first to enter it and the last to leave it; and should the bridge +collapse, he has to take the immediate consequences of his neglect of the +time-binding laws. + +Rarely are the affairs of engineering done with the entirely selfish +motive of merely acquiring immediate selfish gain, for even when this +could be traced--this unworthy thought disappears in the halo of the glory +of the accomplishment. Mr. Eiffel did not erect his tower to haunt Paris +with the sight of a steel skeleton towering over the city of daring +thoughts. His tower stands to-day as a mechanical proof of mathematical +formulas proving the possibility of erecting tall, self-supporting +structures and thereby serving future humanity. The Time-binding capacity +of humans creates and formulates new values for the service of mankind. +Again, no student of the Arts of Engineering could ever forget himself to +the point of claiming his accomplishments, no matter how marvelous, all to +himself. No wondrous discovery of modern electricity, not even the talking +from one hemisphere to another, is rightly the accomplishment of any one +man, for the origin of the discovery can be traced at least as far back as +the days of that barefooted shepherd boy Magnus, who first observed the +phenomena of magnetism. + +In an attempt to trace and evaluate the time-binding faculties manifested +in the Arts of Engineering, one is at once astonished, and bewildered, at +the confusion and contradictions unrealized in the mass of evidence, and +how pathetic and deplorable is the sight of hundreds of thousands of +workers in the field of engineering toil and creation who unconsciously +submit to the degradation, in silent consent, of seeing their marvelous +collective achievements chained to space-binding aims. + +Upon the completion of this book I was astonished that there are such a +small number of engineers who have the intuitive feeling of the greatness +of the assets at their command and of the gravity of their liabilities +concerning affairs of humanity. I was eager to have my book read and +analysed by a few leading engineers. The late H. L. Gantt being no more +with us, I then turned to Walter N. Polakov, Doctor of Engineering; +Industrial Counselor; Chairman of Committee on Service and Information, +Fuels Section, A.S.M.E., and Robert B. Wolf, Vice-President of A.S.M.E. In +them I found, to the full, a very sympathetic understanding and my esteem +grew as I became more intimately acquainted with the character of their +work and their accomplishments. Both have done a most remarkable work in +their respective lines. It will not be an exaggeration to say that their +work, together with the work of the late H. L. Gantt and Charles P. +Steinmetz, may be considered as the first--to my knowledge--corner-stones of +the science and art of Human Engineering, and form the first few volumes +and writings for the New Library of the Manhood of Humanity. These books +and pamphlets are based on facts analysed scientifically, marking the +parting of the way of engineering thought from the past subjection to +speculative fetishes. + +Of all the pure and applied sciences, engineering alone has the +distinction of being the first to have the _correct_ insight into the +human problem. The task of engineers was to convert knowledge--brain +work--"bound-up time"--into daily bread by means of conserving time and +effort. This concept is naught else but the working out of the imperfect +formulation of the time-binding principle. It was inevitable, therefore, +that some engineers had already beaten the path in the right direction. +How straight and how far this sense of dimensionality has led some of them +in their practical work may be seen from the work of Walter N. Polakov, in +his _Mastering Power Production_, Engineering Magazine, N. Y., 1921. + + + "It was not my intention to compile a text book on power + engineering; it was rather my care to avoid the treatment of any + technical subject which could be found elsewhere in engineering + literature; but I could not avoid trespassing in the adjoining + fields of psychology and economics, for without familiarity with + these sciences the mastery of power production is a futile + attempt. + + "I do not hold that the principles upon which the method is laid + out are subject to choice or opinions, for they are based on + facts. Yet work of this character cannot be complete, or examples + may be illy chosen, for it deals with living and constantly + reshaping relations and applies to things in process of + development. + + "If this work and its underlying idea will facilitate the solving + of some of the problems now in the course of rapid evolution in + our industrial relations, I shall feel that my own and my readers' + time have not been altogether lost." + + +Indeed the readers' time will not be lost. This book gives an engineering, +scientific--in the meantime practical--analysis of all human problems. It is +a deep and practical treatise on all great questions concerning modern +industrialism and so-called economic problems and is a foundation for a +new scientific industrial philosophy. Another very clear outline of the +_Principles of Industrial Philosophy_ was given by Mr. Polakov in his +paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of +Mechanical Engineers, December 7-10, 1920. Anyone who has anything to do +with industrial or economic problems cannot afford to overlook the +important and fundamental work in this book. + +It is obvious that a scientific knowledge of facts, is of the greatest +importance for anyone who cares to approach any problem in a serious way. +Statistics which are up-to-date are therefore of primary importance. I had +the privilege of reading the manuscript of _Quo Vadis America_, the +forthcoming book of Mr. Polakov, where a most valuable statistical picture +of facts in modern America is given and the astonishing conclusions which +are to be drawn therefrom. I can only regret that in Europe we have not +such a knowledge written down concerning European conditions. If more such +books had been written and _read_ by the public, many crises and +catastrophes would have been avoided. + +The outstanding contribution of Mr. Robert B. Wolf to engineering was made +in his study of physiology, biology, psychology and philosophy as applied +to engineering. + + + "If anyone wishes to inquire into the forces which have led up to + the individual development of mankind, he will find himself at + once plunged into the realm of psychology and mental philosophy. I + can heartily recommend such a course as immensely profitable and + of practical value. + + "The five important facts, however, that have to do with the + subject in hand are: + + "_1st._ That the human body is such a wonderful organization + because it is the product of the forces of creation, acting + through millions of years of evolution. + + "_2nd._ That its capacity for progress depends upon the + maintenance of the unity resulting from this creative evolution + and upon a conscious recognition of this unity. + + "_3d._ That this unity would not have been possible without the + development of the nervous system. + + "_4th._ That the conscious intelligent progress made by mankind + could not have reached its present level until in the process of + evolution a mechanism had been built up in the nervous system + itself capable of recording the various impressions which the + senses are constantly receiving. + + "_5th._ That the recording of past events, with the power of + consciously recalling them for the solution of problems + immediately confronting it, is absolutely essential to its + development. + + "Now, what I want to point out is that inasmuch as man's progress + depends upon the perfect co-ordination of his forces to produce + unity of action, we have no right to expect an industrial + organization to make progress which it must do as a unit without + the establishment of a conscious co-ordinating mechanism similar + to the nervous system in the human body." _Individuality in + Industry._ By Robert B. Wolf. + + +Doctor Charles P. Steinmetz has given in his _America and the New Epoch_ a +most correct engineering picture of the political situation in the world, +with a fine characterization of the psychological peculiarities of the +different races. Although this book was written in 1916, that is, before +the end of the World War, it will be of permanent value; because of its +deep psychological analysis of the peoples and their institutions which +ultimately shape the development of any nation and which do not change +with victory or defeat. + + + "My tribute to the memory of Gantt will be, not only the homage of + a friend and admirer, but the proof that his philosophy is + scientifically true. A rigorous proof is necessary, because the + word 'service' belongs to that category of words, the meaning of + which can be completely reversed by the verb, be it 'give' or + 'take.' Gantt took 'rendering service' as an axiom; my + observation, shared with many others, is that our civilization had + quite another axiom, 'we preach give, we practice take.' The + problem which interested me, was how to find a way out of this + contradiction that would be irrefutable. If one of them is true + and natural law for humans, then the other is not; if our words + are true, then our deeds are not true, or if our deeds are true + then the words are camouflage. I found the solution, by applying + mathematically rigorous thinking. Mathematics, with its exact + concept of dimensions, gave me the method. The method we use in + studying phenomena is analysis, or speaking mathematically, + differentiation. I soon found, that the methods of differentiation + are mostly correct, but our synthesis, or process of integration + made by the use of metaphysics was faulty. The differentiation + correctly lowered the dimensions, but our faulty integration did + not restore the original dimensions. The investigation had to be + made from the beginning, by defining the phenomena of life, in a + specific way, which would not permit of any blunders in + dimensions. + + "I defined the classes of life by emphasizing their incontestable, + dimensional characteristics: plants are 'Chemistry-binding,' + animals are 'Space-binding,' Humans are 'Time-binding' classes of + life. + + "These definitions have the peculiarity that they make it obvious, + that: 1. The classes of life have different dimensions, and that + the intermixing of dimensions, as in mathematics it makes a + correct solution impossible, so in life, the results of such + elementary mistakes, produce tragic consequences. + + "2. The old formula on which our civilization is built, HUMAN + equal ANIMAL plus or multiplied by SPARK OF DIVINITY is basically + and elementarily wrong, and is mathematical nonsense, which is + identical to such an absurdity as _x_ square inches equal _y_ + linear inches plus or multiplied by _z_ cubic inches. + + "3. A basically wrong formula on which our civilization rests, is + the cause of all the periodical collapses, wars and revolutions. + + "4. The old system was built on animal 'space-binding' standards, + and human 'time-binding' impulses were, all the time, in + rebellion. + + "5. As the theory of gravitation and the calculus made engineers + and mathematicians masters of inanimate nature, so these tangible + and incontestable definitions give them a positive base which will + enable them to approach and solve human living problems, by + establishing the mathematical fact that man is man, not an animal. + + "6. All of those who are blinded by traditions and refuse to + investigate, or to know these mathematical truths, are a danger to + humanity in directly helping to obscure issues, and in helping to + maintain the faulty structure which, as in the past, is bound to + collapse again and again in the future. + + "7. The duty of mathematically thinking people is to throw such + light on this problem as will stop the stupid, or willfully + destructive, and show whether they are working for, or against, + mankind. + + "8. For the 'time-binding' class of life, it is obvious then that + in this dimension, 'time-binding' is the natural law, and, if + understood and analysed, it is the highest human aim. + + "9. Such 'natural laws' as 'survival of the fittest' for animals, + which is the 'survival of the fittest in space,' result in fight, + or the survival of the strongest; whereas such a law to be a + NATURAL LAW FOR HUMANS, must be in the human dimension which + obviously would be the 'Survival of the fittest in TIME,' + resulting in the survival of the best. + + "10. All known facts must be brought to the light, to be summed + up, and correlated by mathematicians and engineers with the + strictest attention to dimensionality. + + "11. All of our ideas have to be revised; the animal + 'space-binding' standards must be rejected as dangerous and + destructive, must be replaced by 'time-binding' standards, which + will correspond to the natural impulses and NATURAL LAWS for + humans. + + "12. The minds of mathematicians and engineers are by education + the first to see the far reaching importance of the facts + disclosed by these definitions, and just this realization will + bring about the readjustment of values in life to a human + dimension, wherein pending revolutions and wars could be turned + into evolution, destruction into construction, discord into accord + of a common aim. + + "We are the masters of our own destinies, the responsibility is + ours to correct the mistakes of our ancestors and to establish a + scientific philosophy, scientifically true laws, scientifically + true ethics, and a scientific sociology, which will form one + unified science of man and his function in the universe, a science + which I propose to call 'Human Engineering.' Gantt's methods would + be the first practical application toward this end. + + "Gantt's concept of rendering service is scientifically true + because it is 'time-binding,' and therefore true for the human + class of life and in human dimension. This is why Gantt's concepts + have counted for so much and will survive 'IN TIME.' " Discussion + by Alfred Korzybski of Mr. W. N. Polakov's paper "Principles of + Industrial Philosophy" presented at the Annual Meeting of The + American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, December 7-10, + 1920. + + +LITERATURE + +GANTT, H. L.: + +"Work, Wages, and Profits." The Engineering Magazine Co., 1913. N. Y. + +"Industrial Leadership." Yale University Press. 1916. + +"Organizing for Work." Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1919. N. Y. + +Selection from Contents: The Engineer as the Industrial Leader. Economics +and Democracy. Democracy in Production. Democracy in the Shop. Democracy +in Management. "The Religion of Democracy." + +POLAKOV, WALTER N.: + +"Mastering Power Production." The Engineering Magazine Co. 1921. N. Y. + +Selection from Contents: The Descent of the Principle of Production for +Use. The Power Industry as an Economic Factor. Mastering Labor Problems. +(Conditions) Autonomous Co-operation. Aims of Labor. Right to be Lazy and +the Right to a Job. Qualification of Men. The Working Day. Fatigue. +UNIVERSAL LABOR (_Corresponding exactly to Time-binding--Author_). The +Position of an Engineer. Mastering Labor Problems. Compensation. The +Social Aspect. The Economic Aspect. The Basis of Wages. Incentive +Payments. Profit Sharing. Premium Places. Rewarding Individual Efforts. +Two-rate wages. Energy as a Commodity. + +"Principles of Industrial Philosophy." Presented at the Annual Meeting of +the A. S. of M. E., December, 1920. + +"Equipment and Machinery." Y. M. C. A. Association Press. 1921. N. Y. + +"Organization and Management." Y. M. C. A. Association Press. 1921. N. Y. + +"Quo Vadis America?" In preparation. + +STEINMETZ, CHARLES P.: + +"America and the New Epoch." Harper & Brothers. 1916. N. Y. + +Selection from Contents: The Individualistic Era: From Competition to +Co-operation. England in the Individualistic Era. Germany in the +Individualistic Era. The Other European Nations in the Individualistic +Era. America in the Individualistic Era. Evolution: Industrial Government. + +"Incentive and Initiative." Y. M. C. A. Association Press. 1921. N. Y. + +WOLF, ROBERT B.: Pamphlets. + +"Individuality in Industry." Bulletin of the Society to promote the +Science of Management. Vol. I. No. 4. August, 1915. + +"The Creative Workman." Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper +Industry. 1918. N. Y. + +"Non-Financial Incentives." Presented at the Annual Meeting of the A. S. +of M. E. December, 1918. N. Y. + +"Modern Industry and the Individual." A. W. Shaw & Co. 1919. N. Y. + +"Securing the Initiative of the Workman." American Economic Association. +1919. N. Y. + +"Creative Spirit in Industry." Y. M. C. A. Association Press. 1921. N. Y. + +MISCELLANEOUS LIST OF BOOKS + +VON BERNHARDI, General F.: "Germany and the Next War." E. Arnold, London. +1912. + +BRANDEIS, LOUIS: "Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use it." F. A. +Stokes, N. Y. 1914. + +THOMAS FARROW and WALTER CROTCH: "The Coming Trade War." Chapman & Hall, +London. 1916. + +HUEFFER, FORD MADDOX: "When Blood is Their Argument." Hodder & Stoughton. +1915. N. Y. + +HAUSER, HENRY: "Germany's Commercial Grip on the World, Her Business +Methods Explained." E. Nash Co., London. 1917. + +LAUGHLIN, J. L.: "Credit of the Nations." Scribner's Sons, N. Y. 1918. + +MAETZU, RAMIRO DE: "Authority, Liberty and Function in the Light of War." +Geo. Allen and Unwin. + +DELAISI, FRANCIS: French Opinion, "The Inevitable War." Small, Maynard & +Co., Boston. 1915. + +NEILSON, FRANCIS: English Opinion, "How Diplomats Make War." B. W. +Huebsch. 1916. + +BY A GERMAN (German Opinion). "J'Accuse!" Hodder & Stoughton, London. +1915. + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 To digress a bit, it may be interesting to add, that population and + the need of people increase in a geometrical progression; and also + that the growth of individuals is limited by the fact, that they + have to absorb their food through surfaces which as growth goes on + increase only as _squares_, while the bodies to be fed, being + volumes, increase in size as _cubes_ increase, as the cubes of the + same base grow faster than the squares, + + 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 32 = 9, 33 = 27, and so on, + + it is obvious, that in the infancy of an organism only a part of the + food goes to maintain life, the larger part goes for growth; when + the organism becomes larger, the absorbing surfaces, growing + proportionally to the square, the food is spent to build the mass of + the volume of the body and is spent proportionally to the cube. + Suppose our organism has grown to a size twice as large, its + absorbing capacity has become four times larger, its volume eight + times larger. In case of 3 times, the difference will be 9 and 27. + It is obvious that at some point, all the absorbed food will be used + to maintain life and none will be left for growth, and this last + process will stop. This is another example which explains how the + theory of dimensions is vitally important in life and shows why it + is absolutely essential to take account of dimensions in the study + of life problems. + +_ 2 An Outline of the History of the Western European Mind_, by James + Harvey Robinson. The New School for Social Research, New York, 1919. + This little volume gives condensed statements, as in a nutshell, of + the historical developments of the human mind and contains a long + list of the most substantial modern books on historical questions. + All the further historical quotations will be taken from this + exceptionally valuable little book, and for convenience they will + simply be marked by his initials--J. H. R. + + 3 (J. H. R.) "Late appearance of a definite theory of progress. + Excessive conservatism of primitive peoples. The Greeks speculated + on the origin of things, but they did not have a conception of the + possibility of indefinite progress ... Progress of man from the + earliest time till the opening of the 17th century almost altogether + unconscious.... Fundamental weakness of Hellenic learning. It was an + imposing collection of speculation, opinions, and guesses, which, + however brilliant and ingenious they might be, were based on a very + slight body of exact knowledge, and failed to recognize the + fundamental necessity of painful scientific research, aided by + apparatus. There was no steady accumulation of knowledge to offset + the growing emotional distrust of reason.... Unfulfilled promise of + Hellenistic science. Influence of slavery in checking the + development of science.... The deficiencies of Medieval culture. All + the weaknesses of the Hellenic reasoning, combined with those of the + Christian Fathers, underlay what appeared to be a most logically + elaborated and definitive system of thought. Defects of the + university education.... Little history of Natural science, in our + sense of the word, taught in the universities.... Copernicus, 'De + Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium.' Libri VI, 1543.... Copernicus' + own introduction acknowledges his debt to ancient philosophers. + Still believed in fixed Starry Sphere. His discovery had little + immediate effect on prevailing notions. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) + made it his chief business to think out and set forth in Latin and + Italian the implications of the discovery of Copernicus.... Bruno + burned by the Inquisition at Rome.... Keppler (1571-1630) and his + discovery of the elliptical orbits of the planets. Galileo + (1564-1642). His telescope speedily improved so as to magnify 32 + diameters. His attitude toward the Copernican theory, which was + condemned by Roman Inquisition 1616.... Galileo's chief discoveries + were in physics and mechanics. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proved that + the laws of falling bodies apply to the heavens. This made a deep + impression and finally the newer conceptions of the universe began + to be popularized.... Lord Bacon (1561-1626), the 'Buccinator' of + experimental and applied modern science.... His lively appreciation + of the existing obstacles to scientific advance; the idols of the + tribe, cave, market-place, and theatre.... Necessity of escaping + from the scholastic methods of 'tumbling up and down in our reasons + and conceits,' and studying the world about us. Undreamed of + achievements possible if only the right method of research be + followed ... the distrust of ancient authority.... Descartes + (1596-1650), ... he proposed to reach the truth through analysis and + clear ideas, on the assumption that God will not deceive.... His + fundamental interest in mathematics.... His claim to originality and + his rejection of all authority.... Obstacles to scientific advance; + the universities still dominated by Aristotle; the theological + faculties; the censorship of the press exercised by both church and + state; ..." + + 4 (J. H. R.) "Phases of religious complex. 'Religious,' a vague and + comprehensive term applied to: (1) certain classes of emotions (awe, + dependence, self-distrust, aspirations, etc.); (2) Conduct, which + may take the form of distinctive religious acts (ceremonies, + sacrifices, prayers, 'good works') or the observance of what in + primitive conditions are recognized as 'taboos'; (3) Priestly, or + ecclesiastical organizations; (4) Beliefs about supernatural beings + and man's relations to them: the latter may take the form of + revelation and be reduced to creeds and become the subject of + elaborate theological speculations. + + "Association of religion with the supernatural; religion has always + had for its primary object the attainment of a satisfactory + adjustment to, or a successful control over, the supernatural.... + The cultural mind viewed as the product of a long and hazardous + process of accumulation.... Spontaneous generation of superstitions. + Prevalence of symbolism, mana, animism, magic, fetishism, totemism; + the taboo (cf. our modern idea of 'principle'), the sacred, clean + and unclean; 'dream logic'--spontaneous rationalizing or 'jumping at + conclusions';... The 16th book of the Theodosian Code contains + edicts relating to the Church issued by the Roman Emperors during + the 4th and 5th centuries. They make it a crime to disagree with the + Church; they provide harsh penalties for heretical teaching and + writing, and grant privileges to the orthodox clergy (exemptions + from regular taxes and benefit of the clergy).... Christianity + becomes a monopoly defended by the state.... Psychological power and + attraction in the elaborate symbolism and ritual of the church.... + Allegory put an end to all literary criticism.... Flourishing of the + miraculous; any unusual or startling occurrence attributed to the + intervention of either God or the Devil.... Older conceptions of + disease as caused by the Devil.... Our legal expression 'act of God' + confined to unforseeable natural disasters. How with a growing + appreciation for natural law and a chastened taste in wonders, + miracles have tended to become a source of intellectual distress and + bewilderment.... Protestants shared with Roman Catholics the horror + of 'rationalists' and 'free-thinkers.' The leaders of both parties + agreed in hampering and denouncing scientific discoveries.... + Witchcraft in its modern form emerges clearly in the 15th + century.... Great prevalence of witchcraft during the 16th and 17th + centuries in Protestant and Catholic countries, alike.... Trial of + those suspected of sorcery. Tortures to force confession. The + witches' mark. Penalties, burning alive, strangling, hanging. Tens + of thousands of innocent persons perished.... Those who tried to + discredit witchcraft denounced as 'Sadducees' and atheists.... The + psychology of intolerance. Fear, vested interests, the comfortable + nature of the traditional and the habitual. The painful + appropriation of new ideas.... The intolerance of the Catholic + Church: a natural result of its state-like organization and + claims.... Its doctrine of exclusive salvation and its conception of + heresy both sanctioned by the state. Doubt and error regarded as + sinful.... Beginnings of censorship of the press after the invention + of printing, licensing of ecclesiastical and civil authorities.... + Protestants of 16th century accept the theory of intolerance." + + 5 (J. H. R.) "The Socio-psychological foundations of conservatism: + Primitive natural reverence for the familiar and habitual greatly + reenforced by religion and law. Natural conservatism of all + professions. Those who suffer most from existing institutions + commonly, helplessly accept the situation as inevitable. Position of + the conservative; he urges the impossibility of altering 'human + nature' and warns against the disasters of revolution. Conservatism + in the light of history: History would seem to discredit + conservatism completely as a working principle in view of the past + achievements of mankind in the recent past and the possibilities + which opened before us.... Futility of the appeal of the + conservative to human nature as an obstacle to progress.... Culture + can not be transmitted hereditarily but can be accumulated through + education and modified indefinitely." + + 6 (J. H. R.) "Formulation and establishment of the evolutionary + hypothesis. Discovery of the great age of the earth; ... gradual + development of the evolutionary theory.... Darwin's 'Origin of the + Species,' 1859. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903).... Haeckel (1834-1919) + and others clarify, defend and popularize the new doctrine. + Subsequent development of the evolutionary doctrine by Mendel, + Weisman, DeVries and others. Weakening of the special creation + theory by other evidence such as archeology and biblical criticism. + The significance of the doctrine for intellectual history. Character + of the opposition to the evolutionary theory. Popular confusion of + 'Darwinism' with 'evolution.' Revolutionary effects of the new point + of view. Does away with conception of fixed species (Platonic ideas) + that had previously dominated speculation. The genetic method + adopted in all the organic sciences, including the newer social + sciences. Problem of adjusting history to the discoveries of the + past 50 years. Bearing of evolution on the theory of progress. + Organic evolution and social evolution." + + 7 (J. H. R.) "The Deists and philosophers destroy the older + theological anthropology and reassert the dignity of man; the growth + of criticism and liberalism has made the analysis of social + institutions somewhat less dangerous; the general growth of + knowledge has reacted in a stimulating way upon the sciences of + society; the great increase in the number, complexity and intensity + of social problems has proved a strong incentive to social science; + The Darwinian hypothesis has rendered preposterous any conception of + a wholly static social system. However, the modern social sciences + in our capitalistic order meet much the same resistance from the + 'vested interests' that theological radicalism encountered in the + Middle Ages, and social science has in no way approached the + objectivity and progressiveness of present day natural science.... + Grave effects of vested rights in hampering experiments and + readjustments.... Obstacles to readjustment presented by consecrated + traditions.... Influence of modern commercialism in the inordinate + development of organization and regimentation in our present + educational system. Psychological disadvantages of our conventional + examination system. As yet our education has not been brought into + close relation with prevailing conditions of our ever increasing + knowledge.... Excellent aims and small achievements of sociology in + practical results. (_Because of absolute lack of any scientific + base._ Author.) General nature of the problem of social reform: + psychological problems involved in social reform movements: violent + resistance of the group to that criticism of the existing + institutions, which must precede any effective social reform...." + + 8 (J. H. R.) "During the past two centuries the application of the + scientific discoveries to daily life has revolutionized our methods + of supplying our economic needs, our social and intellectual life, + and the whole range of the relations of mankind. The impulse of + invention, iron, coal, and steam essential to the development of + machinery on a large scale; machinery has in turn begotten the + modern factory with its vast organized labor, the modern city and + finally, our well nigh perfect means of rapid human + inter-communication. The tremendous increase in the production of + wealth and the growing interdependence of nations has opened up a + vast range of speculation in regard to the betterment of mankind to + the abolition or reduction of poverty, ignorance, disease, and + war.... Man advances from a tool-using to a machine-controlling + animal. The rise of the factory system; the concentration and + localization of industry; increased division of labor and + specialization of industrial processes. The great increase in the + volume of capital and in the extent of investments; the separation + of capital and labor and the growth of impersonal economic + relationship. Problems of capital and labor; unemployment and the + labor of women and children; labor organizations. Increased + productivity and the expansion of commerce. Industrial processes + become dynamic and everchanging--a complete reversal of the old + stability, repetition and isolation." + + 9 It may be contended by some that animals have been making "progress" + or some may say that animals also "bind-time." This use of words + would again become mere verbalism, a mere talking about words--mere + speculation having nothing to do with _facts_ or with correct + thinking, in which there is no intermixing of dimensions. The + peculiar faculty belonging exclusively to humans which I designate + as "time-binding" I have clearly defined as an _exponential + function_ of _time_ in the following chapter. If people are pleased + to talk about the "progress" of animals, they can hardly fail to see + clearly that it differs both in function and in type or dimension + from what is rightly meant by human progress; human time-binding + capacity lies in an entirely different dimension from that of + animals. So, if any persons wish to talk of animal "progress" or + animal "time-binding," they should invent a suitable word for it to + save them from the blunder of confusing types or mixing dimensions. + + This mathematical discrimination between classes, types, dimensions + is of the utmost importance in the natural sciences, because of the + transmutation of species. To adjust the Darwin theory to + dimensionality is a somewhat more difficult problem; it involves the + concept of the "continuum"; but with the modern theory of de Vries, + these things are self evident. If animals really progress, which is + doubtful because they are an older form of life than humans and they + have not shown any noticeable progress to the knowledge of man, + their progress is so small in comparison with man's that it may be + said, in mathematical terms, to be _negligible_ as an infinitesimal + of higher order. + + 10 It must be remembered here that our world is, first of all, a + dynamic conglomeration of matter and energy, which to-day, as well + as in the first period of primitive organic life, took and takes + different known and unknown forms. One of these forms of energy is + the chemical energy, with its tendency to combinations and + exchanges. Different elements act in different ways. The history of + the earth and its life is simply the history of different chemical + periods, with different transformations of energy. A strange fact is + to be noticed about nitrogen. Nitrogen chemically has an exceptional + inertness toward most other substances, but once it is a component + part of a substance, almost all of these combinations are a very + powerful source of energy, and all of them have a very strong effect + upon organic life. Nitric acid acts through oxidation, the + substances are burned up by the oxygen given off from the acid. + Nitric acid occurs in nature, in a combination called nitrates. From + the soil the nitrates pass into the plant. Nitrite of amyl acts upon + our organs in a most violent and spasmodic way. Nitrous oxide is the + so-called laughing gas. + + Alkaloids are compounds of a vegetable origin, generally of complex + composition and capable of producing marked effects upon animals. + They all contain nitrogen. Explosives which are a chemical means of + storing tremendous amounts of energy, are mostly of some nitrogenous + compound. Albumen is an organic compound of great importance in + life, which, besides being the characteristic ingredient in the + white of an egg, abounds in the serum of the blood and forms an + important part of the muscles and brain. Albuminoids play the most + vital role in plant life and are an extensive class of organic + bodies found in plants and animals, as they are found to form the + chief constituents of blood, nerves. All albuminoids found in + animals are produced by the processes fulfilled in plants. Their + exact constitution is not known; analysis shows that they contain + approximately: Carbon 50-55%, Hydrogen 6.9-7.5%, Nitrogen 15-19%, + Oxygen 20-24%, Sulphur 0.3-2.0%. Venous blood contains in 100 + volumes: Nitrogen, 13; Carbonic Acid, 71.6; Oxygen, 15.3. Arterial + blood: Nitrogen, 14.5; Carbonic Acid, 62.3; Oxygen, 23.2. + + "Nitrogenous compounds in general, are extremely prone to + decomposition; their decomposition often involving a sudden and + great evolution of force. We see that substances classed as ferments + ... are all nitrogenous ... and we see that even in organisms and + parts of organisms where the activities are least, such changes as + do take place are initiated by a substance containing nitrogen.... + We see that organic matter is so constituted that small incidental + actions are capable of initiating great reaction and liberating + large quantities of power.... The seed of a plant contains + nitrogenous substances in a far higher ratio than the rest of the + plant; and the seed differs from the rest of the plant in its + ability to initiate ... extensive vital changes--the changes + constituting germination. Similarly in the bodies of animals ... in + every living vegetal cell there is a certain part that contains + nitrogen. This part initiates these changes which constitute the + development of the cell.... It is a curious and significant fact + that, in technology, we not only utilize the same principle of + initiating extensive changes among comparatively stable compounds by + the help of compounds much less stable, but we employ for the + purpose compounds of the same general class. Our modern method of + firing a gun is to place in close proximity with the gunpowder which + we choose to decompose or explode, a small portion of fulminating + powder, which is decomposed or exploded with extreme facility, and + which on decomposing, communicates the consequent molecular + disturbances to the less easily decomposed gunpowder. When we ask + what this fulminating powder is composed of, we find that it is a + nitrogenous salt."--Spencer. + + 11 Of course, the geometric progression does not represent _precisely_ + the law of human progression; it is here employed because it is + familiar and serves, better perhaps than any other simple + mathematical means, to show _roughly_ how human progress goes on. + The essential elements of a progression are the first term _P_ and + the ratio _R_ and the number of the terms _T_; in the human + progression _PR__1__, PR__2__, PR__3__, ... PR__T__, P_ is the + starting status of the first generation, _R_ is the peculiar + capacity of humans to bind time and is a _free gift_ and _law_ of + _nature_, which it would be folly not to recognize and accept as + such, _T_ is time, or number of generations. It is obvious that the + magnitude, _PR__T_, is entirely dependent on the magnitudes of _PR_, + and _T_. The existence of _R_ and _T_ is independent of humans, _R_ + being a law of nature, _T_ a gift of nature, _P_ the starting status + of the initial generation. With _P = 0_ or _R = 0_ THERE WOULD BE NO + PROGRESS or progression at all; each term in the case of human + progression is mainly dependent upon the time and the work done by + the dead. The existence of _R_ and _T_ is entirely beyond human + control. Humans can control only the MAGNITUDE of those elements by + education. Here comes the tremendous responsibility of education. It + is not necessary to use much imagination to see that if humanity had + always been rightly educated, science would have long ago discovered + the natural forces and laws essential to human welfare, and human + misery would to-day be relatively small. + + 12 See Appendix III. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANHOOD OF HUMANITY.*** + + + +CREDITS + + +May 13, 2008 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Greg Weeks, La Monte H.P. Yarrol, David King, and + the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at + <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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