diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:19:21 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:19:21 -0700 |
| commit | 6874b6be59bda2357fd2207af2e7623123630a6a (patch) | |
| tree | a31364f1a8af39b74febbe9e9a7c1869e812619f | |
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 2539-8.txt | 10103 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 2539-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 245704 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 2539-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 252758 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 2539-h/2539-h.htm | 10642 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 2539.txt | 10103 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 2539.zip | bin | 0 -> 245644 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/2malay10.txt | 10987 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/2malay10.zip | bin | 0 -> 244987 bytes |
11 files changed, 41851 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/2539-8.txt b/2539-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f3f9a30 --- /dev/null +++ b/2539-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10103 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred Russell Wallace + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Malay Archipelago + Volume II. (of II.) + +Author: Alfred Russell Wallace + +Posting Date: December 1, 2008 [EBook #2539] +Release Date: February, 2001 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO *** + + + + +Produced by Martin Adamson + + + + + +THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO + +VOLUME II. (of II.) + +by Alfred R. Wallace + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. THE MOLUCCAS--TERNATE. + +ON the morning of the 8th of January, 1858, I arrived at Ternate, the +fourth of a row of fine conical volcanic islands which shirt the west +coast of the large and almost unknown island of Gilolo. The largest +and most perfectly conical mountain is Tidore, which is over four +thousand Feet high--Ternate being very nearly the same height, but with +a more rounded and irregular summit. The town of Ternate is concealed +from view till we enter between the two islands, when it is discovered +stretching along the shore at the very base of the mountain. Its +situation is fine, and there are grand views on every side. Close +opposite is the rugged promontory and beautiful volcanic cone of Tidore; +to the east is the long mountainous coast of Gilolo, terminated towards +the north by a group of three lofty volcanic peaks, while immediately +behind the town rises the huge mountain, sloping easily at first and +covered with thick groves of fruit trees, but soon becoming steeper, +and furrowed with deep gullies. Almost to the summit, whence issue +perpetually faint wreaths of smoke, it is clothed with vegetation, +and looks calm and beautiful, although beneath are hidden fires which +occasionally burst forth in lava-streams, but more frequently make their +existence known by the earthquakes which have many times devastated the +town. + +I brought letters of introduction to Mr. Duivenboden, a native of +Ternate, of an ancient Dutch family, but who was educated in England, +and speaks our language perfectly. He was a very rich man, owned half +the town, possessed many ships, and above a hundred slaves. He +was moreover, well educated, and fond of literature and science--a +phenomenon in these regions. He was generally known as the king of +Ternate, from his large property and great influence with the native +Rajahs and their subjects. Through his assistance I obtained a house; +rather ruinous, but well adapted to my purpose, being close to the town, +yet with a free outlet to the country and the mountain. A few needful +repairs were soon made, some bamboo furniture and other necessaries +obtained, and after a visit to the Resident and Police Magistrate I +found myself an inhabitant of the earthquake-tortured island of Ternate, +and able to look about me and lay down the plan of my campaign for the +ensuing year. I retained this house for three years, as I found it very +convenient to have a place to return to after my voyages to the +various islands of the Moluccas and New Guinea, where I could pack +my collections, recruit my health, and make preparations for future +journeys. To avoid repetitions, I will in this chapter combine what +notes I have about Ternate. + +A description of my house (the plan of which is here shown) will +enable the reader to understand a very common mode of building in these +islands. There is of course only one floor. The walls are of stone up to +three feet high; on this are strong squared posts supporting the roof, +everywhere except in the verandah filled in with the leaf-stems of the +sago-palm, fitted neatly in wooden owing. The floor is of stucco, +and the ceilings are like the walls. The house is forty feet square, +consists of four rooms, a hall, and two verandahs, and is surrounded +by a wilderness of fruit trees. A deep well supplied me with pure cold +water, a great luxury in this climate. Five minutes' walk down the road +brought me to the market and the beach, while in the opposite direction +there were no more European houses between me and the mountain. In this +house I spent many happy days. Returning to it after a three or four +months' absence in some uncivilized region, I enjoyed the unwonted +luxuries of milk and fresh bread, and regular supplies of fish and eggs, +meat and vegetables, which were often sorely needed to restore my health +and energy. I had ample space and convenience or unpacking, sorting, and +arranging my treasures, and I had delightful walks in the suburbs of the +town, or up the lower slopes of the mountain, when I desired a little +exercise, or had time for collecting. + +The lower part of the mountain, behind the town of Ternate, is almost +entirely covered with a forest of fruit trees, and during the season +hundreds of men and women, boys and girls, go up every day to bring down +the ripe fruit. Durians and Mangoes, two of the very finest tropical +fruits, are in greater abundance at Ternate than I have ever seen them, +and some of the latter are of a quality not inferior to any in the +world. Lansats and Mangustans are also abundant, but these do not ripen +till a little later. Above the fruit trees there is a belt of clearings +and cultivated grounds, which creep up the mountain to a height of +between two and three thousand feet, above which is virgin forest, +reaching nearly to the summit, which on the side next the town is +covered with a high reedy grass. On the further side it is more +elevated, of a bare and desolate aspect, with a slight depression +marking the position of the crater. From this part descends a black +scoriaceous tract; very rugged, and covered with a scanty vegetation of +scattered bushes as far down as the sea. This is the lava of the +great eruption near a century ago, and is called by the natives +"batu-angas"(burnt rock). + +Just below my house is the fort, built by the Portuguese, below which is +an open space to the peach, and beyond this the native town extends for +about a mile to the north-east. About the centre of it is the palace +of the Sultan, now a large untidy, half-ruinous building of stone. This +chief is pensioned by the Dutch Government, but retains the sovereignty +over the native population of the island, and of the northern part of +Gilolo. The sultans of Ternate and Tidore were once celebrated through +the East for their power and regal magnificence. When Drake visited +Ternate in 1579, the Portuguese had been driven out of the island, +although they still had a settlement at Tidore. He gives a glowing +account of the Sultan: "The King had a very rich canopy with embossings +of gold borne over him, and was guarded with twelve lances. From the +waist to the ground was all cloth of gold, and that very rich; in the +attire of his head were finely wreathed in, diverse rings of plaited +gold, of an inch or more in breadth, which made a fair and princely +show, somewhat resembling a crown in form; about his neck he had a chain +of perfect gold, the links very great and one fold double; on his left +hand was a diamond, an emerald, a ruby, and a turky; on his right hand +in one ring a big and perfect turky, and in another ring many diamonds +of a smaller size." + +All this glitter of barbaric gold was the produce of the spice trade, of +which the Sultans kept the monopoly, and by which they became wealthy. +Ternate, with the small islands in a line south of it, as far as +Batchian, constitute the ancient Moluccas, the native country of the +clove, as well as the only part in which it was cultivated. Nutmegs +and mace were procured from the natives of New Guinea and the adjacent +islands, where they grew wild; and the profits on spice cargoes were so +enormous, that the European traders were glad to give gold and jewels, +and the finest manufactures of Europe or of India, in exchange. When the +Dutch established their influence in these seas, and relieved the native +princes from their Portuguese oppressors, they saw that the easiest +way to repay themselves would be to get this spice trade into their own +hands. For this purpose they adopted the wise principle of concentrating +the culture of these valuable products in those spots only of which they +could have complete control. To do this effectually it was necessary to +abolish the culture and trade in all other places, which they succeeded +in doing by treaty with the native rulers. These agreed to have all the +spice trees in their possessions destroyed. They gave up large though +fluctuating revenues, but they gained in return a fixed subsidy, freedom +from the constant attacks and harsh oppressions of the Portuguese, and a +continuance of their regal power and exclusive authority over their own +subjects, which is maintained in all the islands except Ternate to this +day. + +It is no doubt supposed by most Englishmen, who have been accustomed to +look upon this act of the Dutch with vague horror, as something +utterly unprincipled and barbarous, that the native population suffered +grievously by this destruction of such valuable property. But it is +certain that this was not the case. The Sultans kept this lucrative +trade entirely in their own hands as a rigid monopoly, and they would +take care not to give, their subjects more than would amount to their +usual wages, while: they would surely exact as large a quantity of spice +as they could possibly obtain. Drake and other early voyagers always +seem to have purchased their spice-cargoes from the Sultans and Rajahs, +and not from the cultivators. Now the absorption of so much labour in +the cultivation of this one product must necessarily have raised the +price of food and other necessaries; and when it was abolished, +more rice would be grown, more sago made, more fish caught, and more +tortoise-shell, rattan, gum-dammer, and other valuable products of the +seas and the forests would be obtained. I believe, therefore, that this +abolition of the spice trade in the Moluccas was actually beneficial to +the inhabitants, and that it was an act both wise in itself and morally +and politically justifiable. + +In the selection of the places in which to carry on the cultivation, +the Dutch were not altogether fortunate or wise. Banda was chosen for +nutmegs, and was eminently successful, since it continues to this day +to produce a large supply of this spice, and to yield a considerable +revenue. Amboyna was fixed upon for establishing the clove cultivation; +but the soil and climate, although apparently very similar to that of +its native islands, is not favourable, and for some years the Government +have actually been paying to the cultivators a higher rate than they +could purchase cloves elsewhere, owing to a great fall in the price +since the rate of payment was fixed for a term of years by the Dutch +Government, and which rate is still most honourably paid. + +In walking about the suburbs of Ternate, we find everywhere the ruins of +massive stone and brick buildings, gateways and arches, showing at once +the superior wealth of the ancient town and the destructive effects of +earthquakes. It was during my second stay in the town, after my return +from New Guinea, that I first felt an earthquake. It was a very slight +one, scarcely more than has been felt in this country, but occurring in +a place that lad been many times destroyed by them it was rather more +exciting. I had just awoke at gun-fire (5 A.M.), when suddenly the +thatch began to rustle and shake as if an army of cats were galloping +over it, and immediately afterwards my bed shook too, so that for an +instant I imagined myself back in New Guinea, in my fragile house, which +shook when an old cock went to roost on the ridge; but remembering that +I was now on a solid earthen floor, I said to myself, "Why, it's an +earthquake," and lay still in the pleasing expectation of another shock; +but none came, and this was the only earthquake I ever felt in Ternate. + +The last great one was in February 1840, when almost every house in the +place was destroyed. It began about midnight on the Chinese New Year's +festival, at which time every one stays up nearly all night feasting +at the Chinamen's houses and seeing the processions. This prevented +any lives being lost, as every one ran out of doors at the first shock, +which was not very severe. The second, a few minutes afterwards, threw +down a great many houses, and others, which continued all night and part +of the next day, completed the devastation. The line of disturbance +was very narrow, so that the native town a mile to the east scarcely +suffered at all. The wave passed from north to south, through the +islands of Tidore and Makian, and terminated in Batchian, where it was +not felt till four the following afternoon, thus taking no less than +sixteen hours to travel a hundred miles, or about six miles an hour. It +is singular that on this occasion there was no rushing up of the tide, +or other commotion of the sea, as is usually the case during great +earthquakes. + +The people of Ternate are of three well-marked races the Ternate Malays, +the Orang Sirani, and the Dutch. The first are an intrusive Malay race +somewhat allied to the Macassar people, who settled in the country at a +very early epoch, drove out the indigenes, who were no doubt the same +as those of the adjacent mainland of Gilolo, and established a monarchy. +They perhaps obtained many of their wives from the natives, which will +account for the extraordinary language they speak--in some respects +closely allied to that of the natives of Gilolo, while it contains +much that points to a Malayan origin. To most of these people the Malay +language is quite unintelligible, although such as are engaged in trade +are obliged to acquire it. "Orang Sirani," or Nazarenes, is the name +given by the Malays to the Christian descendants of the Portuguese, who +resemble those of Amboyna, and, like them, speak only Malay. There are +also a number of Chinese merchants, many of them natives of the place, +a few Arabs, and a number of half-breeds between all these races and +native women. Besides these there are some Papuan slaves, and a few +natives of other islands settled here, making up a motley and very +puzzling population, till inquiry and observation have shown the +distinct origin of its component parts. + +Soon after my first arrival in Ternate I went to the island of Gilolo, +accompanied by two sons of Mr. Duivenboden, and by a young Chinaman, a +brother of my landlord, who lent us the boat and crew. These latter +were all slaves, mostly Papuans, and at starting I saw something of the +relation of master and slave in this part of the world. The crew had +been ordered to be ready at three in the morning, instead of which none +appeared till five, we having all been kept waiting in the dark and +cold for two hours. When at length they came they were scolded by their +master, but only in a bantering manner, and laughed and joked with +him in reply. Then, just as we were starting, one of the strongest men +refused to go at all, and his master had to beg and persuade him to go, +and only succeeded by assuring him that I would give him something; so +with this promise, and knowing that there would be plenty to eat and +drink and little to do, the black gentleman was induced to favour us +with his company and assistance. In three hours' rowing and sailing we +reached our destination, Sedingole, where there is a house belonging to +the Sultan of Tidore, who sometimes goes there hunting. It was a dirty +ruinous shed, with no furniture but a few bamboo bedsteads. On taking +a walk into the country, I saw at once that it was no place for me. +For many miles extends a plain covered with coarse high grass, thickly +dotted here and there with trees, the forest country only commencing +at the hills a good way in the interior. Such a place would produce few +birds and no insects, and we therefore arranged to stay only two days, +and then go on to Dodinga, at the narrow central isthmus of Gilolo, +whence my friends would return to Ternate. We amused ourselves shooting +parrots, lories, and pigeons, and trying to shoot deer, of which we saw +plenty, but could not get one; and our crew went out fishing with a net, +so we did not want for provisions. When the time came for us to continue +our journey, a fresh difficulty presented itself, for our gentlemen +slaves refused in a body to go with us; saying very determinedly that +they would return to Ternate. So their masters were obliged to submit, +and I was left behind to get to Dodinga as I could. Luckily I succeeded +in hiring a small boat, which took me there the same night, with my two +men and my baggage. + +Two or three years after this, and about the same length of time before +I left the East, the Dutch emancipated all their slaves, paying their +owners a small compensation. No ill results followed. Owing to the +amicable relations which had always existed between them and their +masters, due no doubt in part to the Government having long accorded +them legal rights and protection against cruelty and ill-usage, many +continued in the same service, and after a little temporary difficulty +in some cases, almost all returned to work either for their old or for +new, masters. The Government took the very proper step of placing every +emancipated slave under the surveillance of the police-magistrate. They +were obliged to show that they were working for a living, and had some +honestly-acquired means of existence. All who could not do so were +placed upon public works at low wages, and thus were kept from the +temptation to peculation or other crimes, which the excitement of +newly-acquired freedom, and disinclination to labour, might have led +them into. + + + +CHAPTER XXII. GILOLO. + +(MARCH AND SEPTEMBER 1858.) + +I MADE but few and comparatively short visits to this large and little +known island, but obtained a considerable knowledge of its natural +history by sending first my boy Ali, and then my assistant, Charles +Allen, who stayed two or three months each in the northern peninsula, +and brought me back large collections of birds and insects. In this +chapter I propose to give a sketch of the parts which I myself visited. +My first stay was at Dodinga, situated at the head of a deep-bay +exactly opposite Ternate, and a short distance up a little stream +which penetrates a few miles inland. The village is a small one, and is +completely shut in by low hills. + +As soon as I arrived, I applied to the head man of the village for a +house to live in, but all were occupied, and there was much difficulty +in finding one. In the meantime I unloaded my baggage on the beach and +made some tea, and afterwards discovered a small but which the owner was +willing to vacate if I would pay him five guilders for a month's rent. +As this was something less than the fee-simple value of the dwelling, +I agreed to give it him for the privilege of immediate occupation, only +stipulating that he was to make the roof water-tight. This he agreed +to do, and came every day to tally and look at me; and when I each time +insisted upon his immediately mending the roof according to contract, +all the answer I could get was, "Ea nanti," (Yes, wait a little.) +However, when I threatened to deduct a quarter guilder from the rent for +every day it was not done, and a guilder extra if any of my things were +wetted, he condescended to work for half an hour, which did all that was +absolutely necessary. + +On the top of a bank, of about a hundred feet ascent from the water, +stands the very small but substantial fort erected by the Portuguese. +Its battlements and turrets have long since been overthrown by +earthquakes, by which its massive structure has also been rent; but it +cannot well be thrown down, being a solid mass of stonework, forming +a platform about ten feet high, and perhaps forty feet square. It is +approached by narrow steps under an archway, and is now surmounted by a +row of thatched hovels, in which live the small garrison, consisting of, +a Dutch corporal and four Javanese soldiers, the sole representatives +of the Netherlands Government in the island. The village is occupied +entirely by Ternate men. The true indigenes of Gilolo, "Alfuros" as they +are here called, live on the eastern coast, or in the interior of the +northern peninsula. The distance across the isthmus at this place is +only two miles, and there, is a good path, along which rice and sago +are brought from the eastern villages. The whole isthmus is very rugged, +though not high, being a succession of little abrupt hills anal valleys, +with angular masses of limestone rock everywhere projecting, and often +almost blocking up the pathway. Most of it is virgin forest, very +luxuriant and picturesque, and at this time having abundance of large +scarlet Ixoras in flower, which made it exceptionally gay. I got some +very nice insects here, though, owing to illness most of the time, my +collection was a small one, and my boy Ali shot me a pair of one of the +most beautiful birds of the East, Pitta gigas, a lame ground-thrush, +whose plumage of velvety black above is relieved by a breast of pure +white, shoulders of azure blue, and belly of vivid crimson. It has very +long and strong legs, and hops about with such activity in the dense +tangled forest, bristling with rocks, as to make it very difficult to +shoot. + +In September 1858, after my return from New Guinea, I went to stay +some time at the village of Djilolo, situated in a bay on the northern +peninsula. Here I obtained a house through the kindness of the Resident +of Ternate, who sent orders to prepare one for me. The first walk into +the unexplored forests of a new locality is a moment of intense interest +to the naturalist, as it is almost sure to furnish him with something +curious or hitherto unknown. The first thing I saw here was a flock of +small parroquets, of which I shot a pair, and was pleased to find a most +beautiful little long-tailed bird, ornamented with green, red, and +blue colours, and quite new to me. It was a variety of the Charmosyna +placentis, one of the smallest and most elegant of the brush-tongued +lories. My hunters soon shot me several other fine birds, and I myself +found a specimen of the rare and beautiful day-flying moth, Cocytia +d'Urvillei. + +The village of Djilolo was formerly the chief residence of the Sultans +of Ternate, till about eighty years ago, when at the request of the +Dutch they removed to their present abode. The place was then no doubt +much more populous, as is indicated by the wide extent of cleared +land in the neighbourhood, now covered with coarse high grass, very +disagreeable to walk through, and utterly barren to the naturalist. A +few days' exploring showed me that only some small patches of forest +remained for miles wound, and the result was a scarcity of insects and +a very limited variety of birds, which obliged me to change my locality. +There was another village called Sahoe, to which there was a road of +about twelve miles overland, and this had been recommended to me as +a good place for birds, and as possessing a large population both of +Mahomotans and Alfuros, which latter race I much wished to see. I set +off one morning to examine this place myself, expecting to pass +through some extent of forest on my way. In this however I was much +disappointed, as the whole road lies through grass and scrubby thickets, +and it was only after reaching the village of Sahoe that some high +forest land was perceived stretching towards the mountains to the north +of it. About half-way we dad to pass a deep river on a bamboo raft, +which almost sunk beneath us. This stream was said to rise a long way +off to the northward. + +Although Sahoe did not at all appear what I expected, I determined to +give it a trial, and a few days afterwards obtained a boat to carry +my things by sea while I walked overland. A large house on the beach +belonging to the Sultan was given me. It stood alone, and was quite +open on every side, so that little privacy could be had, but as I only +intended to stay a short time I made it do. Avery, few days dispelled +all hopes I might have entertained of making good collections in this +place. Nothing was to be found in every direction but interminable +tracts of reedy grass, eight or ten feet high, traversed by narrow +baths, often almost impassable. Here and there were clumps of fruit +trees, patches of low wood, and abundance of plantations and rice +grounds, all of which are, in tropical regions, a very desert for the +entomologist. The virgin forest that I was in search of, existed only +on the summits and on the steep rocky sides of the mountains a long way +off, and in inaccessible situations. In the suburbs of the village I +found a fair number of bees and wasps, and some small but interesting +beetles. Two or three new birds were obtained by my hunters, and by +incessant inquiries and promises I succeeded in getting the natives to +bring me some land shells, among which was a very fine and handsome +one, Helix pyrostoma. I was, however, completely wasting my time here +compared with what I might be doing in a good locality, and after a +week returned to Ternate, quite disappointed with my first attempts at +collecting in Gilolo. + +In the country round about Sahoe, and in the interior, there is a large +population of indigenes, numbers of whom came daily into the village, +bringing their produce for sale, while others were engaged as labourers +by the Chinese and Ternate traders. A careful examination convinced me +that these people are radically distinct from all the Malay races. Their +stature and their features, as well as their disposition and habits, +are almost the same as those of the Papuans; their hair is +semi-Papuan-neither straight, smooth, and glossy, like all true Malays', +nor so frizzly and woolly as the perfect Papuan type, but always crisp, +waved, and rough, such as often occurs among the true Papuans, but never +among the Malays. Their colour alone is often exactly that of the Malay, +or even lighter. Of course there has been intermixture, and there occur +occasionally individuals which it is difficult to classify; but in most +cases the large, somewhat aquiline nose, with elongated apex, the tall +stature, the waved hair, the bearded face, and hairy body, as well as +the less reserved manner and louder voice, unmistakeably proclaim the +Papuan type. Here then I had discovered the exact boundary lice between +the Malay and Papuan races, and at a spot where no other writer had +expected it. I was very much pleased at this determination, as it +gave me a clue to one of the most difficult problems in Ethnology, +and enabled me in many other places to separate the two races, and to +unravel their intermixtures. + +On my return from Waigiou in 1860, I stayed some days on the southern +extremity of Gilolo; but, beyond seeing something more of its structure +and general character, obtained very little additional information. +It is only in the northern peninsula that there are any indígenes, the +whole of the rest of the island, with Batchian and the other islands +westward, being exclusively inhabited by Malay tribes, allied to those +of Ternate and Tidore. This would seem to indicate that the Alfuros were +a comparatively recent immigration, and that they lead come from the +north or east, perhaps from some of the islands of the Pacific. It is +otherwise difficult to understand how so many fertile districts should +possess no true indigenes. + +Gilolo, or Halmaheira as it is called by the Malays and Dutch, seems +to have been recently modified by upheaval and subsidence. In 1673, a +mountain is said to stave been upheaved at Gamokonora on the northern +peninsula. All the parts that I have seen have either been volcanic +or coralline, and along the coast there are fringing coral reefs very +dangerous to navigation. At the same time, the character of its natural +history proves it to be a rather ancient land, since it possesses a +number of animals peculiar to itself or common to the small islands +around it, but almost always distinct from those of New Guinea on the +east, of Ceram on the south, and of Celebes and the Sula islands on the +west. + +The island of Morty, close to the north-eastern extremity of Gilolo, was +visited by my assistant Charles Allen, as well as by Dr. Bernstein; and +the collections obtained there present some curious differences from +those of the main island. About fifty-six species of land-birds are +known to inhabit this island, and of these, a kingfisher (Tanysiptera +Boris), a honey-sucker (Tropidorhynchus fuscicapillus), and a large +crow-like starling (Lycocorax morotensis), are quite distinct from +allied species found in Gilolo. The island is coralline and sandy, and +we must therefore believe it to have been separated from Gilolo at a +somewhat remote epoch; while we learn from its natural history that an +arm of the sea twenty-five miles wide serves to limit the range even of +birds of considerable powers of flight. + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. TERNATE TO THE KAIOA ISLANDS AND BATCHIAN. + +(OCTOBER 1858.) + +ON returning to Ternate from Sahoe, I at once began making preparations +for a journey to Batchian, an island which I had been constantly +recommended to visit since I had arrived in this part of the Moluccas. +After all was ready I found that I should have to hire a boat, as no +opportunity of obtaining a passage presented itself. I accordingly went +into the native town, and could only find two boats for hire, one much +larger than I required, and the other far smaller than I wished. I chose +the smaller one, chiefly because it would not cost me one-third as much +as the larger one, and also because in a coasting voyage a small vessel +can be more easily managed, and more readily got into a place of safety +during violent gales, than a large one. I took with me my Bornean lad +Ali, who was now very useful to me; Lahagi, a native of Ternate, a very +good steady man, and a fair shooter, who had been with me to New Guinea; +Lahi, a native of Gilolo, who could speak Malay, as woodcutter and +general assistant; and Garo, a boy who was to act as cook. As the boat +was so small that we had hardly room to stow ourselves away when all my +stores were on board, I only took one other man named Latchi, as pilot. +He was a Papuan slave, a tall, strong black fellow, but very civil and +careful. The boat I had hired from a Chinaman named Lau Keng Tong, for +five guilders a month. + +We started on the morning of October 9th, but had not got a hundred +yards from land, when a strong head wind sprung up, against which we +could not row, so we crept along shore to below the town, and waited +till the turn of the tide should enable us to cross over to the coast of +Tidore. About three in the afternoon we got off, and found that our boat +sailed well, and would keep pretty close to the wind. We got on a good +way before the wind fell and we had to take to our oars again. We landed +on a nice sandy beach to cook our suppers, just as the sun set behind +the rugged volcanic hills, to the south of the great cone of Tidore, +and soon after beheld the planet Venus shining in the twilight with the +brilliancy of a new moon, and casting a very distinct shadow. We left +again a little before seven, and as we got out from the shadow of the +mountain I observed a bright light over one part of the edge, and soon +after, what seemed a fire of remarkable whiteness on the very summit of +the hill. I called the attention of my men to it, and they too thought +it merely a fire; but a few minutes afterwards, as we got farther off +shore, the light rose clear up above the ridge of the hill, and some +faint clouds clearing away from it, discovered the magnificent comet +which was at the same time, astonishing all Europe. The nucleus +presented to the naked eye a distinct disc of brilliant white light, +from which the tail rose at an angle of about 30° or 35° with the +horizon, curving slightly downwards, and terminating in a broad brush +of faint light, the curvature of which diminished till it was nearly +straight at the end. The portion of the tail next the comet appeared +three or four tunes as bright as the most luminous portion of the milky +way, and what struck me as a singular feature was that its upper margin, +from the nucleus to very near the extremity, was clearly and almost +sharply defined, while the lower side gradually shaded off into +obscurity. Directly it rose above the ridge of the hill, I said to my +men, "See, it's not a fire, it's a bintang ber-ekor" ("tailed-star," the +Malay idiom for a comet). "So it is," said they; and all declared that +they had often heard tell of such, but had never seen one till now. I +had no telescope with me, nor any instrument at hand, but I estimated +the length of the tail at about 20°, and the width, towards the +extremity, about 4° or 5°. + +The whole of the next day we were obliged to stop near the village of +Tidore, owing to a strong wind right in our teeth. The country was all +cultivated, and I in vain searched for any insects worth capturing. One +of my men went out to shoot, but returned home without a single bird. At +sunset, the wind having dropped, we quitted Tidore, and reached the +next island, March, where we stayed till morning. The comet was again +visible, but not nearly so brilliant, being partly obscured by clouds; +and dimmed by the light of the new moon. We then rowed across to the +island of Motir, which is so surrounded with coral-reefs that it is +dangerous to approach. These are perfectly flat, and are only covered at +high water, ending in craggy vertical walls of coral in very deep water. +When there is a little wind, it is dangerous to come near these rocks; +but luckily it was quite smooth, so we moored to their edge, while the +men crawled over the reef to the land, to make; a fire and cook our +dinner-the boat having no accommodation for more than heating water for +my morning and evening coffee. We then rowed along the edge of the reef +to the end of the island, and were glad to get a nice westerly breeze, +which carried us over the strait to the island of Makian, where we +arrived about 8 P.M, The sky was quite clear, and though the moon shone +brightly, the comet appeared with quite as much splendour as when we +first saw it. + +The coasts of these small islands are very different according to their +geological formation. The volcanoes, active or extinct, have steep black +beaches of volcanic sand, or are fringed with rugged masses of lava and +basalt. Coral is generally absent, occurring only in small patches in +quiet bays, and rarely or never forming reefs. Ternate, Tidore, and +Makian belong to this class. Islands of volcanic origin, not themselves +volcanoes, but which have been probably recently upraised, are generally +more or less completely surrounded by fringing reefs of coral, and +have beaches of shining white coral sand. Their coasts present volcanic +conglomerates, basalt, and in some places a foundation of stratified +rocks, with patches of upraised coral. Mareh and Motir are of this +character, the outline of the latter giving it the appearance of having +been a true volcano, and it is said by Forrest to have thrown out +stones in 1778. The next day (Oct. 12th), we coasted along the island of +Makian, which consists of a single grand volcano. It was now quiescent, +but about two centuries ago (in 1646) there was a terrible eruption, +which blew up the whole top of the mountain, leaving the truncated +jagged summit and vast gloomy crater valley which at this time +distinguished it. It was said to have been as lofty as Tidore before +this catastrophe. [Soon after I' left the Archipelago, on the 29th of +December, 1862, another eruption of this mountain suddenly took place, +which caused great devastation in the island. All the villages and crops +were destroyed, and numbers of the inhabitants killed. The sand and +ashes fell so thick that the crops were partially destroyed fifty miles +off, at Ternate, where it was so dark the following day that lamps +had to be lighted at noon. For the position of this and the adjacent +islands, see the map in Chapter XXXVII.] + +I stayed some time at a place where I saw a new clearing on a very steep +part of the mountain, and obtained a few interesting insects. In the +evening we went on to the extreme southern point, to be ready to pass +across the fifteen-mile strait to the island of Kaiķa. At five the next +morning we started, but the wind, which had hitherto been westerly, now +got to the south and southwest, and we had to row almost all the way +with a burning sun overhead. As we approached land a fine breeze sprang +up, and we went along at a great pace; yet after an hour we were no +nearer, and found we were in a violent current carrying us out to sea. +At length we overcame it, and got on shore just as the sun set, having +been exactly thirteen hours coming fifteen miles. We landed on a beach +of hard coralline rock, with rugged cliffs of the same, resembling those +of the Ke Islands (Chap. XXIX.) It was accompanied by a brilliancy and +luxuriance of the vegetation, very like what I had observed at those +islands, which so much pleased me that I resolved to stay a few days +at the chief village, and see if their animal productions were +correspondingly interesting. While searching for a secure anchorage for +the night we again saw the comet, still apparently as brilliant as at +first, but the tail had now risen to a higher angle. + +October 14th.--All this day we coasted along the Kaiķa Islands, which +have much the appearance and outline of Ke on a small scale, with the +addition of flat swampy tracts along shore, and outlying coral reefs. +Contrary winds and currents had prevented our taking the proper course +to the west of them, and we had to go by a circuitous route round the +southern extremity of one island, often having to go far out to sea on +account of coral reefs. On trying to pass a channel through one of these +reefs we were grounded, and all had to get out into the water, which in +this shallow strait had been so heated by the sun as to be disagreeably +warm, and drag our vessel a considerable distance among weeds and +sponges, corals and prickly corallines. It was late at night when we +reached the little village harbour, and we were all pretty well knocked +up by hard work, and having had nothing but very brackish water to drink +all day-the best we could find at our last stopping-place. There was a +house close to the shore, built for the use of the Resident of Ternate +when he made his official visits, but now occupied by several native +travelling merchants, among whom I found a place to sleep. + +The next morning early I went to the village to find the "Kapala," or +head man. I informed him that I wanted to stay a few days in the house +at the landing, and begged him to have it made ready for me. He was very +civil, and came down at once to get it cleared, when we found that the +traders had already left, on hearing that I required it. There were no +doors to it, so I obtained the loan of a couple of hurdles to keep out +dogs and other animals. The land here was evidently sinking rapidly, +as shown by the number of trees standing in salt water dead and dying. +After breakfast I started for a walk to the forest-covered hill above +the village, with a couple of boys as guides. It was exceedingly hot and +dry, no rain having fallen for two months. When we reached an elevation +of about two hundred feet, the coralline rock which fringes the +shore was succeeded by a hard crystalline rock, a kind of metamorphic +sandstone. This would indicate flat there had been a recent elevation of +more than two hundred feet, which had still more recently clanged into +a movement of subsidence. The hill was very rugged, but among dry sticks +and fallen trees I found some good insects, mostly of forms and species +I was already acquainted with from Ternate and Gilolo. Finding no good +paths I returned, and explored the lower ground eastward of the village, +passing through a long range of plantain and tobacco grounds, encumbered +with felled and burnt logs, on which I found quantities of beetles of +the family Buprestidae of six different species, one of which was new +to me. I then reached a path in the swampy forest where I hoped to find +some butterflies, but was disappointed. Being now pretty well exhausted +by the intense heat, I thought it wise to return and reserve further +exploration for the next day. + +When I sat down in the afternoon to arrange my insects, the louse +was surrounded by men, women, and children, lost in amazement at my +unaccountable proceedings; and when, after pinning out the specimens, I +proceeded to write the name of the place on small circular tickets, and +attach one to each, even the old Kapala, the Mahometan priest, and some +Malay traders could not repress signs of astonishment. If they had +known a little more about the ways and opinions of white men, they +would probably have looked upon me as a fool or a madman, but in their +ignorance they accepted my operations as worthy of all respect, although +utterly beyond their comprehension. + +The next day (October 16th) I went beyond the swamp, and found a place +where a new clearing was being made in the virgin forest. It was a long +and hot walk, and the search among the fallen trunks and branches was +very fatiguing, but I was rewarded by obtaining about seventy distinct +species of beetles, of which at least a dozen were new to me, and many +others rare and interesting. I have never in my life seen beetles so +abundant as they were on this spot. Some dozen species of good-sized +golden Buprestidae, green rose-chafers (Lomaptera), and long-horned +weevils (Anthribidae), were so abundant that they rose up in swarms as I +walked along, filling the air with a loud buzzing hum. Along with these, +several fine Longicorns were almost equally common, forming such au +assemblage as for once to realize that idea of tropical luxuriance which +one obtains by looking over the drawers of a well-filled cabinet. On +the under sides of the trunks clung numbers of smaller or more sluggish +Longicorns, while on the branches at the edge of the clearing others +could be detected sitting with outstretched antenna ready to take flight +at the least alarm. It was a glorious spot, and one which will always +live in my memory as exhibiting the insect-life of the tropics in +unexampled luxuriance. For the three following days I continued to visit +this locality, adding each time many new species to my collection-the +following notes of which may be interesting to entomologists. October +15th, 33 species of beetles; 16th, 70 species; 17th, 47 species; 18th, +40 species; 19th, 56 species--in all about a hundred species, of which +forty were new to me. There were forty-four species of Longicorns among +them, and on the last day I took twenty-eight species of Longicorns, of +which five were new to me. + +My boys were less fortunate in shooting. The only birds at all common +were the great red parrot (Eclectus grandis), found in most of the +Moluccas, a crow, and a Megapodius, or mound-maker. A few of the pretty +racquet-tailed kingfishers were also obtained, but in very poor plumage. +They proved, however, to be of a different species from those found in +the other islands, and come nearest to the bird originally described by +Linnaeus under the name of Alcedo dea, and which came from Ternate. This +would indicate that the small chain of islands parallel to Gilolo have +a few peculiar species in common, a fact which certainly occurs in +insects. + +The people of Kaioa interested me much. They are evidently a mixed race, +having Malay and Papuan affinities, and are allied to the peoples +of Ternate and of Gilolo. They possess a peculiar language, somewhat +resembling those of the surrounding islands, but quite distinct. They +are now Mahometans, and are subject to Ternate, The only fruits seen +here were papaws and pine-apples, the rocky soil and dry climate being +unfavourable. Rice, maize, and plantains flourish well, except that +they suffer from occasional dry seasons like the present one. There is +a little cotton grown, from which the women weave sarongs (Malay +petticoats). There is only one well of good water on the islands, +situated close to the landing-place, to which all the inhabitants come +for drinking water. The men are good boat-builders, and they make a +regular trade of it and seem to be very well off. + +After five days at Kaiķa we continued our journey, and soon got among +the narrow straits and islands which lead down to the town of Batchian. +In the evening we stayed at a settlement of Galela men. These are +natives of a district in the extreme north of Gilolo, and are great +wanderers over this part of the Archipelago. They build large and roomy +praus with outriggers, and settle on any coast or island they take a +fancy for. They hunt deer and wild pig, drying the meat; they catch +turtle and tripang; they cut down the forest and plant rice or maize, +and are altogether remarkably energetic and industrious. They are very +line people, of light complexion, tall, and with Papuan features, coming +nearer to the drawings and descriptions of the true Polynesians of +Tahiti and Owyhee than any I have seen. + +During this voyage I had several times had an opportunity of seeing my +men get fire by friction. A sharp-edged piece of bamboo is rubbed across +the convex surface of another piece, on which a small notch is first +cut. The rubbing is slow at first and gradually quicker, till it becomes +very rapid, and the fine powder rubbed off ignites and falls through the +hole which the rubbing has cut in the bamboo. This is done with great +quickness and certainty. The Ternate, people use bamboo in another way. +They strike its flinty surface with a bit of broken china, and produce a +spark, which they catch in some kind of tinder. + +On the evening of October 21st we reached our destination, having been +twelve days on the voyage. It had been tine weather all the time, and, +although very hot, I had enjoyed myself exceedingly, and had besides +obtained some experience in boat work among islands and coral reefs, +which enabled me afterwards to undertake much longer voyages of the same +kind. The village or town of Batchian is situated at the head of a wide +and deep bay, where a low isthmus connects the northern and southern +mountainous parts of the island. To the south is a fine range of +mountains, and I had noticed at several of our landing-places that the +geological formation of the island was very different from those around +it. Whenever rock was visible it was either sandstone in thin layers, +dipping south, or a pebbly conglomerate. Sometimes there was a little +coralline limestone, but no volcanic rocks. The forest had a dense +luxuriance and loftiness seldom found on the dry and porous lavas and +raised coral reefs of Ternate and Gilolo; and hoping for a corresponding +richness in the birds and insects, it was with much satisfaction and +with considerable expectation that I began my explorations in the +hitherto unknown island of Batchian. + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. BATCHIAN. + +(OCTOBER 1858 To APRIL 1859.) + +I LANDED opposite the house kept for the use of the Resident of Ternate, +and was met by a respectable middle-aged Malay, who told me he was +Secretary to the Sultan, and would receive the official letter with +which I had been provided. On giving it him, he at once informed me I +might have the use of the official residence which was empty. I soon got +my things on shore, but on looking about me found that the house would +never do to stay long in. There was no water except at a considerable +distance, and one of my men would be almost entirely occupied getting +water and firewood, and I should myself have to walk all through the +village every day to the forest, and live almost in public, a thing I +much dislike. The rooms were all boarded, and had ceilings, which are a +great nuisance, as there are no means of hanging anything up except +by driving nails, and not half the conveniences of a native bamboo +and thatch cottage. I accordingly inquired for a house outside of the +village on the road to the coal mines, and was informed by the Secretary +that there was a small one belonging to the Sultan, and that he would go +with me early next morning to see it. + +We had to pass one large river, by a rude but substantial bridge, and +to wade through another fine pebbly stream of clear water, just beyond +which the little but was situated. It was very small, not raised on +posts, but with the earth for a floor, and was built almost entirely +of the leaf-stems of the sago-palm, called here "gaba-gaba." Across the +river behind rose a forest-clad bank, and a good road close in front of +the horse led through cultivated grounds to the forest about half a mile +on, and thence to the coal mines tour miles further. These advantages at +once decided me, and I told the Secretary I would be very glad to +occupy the house. I therefore sent my two men immediately to buy "ataps" +(palm-leaf thatch) to repair the roof, and the next day, with the +assistance of eight of the Sultan's men, got all my stores and furniture +carried up and pretty comfortably arranged. A rough bamboo bedstead was +soon constructed, and a table made of boards which I had brought with +me, fixed under the window. Two bamboo chairs, an easy cane chair, and +hanging shelves suspended with insulating oil cups, so as to be safe +from ants, completed my furnishing arrangements. + +In the afternoon succeeding my arrival, the Secretary accompanied me +to visit the Sultan. We were kept waiting a few minutes in an outer +gate-house, and then ushered to the door of a rude, half-fortified +whitewashed house. A small table and three chairs were placed in a large +outer corridor, and an old dirty-faced man with grey hair and a grimy +beard, dressed in a speckled blue cotton jacket and loose red trousers, +came forward, shook hands, and asked me to be coated. After a quarter +of an hour's conversation on my pursuits, in which his Majesty seemed to +take great interest, tea and cakes-of rather better quality than usual +on such occasions-were brought in. I thanked him for the house, and +offered to show him my collections, which he promised to come and look +at. He then asked me to teach him to take views-to make maps-to get him +a small gun from England, and a milch-goat from Bengal; all of which +requests I evaded as skilfully as I was able, and we parted very good +friends. He seemed a sensible old man, and lamented the small population +of the island, which he assured me was rich in many valuable minerals, +including gold; but there were not people enough to look after them +and work them. I described to him the great rush of population on the +discovery of the Australian gold mines, and the huge nuggets found +there, with which he was much interested, and exclaimed, "Oh? if we had +but people like that, my country would be quite as rich." + +The morning after I had got into my new house, I sent my boys out to +shoot, and went myself to explore the road to the coal mines. In less +than half a mile it entered the virgin forest, at a place where some +magnificent trees formed a kind of natural avenue. The first part was +flat and swampy, but it soon rose a little, and ran alongside the fine +stream which passed behind my house, and which here rushed and gurgled +over a rocky or pebbly bed, sometimes leaving wide sandbanks on its +margins, and at other places flowing between high banks crowned with +a varied and magnificent forest vegetation. After about two miles, the +valley narrowed, and the road was carried along the steep hill-side +which rose abruptly from the water's edge. In some places the rock had +been cut away, but its surface was already covered with elegant ferns +and creepers. Gigantic tree-ferns were abundant, and the whole forest +had an air of luxuriance and rich variety which it never attains in +the dry volcanic soil to which I had been lately accustomed. A little +further the road passed to the other side of the valley by a bridge +across the stream at a place where a great mass of rock in the middle +offered an excellent support for it, and two miles more of most +picturesque and interesting road brought me to the mining establishment. + +This is situated in a large open space, at a spot where two tributaries +fall into the main stream. Several forest-paths and new clearings +offered fine collecting grounds, and I captured some new and interesting +insects; but as it was getting late I had to reserve a more thorough +exploration for future occasions. Coal had been discovered here some +years before, and the road was made in order to bring down a sufficient +quantity for a fair trial on the Dutch steamers. The quality, however, +was not thought sufficiently good, and the mines were abandoned. Quite +recently, works had been commenced in another spot, in Hopes of finding +a better vein. There ware about eighty men employed, chiefly convicts; +but this was far too small a number for mining operations in such a +country, where the mere keeping a few miles of road in repair requires +the constant work of several men. If coal of sufficiently good quality +should be found, a tramroad would be made, and would be very easily +worked, owing to the regular descent of the valley. + +Just as I got home I overtook Ali returning from shooting with some +birch hanging from his belt. He seemed much pleased, and said, "Look +here, sir, what a curious bird," holding out what at first completely +puzzled me. I saw a bird with a mass of splendid green feathers on +its breast, elongated into two glittering tufts; but, what I could not +understand was a pair of long white feathers, which stuck straight out +from each shoulder. Ali assured me that the bird stuck them out this way +itself, when fluttering its wings, and that they had remained so without +his touching them. I now saw that I had got a great prize, no less than +a completely new form of the Bird of Paradise, differing most remarkably +from every other known bird. The general plumage is very sober, being +a pure ashy olive, with a purplish tinge on the back; the crown of the +head is beautifully glossed with pale metallic violet, and the feathers +of the front extend as much over the beak as inmost of the family. The +neck and breast are scaled with fine metallic green, and the feathers on +the lower part are elongated on each side, so as to form a two-pointed +gorget, which can be folded beneath the wings, or partially erected and +spread out in the same way as the side plumes of most of the birds of +paradise. The four long white plumes which give the bird its altogether +unique character, spring from little tubercles close to the upper edge +of the shoulder or bend of the wing; they are narrow, gentle curved, and +equally webbed on both sides, of a pure creamy white colour. They are +about six inches long, equalling the wing, and can be raised at right +angles to it, or laid along the body at the pleasure of the bird. The +bill is horn colour, the legs yellow, and the iris pale olive. This +striking novelty has been named by Mr. G. R. Gray of the British Museum, +Semioptera Wallacei, or "Wallace's Standard wing." + +A few days later I obtained an exceedingly beautiful new butterfly, +allied to the fine blue Papilio Ulysses, but differing from it in the +colour being of a more intense tint, and in having a row of blue stripes +around the margin of the lower wings. This good beginning was, however, +rather deceptive, and I soon found that insects, and especially +butterflies, were somewhat scarce, and birds in tar less variety than +I had anticipated. Several of the fine Moluccan species were however +obtained. The handsome red lory with green wings and a yellow spot in +the back (Lorius garrulus), was not uncommon. When the Jambu, or rose +apple (Eugenic sp.), was in flower in the village, flocks of the little +lorikeet (Charmosyna placentis), already met with in Gilolo, came to +feed upon the nectar, and I obtained as many specimens as I desired. +Another beautiful bird of the parrot tribe was the Geoffroyus +cyanicollis, a green parrot with a red bill and head, which colour +shaded on the crown into azure blue, and thence into verditer blue +and the green of the back. Two large and handsome fruit pigeons, with +metallic green, ashy, and rufous plumage, were not uncommon; and I was +rewarded by finding a splendid deep blue roller (Eurystomus azureus); +a lovely golden-capped sunbird (Nectarinea auriceps), and a fine +racquet-tailed kingfisher (Tanysiptera isis), all of which were entirely +new to ornithologists. Of insects I obtained a considerable number of +interesting beetles, including many fine longicorns, among which was the +largest and handsomest species of the genus Glenea yet discovered. Among +butterflies the beautiful little Danis sebae was abundant, making the +forests gay with its delicate wings of white and the richest metallic +blue; while showy Papilios, and pretty Pieridae, and dark, rich +Euphaeas, many of them new, furnished a constant source of interest and +pleasing occupation. + +The island of Batchian possesses no really indigenous inhabitants, the +interior being altogether uninhabited; and there are only a few small +villages on various parts of the coast; yet I found here four distinct +races, which would wofully mislead an ethnological traveller unable +to obtain information as to their origin, first there are the Batchian +Malays, probably the earliest colonists, differing very little from +those of Ternate. Their language, however, seems to have more of +the Papuan element, with a mixture of pure Malay, showing that +the settlement is one of stragglers of various races, although now +sufficiently homogeneous. Then there are the "Orang Sirani," as at +Ternate and Amboyna. Many of these have the Portuguese physiognomy +strikingly preserved, but combined with a skin generally darker than +the Malays. Some national customs are retained, and the Malay, which +is their only language, contains a large number of Portuguese words +and idioms. The third race consists of the Galela men from the north of +Gilolo, a singular people, whom I have already described; and the fourth +is a colony from Tomķre, in the eastern peninsula of Celebes. These +people were brought here at their own request a few years ago, to avoid +extermination by another tribe. They have a very light complexion, open +Tartar physiognomy, low stature, and a language of the Bugis type. +They are an industrious agricultural people, and supply the town with +vegetables. They make a good deal of bark cloth, similar to the tapa of +the Polynesians, by cutting down the proper trees and taping off large +cylinders of bark, which is beaten with mallets till it separates from +the wood. It is then soaked, and so continuously and regularly beaten +out that it becomes as thin and as tough as parchment. In this foam it +is much used for wrappers for clothes; and they also make jackets of it, +sewn neatly together and stained with the juice of another kind of bark, +which gives it a dark red colour and renders it nearly waterproof. + +Here are four very distinct kinds of people who may all be seen any +day in and about the town of Batchian. Now if we suppose a traveller +ignorant of Malay, picking up a word or two here and there of +the "Batchian language," and noting down the "physical and moral +peculiarities, manners, and customs of the Batchian people"--(for +there are travellers who do all this in four-and-twenty hours)--what an +accurate and instructive chapter we should have' what transitions would +be pointed out, what theories of the origin of races would be developed +while the next traveller might flatly contradict every statement and +arrive at exactly opposite conclusions. + +Soon after I arrived here the Dutch Government introduced a new copper +coinage of cents instead of doits (the 100th instead of the 120th part +of a guilder), and all the old coins were ordered to be sent to Ternate +to be changed. I sent a bag containing 6,000 doits, and duly received +the new money by return of the boat. Then Ali went to bring it, however, +the captain required a written order; so I waited to send again the next +day, and it was lucky I did so, for that night my house was entered, all +my boxes carried out and ransacked, and the various articles left on the +road about twenty yards off, where we found them at five in the morning, +when, on getting up and finding the house empty, we rushed out to +discover tracks of the thieves. Not being able to find the copper money +which they thought I had just received, they decamped, taking nothing +but a few yards of cotton cloth and a black coat and trousers, which +latter were picked up a few days afterwards hidden in the grass. There +was no doubt whatever who were the thieves. Convicts are employed to +guard the Government stores when the boat arrives from Ternate. Two of +them watch all night, and often take the opportunity to roam about and +commit robberies. + +The next day I received my money, and secured it well in a strong box +fastened under my bed. I took out five or six hundred cents for daily +expenses, and put them in a small japanned box, which always stood upon +my table. In the afternoon I went for a short walk, and on my return +this box and my keys, which I had carelessly left on the table, were +gone. Two of my boys were in the house, but had heard nothing. I +immediately gave information of the two robberies to the Director at the +mines and to the Commandant at the fort, and got for answer, that if +I caught the thief in the act I might shoot him. By inquiry in the +village, we afterwards found that one of the convicts who was on duty at +the Government rice-store in the village had quitted his guard, was +seen to pass over the bridge towards my house, was seen again within +two hundred yards of my house, and on returning over the bridge into +the village carried something under his arm, carefully covered with +his sarong. My box was stolen between the hours he was seen going +and returning, and it was so small as to be easily carried in the way +described. This seemed pretty clear circumstantial evidence. I accused +the man and brought the witnesses to the Commandant. The man was +examined, and confessed having gone to the river close to my house to +bathe; but said he had gone no farther, having climbed up a cocoa-nut +tree and brought home two nuts, which he had covered over, _because +he was ashamed to be seen carrying them!_ This explanation was thought +satisfactory, and he was acquitted. I lost my cash and my box, a seal +I much valued, with other small articles, and all my keys-the severest +loss by far. Luckily my large cash-box was left locked, but so were +others which I required to open immediately. There was, however, a very +clever blacksmith employed to do ironwork for the mines, and he picked +my locks for me when I required them, and in a few days made me new +keys, which I used all the time I was abroad. + +Towards the end of November the wet season set in, and we had daily and +almost incessant rains, with only about one or two hours' sunshine in +the morning. The flat parts of the forest became flooded, the roads +filled with mud, and insects and birds were scarcer than ever. On +December Lath, in the afternoon, we had a sharp earthquake shock, which +made the house and furniture shale and rattle for five minutes, and the +trees and shrubs wave as if a gust of wind had passed over them. About +the middle of December I removed to the village, in order more easily +to explore the district to the west of it, and to be near the sea when I +wished to return to Ternate. I obtained the use of a good-sized house in +the Campong Sirani (or Christian village), and at Christmas and the New +Year had to endure the incessant gun-firing, drum-beating, and fiddling +of the inhabitants. + +These people are very fond of music and dancing, and it would astonish +a European to visit one of their assemblies. We enter a gloomy palm-leaf +hut, in which two or three very dim lamps barely render darkness +visible. The floor is of black sandy earth, the roof hid in a smoky +impenetrable blackness; two or three benches stand against the walls, +and the orchestra consists of a fiddle, a fife, a drum, and a triangle. +There is plenty of company, consisting of young men and women, all very +neatly dressed in white and black--a true Portuguese habit. Quadrilles, +waltzes, polkas, and mazurkas are danced with great vigour and much +skill. The refreshments are muddy coffee and a few sweetmeats. Dancing +is kept up for hours, and all is conducted with much decorum and +propriety. A party of this kind meets about once a week, the principal +inhabitants taking it by turns, and all who please come in without much +ceremony. + +It is astonishing how little these people have altered in three hundred +years, although in that time they have changed their language and lost +all knowledge of their own nationality. They are still in manners and +appearance almost pure Portuguese, very similar to those with whom I had +become acquainted on the banks of the Amazon. They live very poorly as +regards their house and furniture, but preserve a semi-European dress, +and have almost all full suits of black for Sundays. They are nominally +Protestants, but Sunday evening is their grand day for music and +dancing. The men are often good hunters; and two or three times a week, +deer or wild pigs are brought to the village, which, with fish and +fowls, enables them to live well. They are almost the only people in +the Archipelago who eat the great fruit-eating bats called by us "flying +foxes." These ugly creatures are considered a great delicacy, and are +much sought after. At about the beginning of the year they come in large +flocks to eat fruit, and congregate during the day on some small islands +in the bay, hanging by thousands on the trees, especially on dead ones. +They can then be easily caught or knocked down with sticks, and are +brought home by basketsfull. They require to be carefully prepared, +as the skin and fur has a rank end powerful foxy odour; but they are +generally cooked with abundance of spices and condiments, and are really +very good eating, something like hare. The Orang Sirani are good cooks, +having a much greater variety of savoury dishes than the Malays. Here, +they live chiefly on sago as bread, with a little rice occasionally, and +abundance of vegetables and fruit. + +It is a curious fact that everywhere in the Past where the Portuguese +have mixed with the native races they leave become darker in colour than +either of the parent stocks. This is the case almost always with these +"Orang Sirani" in the Moluccas, and with the Portuguese of Malacca. +The reverse is the case in South America, where the mixture of the +Portuguese or Brazilian with the Indian produces the "Mameluco," who is +not unfrequently lighter than either parent, and always lighter than the +Indian. The women at Batchian, although generally fairer than the men, +are coarse in features, and very far inferior in beauty to the mixed +Dutch-Malay girls, or even to many pure Malays. + +The part of the village in which I resided was a grove of cocoa-nut +trees, and at night, when the dead leaves were sometimes collected +together and burnt, the effect was most magnificent--the tall stems, +the fine crowns of foliage, and the immense fruit-clusters, being +brilliantly illuminated against a dark sky, and appearing like a fairy +palace supported on a hundred columns, and groined over with leafy +arches. The cocoa-nut tree, when well grown, is certainly the prince of +palms both for beauty and utility. + +During my very first walk into the forest at Batchian, I had seen +sitting on a leaf out of reach, an immense butterfly of a dark colour +marked with white and yellow spots. I could not capture it as it flew +away high up into the forest, but I at once saw that it was a female of +a new species of Ornithoptera or "bird-winged butterfly," the pride of +the Eastern tropics. I was very anxious to get it and to find the +male, which in this genus is always of extreme beauty. During the two +succeeding months I only saw it once again, and shortly afterwards I saw +the male flying high in the air at the mining village. I had begun to +despair of ever getting a specimen, as it seemed so rare and wild; till +one day, about the beginning of January, I found a beautiful shrub with +large white leafy bracts and yellow flowers, a species of Mussaenda, and +saw one of these noble insects hovering over it, but it was too quick +for me, and flew away. The next clay I went again to the same shrub and +succeeded in catching a female, and the day after a fine male. I +found it to be as I had expected, a perfectly new and most magnificent +species, and one of the most gorgeously coloured butterflies in the +world. Fine specimens of the male are more than seven inches across +the wings, which are velvety black and fiery orange, the latter colour +replacing the green of the allied species. The beauty and brilliancy of +this insect are indescribable, and none but a naturalist can understand +the intense excitement I experienced when I at length captured it. On +taking it out of my net and opening the glorious wings, my heart began +to beat violently, the blood rushed to my head, and I felt much more +like fainting than I have done when in apprehension of immediate death. +I had a headache the rest of the day, so great was the excitement +produced by what will appear to most people a very inadequate cause. + +I had decided to return to Ternate in a week or two more, but this grand +capture determined me to stay on till I obtained a good series of +the new butterfly, which I have since named Ornithoptera croesus. The +Mussaenda bush was an admirable place, which I could visit every day +on my way to the forest; and as it was situated in a dense thicket of +shrubs and creepers, I set my man Lahi to clear a space all round it, so +that I could easily get at any insect that might visit it. Afterwards, +finding that it was often necessary to wait some time there, I had a +little seat put up under a tree by the side of it, where I came every +day to eat my lunch, and thus had half an hour's watching about noon, +besides a chance as I passed it in the morning. In this way I obtained +on an average one specimen a day for a long time, but more than half +of these were females, and more than half the remainder worn or broken +specimens, so that I should not have obtained many perfect males had I +not found another station for them. + +As soon as I had seen them come to flowers, I sent my man Lahi with a +net on purpose to search for them, as they had also been seen at some +flowering trees on the beach, and I promised him half a day's wages +extra for every good specimen he could catch. After a day or two he +brought me two very fair specimens, and told me he had caught them in +the bed of a large rocky stream that descends from the mountains to the +sea abort a mile below the village. They flew down this river, settling +occasionally on stones and rocks in the water, and he was obliged to +wade up it or jump from rock to rock to get at them. I went with him +one day, but found that the stream was far too rapid and the stones too +slippery for me to do anything, so I left it entirely to him, and all +the rest of the time we stayed in Batchian he used to be out all day, +generally bringing me one, and on good days two or three specimens. I +was thus able to bring away with me more than a hundred of both sexes, +including perhaps twenty very fine males, though not more than five or +six that were absolutely perfect. + +My daily walk now led me, first about half a mile along the sandy beach, +then through a sago swamp over a causeway of very shaky poles to the +village of the Tomore people. Beyond this was the forest with patches of +new clearing, shady paths, and a considerable quantity of felled timber. +I found this a very fair collecting ground, especially for beetles. +The fallen trunks in the clearings abounded with golden Buprestidae +and curious Brenthidae, and longicorns, while in the forest I found +abundance of the smaller Curculionidae, many longicorns, and some fine +green Carabidae. + +Butterflies were not abundant, but I obtained a few more of the fine +blue Papilio, and a number of beautiful little Lycaenidae, as well as a +single specimen of the very rare Papilio Wallacei, of which I had taken +the hitherto unique specimen in the Aru Islands. + +The most interesting birds I obtained here, were the beautiful blue +kingfisher, Todiramphus diops; the fine green and purple doves, +Ptilonopus superbus and P. iogaster, and several new birds of small +size. My shooters still brought me in specimens of the Semioptera +Wallacei, and I was greatly excited by the positive statements of +several of the native hunters that another species of this bird existed, +much handsomer and more remarkable. They declared that the plumage was +glossy black, with metallic green breast as in my species, but that the +white shoulder plumes were twice as long, and hung down far below the +body of the bird. They declared that when hunting pigs or deer far in +the forest they occasionally saw this bird, but that it was rare. I +immediately offered twelve guilders (a pound) for a specimen; but all in +vain, and I am to this day uncertain whether such a bird exists. Since +I left, the German naturalist, Dr. Bernstein, stayed many months in the +island with a large staff of hunters collecting for the Leyden Museum; +and as he was not more successful than myself, we must consider either +that the bird is very rare, or is altogether a myth. + +Batchian is remarkable as being the most eastern point on the globe +inhabited by any of the Quadrumana. A large black baboon-monkey +(Cynopithecus nigrescens) is abundant in some parts of the forest. This +animal has bare red callosities, and a rudimentary tail about an inch +long--a mere fleshy tubercle, which may be very easily overlooked. It is +the same species that is found all over the forests of Celebes, and +as none of the other Mammalia of that island extend into Batchian I am +inclined to suppose that this species has been accidentally introduced +by the roaming Malays, who often carry about with them tame monkeys +and other animals. This is rendered more probable by the fact that the +animal is not found in Gilolo, which is only separated from Batchian by +a very narrow strait. The introduction may have been very recent, as in +a fertile and unoccupied island such an animal would multiply rapidly. +The only other mammals obtained were an Eastern opossum, which Dr. Gray +has described as Cuscus ornatus; the little flying opossum, Belideus +ariel; a Civet cat, Viverra zebetha; and nice species of bats, most of +the smaller ones being caught in the dusk with my butterfly net as they +flew about before the house. + +After much delay, owing to bad weather and the illness of one of my men, +I determined to visit Kasserota (formerly the chief village), situated +up a small stream, on an island close to the north coast of Batchian; +where I was told that many rare birds were found. After my boat was +loaded and everything ready, three days of heavy squalls prevented our +starting, and it was not till the 21st of March that we got away. +Early next morning we entered the little river, and in about an hour we +reached the Sultan's house, which I had obtained permission to use. It +was situated on the bank of the river, and surrounded by a forest +of fruit trees, among which were some of the very loftiest and most +graceful cocoa-nut palms I have ever seen. It rained nearly all that +day, and I could do little but unload and unpack. Towards the afternoon +it cleared up, and I attempted to explore in various directions, but +found to my disgust that the only path was a perfect mud swamp, along +which it was almost impossible to walk, and the surrounding forest so +damp and dark as to promise little in the way of insects. I found too on +inquiry that the people here made no clearings, living entirely on sago, +fruit, fish, and game; and the path only led to a steep rocky mountain +equally impracticable and unproductive. The next day I sent my men to +this hill, hoping it might produce some good birds; but they returned +with only two common species, and I myself had been able to get nothing; +every little track I had attempted to follow leading to a dense sago +swamp. I saw that I should waste time by staying here, and determined to +leave the following day. + +This is one of those spots so hard for the European naturalist to +conceive, where with all the riches of a tropical vegetation, and partly +perhaps from the very luxuriance of that vegetation, insects are +as scarce as in the most barren parts of Europe, and hardly more +conspicuous. In temperate climates there is a tolerable uniformity in +the distribution of insects over those parts of a country in which there +is a similarity in the vegetation, any deficiency being easily accounted +for by the absence of wood or uniformity of surface. The traveller +hastily passing through such a country can at once pick out a collecting +ground which will afford him a fair notion of its entomology. Here the +case is different. There are certain requisites of a good collecting +ground which can only be ascertained to exist by some days' search in +the vicinity of each village. In some places there is no virgin forest, +as at Djilolo and Sahoe; in others there are no open pathways or +clearings, as here. At Batchian there are only two tolerable collecting +places,--the road to the coal mines, and the new clearings made by the +Tomķre people, the latter being by far the most productive. I believe +the fact to be that insects are pretty uniformly distributed over these +countries (where the forests have not been cleared away), and are so +scarce in any one spot that searching for them is almost useless. If the +forest is all cleared away, almost all the insects disappear with it; +but when small clearings and paths are made, the fallen trees in various +stages of drying and decay, the rotting leaves, the loosening bark and +the fungoid growths upon it, together with the flowers that appear +in much greater abundance where the light is admitted, are so many +attractions to the insects for miles around, and cause a wonderful +accumulation of species and individuals. When the entomologist can +discover such a spot, he does more in a mouth than he could possibly do +by a year's search in the depths of the undisturbed forest. + +The next morning we left early, and reached the mouth of the little +river in about au hour. It flows through a perfectly flat alluvial +plain, but there are hills which approach it near the mouth. Towards the +lower part, in a swamp where the salt-water must enter at high tides, +were a number of elegant tree-ferns from eight to fifteen feet high. +These are generally considered to be mountain plants, and rarely to +occur on the equator at an elevation of less than one or two thousand +feet. In Borneo, in the Aru Islands, and on the banks of the Amazon, I +have observed them at the level of the sea, and think it probable that +the altitude supposed to be requisite for them may have been deduced +from facts observed in countries where the plains and lowlands are +largely cultivated, and most of the indigenous vegetation destroyed. +Such is the case in most parts of Java, India, Jamaica, and Brazil, +where the vegetation of the tropics has been most fully explored. + +Coming out to sea we turned northwards, and in about two hours' +sail reached a few huts, called Langundi, where some Galela men had +established themselves as collectors of gum-dammar, with which they made +torches for the supply of the Ternate market. About a hundred yards back +rises a rather steep hill, and a short walk having shown me that there +was a tolerable path up it, I determined to stay here for a few days. +Opposite us, and all along this coast of Batchian, stretches a row of +fine islands completely uninhabited. Whenever I asked the reason why +no one goes to live in them, the answer always was, "For fear of the +Magindano pirates." Every year these scourges of the Archipelago wander +in one direction or another, making their rendezvous on some uninhabited +island, and carrying devastation to all the small settlements around; +robbing, destroying, killing, or taking captive all they nee with. Their +long well-manned praus escape from the pursuit of any sailing vessel by +pulling away right in the wind's eye, and the warning smoke of a steamer +generally enables them to hide in some shallow bay, or narrow river, or +forest-covered inlet, till the danger is passed. The only effectual way +to put a stop to their depredations would be to attack them in their +strongholds and villages, and compel them to give up piracy, and submit +to strict surveillance. Sir James Brooke did this with the pirates of +the north-west coast of Borneo, and deserves the thanks of the whole +population of the Archipelago for having rid them of half their enemies. + +All along the beach here, and in the adjacent strip of sandy lowland, is +a remarkable display of Pandanaceae or Screw-pines. Some are like huge +branching candelabra, forty or fifty feet high, and bearing at the +end of each branch a tuft of immense sword-shaped leaves, six or eight +inches wide, and as many feet long. Others have a single unbranched +stem, six or seven feet high, the upper part clothed with the spirally +arranged leaves, and bearing a single terminal fruit ac large as a +swan's egg. Others of intermediate size have irregular clusters of rough +red fruits, and all have more or less spiny-edged leaves and ringed +stems. The young plants of the larger species have smooth glossy thick +leaves, sometimes ten feet long and eight inches wide, which are used +all over the Moluccas and New Guinea, to make "cocoyas" or sleeping +mats, which are often very prettily ornamented with coloured patterns. +Higher up on the bill is a forest of immense trees, among which those +producing the resin called dammar (Dammara sp.) are abundant. The +inhabitants of several small villages in Batchian are entirely engaged +in searching for this product, and making it into torches by pounding +it and filling it into tubes of palm leaves about a yard long, which +are the only lights used by many of the natives. Sometimes the dammar +accumulates in large masses of ten or twenty pounds weight, either +attached to the trunk, or found buried in the ground at the foot of the +trees. The most extraordinary trees of the forest are, however, a kind +of fig, the aerial roots of which form a pyramid near a hundred feet +high, terminating just where the tree branches out above, so that there +is no real trunk. This pyramid or cone is formed of roots of every size, +mostly descending in straight lines, but more or less obliquely-and so +crossing each other, and connected by cross branches, which grow from +one to another; as to form a dense and complicated network, to which +nothing but a photograph could do justice (see illustration at Vol. I. +page 130). The Kanary is also abundant in this forest, the nut of which +has a very agreeable flavour, and produces an excellent oil. The fleshy +outer covering of the nut is the favourite food of the great green +pigeons of these islands (Carpophaga, perspicillata), and their +hoarse copings and heavy flutterings among the branches can be almost +continually heard. + +After ten days at Langundi, finding it impossible to get the bird I was +particularly in search of (the Nicobar pigeon, or a new species allied +to it), and finding no new birds, and very few insects, I left early on +the morning of April 1st, and in the evening entered a river on the +main island of Batchian (Langundi, like Kasserota, being on a distinct +island), where some Malays and Galela men have a small village, and have +made extensive rice-fields and plantain grounds. Here we found a good +house near the river bank, where the water was fresh and clear, and the +owner, a respectable Batchian Malay, offered me sleeping room and the +use of the verandah if I liked to stay. Seeing forest all round within +a short distance, I accepted his offer, and the next morning before +breakfast walked out to explore, and on the skirts of the forest +captured a few interesting insects. + +Afterwards, I found a path which led for a mile or more through a very +fine forest, richer in palms than any I had seen in the Moluccas. One of +these especially attracted my attention from its elegance. The stein was +not thicker than my wrist, yet it was very lofty, and bore clusters +of bright red fruit. It was apparently a species of Areca. Another of +immense height closely resembled in appearance the Euterpes of South +America. Here also grew the fan-leafed palm, whose small, nearly +entire leaves are used to make the dammar torches, and to form the +water-buckets in universal use. During this walk I saw near a dozen +species of palms, as well as two or three Pandani different from those +of Langundi. There were also some very fine climbing ferns and true wild +Plantains (Musa), bearing an edible fruit not so large as one's thumb, +and consisting of a mass of seeds just covered with pulp and skin. +The people assured me they had tried the experiment of sowing and +cultivating this species, but could not improve it. They probably did +not grow it in sufficient quantity, and did not persevere sufficiently +long. + +Batchian is an island that would perhaps repay the researches of a +botanist better than any other in the whole Archipelago. It contains +a great variety of surface and of soil, abundance of large and small +streams, many of which are navigable for some distance, and there being +no savage inhabitants, every part of it can be visited with perfect +safety. It possesses gold, copper, and coal, hot springs and geysers, +sedimentary and volcanic rocks and coralline limestone, alluvial plains, +abrupt hills and lofty mountains, a moist climate, and a grand and +luxuriant forest vegetation. + +The few days I stayed here produced me several new insects, but scarcely +any birds. Butterflies and birds are in fact remarkably scarce in these +forests. One may walk a whole day and not see more than two or three +species of either. In everything but beetles, these eastern islands are +very deficient compared with the western (Java, Borneo, &c.), and much +more so if compared with the forests of South America, where twenty or +thirty species of butterflies may be caught every day, and on very +good days a hundred, a number we can hardly reach here in months of +unremitting search. In birds there is the same difference. In most +parts of tropical America we may always find some species of +woodpecker tanager, bush shrike, chatterer, trogon, toucan, cuckoo, +and tyrant-flycatcher; and a few days' active search will produce more +variety than can be here met with in as many months. Yet, along with +this poverty of individuals and of species, there are in almost every +class and order, some one, or two species of such extreme beauty or +singularity, as to vie with, or even surpass, anything that even South +America can produce. + +One afternoon when I was arranging my insects, and surrounded by a crowd +of wondering spectators, I showed one of them how to look at a small +insect with a hand-lens, which caused such evident wonder that all the +rest wanted to see it too. I therefore fixed the glass firmly to a piece +of soft wood at the proper focus, and put under it a little spiny +beetle of the genus Hispa, and then passed it round for examination. The +excitement was immense. Some declared it was a yard long; others were +frightened, and instantly dropped it, and all were as much astonished, +and made as much shouting and gesticulation, as children at a pantomime, +or at a Christmas exhibition of the oxyhydrogen microscope. And all +this excitement was produced by a little pocket lens, an inch and a half +focus, and therefore magnifying only four or five times, but which to +their unaccustomed eyes appeared to enlarge a hundred fold. + +On the last day of my stay here, one of my hunters succeeded in finding +and shooting the beautiful Nicobar pigeon, of which I had been so long +in search. None of the residents had ever seen it, which shows that it +is rare and slay. My specimen was a female in beautiful condition, and +the glassy coppery and green of its plumage, the snow-white tail +and beautiful pendent feathers of the neck, were greatly admired. I +subsequently obtained a specimen in New Guinea; and once saw it in the +Kaiķa islands. It is found also in some small islands near Macassar, in +others near Borneo; and in the Nicobar islands, whence it receives its +name. It is a ground feeder, only going upon trees to roost, and is a +very heavy fleshy bird. This may account far the fact of its being +found chiefly on very small islands, while in the western half of the +Archipelago, it seems entirely absent from the larger ones. Being a +ground feeder it is subject to the attacks of carnivorous quadrupeds, +which are not found in the very small islands. Its wide distribution +over the whole length of the Archipelago; from extreme west to east, is +however very extraordinary, since, with the exception of a few of +the birds of prey, not a single land bird has so wide a range. +Ground-feeding birds are generally deficient in power of extended +flight, and this species is so bulky and heavy that it appears at first +sight quite unable to fly a mile. A closer examination shows, however, +that its wings are remarkably large, perhaps in proportion to its size +larger than those of any other pigeon, and its pectoral muscles +are immense. A fact communicated to me by the son of my friend Mr. +Duivenboden of Ternate, would show that, in accordance with these +peculiarities of structure, it possesses the power of flying long +distances. Mr. D. established an oil factory on a small coral island, a +hundred miles north of New Guinea, with no intervening land. After the +island had been settled a year, and traversed in every direction, his +son paid it a visit; and just as the schooner was coming to an anchor, +a bird was seen flying from seaward which fell into the water exhausted +before it could reach the shore. A boat was sent to pick it up, and it +was found to be a Nicobar pigeon, which must have come from New Guinea, +and flown a hundred miles, since no such bird previously inhabited the +island. + +This is certainly a very curious case of adaptation to an unusual and +exceptional necessity. The bird does not ordinarily require great powers +of flight, since it lives in the forest, feeds on fallen fruits, and +roosts in low trees like other ground pigeons. The majority of the +individuals, therefore, can never make full use of their enormously +powerful wings, till the exceptional case occurs of an individual +being blown out to sea, or driven to emigrate by the incursion of some +carnivorous animal, or the pressure of scarcity of food. A modification +exactly opposite to that which produced the wingless birds (the Apteryx, +Cassowary, and Dodo), appears to have here taken place; and it is +curious that in both cases an insular habitat should have been the +moving cause. The explanation is probably the same as that applied +by Mr. Darwin to the case of the Madeira beetles, many of which are +wingless, while some of the winged ones have the wings better developed +than the same species on the continent. It was advantageous to these +insects either never to fly at all, and thus not run the risk of being +blown out to sea, or to fly so well as to be able either to return to +land, or to migrate safely to the continent. Pad flying was worse +than not flying at all. So, while in such islands as New Zealand and +Mauritius far from all land, it was safer for a ground-feeding bird not +to fly at all, and the short-winged individuals continually surviving, +prepared the way for a wingless group of birds; in a vast Archipelago +thickly strewn with islands and islets it was advantageous to be able +occasionally to migrate, and thus the long and strong-winged varieties +maintained their existence longest, and ultimately supplanted all +others, and spread the race over the whole Archipelago. + +Besides this pigeon, the only new bird I obtained during the trip was +a rare goat-sucker (Batrachostomus crinifrons), the only species of the +genus yet found in the Moluccas. Among my insects the best were the rare +Pieris arum, of a rich chrome yellow colour, with a black border and +remarkable white antenna--perhaps the very finest butterfly of the +genus; and a large black wasp-like insect, with immense jaws like a +stag-beetle, which has been named Megachile Pluto by Mr. B. Smith. I +collected about a hundred species of beetles quite new to me, but mostly +very minute, and also many rare and handsome ones which I had already +found in Batchian. On the whole I was tolerably satisfied with my +seventeen days' excursion, which was a very agreeable one, and enabled +me to sea a good deal of the island. I had hired a roomy boat, and +brought with me a small table and my rattan chair. These were great +comforts, as, wherever there was a roof, I could immediately instal +myself, and work and eat at ease. When I could not find accommodation on +shore I slept in the boat, which was always drawn up on the beach if we +stayed for a few days at one spot. + +On my return to Batchian I packed up my collections, and prepared for +my return to Ternate. When I first came I had sent back my boat by the +pilot, with two or three other men who had been glad of the opportunity. +I now took advantage of a Government boat which had just arrived with +rice for the troops, and obtained permission to return in her, and +accordingly started on the 13th of April, having resided only a week +short of six months on the island of Batchian. The boat was one of +the kind called "Kora-kora," quite open, very low, and about four tons +burthen. It had outriggers of bamboo about five feet off each side, +which supported a bamboo platform extending the whole length of the +vessel. On the extreme outside of this sit the twenty rowers, while +within was a convenient passage fore and aft. The middle portion of the +boat was covered with a thatch-house, in which baggage and passengers +are stowed; the gunwale was not more than a foot above water, and from +the great top and side weight, and general clumsiness, these boats are +dangerous in heavy weather, and are not unfrequently lost. A triangle +mast and mat sail carried us on when the wind was favourable,--which +(as usual) it never was, although, according to the monsoon, it ought to +have been. Our water, carried in bamboos, would only last two days, and +as the voyage occupied seven, we had to touch at a great many places. +The captain was not very energetic, and the men rowed as little as they +pleased, or we might have reached Ternate in three days, having had fine +weather and little wind all the way. + +There were several passengers besides myself: three or four Javanese +soldiers, two convicts whose time had expired (one, curiously enough, +being the man who had stolen my cash-box and keys), the schoolmaster's +wife and a servant going on a visit to Ternate, and a Chinese trader +going to buy goods. We had to sleep all together in the cabin, packed +pretty close; but they very civilly allowed me plenty of room for my +mattrass, and we got on very well together. There was a little cookhouse +in the bows, where we could boil our rice and make our coffee, every one +of course bringing his own provisions, and arranging his meal-times as +he found most convenient. The passage would have been agreeable enough +but for the dreadful "tom-toms," or wooden drums, which are beaten +incessantly while the men are rowing. Two men were engaged constantly at +them, making a fearful din the whole voyage. The rowers are men sent by +the Sultan of Ternate. They get about threepence a day, and find their +own provisions. Each man had a strong wooden "betel" box, on which he +generally sat, a sleeping-mat, and a change of clothes--rowing naked, +with only a sarong or a waistcloth. They sleep in their places, covered +with their mat, which keeps out the rain pretty well. They chew betel +or smoke cigarettes incessantly; eat dry sago and a little salt fish; +seldom sing while rowing, except when excited and wanting to reach a +stopping-place, and do not talk a great deal. They are mostly Malays, +with a sprinkling of Alfuros from Gilolo, and Papuans from Guebe or +Waigiou. + +One afternoon we stayed at Makian; many of the men went on shore, and +a great deal of plantains, bananas, and other fruits were brought on +board. We then went on a little way, and in the evening anchored again. +When going to bed for the night, I put out my candle, there being still +a glimmering lamp burning, and, missing my handkerchief, thought I saw +it on a box which formed one side of my bed, and put out my hand to take +it. I quickly drew back on feeling something cool and very smooth, which +moved as I touched it. "Bring the light, quick," I cried; "here's a +snake." And there he was, sure enough, nicely coiled up, with his head +just raised to inquire who had disturbed him. It was mow necessary +to catch or kill him neatly, or he would escape among the piles of +miscellaneous luggage, and we should hardly sleep comfortably. One of +the ex-convicts volunteered to catch him with his hand wrapped up in a +cloth, but from the way he went about it I saw he was nervous and would +let the thing go, so I would mot allow him to make the attempt. I them +got a chopping-knife, and carefully moving my insect nets, which hung +just over the snake and prevented me getting a free blow, I cut him +quietly across the back, holding him down while my boy with another +knife crushed his head. On examination, I found he had large poison +fangs, and it is a wonder he did not bite me when I first touched him. + +Thinking it very unlikely that two snakes had got on board at the same +time, I turned in and went to sleep; but having all the time a vague +dreamy idea that I might put my hand on another one, I lay wonderfully +still, not turning over once all night, quite the reverse of my usual +habits. The next day we reached Ternate, and I ensconced myself in my +comfortable house, to examine all my treasures, and pack them securely +for the voyage home. + + + +CHAPTER XXV. CERAM, GORAM, AND THE MATABELLO ISLANDS. + +(OCTOBER 1859 To JUNE 1860.) + +I LEFT Amboyna for my first visit to Ceram at three o'clock in the +morning of October 29th, after having been delayed several days by the +boat's crew, who could not be got together. Captain Van der Beck, who +gave me a passage in his boat, had been running after them all day, and +at midnight we had to search for two of my men who had disappeared at +the last moment. One we found at supper in his own house, and rather +tipsy with his parting libations of arrack, but the other was gone +across the bay, and we were obliged to leave without him. We stayed some +hours at two villages near the east end of Amboyna, at one of which we +had to discharge some wood for the missionaries' house, and on the +third afternoon reached Captain Van der Beck's plantation, situated at +Hatosua, in that part of Ceram opposite to the island of Amboyna. This +was a clearing in flat and rather swampy forest, about twenty acres +in extent, and mostly planted with cacao and tobacco. Besides a small +cottage occupied by the workmen, there was a large shed for tobacco +drying, a corner of which was offered me; and thinking from the look of +the place that I should find good collecting ground here, I fitted up +temporary tables, benches, and beds, and made all preparations for +some weeks' stay. A few days, however, served to show that I should be +disappointed. Beetles were tolerably abundant, and I obtained plenty of +fine long-horned Anthribidae and pretty Longicorns, but they were mostly +the same species as I had found during my first short visit to Amboyna. +There were very few paths in the forest; which seemed poor in birds and +butterflies, and day after day my men brought me nothing worth notice. +I was therefore soon obliged to think about changing my locality, as I +could evidently obtain no proper notion of the productions of the almost +entirely unexplored island of Ceram by staying in this place. + +I rather regretted leaving, because my host was one of the most +remarkable men and most entertaining companions I had ever met with. +He was a Fleeting by birth, and, like so many of his countrymen, had a +wonderful talent for languages. When quite a youth he had accompanied a +Government official who was sent to report on the trade and commerce +of the Mediterranean, and had acquired the colloquial language of every +place they stayed a few weeks at. He had afterwards made voyages to +St. Petersburg, and to other parts of Europe, including a few weeks in +London, and had then come out to the past, where he had been for some +years trading and speculating in the various islands. He now spoke +Dutch, French, Malay, and Javanese, all equally well; English with +a very slight accent, but with perfect fluency, axed a most complete +knowledge of idiom, in which I often tried to puzzle him in vain. German +and Italian were also quite familiar to him, and his acquaintance +with European languages included Modern Greek, Turkish, Russian, and +colloquial Hebrew and Latin. As a test of his power, I may mention that +he had made a voyage to the out-of-the-way island of Salibaboo, and had +stayed there trading a few weeks. As I was collecting vocabularies, +he told me he thought he could remember some words, and dictated +considerable number. Some time after I met with a short list of words +taken down in those islands, and in every case they agreed with those +he had given me. He used to sing a Hebrew drinking-song, which he had +learned from some Jews with whom he had once travelled, and astonished +by joining in their conversation, and had a never-ending fund of tale +and anecdote about the people he had met and the places he had visited. + +In most of the villages of this part of Ceram are schools and native +schoolmasters, and the inhabitants have been long converted to +Christianity. In the larger villages there are European missionaries; +but there is little or no external difference between the Christian and +Alfuro villages, nor, as far as I have seen, in their inhabitants. The +people seem more decidedly Papuan than those of Gilolo. They are darker +in colour, and a number of them have the frizzly Papuan hair; their +features also are harsh and prominent, and the women in particular are +far less engaging than those of the Malay race. Captain Van der Beck was +never tired of abusing the inhabitants of these Christian villages as +thieves, liars, and drunkards, besides being incorrigibly lazy. In the +city of Amboyna my friends Doctors Mohnike and Doleschall, as well +as most of the European residents and traders, made exactly the same +complaint, and would rather have Mahometans for servants, even if +convicts, than any of the native Christians. One great cause of this +is the fact, that with the Mahometans temperance is a part of their +religion, and has become so much a habit that practically the rule is +never transgressed. One fertile source of want, and one great incentive +to idleness and crime, is thus present with the one class, but absent +in the other; but besides this the Christians look upon themselves as +nearly the equals of the Europeans, who profess the same religion, and +as far superior to the followers of Islam, and are therefore prone to +despise work, and to endeavour to live by trade, or by cultivating their +own land. It need hardly be said that with people in this low state of +civilization religion is almost wholly ceremonial, and that neither +are the doctrines of Christianity comprehended, nor its moral precepts +obeyed. At the same time, as far as my own experience goes, I have found +the better class of "Orang Sirani" as civil, obliging, and industrious +as the Malays, and only inferior to them from their tendency to get +intoxicated. + +Having written to the Assistant Resident of Saparua (who has +jurisdiction over the opposite part of the coast of Ceram) for a boat +to pursue my journey, I received one rather larger than necessary with a +crew of twenty men. I therefore bade adieu to my kind friend Captain Van +der Beck, and left on the evening after its arrival for the village of +Elpiputi, which we reached in two days. I had intended to stay here, but +not liking the appearance of the place, which seemed to have no virgin +forest near it, I determined to proceed about twelve miles further +up the bay of Amahay, to a village recently formed, and inhabited by +indigenes from the interior, and where some extensive cacao plantations +were being made by some gentlemen of Amboyna. I reached the place +(called Awaiya) the same afternoon, and with the assistance of Mr. +Peters (the manager of the plantations) and the native chief, obtained +a small house, got all my things on shore, and paid and discharged +my twenty boatmen, two of whom had almost driven me to distraction by +beating tom-toms the whole voyage. + +I found the people here very nearly in a state of nature, and going +almost naked. The men wear their frizzly hair gathered into a flat +circular knot over the left temple, which has a very knowing look, and +in their ears cylinders of wood as thick as one's finger, and coloured +red at the ends. Armlets and anklets of woven grass or of silver, with +necklaces of beads or of small fruits, complete their attire. The women +wear similar ornaments, but have their hair loose. All are tall, with a +dark brown skin, and well marked Papuan physiognomy. There is an Amboyna +schoolmaster in the village, and a good number of children attend school +every morning. Such of the inhabitants as have become Christians may be +known by their wearing their hair loose, and adopting to some extent the +native Christian dress-trousers and a loose shirt. Very few speak Malay, +all these coast villages having been recently formed by inducing natives +to leave the inaccessible interior. In all the central part of Ceram +there new remains only one populous village in the mountains. Towards +the east and the extreme west are a few others, with which exceptions +all the inhabitants of Ceram are collected on the coast. In the northern +and eastern districts they are mostly Mahometans, while on the southwest +coast, nearest Amboyna, they are nominal Christians. In all this part of +the Archipelago the Dutch make very praiseworthy efforts to improve +the condition of the aborigines by establishing schoolmasters in every +village (who are mostly natives of Amboyna or Saparua, who have; been +instructed by the resident missionaries), and by employing native +vaccinators to prevent the ravages of smallpox. They also encourage the +settlement of Europeans, and the formation of new plantations of cacao +and coffee, one of the best means of raising the condition of the +natives, who thus obtain work at fair wages, and have the opportunity of +acquiring something of European tastes and habits. + +My collections here did not progress much better than at my former +station, except that butterflies were a little more plentiful, and some +very fine species were to be found in the morning on the sea-beach, +sitting so quietly on the wet sand that they could be caught with the +fingers. In this way I had many fine specimens of Papilios brought me +by the children. Beetles, however, were scarce, and birds still more +so, and I began to think that the handsome species which I had so often +heard were found in Ceram must be entirely confined to the eastern +extremity of the island. + +A few miles further worth, at the head of the Bay of Amahay, is situated +the village of Makariki, from whence there is a native path quite +across the island to the north coast. My friend Mr. Rosenberg, whose +acquaintance I had made at New Guinea, and who was now the Government +superintendent of all this part of Ceram, returned from Wahai, on the +north coast, after I had been three weeks at Awaiya, and showed me +some fine butterflies he had obtained on the mountain streams in the +interior. He indicated a spot about the centre of the island where he +thought I might advantageously stay a few days. I accordingly visited +Makariki with him the next day, and he instructed the chief of the +village to furnish me with men to carry my baggage, and accompany me +on my excursion. As the people of the village wanted to be at home on +Christmas-day, it was necessary to start as soon as possible; so we +agreed that the men should be ready in two days, and I returned to make +my arrangements. + +I put up the smallest quantity of baggage possible for a six days' +trip, and on the morning of December 18th we left Makariki, with six men +carrying my baggage and their own provisions, and a lad from Awaiya, +who was accustomed to catch butterflies for me. My two Amboyna hunters +I left behind to shoot and skin what birds they could while I was away. +Quitting the village, we first walked briskly for an hour through a +dense tangled undergrowth, dripping wet from a storm of the previous +night, and full of mud holes. After crossing several small streams we +reached one of the largest rivers in Ceram, called Ruatan, which it was +necessary to cross. It was both deep and rapid. The baggage was first +taken over, parcel by parcel, on the men's heads, the water reaching +nearly up to their armpits, and then two men returned to assist me. The +water was above my waist, and so strong that I should certainly have +been carried off my feet had I attempted to cross alone; and it was a +matter of astonishment to me how the men could give me any assistance, +since I found the greatest difficulty in getting my foot down again when +I had once moved it off the bottom. The greater strength and grasping +power of their feet, from going always barefoot, no doubt gave them a +surer footing in the rapid water. + +After well wringing out our wet clothes and putting them on, we again +proceeded along a similar narrow forest track as before, choked with +rotten leaves and dead trees, and in the more open parts overgrown with +tangled vegetation. Another hour brought us to a smaller stream flowing +in a wide gravelly bed, up which our road lay. Here w e stayed half an +hour to breakfast, and then went on, continually crossing the stream, or +walking on its stony and gravelly banks, till about noon, when it became +rocky and enclosed by low hills. A little further we entered a regular +mountain-gorge, and had to clamber over rocks, and every moment cross +and recross the water, or take short cuts through the forest. This +was fatiguing work; and about three in the afternoon, the sky being +overcast, and thunder in the mountains indicating an approaching storm, +we had to loon out for a camping place, and soon after reached one +of Mr. Rosenberg's old ones. The skeleton of his little sleeping-hut +remained, and my men cut leaves and made a hasty roof just as the +rain commenced. The baggage was covered over with leaves, and the men +sheltered themselves as they could till the storm was over, by which +time a flood came down the river, which effectually stopped our further +march, even had we wished to proceed. We then lighted fires; I made some +coffee, and my men roasted their fish and plantains, and as soon as it +was dark, we made ourselves comfortable for the night. + +Starting at six the next morning, we had three hours of the same kind +of walking, during which we crossed the river at least thirty or forty +times, the water being generally knee-deep. This brought us to a place +where the road left the stream, and here we stopped to breakfast. We +then had a long walk over the mountain, by a tolerable path, which +reached an elevation of about fifteen hundred feet above the sea. Here I +noticed one of the smallest and most elegant tree ferns I had ever seen, +the stem being scarcely thicker than my thumb, yet reaching a height +of fifteen or twenty feet. I also caught a new butterfly of the genus +Pieris, and a magnificent female specimen of Papilio gambrisius, of +which I had hitherto only found the males, which are smaller and very +different in colour. Descending the other side of the ridge, by a very +steep path, we reached another river at a spot which is about the centre +of the island, and which was to be our resting place for two or three +days. In a couple of hour my men had built a little sleeping-shed +for me, about eight feet by four, with a bench of split poles, they +themselves occupying two or three smaller ones, which had been put up by +former passengers. + +The river here was about twenty yards wide, running over a pebbly and +sometimes a rocky bed, and bordered by steep hills with occasionally +flat swampy spots between their base and the stream. The whole country +was one dense, Unbroken, and very damp and gloomy virgin forest. Just at +our resting-place there was a little bush-covered island in the middle +of the channel, so that the opening in the forest made by the river was +wider than usual, and allowed a few gleams of sunshine to penetrate. +Here there were several handsome butterflies flying about, the finest of +which, however, escaped me, and I never saw it again during my stay. In +the two days and a half which we remained here, I wandered almost all +day up and down the stream, searching after butterflies, of which I got, +in all, fifty or sixty specimens, with several species quite new to +me. There were many others which I saw only once, and did not capture, +causing me to regret that there was no village in these interior valleys +where I could stay a month. In the early part of each morning I went out +with my gun in search of birds, and two of my men were out almost all +day after deer; but we were all equally unsuccessful, getting absolutely +nothing the whole time we were in the forest. The only good bird seen +was the fine Amboyna lory, but these were always too high to shoot; +besides this, the great Moluccan hornbill, which I did not want, was +almost the only bird met with. I saw not a single ground-thrush, or +kingfisher, or pigeon; and, in fact, have never been in a forest so +utterly desert of animal life as this appeared to be. Even in all other +groups of insects, except butterflies, there was the same poverty. I +bad hoped to find some rare tiger beetles, as I had done in similar +situations in Celebes; but, though I searched closely in forest, +river-bed, and mountain-brook, I could find nothing but the two common +Amboyna species. Other beetles there were absolutely none. + +The constant walking in water, and over rocks and pebbles, quite +destroyed the two pair of shoes I brought with me, so that, on my +return, they actually fell to pieces, and the last day I had to walk +in my stockings very painfully, and reached home quite lame. On our way +back from Makariki, as on our way there, we had storm and rain at sea, +and we arrived at Awaiya late in the evening, with all our baggage +drenched, and ourselves thoroughly uncomfortable. All the time I had +been in Ceram I had suffered much from the irritating bites of an +invisible acarus, which is worse than mosquitoes, ants, and every other +pest, because it is impossible to guard against them. This last journey +in the forest left me covered from head to foot with inflamed lumps, +which, after my return to Amboyna, produced a serious disease, confining +me to the house for nearly two months, a not very pleasant memento of my +first visit to Ceram, which terminated with the year 1859. + +It was not till the 24th of February, 1860, that I started again, +intending to pass from village to village along the coast, staying where +I found a suitable locality. I had a letter from the Governor of the +Moluccas, requesting all the chiefs to supply me with boats and men to +carry me on my journey. The first boat took me in two days to Amahay, +on the opposite side of the bay to Awaiya. The chief here, wonderful to +relate, did not make any excuses for delay, but immediately ordered out +the boat which was to carry me on, put my baggage on hoard, set up mast +and sails after dark, and had the men ready that nigh; so that we were +actually on our way at five the next morning,--a display of energy +and activity I scarcely ever saw before in a native chief on such an +occasion. We touched at Cepa, and stayed for the night at Tamilan, the +first two Mahometan villages on the south coast of Ceram. The next day, +about noon, we reached Hoya, which was as Far as my present boat and +crew were going to take me. The anchorage is about a mile east of the +village, which is faced by coral reefs, and we had to wait for the +evening tide to move up and unload the boat into the strange rotten +wooden pavilion kept for visitors. + +There was no boat here large enough to take my baggage; and although +two would have done very well, the Rajah insisted upon sending four. The +reason of this I found was, that there were four small villages under +his rule, and by sending a boat from each he would avoid the difficult +task of choosing two and letting off the others. I was told that at the +next village of Teluti there were plenty of Alfuros, and that I could +get abundance of Tories and other birds. The Rajah declared that +black and yellow Tories and black cockatoos were found there; but I am +inclined to think he knew very well he was telling me lies, and that +it was only a scheme to satisfy me with his plan of taking me to that +village, instead of a day's journey further on, as I desired. Here, as +at most of the villages, I was asked for spirits, the people being mere +nominal Mahometans, who confine their religion almost entirely to a +disgust at pork, and a few other forbidden articles of food. The next +morning, after much trouble, we got our cargoes loaded, and had a +delightful row across the deep bay of Teluti, with a view of the grand +central mountain-range of Ceram. Our four boats were rowed by sixty +men, with flags flying and tom-toms beating, as well as very vigorous +shouting and singing to keep up their spirits. The sea way smooth, the +morning bright, and the whole scene very exhilarating. On landing, the +Orang-kaya and several of the chief men, in gorgeous silk jackets, +were waiting to receive us, and conducted me to a house prepared for my +reception, where I determined to stay a few days, and see if the country +round produced anything new. + +My first inquiries were about the lories, but I could get very little +satisfactory information. The only kinds known were the ring-necked lory +and the common red and green lorikeet, both common at Amboyna. Black +Tories and cockatoos were quite unknown. The Alfuros resided in the +mountains five or six days' journey away, and there were only one or +two live birds to be found in the village, and these were worthless. My +hunters could get nothing but a few common birds; and notwithstanding +fine mountains, luxuriant forests, and a locality a hundred miles +eastward, I could find no new insects, and extremely few even of the +common species of Amboyna and West Ceram. It was evidently no use +stopping at such a place, and I was determined to move on as soon as +possible. + +The village of Teluti is populous, but straggling and very dirty. Sago +trees here cover the mountain side, instead of growing as usual in low +swamps; but a closer examination shows that they grow in swampy patches, +which have formed among the loose rocks that cover the ground, and which +are kept constantly full of moisture by the rains, and by the abundance +of rills which trickle down among them. This sago forms almost the whole +subsistence of the inhabitants, who appear to cultivate nothing but +a few small patches of maize and sweet potatoes. Hence, as before +explained, the scarcity of insects. The Orang-kaya has fine clothes, +handsome lamps, and other expensive European goods, yet lives every day +on sago and fish as miserably as the rest. + +After three days in this barren place I left on the morning of March +6th, in two boats of the same size as those which had brought me to +Teluti. With some difficulty I had obtained permission to take these +boats on to Tobo, where I intended to stay a while, and therefore got on +pretty quickly, changing men at the village of Laiemu, and arriving in a +heavy rain at Ahtiago. As there was a good deal of surf here, and likely +to be more if the wind blew hard during the night, our boats were +pulled up on the beach; and after supping at the Orang-kaya's house, and +writing down a vocabulary of the language of the Alfuros, who live in +the mountains inland, I returned to sleep in the boat. Next morning we +proceeded, changing men at Warenama, and again at Hatometen, at both of +which places there was much surf and no harbour, so that the men had to +go on shore and come on board by swimming. Arriving in the evening of +March 7th at Batuassa, the first village belonging to the Rajah of Tobo, +and under the government of Banda, the surf was very heavy, owing to a +strong westward swell. We therefore rounded the rocky point on which the +village was situated, but found it very little better on the other side. +We were obliged, however, to go on shore here; and waiting till the +people on the beach had made preparations, by placing a row of logs from +the water's edge on which to pull up our boats, we rowed as quickly as +we could straight on to them, after watching till the heaviest surfs +had passed. The moment we touched ground our men all jumped out, and, +assisted by those on shore, attempted to haul up the boat high and dry, +but not having sufficient hands, the surf repeatedly broke into the +stern. The steepness of the beach, however, prevented any damage being +done, and the other boat having both crews to haul at it, was got up +without difficulty. + +The next morning, the water being low, the breakers were at some +distance from shore, and we had to watch for a smooth moment after +bringing the boats to the water's edge, and so got safely out to sea. At +the two next villages, Tobo and Ossong, we also took in fresh men, who +came swimming through the surf; and at the latter place the Rajah came +on board and accompanied me to Kissalaut, where he has a house which +he lent me during my stay. Here again was a heavy surf, and it was with +great difficulty we got the boats safely hauled up. At Amboyna I had +been promised at this season a calm sea and the wind off shore, but in +this case, as in every other, I had been unable to obtain any reliable +information as to the winds and seasons of places distant two or three +days' journey. It appears, however, that owing to the general direction +of the island of Ceram (E.S.E. and W.N.W.), there is a heavy surf and +scarcely any shelter on the south coast during the west monsoon, when +alone a journey to the eastward can be safely made; while during the +east monsoon, when I proposed to return along the north coast to Wahai, +I should probably find that equally exposed and dangerous. But although +the general direction of the west monsoon in the Banda sea causes a +heavy swell, with bad surf on the coast, yet we had little advantage of +the wind; for, owing I suppose to the numerous bays and headlands, we +had contrary south-east or even due east winds all the way, and had to +make almost the whole distance from Amboyna by force of rowing. We had +therefore all the disadvantages, and none of the advantages, of this +west monsoon, which I was told would insure me a quick and pleasant +journey. + +I was delayed at Kissa-laut just four weeks, although after the first +three days I saw that it would be quite useless for me to stay, and +begged the Rajah to give me a prau and men to carry me on to Goram. But +instead of getting one close at hand, he insisted on sending several +miles off; and when after many delays it at length arrived, it was +altogether unsuitable and too small to carry my baggage. Another was +then ordered to be brought immediately, and was promised in three days, +but doable that time elapsed and none appeared, and we were obliged at +length to get one at the adjoining village, where it might have been +so much more easily obtained at first. Then came caulking and covering +over, and quarrels between the owner and the Rajah's men, which +occupied more than another ten days, during all which time I was getting +absolutely nothing, finding this part of Ceram a perfect desert in +zoology, although a most beautiful country, and with a very luxuriant +vegetation. It was a complete puzzle, which to this day I have not been +able to understand; the only thing I obtained worth notice during my +month's stay here being a few good land shells. + +At length, on April 4th, we succeeded in getting away in our little +boat of about four tons burthen, in which my numerous boxes were with +difficulty packed so as to leave sleeping and cooling room. The craft +could not boast an ounce of iron or a foot of rope in any part of its +construction, nor a morsel of pitch or paint in its decoration. The +planks were fastened together in the usual ingenious way with pegs +and rattans. The mast was a bamboo triangle, requiring no shrouds, +and carrying a long mat sail; two rudders were hung on the quarters by +rattans, the anchor was of wood, and a long and thick rattan; served as +a cable. Our crew consisted of four men, whose pole accommodation was +about three feet by four in the bows and stern, with the sloping thatch +roof to stretch themselves upon for a change. We had nearly a hundred +miles to go, fully exposed to the swell of the Banda sea, which is +sometimes very considerable; but we luckily had it calm and smooth, so +that we made the voyage in comparative comfort. + +On the second day we passed the eastern extremity of Ceram, formed of +a group of hummocky limestone hills; and, sailing by the islands of +Kwammer and Keffing, both thickly inhabited, came in sight of the little +town of Kilwaru, which appears to rise out of the sea like a rustic +Venice. This place has really a most extraordinary appearance, as not a +particle of land or vegetation can be seen, but a long way out at sea a +large village seems to float upon the water. There is of course a small +island of several acres in extent; but the houses are built so closely +all round it upon piles in the water, that it is completely hidden. It +is a place of great traffic, being the emporium for much of the produce +of these Eastern seas, and is the residence of many Bugis and Ceramese +traders, and appears to have been chosen on account of its being close +to the only deep channel between the extensive shoals of Ceram-laut and +those bordering the east end of Ceram. We now had contrary east winds, +and were obliged to pole over the shallow coral reefs of Ceram-laut +for nearly thirty miles. The only danger of our voyage was just at its +termination, for as we were rowing towards Manowolko, the largest of +the Goram group, we were carried out so rapidly by a strong westerly +current, that I was almost certain at one time we should pass clear +of the island; in which case our situation would have been both +disagreeable and dangerous, as, with the east wind which had just set +in, we might have been unable to return for many days, and we had not +a day's water on board. At the critical moment I served out some strong +spirits to my men, which put fresh vigour into their arms, and carried +us out of the influence of the current before it was too late. + +MANOWOLKO, GORAM GROUP. + +On arriving at Manowolko, we found the Rajah was at the opposite island +of Goram; but he was immediately sent for, and in the meantime a large +shed was given for our accommodation. At night the Rajah came, and the +next day I had a visit from him, and found, as I expected, that I had +already made his acquaintance three years before at Aru. He was very +friendly, and we had a long talk; but when I begged for a boat and +men to take me on to Ke, he made a host of difficulties. There were no +praus, as all had gone to Ke or Aim; and even if one were found, there +were no men, as it was the season when all were away trading. But he +promised to see about it, and I was obliged to wait. For the next two or +three days there was more talking and more difficulties were raised, and +I had time to make an examination of the island and the people. + +Manowolko is about fifteen miles long, and is a mere; upraised +coral-reef. Two or three hundred yards inland rise cliffs of coral rock, +in many parts perpendicular, and one or two hundred feet high; and this, +I was informed, is characteristic of the whole island, in which there is +no other kind of rock, and no stream of water. A few cracks and chasms +furnish paths to the top of these cliffs, where there is an open +undulating country, in which the chief vegetable grounds of the +inhabitants are situated. + +The people here--at least the chief men--were of a much purer Malay race +than the Mahometans of the mainland of Ceram, which is perhaps due to +there having been no indigenes on these small islands when the +first settlers arrived. In Ceram, the Alfuros of Papuan race are the +predominant type, the Malay physiognomy being seldom well marked; +whereas here the reverse is the case, and a slight infusion of Papuan +on a mixture of Malay and Bugis has produced a very good-looking set of +people. The lower class of the population consist almost entirely of +the indigenes of the adjacent island. They are a fine race, with +strongly-marked Papuan features, frizzly hair, and brown complexions. +The Goram language is spoken also at the east end of Ceram, and in +the adjacent islands. It has a general resemblance to the languages of +Ceram, but possesses a peculiar element which I have not met with in +other languages of the Archipelago. + +After great delay, considering the importance of every day at this +time of year, a miserable boat and five men were found, and with +some difficulty I stowed away in it such baggage as it was absolutely +necessary for me to take, leaving scarcely sitting or sleeping room. +The sailing qualities of the boat were highly vaunted, and I was assured +that at this season a small one was much more likely to succeed in +making the journey. We first coasted along the island, reaching its +eastern extremity the following morning (April 11th), and found a +strong W. S.W. wind blowing, which just allowed us to lay across to the +Matabello Islands, a distance little short of twenty miles. I did not +much like the look of the heavy sky and rather rough sea, and my men +were very unwilling to make the attempt; but as we could scarcely hope +for a better chance, I insisted upon trying. The pitching and jerking of +our little boat, soon reduced me to a state of miserable helplessness, +and I lay down, resigned to whatever might happen. After three or four +hours, I was told we were nearly over; but when I got up, two hours +later, just as the sun was setting, I found we were still a good +distance from the point, owing to a strong current which had been for +some time against us. Night closed in, and the wind drew more ahead, +so we had to take in sail. Then came a calm, and we rowed and sailed +as occasion offered; and it was four in the morning when we reached the +village of Kisslwoi, not having made more than three miles in the last +twelve hours. + +MATABELLO ISLANDS. + +At daylight I found we were; in a beautiful little harbour, formed by a +coral reef about two hundred yards from shore, and perfectly secure in +every wind. Having eaten nothing since the previous morning, we cooked +our breakfast comfortably on shore, and left about noon, coasting along +the two islands of this group, which lie in the same line, and are +separated by a narrow channel. Both seem entirely formed of raised +coral rock; but them has been a subsequent subsidence, as shaven by the +barrier reef which extends all along them at varying distances from the +shore, This reef is sometimes only marked by a. line of breakers when +there is a little swell on the sea; in other places there is a ridge +of dead coral above the water, which is here and there high enough to +support a few low bushes. This was the first example I had met with of a +true barrier reef due to subsidence, as has been so clearly shown by Mr. +Darwin. In a sheltered archipelago they will seldom be distinguishable, +from the absence of those huge rolling waves and breakers which in +the wide ocean throw up a barrier of broken coral far above the usual +high-water mark, while here they rarely rise to the surface. + +On reaching the end of the southern island, called Uta, we were kept +waiting two days for a wind that would enable us to pass over to the +next island, Teor, and I began to despair of ever reaching Ke, and +determined on returning. We left with a south wind, which suddenly +changed to north-east, and induced me to turn again southward in the +hopes that this was the commencement of a few days' favourable weather. +We sailed on very well in the direction of Teor for about an hour, +after which the wind shifted to WSW., and we were driven much out of our +course, and at nightfall found ourselves in the open sea, and full +ten miles to leeward of our destination. My men were now all very much +frightened, for if we went on we might be a. week at sea in our little +open boat, laden almost to the water's edge; or we might drift on to +the coast of New Guinea, in which case we should most likely all be +murdered. I could not deny these probabilities, and although I showed +them that we could not get back to our starting-point with the wind +as it was, they insisted upon returning. We accordingly put about, and +found that we could lay no nearer to Uta than to Teor; however, by great +good luck, about ten o'clock we hit upon a little coral island, and lay +under its lee till morning, when a favourable change of wind brought us +back to Uta, and by evening (April 18th) we reached our first anchorage +in Matabello, where I resolved to stay a few days, and then return to +Goram. It way with much regret that I gave up my trip to Ke and the +intervening islands, which I had looked forward to as likely to make up +for my disappointment in Ceram, since my short visit on my voyage to Aru +had produced me so many rare and beautiful insects. + +The natives of Matabello are almost entirely occupied in making cocoanut +oil, which they sell to the Bugis and Goram traders, who carry it to +Banda and Amboyna. The rugged coral rock seems very favourable to the +growth of the cocoa-nut palm, which abounds over the whole island to the +very highest points, and produces fruit all the year round. Along with +it are great numbers of the areca or betel-nut palm, the nuts of which +are sliced, dried, and ground into a paste, which is much used by the +betel-chewing Malays and Papuans. All the little children here even +such as can just run alone, carried between their lips a mass of the +nasty-looking red paste, which is even more disgusting than to see them +at the same age smoking cigars, which is very common even before they +are weaned. Cocoa-nuts, sweet potatoes, an occasional sago cake, and the +refuse nut after the oil has been extracted by boiling, form the chief +sustenance of these people; and the effect of this poor and unwholesome +diet is seen in the frequency of eruptions and scurfy skin diseases, and +the numerous sores that disfigure the faces of the children. + +The villages are situated on high and rugged coral peaks, only +accessible by steep narrow paths, with ladders and bridges over yawning +chasms. They are filthy with rotten husks and oil refuse, and the huts +are dark, greasy, and dirty in the extreme. The people are wretched +ugly dirty savages, clothed in unchanged rags, and living in the most +miserable manner, and as every drop of fresh water has to be brought +up from the beach, washing is never thought of; yet they are actually +wealthy, and have the means of purchasing all the necessaries and +luxuries of life. Fowls are abundant, and eggs were given me whenever +I visited the villages, but these are never eaten, being looked upon +as pets or as merchandise. Almost all of the women wear massive gold +earrings, and in every village there are dozens of small bronze cannon +lying about on the ground, although they have cost on the average +perhaps Ŗ10 a piece. The chief men of each village came to visit me, +clothed in robes of silk and flowered satin, though their houses and +their daily fare are no better than those of the ether inhabitants. What +a contrast between these people and such savages as the best tribes of +bill. Dyaks in Borneo, or the Indians of the Uaupes in South America, +living on the banks of clear streams, clean in their persons and their +houses, with abundance of wholesome food, and exhibiting its effect in +healthy shins and beauty of form and feature! There is in fact almost +as much difference: between the various races of savage as of civilized +peoples, and we may safely affirm that the better specimens of the +former are much superior to the lower examples of the latter class. + +One of the few luxuries of Matabello is the palm wine; which is the +fermented sap from the flower stains of the cocoa-net. It is really a +very mice drink, more like cyder than beer, though quite as intoxicating +as the latter. Young cocoa-nuts are also very abundant, so that anywhere +in the island it is only necessary to go a few yards to find a delicious +beverage by climbing up a tree for it. It is the water of the young +fruit that is drunk, before the pulp has hardened; it is then more +abundant, clear, and refreshing, and the thin coating of gelatinous pulp +is thought a treat luxury. The water of full-brown cocoa-nuts is always +thrown away as undrinkable, although it is delicious in comparison with +that of the old dry nuts which alone we obtain in this country. The +cocoa-nut pulp I did not like at first; but fruits are so scarce, except +at particular seasons, that one soon learns to appreciate anything of a +fruity nature. + +Many persons in Europe are under the impression that fruits of delicious +flavour abound in the tropical forests, and they will no doubt be +surprised to learn that the truly wild fruits of this brand and +luxuriant archipelago, the vegetation of which will vie with that of any +part of the world, are in almost every island inferior in abundance and +duality to those of Britain. Wild strawberries and raspberries are found +in some places, but they are such poor tasteless things as to be hardly +worth eating, and there is nothing to compare with our blackberries and +whortleberries. The kanary-nut may be considered equal to a hazel-nut, +but I have met with nothing else superior to our crabs, oar haws, +beech-nuts, wild plums, and acorns; fruits which would be highly +esteemed by the natives of these islands, and would form an important +part of their sustenance. All the fine tropical fruits are as much +cultivated productions as our apples, peaches, and plums, and their wild +prototypes, when found, are generally either tasteless or uneatable. + +The people of Matabello, like those of most of the Mahometan villages of +East Ceram and Goram, amused me much by their strange ideas concerning +the Russian war. They believe that the Russians were not only most +thoroughly beaten by the Turks, but were absolutely conquered, and all +converted to Islamism! And they can hardly be convinced that such is +not the case, and that had it not been for the assistance of France and +England, the poor Sultan world have fared ill. Another of their motions +is, that the Turks are the largest and strongest people in the world--in +fact a race of giants; that they eat enormous quantities of meat, and +are a most ferocious and irresistible nation. Whence such strangely +incorrect opinions could have arisen it is difficult to understand, +unless they are derived from Arab priests, or hadjis returned from +Mecca, who may have heard of the ancient prowess of the Turkish armies +when they made all Europe tremble, and suppose that their character and +warlike capacity must be the same at the present time. + +GORAM + +A steady south-east wind having set in, we returned to Manowolko on +the 25th of April, and the day after crossed over to Ondor, the chief +village of Goram. + +Around this island extends, with few interruptions, an encircling coral +reef about a quarter of a mile from the shore, visible as a stripe of +pale green water, but only at very lowest ebb-tides showing any rock +above the surface. There are several deep entrances through this reef, +and inside it there is hood anchorage in all weathers. The land rises +gradually to a moderate height, and numerous small streams descend on +all sides. The mere existence of these streams would prove that the +island was not entirely coralline, as in that case all the water would +sink through the porous rock as it does at Manowolko and Matabello; but +we have more positive proof in the pebbles and stones of their beds, +which exhibit a variety of stratified crystalline rocks. About a hundred +yards from the beach rises a wall of coral rock, ten or twenty feet +high, above which is an undulating surface of rugged coral, which slopes +downward towards the interior, and then after a slight ascent is bounded +by a second wall of coral. Similar walls occur higher up, and coral is +found on the highest part of the island. + +This peculiar structure teaches us that before the coral was formed land +existed in this spot; that this land sunk gradually beneath the waters, +but with intervals of rest, during which encircling reef's were formed +around it at different elevations; that it then rose to above its +present elevation, and is now again sinking. We infer this, because +encircling reefs are a proof of subsidence; and if the island were again +elevated about a hundred feet, what is now the reef and the shallow sea +within it would form a wall of coral rock, and an undulating coralline +plain, exactly similar to those that still exist at various altitudes up +to the summit of the island. We learn also that these changes have taken +place at a comparatively recent epoch, for the surface of the coral +has scarcely suffered from the action of the weather, and hundreds of +sea-shells, exactly resembling those still found upon the beach, and +many of them retaining their gloss and even their colour, are scattered +over the surface of the island to near its summit. + +Whether the Goram group formed originally part of New Guinea or of Ceram +it is scarcely possible to determine, and its productions will throw +little light upon the question, if, as I suppose, the islands have been +entirely submerged within the epoch of existing species of animals, +as in that case it must owe its present fauna and flora to recent +immigration from surrounding lands; and with this view its poverty in +species very well agrees. It possesses much in common with East Ceram, +but at the same time has a good deal of resemblance to the Ke Islands +and Banda. The fine pigeon, Carpophaga concinna, inhabits Ke, Banda, +Il-Iatabello, and Goram, and is replaced by a distinct species, C. +neglecta, in Ceram. The insects of these four islands have also a common +facies--facts which seem to indicate that some more extensive land has +recently disappeared from the area they now occupy, and has supplied +them with a few of its peculiar productions. + +The Goram people (among whom I stayed a month) are a race of traders. +Every year they visit the Tenimber, Ke, and Aru Islands, the whole +north-west coast of New Guinea from Oetanata to Salwatty, and the island +of Waigiou and Mysol. They also extend their voyages to Tidore and +Ternate, as well as to Banda and Amboyna, Their praus are all made by +that wonderful race of boatbuilders, the Ke islanders, who annually +turn out some hundreds of boats, large and small, which can hardly be +surpassed for beauty of form and goodness of workmanship, They trade +chiefly in tripang, the medicinal mussoi bark, wild nutmegs, and +tortoiseshell, which they sell to the Bugis traders at Ceram-laut or +Aru, few of them caring to take their products to any other market. In +other respects they are a lazy race, living very poorly, and much given +to opium smoking. The only native manufactures are sail-matting, coarse +cotton cloth, and pandanus-leaf boxes, prettily stained and ornamented +with shell-work. + +In the island of Goram, only eight or ten miles long, there are about a +dozen Rajahs, scarcely better off than the rest of the inhabitants, and +exercising a mere nominal sway, except when any order is received from +the Dutch Government, when, being backed by a higher power, they show +a little more strict authority. My friend the Rajah of Ammer (commonly +called Rajah of Goram) told me that a few years ago, before the Dutch +had interfered in the affairs of the island, the trade was not carried +on so peaceably as at present, rival praus often fighting when on the +way to the same locality, or trafficking in the same village. Now such a +thing is never thought of-one of the good effects of the superintendence +of a civilized government. Disputes between villages are still, however, +sometimes settled by fighting, and I one day saw about fifty men, +carrying long guns and heavy cartridge-belts, march through the village. +They had come from the other side of the island on some question +of trespass or boundary, and were prepared for war if peaceable +negotiations should fail. + +While at Manowolko I had purchased for 100 florins (Ŗ9.) a small prau, +which was brought over the next day, as I was informed it was more +easy to have the necessary alterations made in Goram, where several Ke +workmen were settled. + +As soon as we began getting my prau ready I was obliged to give up +collecting, as I found that unless I was constantly on the spot myself +very little work would be clone. As I proposed making some long voyages +in this boat, I determined to fit it up conveniently, and was obliged to +do all the inside work myself, assisted by my two Amboynese boys. I +had plenty of visitors, surprised to see a white man at work, and much +astonished at the novel arrangements I was making in one of their native +vessels. Luckily I had a few tools of my own, including a small saw and +some chisels, and these were now severely tried, cutting and fitting +heavy iron-wood planks for the flooring and the posts that support the +triangular mast. Being of the best London make, they stood the work +well, and without them it would have been impossible for me to have +finished my boat with half the neatness, or in double the time. I had +a Ke workman to put in new ribs, for which I bought nails of a Bugis +trader, at 8d. a pound. My gimlets were, however, too small; and having +no augers we were obliged to bore all the holes with hot irons, a most +tedious and unsatisfactory operation. + +Five men had engaged to work at the prau till finished, and then go with +me to Mysol, Waigiou, and Ternate. Their ideas of work were, however, +very different from mine, and I had immense difficulty with them; seldom +more than two or three coming together, and a hundred excuses being +given for working only half a day when they did come. Yet they were +constantly begging advances of money, saying they had nothing to eat. +When I gave it them they were sure to stay away the next day, and when I +refused any further advances some of them declined working any more. As +the boat approached completion my difficulties with the men increased. +The uncle of one had commenced a war, or sort of faction fight, and +wanted his assistance; another's wife was ill, and would not let him +come; a third had fever and ague, and pains in his head and back; and +a fourth had an inexorable creditor who would not let him go out of his +sight. They had all received a month's wages in advance; and though the +amount was not large, it was necessary to make them pay it back, or I +should get any men at all. I therefore sent the village constable +after two, and kept them in custody a day, when they returned about +three-fourths of what they owed me. The sick man also paid, and the +steersman found a substitute who was willing to take his debt, and +receive only the balance of his wages. + +About this time we had a striking proof of the dangers of New Guinea +trading. Six men arrived at the village in a small boat almost starved, +having escaped out of two praus, the remainder of whose crews (fourteen +in number) had been murdered by the natives of New Guinea. The praus had +left this village a few months before, and among the murdered men were +the Rajah's son, and the relation or slaves of many of the inhabitants. +The cry of lamentation that arose when the news arrived was most +distressing. A score of women, who had lost husbands, brothers, sons, +or more distant relatives, set up at once the most dismal shrieks and +groans and wailings, which continued at intervals till late at night; +and as the chief houses in the village were crowded together round that +which I occupied, our situation was anything but agreeable. + +It seems that the village where the attack took place (nearly opposite +the small island of Lakahia) is known to be dangerous, and the vessels +had only gone there a few days before to buy some tripang. The crew were +living on shore, the praus being in a small river close by, and they +were attacked and murdered in the day-time while bargaining with the +Papuans. The six men who survived were on board the praus, and escaped +by at once setting into the small boat and rowing out to sea. + +This south-west part of New Guinea, known to the native traders as +"Papua Kowiyee" and "Papua Onen," is inhabited by the most treacherous +and bloodthirsty tribes. It is in these districts that the commanders +and portions of the crews of many of the early discovery ships were +murdered, and scarcely a year now passes but some lives are lost. The +Goram and Ceram traders are themselves generally inoffensive; they are +well acquainted with the character of these natives, and are not likely +to provoke an attack by any insults or open attempt at robbery or +imposition. They are accustomed to visit the same places every year, and +the natives can have no fear of them, as may be alleged in excuse for +their attacks on Europeans. In other extensive districts inhabited by +the same Papuan races, such as Mysol, Salwatty, Waigiou, and some +parts of the adjacent coast, the people have taken the first step in +civilization, owing probably to the settlement of traders of mixed breed +among them, and for many years no such attacks have taken place. On the +south-west coast, and in the large island of Jobie, however, the natives +are in a very barbarous condition, and tale every opportunity of robbery +and murder,--a habit which is confirmed by the impunity they experience, +owing to the vast extent of wild mountain and forest country forbidding +all pursuit or attempt at punishment. In the very same village, four +years before, more than fifty Goram men were murdered; and as +these savages obtain an immense booty in the praus and all their +appurtenances, it is to be feared that such attacks will continue to be +made at intervals as long as traders visit the same spots and attempt no +retaliation. Punishment could only be inflicted on these people by +very arbitrary measures, such as by obtaining possession of some of the +chiefs by stratagem, and rendering them responsible for the capture of +the murderers at the peril of their own heads. But anything of this kind +would be done contrary to the system adopted by the Dutch Government in +its dealings with natives. + +GORAM TO WAHAI IN CERAM. + +When my boat was at length launched and loaded, I got my men together, +and actually set sail the next day (May 27th), much to the astonishment +of the Goram people, to whom such punctuality was a novelty. I had a +crew of three men and a boy, besides my two Amboyna lads; which was +sufficient for sailing, though rather too few if obliged to row much. +The next day was very wet, with squalls, calms, and contrary winds, and +with some difficulty we reached Kilwaru, the metropolis of the Bugis +traders in the far East. As I wanted to make some purchases, I stayed +here two days, and sent two of my boxes of specimens by a Macassar prau +to be forwarded to Ternate, thus relieving myself of a considerable +incumbrance. I bought knives, basins, and handkerchiefs for barter, +which with the choppers, cloth, and beads I had brought with me, made +a pretty good assortment. I also bought two tower muskets to satisfy my +crew, who insisted on the necessity of being armed against attacks +of pirates; and with spices and a few articles of food for the voyage +nearly my last doit was expended. + +The little island of Kilwaru is a mere sandbank, just large enough to +contain a small village, and situated between the islands of Ceram-laut, +and Kissa--straits about a third of a mile wide separating it from each +of them. It is surrounded by coral reefs, and offers good anchorage in +both monsoons. Though not more than fifty yards across, and not elevated +more than three or four feet above the highest tides, it has wells of +excellent drinking water--a singular phenomenon, which would seem +to imply deep-seated subterranean channels connecting it with other +islands. These advantages, with its situation in the centre of the +Papuan trading district, lead to its being so much frequented by the +Bugis traders. Here the Goram men bring the produce of their little +voyages, which they exchange for cloth, sago cakes, and opium; and +the inhabitants of all the surrounding islands visit it with the game +object. It is the rendezvous of the praus trading to various parts of +New Guinea, which here assort and dry their cargoes, and refit for the +voyage home. Tripang and mussoi bark are the most bulky articles of +produce brought here, with wild nutmegs, tortoiseshell, pearls, and +birds of Paradise; in smaller quantities. The villagers of the mainland +of Ceram bring their sago, which is thus distributed to the islands +farther east, while rice from Bali and Macassar can also be purchased at +a moderate price. The Goram men come here for their supplies of opium, +both for their own consumption and for barter in Mysol and Waigiou, +where they have introduced it, and where the chiefs and wealthy men are +passionately fond of it. Schooners from Bali come to buy Papuan slaves, +while the sea-wandering Bugis arrive from distant Singapore in their +lumbering praus, bringing thence the produce of the Chinamen's +workshops and Kling's bazaar, as well as of the looms of Lancashire and +Massachusetts. + +One of the Bugis traders who had arrived a few days before from Mysol, +brought me news of my assistant Charles Allen, with whom he was well +acquainted, and who, he assured me; was making large collections of +birds and insects, although he had not obtained any birds of Paradise; +Silinta, where he was staying, not being a good place for them. This +was on the whole satisfactory, and I was anxious to reach him as soon as +possible. + +Leaving Kilwaru early in the morning of June 1st, with a strong east +wind we doubled the point of Ceram about noon, the heavy sea causing my +prau to roll abort a good deal, to the damage of our crockery. As bad +weather seemed coming on, we got inside the reefs and anchored opposite +the village of Warns-warns to wait for a change. + +The night was very squally, and though in a good harbour we rolled and +jerked uneasily; but in the morning I had greater cause for uneasiness +in the discovery that our entire Goram crew had decamped, taking with +them all they possessed and a little more, and leaving us without any +small boat in which to land. I immediately told my Amboyna men to load +and fire the muskets as a signal of distress, which was soon answered +by the village chief sending off a boat, which took me on shore. I +requested that messengers should be immediately sent to the neighbouring +villages in quest of the fugitives, which was promptly done. My prau was +brought into a small creek, where it could securely rest in the mud at +low water, and part of a house was given me in which T could stay for +a while. I now found my progress again suddenly checked, just when I +thought I had overcome my chief difficulties. As I had treated my men +with the greatest kindness, and had given them almost everything they +had asked for, I can impute their running away only to their being +totally unaccustomed to the restraint of a European master, and to some +undefined dread of my ultimate intentions regarding them. The oldest man +was an opium smoker, and a reputed thief, but I had been obliged to take +him at the last moment as a substitute for another. I feel sure it was +he who induced the others to run away, and as they knew the country +well, and had several hours' start of us, there was little chance of +catching them. + +We were here in the great sago district of East Ceram which supplies +most of the surrounding islands with their daily bread, and during our +week's delay I had an opportunity of seeing the whole process of making +it, and obtaining some interesting statistics. The sago tree is a palm, +thicker and larger than the cocoa-nut tree, although rarely so tall, and +having immense pinnate spiny leaves, which completely cover the trunk +till it is many years old. It has a creeping root-stem like the Nipa +palm, and when about ten or fifteen years of age sends up an immense +terminal spike of flowers, after which the tree dies. It grows in +swamps, or in swampy hollows on the rocky slopes of hills, where it +seems to thrive equally well as when exposed to the influx of salt or +brackish water. The midribs of the immense leaves form one of the most +useful articles in these lands, supplying the place of bamboo, to which +for many purposes they are superior. They are twelve or fifteen feet +long, and, when very fine, as thick in the lower part as a man's leg. +They are very light, consisting entirely of a firm pith covered with +a hard thin rind or bark. Entire houses are built of these; they form +admirable roofing-poles for thatch; split and well-supported, they do +for flooring; and when chosen of equal size, and pegged together side +by side to fill up the panels of framed wooden horses, they have a very +neat appearance, and make better walls and partitions than boards, as +they do not shrink, require no paint or varnish, and are not a quarter +the expense. When carefully split and shaved smooth they are formed into +light boards with pegs of the bark itself, and are the foundation of the +leaf-covered boxes of Goram. All the insect-boxes I used in the Moluccas +were thus made at Amboyna, and when covered with stout paper inside and +out, are strong, light, and secure the insect-pins remarkably well. The +leaflet of the sago folded and tied side by side on the smaller midribs +form the "atap" or thatch in universal use, while the product of the +trunk is the staple food of some= hundred thousands of men. + +When sago is to be made, a full-grown tree is selected just before it +is going to flower. It is cut down close to the ground, the leaves and +leafstalks cleared away, and a broad strip of the bark taken off the +upper side of the trunk. This exposes the pithy matter, which is of +a rusty colour near the bottom of the tree, but higher up pure white, +about as hard as a dry apple, but with woody fibre running through it +about a quarter of an inch apart. This pith is cut or broken down into a +coarse powder by means of a tool constructed for the purpose--a club of +hard and heavy wood, having a piece of sharp quartz rock firmly imbedded +into its blunt end, and projecting about half an inch. By successive +blows of this, narrow strips of the pith are cut away, and fall down +into the cylinder formed by the bark. Proceeding steadily on, the whole +trunk is cleared out, leaving a skin not more than half an inch in +thickness. This material is carried away (in baskets made of +the sheathing bases of the leaves) to the nearest water, where a +washing-machine is put up, which is composed almost entirely of the saga +tree itself. The large sheathing bases of the leaves form the troughs, +and the fibrous covering from the leaf-stalks of the young cocoa-nut +the strainer. Water is poured on the mass of pith, which is kneaded and +pressed against the strainer till the starch is all dissolved and has +passed through, when the fibrous refuse is thrown away, and a fresh +basketful put in its place. The water charged with sago starch passes +on to a trough, with a depression in the centre, where the sediment is +deposited, the surplus water trickling off by a shallow outlet. When the +trough is nearly full, the mass of starch, which has a slight reddish +tinge, is made into cylinders of about thirty pounds' weight, and neatly +covered with sago leaves, and in this state is sold as raw sago. + +Boiled with water this forms a thick glutinous mass, with a rather +astringent taste, and is eaten with salt, limes, and chilies. Sago-bread +is made in large quantities, by baking it into cakes in a small +clay oven containing six or eight slits side by side, each about +three-quarters of an inch wide, and six or eight inches square. The raw +sago is broken up, dried in the sun, powdered, and finely sifted. The +oven is heated over a clear fire of embers, and is lightly filled with +the sago-powder. The openings are then covered with a flat piece of sago +bark, and in about five minutes the cakes are turned out sufficiently +baked. The hot cakes are very nice with butter, and when made with the +addition of a little sugar and grated cocoa-nut are quite a delicacy. +They are soft, and something like corn-flour cakes, but leave a slight +characteristic flavour which is lost in the refined sago we use in this +country. When not wanted for immediate use, they are dried for several +days in the sun, and tied up in bundles of twenty. They will then keep +for years; they are very hard, and very rough and dry, but the people +are used to them from infancy, and little children may be seen gnawing +at them as contentedly as ours with their bread-and-butter. If dipped in +water and then toasted, they become almost as good as when fresh baked; +and thus treated they were my daily substitute for bread with my coffee. +Soaked and boiled they make a very good pudding or vegetable, and served +well to economize our rice, which is sometimes difficult to get so far +east. + +It is truly an extraordinary sight to witness a whole tree-trunk, +perhaps twenty feet long and four or five in circumference, converted +into food with so little labour and preparation. A good-sized tree will +produce thirty tomans or bundles of thirty pounds each, and each toman +will make sixty cakes of three to the pound. Two of these cakes are as +much as a man can eat at one meal, and five are considered a full day's +allowance; so that, reckoning a tree to produce 1,800 cakes, weighing +600 pounds, it will supply a man with food for a whole year. The labour +to produce this is very moderate. Two men will finish a tree in five +days, and two women will bake the whole into cakes in five days more; +but the raw sago will keep very well, and can be baked as wanted, so +that we may estimate that in ten days a man may produce food for the +whole year. This is on the supposition that he possesses sago trees of +his own, for they are now all private property. If he does not, he has +to pay about seven and sixpence for one; and as labour here is five +pence a day, the total cost of a year's food for one man is about +twelve shillings. The effect of this cheapness of food is decidedly +prejudicial, for the inhabitants of the sago countries are never so +well off as those where rice is cultivated. Many of the people here have +neither vegetables nor fruit, but live almost entirely on sago and a +little fish. Having few occupations at home, they wander about on petty +trading or fishing expeditions to the neighbouring islands; and as far +as the comforts of life are concerned, are much inferior to the wild +hill-Dyaks of Borneo, or to many of the more barbarous tribes of the +Archipelago. + +The country round Warus-warus is low and swampy, and owing to the +absence of cultivation there were scarcely any paths leading into the +forest. I was therefore unable to collect much during my enforced stay, +and found no rare birds or insects to improve my opinion of Ceram as +a collecting ground. Finding it quite impossible to get men here to +accompany me on the whole voyage, I was obliged to be content with a +crew to take me as far as Wahai, on the middle of the north coast of +Ceram, and the chief Dutch station in the island. The journey took +us five days, owing to calms and light winds, and no incident of any +interest occurred on it, nor did I obtain at our stopping places a +single addition to my collections worth naming. At Wahai, which I +reached on the 15th of June, I was hospitably received by the Commandant +and my old friend Herr Rosenberg, who was now on an official visit here. +He lent me some money to pay my men, and I was lucky enough to obtain +three others willing to make the voyage with me to Ternate, and one more +who was to return from Mysol. One of my Amboyna lads, however, left me, +so that I was still rather short of hands. + +I found here a letter from Charles Allen, who was at Silinta in Mysol, +anxiously expecting me, as he was out of rice and other necessaries, and +was short of insect-pins. He was also ill, and if I did not soon come +would return to Wahai. + +As my voyage from this place to Waigiou was among islands inhabited by +the Papuan race, and was an eventful and disastrous one, I will narrate +its chief incidents in a separate chapter in that division of my work +devoted to the Papuan Islands. I now have to pass over a year spent in +Waigiou and Timor, in order to describe my visit to the island of Bouru, +which concluded my explorations of the Moluccas. + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. BOURU. + +MAY AND JUNE 1861. + +I HAD long wished to visit the large island of Bouru, which lies due +west of Ceram, and of which scarcely anything appeared to be known +to naturalists, except that it contained a babirusa very like that of +Celebes. I therefore made arrangements for staying there two months +after leaving Timor Delli in 1861. This I could conveniently do by means +of the Dutch mail-steamers, which make a monthly round of the Moluccas. + +We arrived at the harbour of Cajeli on the 4th of May; a gun was fired, +the Commandant of the fort came alongside in a native boat to receive +the post-packet, and took me and my baggage on shore, the steamer going +off again without coming to an anchor. We went to the horse of the +Opzeiner, or overseer, a native of Amboyna--Bouru being too poor a place +to deserve even an Assistant Resident; yet the appearance of the village +was very far superior to that of Delli, which possesses "His Excellency +the Governor," and the little fort, in perfect order, surrounded by neat +brass-plots and straight walks, although manned by only a dozen Javanese +soldiers with an Adjutant for commander, was a very Sebastopol in +comparison with the miserable mud enclosure at Delli, with its numerous +staff of Lieutenants, Captain, and Major. Yet this, as well as most +of the forts in the Moluccas, was originally built by the Portuguese +themselves. Oh! Lusitania, how art thou fallen! + +While the Opzeiner was reading his letters, I took a walk round +the village with a guide in search of a horse. The whole place was +dreadfully damp and muddy, being built in a swamp with not a spot of +ground raised a foot above it, and surrounded by swamps on every side. +The houses were mostly well built, of wooden framework filled in with +gaba-gaba (leaf-stems of the sago-palm), but as they had no whitewash, +and the floors were of bare black earth like the roads, and generally on +the same level, they were extremely damp and gloomy. At length I found +one with the floor raised about a foot, and succeeded in making a +bargain with the owner to turn out immediately, so that by night I had +installed myself comfortably. The chairs and tables were left for me; +and as the whole of the remaining furniture in the house consisted of a +little crockery and a few clothes-boxes, it was not much trouble for the +owners to move into the house of some relatives, and thus obtain a +few silver rupees very easily. Every foot of ground between the homes +throughout the village is crammed with fruit trees, so that the sun and +air have no chance of penetrating. This must be very cool and pleasant +in the dry season, but makes it damp and unhealthy at other times of the +year. Unfortunately I had come two months too soon, for the rains were +not yet over, and mud and water were the prominent features of the +country. + +About a mile behind and to the east of the village the hills commence, +but they are very barren, being covered with scanty coarse grass and +scattered trees of the Melaleuca cajuputi, from the leaves of which the +celebrated cajeput oil is made. Such districts are absolutely destitute +of interest for the zoologist. A few miles further on rose higher +mountains, apparently well covered with forest, but they were entirely +uninhabited and trackless, and practically inaccessible to a traveller +with limited time and means. It became evident, therefore, that I must +leave Cajeli for some better collecting ground, and finding a man who +was going a few miles eastward to a village on the coast where he said +there were hills and forest, I sent my boy Ali with him to explore and +report on the capabilities of the district. At the same time I arranged +to go myself on a little excursion up a river which flows into the bay +about five miles north of the town, to a village of the Alfuros, or +indigenes, where I thought I might perhaps find a good collecting +ground. + +The Rajah of Cajeli, a good-tempered old man, offered to accompany me, +as the village was under his government; and we started one morning +early, in a long narrow boat with eight rowers. In about two hours +we entered the river, and commenced our inland journey against a very +powerful current. The stream was about a hundred yards wide, and +was generally bordered with high grass, and occasionally bushes and +palm-trees. The country round was flat and more or less swampy, with +scattered trees and shrubs. At every bend we crossed the river to avoid +the strength of the current, and arrived at our landing-place about +four o'clock in a torrent of rain. Here we waited for an hour, crouching +under a leaky mat till the Alfuros arrived who had been sent for from +the village to carry my baggage, when we set off along a path of whose +extreme muddiness I had been warned before starting. + +I turned up my trousers as high as possible, grasped a stoat stick to +prevent awkward falls, and then boldly plunged into the first mud-hole, +which was immediately succeeded by another and another. The marl or mud +and water was knee-deep with little intervals of firmer ground between, +making progression exceedingly difficult. The path was bordered with +high rigid grass, brewing in dense clumps separated by water, so that +nothing was to be gained by leaving the beaten track, and we were +obliged to go floundering on, never knowing where our feet would rest, +as the mud was now a few inches, now two feet deep, and the bottom +very uneven, so that the foot slid down to the lowest part, and made +it difficult to keep one's balance. One step would be upon a concealed +stick or log, almost dislocating the ankle, while the next would plunge +into soft mud above the knee. It rained all the way, and the long grass, +six feet high, met over the path; so that we could not see a step of the +way ahead, and received a double drenching. Before we got to the village +it was dark, and we had to cross over a small but deep and swollen +stream by a narrow log of wood, which was more than a foot under water. +There was a slender shaking stick for a handrail, and it was nervous +work feeling in the dark in the rushing water for a safe place on which +to place the advanced foot. After au hour of this most disagreeable +and fatiguing walk we reached the village, followed by the men with +our guns, ammunition, boxes, and bedding all more or less soaked. We +consoled ourselves with some hot tea and cold fowl, and went early to +bed. + +The next morning was clear and fine, and I set out soon after sunrise to +explore the neighbourhood. The village had evidently been newly formed, +and consisted of a single straight street of very miserable huts totally +deficient in every comfort, and as bare and cheerless inside as out. It +was situated on a little elevated patch of coarse gravelly soil, covered +with the usual high rigid grass, which came up close to the backs of +the houses. At a short distance in several directions were patches of +forest, but all on low and swampy ground. I made one attempt along the +only path I could find, but soon came upon a deep mud-hole, and found +that I must walk barefoot if at all; so I returned and deferred further +exploration till after breakfast. I then went on into the jungle and +found patches of sago-palms and a low forest vegetation, but the paths +were everywhere full of mud-holes, and intersected by muddy streams +and tracts of swamp, so that walking was not pleasurable, and too much +attention to one's steps was not favourable to insect catching, which +requires above everything freedom of motion. I shot a few birds, +and caught a few butterflies, but all were the same as I had already +obtained about Cajeli. + +On my return to the village I was told that the same kind of ground +extended for many miles in every direction, and I at once decided that +Wayapo was not a suitable place to stay at. The next morning early we +waded back again through the mud and long wet grass to our boat, and +by mid-day reached Cajeli, where I waited Ali's return to decide on my +future movements. He came the following day, and gave a very bad account +of Pelah, where he had been. There was a little brush and trees along +the beach, and hills inland covered with high grass and cajuputi +trees--my dread and abhorrence. On inquiring who could give me +trustworthy information, I was referred to the Lieutenant of the +Burghers, who had travelled all round the island, and was a very +intelligent fellow. I asked him to tell me if he knew of any part of +Bouru where there was no "kusu-kusu," as the coarse grass of the country +is called. He assured me that a good deal of the south coast was forest +land, while along the north was almost entirely swamp and grassy hills. +After minute inquiries, I found that the forest country commenced at a +place called Waypoti, only a few miles beyond Pelah, but that, as the +coast beyond that place was exposed to the east monsoon and dangerous +for praus, it was necessary to walk. I immediately went to the Opzeiner, +and he called the Rajah. We had a consultation, and arranged for a boat +to take me the next evening but one, to Pelah, whence I was to proceed +on foot, the Orang-kaya going the day before to call the Alfuros to +carry my baggage. + +The journey was made as arranged, and on May 19th we arrived at Waypoti, +having walked about ten miles along the beach, and through stony forest +bordering the sea, with occasional plunges of a mile or two into the +interior. We found no village, but scattered houses and plantations, +with hilly country pretty well covered with forest, and looking rather +promising. A low hut with a very rotten roof, showing the sky through in +several places, was the only one I could obtain. Luckily it did not rain +that night, and the next day we pulled down some of the walls to repair +the roof, which was of immediate importance, especially over our beds +and table. + +About half a mile from the house was a fine mountain stream, running +swiftly over a bed of rocks and pebbles, and beyond this was a hill +covered with fine forest. By carefully picking my way I could wade +across this river without getting much above my knees, although I would +sometimes slip off a rock and go into a hole up to my waist, and +about twice a week I went across it in order to explore the forest. +Unfortunately there were no paths here of any extent, and it did +not prove very productive either in insects or birds. To add to my +difficulties I had stupidly left my only pair of strong hoots on board +the steamer, and my others were by this time all dropping to pieces, +so that I was obliged to walk about barefooted, and in constant fear of +hurting my feet, and causing a wound which might lay me up for weeks, +as had happened in Borneo, Are, and Dorey. Although there were numerous +plantations of maize and plantains, there were no new clearings; and as +without these it is almost impossible to find many of the best kinds +of insects, I determined to make one myself, and with much difficulty +engaged two men to clear a patch of forest, from which I hoped to obtain +many fine beetles before I left. + +During the whole of my stay, however, insects never became plentiful. My +clearing produced me a few fine, longicorns and Buprestidae, different +from any I had before seen, together with several of the Amboyna +species, but by no means so numerous or, so beautiful as I had found in +that small island. For example, I collected only 210 different kinds +of beetles during my two months' stay at Bourn, while in three weeks +at Amboyna, in 1857, I found more than 300 species: One of the finest +insects found at Bouru was a large Cerambyx, of a deep shining chestnut +colour, and with very long antennae. It varied greatly in size, the +largest specimens being three inches long, while the smallest were only +an inch, the antenna varying from one and a half to five inches. + +One day my boy Ali came home with a story of a big snake. He was walking +through some high grass, and stepped on something which he took for a +small fallen tree, but it felt cold and yielding to his feet, and far +to the right and left there was a waving and rustling of the herbage. He +jumped back in affright and prepared to shoot, but could not get a good +vies of the creature, and it passed away, he said, like a tree being +dragged along through the grass. As he lead several times already shot +large snakes, which he declared were all as nothing compared with +this, I am inclined to believe it must really have been a monster. Such +creatures are rather plentiful here, for a man living close by showed +me on his thigh the marks where he had been seized by one close to his +house. It was big enough to take the man's thigh in its mouth, and he +would probably have been killed and devoured by it had not his cries +brought out his neighbours, who destroyed it with their choppers. As +far as I could make out it was about twenty feet long, but Ali's was +probably much larger. + +It sometimes amuses me to observe how, a few days after I have taken +possession of it, a native hut seems quite a comfortable home. My house +at Waypoti was a bare shed, with a large bamboo platform at one side. At +one end of this platform, which was elevated about three feet, I fixed +up my mosquito curtain, and partly enclosed it with a large Scotch +plaid, making a comfortable little sleeping apartment. I put up a +rude table on legs buried in the earthen floor, and had my comfortable +rattan-chair for a seat. A line across one corner carried my +daily-washed cotton clothing, and on a bamboo shelf was arranged my +small stock of crockery and hardware: Boxes were ranged against the +thatch walls, and hanging shelves, to preserve my collections from ants +while drying, were suspended both without and within the house. On my +table lay books, penknives, scissors, pliers, and pins, with insect and +bird labels, all of which were unsolved mysteries to the native mind. + +Most of the people here had never seen a pin, and the better +informed took a pride in teaching their more ignorant companions the +peculiarities and uses of that strange European production--a needle +with a head, but no eye! Even paper, which we throw away hourly as +rubbish, was to them a curiosity; and I often saw them picking up little +scraps which had been swept out of the house, and carefully putting +them away in their betel-pouch. Then when I took my morning coffee and +evening tea, how many were the strange things displayed to them! Teapot, +teacups, teaspoons, were all more or less curious in their eyes; tea, +sugar, biscuit, and butter, were articles of human consumption seen +by many of them for the first time. One asks if that whitish powder is +"gula passir" (sand-sugar), so called to distinguish it from the coarse +lump palm-sugar or molasses of native manufacture; and the biscuit is +considered a sort of European sago-cake, which the inhabitants of those +remote regions are obliged to use in the absence of the genuine article. +My pursuit, were of course utterly beyond their comprehension. They +continually asked me what white people did with the birds and insects I +tools so much care to preserve. If I only kept what was beautiful, they +might perhaps comprehend it; but to see ants and files and small ugly +insects put away so carefully was a great puzzle to them, and they were +convinced that there must be some medical or magical use for them +which I kept a profound secret. These people were in fact as completely +unacquainted with civilized life as the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, +or the savages of Central Africa--yet a steamship, that highest triumph +of human ingenuity, with its little floating epitome of European +civilization, touches monthly at Cajeli, twenty miles off; while at +Amboyna, only sixty miles distant, a European population and government +have been established for more than three hundred years. + +Having seen a good many of the natives of Bouru from different villages, +and from distant parts of the island, I feel convinced that they consist +of two distinct races now partially amalgamated. The larger portion are +Malays of the Celebes type, often exactly similar to the Tomķre +people of East Celebes, whom I found settled in Batchian; while others +altogether resemble the Alfuros of Ceram. + +The influx of two races can easily be accounted for. The Sula Islands, +which are closely connected with East Celebes, approach to within forty +miles of the north coast of Bouru, while the island of Manipa offers an +easy point of departure for the people of Ceram. I was confirmed in +this view by finding that the languages of Bouru possessed distinct +resemblances to that of Sula, as well as to those of Ceram. + +Soon after we had arrived at Waypoti, Ali had seen a beautiful little +bird of the genus Pitta, which I was very anxious to obtain, as in +almost every island the species are different, and none were yet known +from Bourn. He and my other hunter continued to see it two or three +times a week, and to hear its peculiar note much oftener, but could +never get a specimen, owing to its always frequenting the most dense +thorny thickets, where only hasty glimpses of it could be obtained, and +at so short a distance that it would be difficult to avoid blowing +the bird to pieces. Ali was very much annoyed that he could not get a +specimen of this bird, in going after which he had already severely, +wounded his feet with thorns; and when we had only two days more to +stay, he went of his own accord one evening to sleep at a little but +in the forest some miles off, in order to have a last try for it at +daybreak, when many birds come out to feed, and are very intent on their +morning meal. The next evening he brought me home two specimens, one +with the head blown completely off, and otherwise too much injured to +preserve, the other in very good order, and which I at once saw to be +a new species, very like the Pitta celebensis, but ornamented with a +square patch of bright red on the nape of the neck. + +The next day after securing this prize we returned to Cajeli, and +packing up my collections left Bouru by the steamer. During our two +days' stay at Ternate, I took on board what baggage I had left there, +and bade adieu to all my friends. We then crossed over to Menado, on +our way to Macassar and Java, and I finally quitted the Moluccas, among +whose luxuriant and beautiful islands I had wandered for more than three +years. + +My collections in Bouru, though not extensive, were of considerable +interest; for out of sixty-six species of birds which I collected there, +no less than seventeen were new, or had not been previously found in any +island of the Moluccas. Among these were two kingfishers, Tanysiptera +acis and Ceyx Cajeli; a beautiful sunbird, Nectarines proserpina; a +handsome little black and white flycatcher, Monarcha loricata, whose +swelling throat was beautifully scaled with metallic blue; and several +of less interest. I also obtained a skull of the babirusa, one specimen +of which was killed by native hunters during my residence at Cajeli. + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MOLUCCAS. + +THE Moluccas consist of three large islands, Gilolo, Ceram, and Bouru, +the two former being each about two hundred miles long; and a great +number of smaller isles and islets, the most important of which are +Batchian, Morty, Obi, Ke, Timor-Laut, and Amboyna; and among the smaller +ones, Ternate, Tidore, Kaiķa, and Banda. They occupy a space of ten +degrees of latitude by eight of longitude, and they are connected by +groups of small islets to New Guinea on the east, the Philippines on the +north, Celebes on the west, and Timor on the south. It will be as well +to bear in mind these main features of extent and geographical position, +while we survey their animal productions and discuss their relations +to the countries which surround them on every side in almost equal +proximity. + +We will first consider the Mammalia or warm-blooded quadrupeds, +which present us with some singular anomalies. The land mammals are +exceedingly few in number, only ten being yet known from the entire +group. The bats or aerial mammals, on the other hand, are numerous--not +less than twenty-five species being already known. But even this +exceeding poverty of terrestrial mammals does not at all represent the +real poverty of the Moluccas in this class of animals; for, as we shall +soon see, there is good reason to believe that several of the species +have been introduced by man, either purposely or by accident. + +The only quadrumanous animal in the group is the curious baboon-monkey, +Cynopithecus nigrescens, already described as being one of the +characteristic animals of Celebes. This is found only in the island of +Batchian; and it seems so much out of place there as it is difficult +to imagine how it could have reached the island by any natural means +of dispersal, and yet not have passed by the same means over the narrow +strait to Gilolo--that it seems more likely to have originated from +some individuals which had escaped from confinement, these and similar +animals being often kept as pets by the Malays, and carried about in +their praus. + +Of all the carnivorous animals of the Archipelago the only one found in +the Moluccas is the Viverra tangalunga, which inhabits both Batchian and +Bouru, and probably come of the other islands. I am inclined to think +that this also may have been introduced accidentally, for it is often +made captive by the Malays, who procure civet from it, and it is an +animal very restless and untameable, and therefore likely to escape. +This view is rendered still more probable by what Antonio de Morga tells +us was the custom in the Philippines in 1602. He says that "the natives +of Mindanao carry about civet-cats in cages, and sell them in the +islands; and they take the civet from them, and let them go again." The +same species is common in the Philippines and in all the large islands +of the Indo-Malay region. + +The only Moluccan ruminant is a deer, which was once supposed to be a +distinct species, but is now generally considered to be a slight variety +of the Rusa hippelaphus of Java. Deer are often tamed and petted, and +their flesh is so much esteemed by all Malays, that it is very natural +they should endeavour to introduce them into the remote islands in which +they settled, and whose luxuriant forests seem so well adapted for their +subsistence. + +The strange babirusa of Celebes is also found in Bouru; but in no other +Moluccan island, and it is somewhat difficult to imagine how it got +there. It is true that there is some approximation between the birds of +the Sula Islands (where the babirusa is also found) and those of Bouru, +which seems to indicate that these islands have recently been closer +together, or that some intervening land has disappeared. At this time +the babirusa may have entered Bouru, since it probably swims as well as +its allies the pigs. These are spread all over the Archipelago, even +to several of the smaller islands, and in many cases the species are +peculiar. It is evident, therefore, that they have some natural means +of dispersal. There is a popular idea that pigs cannot swim, but Sir +Charles Lyell has shown that this is a mistake. In his "Principles of +Geology" (10th Edit. vol. ii p. 355) he adduces evidence to show that +pigs have swum many miles at sea, and are able to swim with great ease +and swiftness. I have myself seen a wild pig swimming across the arm of +the sea that separates Singapore from the Peninsula of Malacca, and we +thus have explained the curious fact, that of all the large mammals of +the Indian region, pigs alone extend beyond the Moluccas and as far as +New Guinea, although it is somewhat curious that they have not found +their way to Australia. + +The little shrew, Sorex myosurus, which is common in Sumatra, Borneo, +and Java, is also found in the larger islands of the Moluccas, to which +it may have been accidentally conveyed in native praus. + +This completes the list of the placental mammals which are so +characteristic of the Indian region; and we see that, with the single +exception of the pig, all may very probably have been introduced by +man, since all except the pig are of species identical with those now +abounding in the great Malay islands, or in Celebes. + +The four remaining mammals are Marsupials, an order of the class +Mammalia, which is very characteristic of the Australian fauna; and +these are probably true natives of the Moluccas, since they are either +of peculiar species, or if found elsewhere are natives only of New +Guinea or North Australia. The first is the small flying opossum, +Belideus ariel, a beautiful little animal, exactly line a small flying +squirrel in appearance, but belonging to the marsupial order. The other +three are species of the curious genus Cuscus, which is peculiar to +the Austro-Malayan region. These are opossum-like animals, with a long +prehensile tail, of which the terminal half is generally bare. They have +small heads, large eyes, and a dense covering of woolly fur, which is +often pure white with irregular black spots or blotches, or sometimes +ashy brown with or without white spots. They live in trees, feeding +upon the leaves, of which they devour large quantities, they move about +slowly, and are difficult to kill, owing to the thickness of their fur, +and their tenacity of life. A heavy charge of shot will often lodge in +the slain and do them no harm, and even breaking the spine or piercing +the brain will not kill them for some hours. The natives everywhere +eat their flesh, and as their motions are so slow, easily catch them by +climbing; so that it is wonderful they have not been exterminated. It +may be, however, that their dense woolly fur protects them from birds of +prey, and the islands they live in are too thinly inhabited for man to +be able to exterminate them. The figure represents Cuscus ornatus, a new +species discovered by me in Batchian, and which also inhabits Ternate. +It is peculiar to the Moluccas, while the two other species which +inhabit Ceram are found also in New Guinea and Waigiou. + +In place of the excessive poverty of mammals which characterises the +Moluccas, we have a very rich display of the feathered tribes. The +number of species of birds at present known from the various islands of +the Molluccan group is 265, but of these only 70 belong to the usually +abundant tribes of the waders and swimmers, indicating that these are +very imperfectly known. As they are also pre-eminently wanderers, and +are thus little fitted for illustrating the geographical distribution of +life in a limited area, we will here leave them out of consideration and +confine our attention only to the 195 land birds. + +When we consider that all Europe, with its varied climate and +vegetation, with every mile of its surface explored, and with the +immense extent of temperate Asia and Africa, which serve as storehouses, +from which it is continually recruited, only supports 251 species of +land birds as residents or regular immigrants, we must look upon the +numbers already procured in the small and comparatively unknown islands +of the Moluccas as indicating a fauna of fully average richness in this +department. But when we come to examine the family groups which go to +make up this number, we find the most curious deficiencies in some, +balanced by equally striking redundancy in other. Thus if we compare +the birds of the Moluccas with those of India, as given in Mr. Jerdon's +work, we find that the three groups of the parrots, kingfishers, and +pigeons, form nearly _one-third_ of the whole land-birds in the former, +while they amount to only _one-twentieth_ in the latter country. On +the other hand, such wide-spread groups as the thrushes, warblers, and +finches, which in India form nearly _one-third_ of all the land-birds, +dwindle down in the Moluccas to _one-fourteenth._ + +The reason of these peculiarities appears to be, that the Moluccan +fauna has been almost entirely derived from that of New Guinea, in which +country the same deficiency and the same luxuriance is to be observed. +Out of the seventy-eight genera in which the Moluccan land-birds may be +classed, no less than seventy are characteristic of Yew Guinea, while +only six belong specially to the Indo-Malay islands. But this close +resemblance to New Guinea genera does not extend to the species, for +no less than 140 out of the 195 land-birds are peculiar to the Moluccan +islands, while 32 are found also in New Guinea, and 15 in the Indo-Malay +islands. These facts teach us, that though the birds of this group have +evidently been derived mainly from New Guinea, yet the immigration has +not been a recent one, since there has been time for the greater portion +of the species to have become changed. We find, also, that many very +characteristic New Guinea forms lave not entered the Moluccas at all, +while others found in Ceram and Gilolo do not extend so far west as +Bouru. Considering, further, the absence of most of the New Guinea +mammals from the Moluccas, we are led to the conclusion that these +islands are not fragments which have been separated from New Guinea, but +form a distinct insular region, which has been upheaved independently at +a rather remote epoch, and during all the mutations it has undergone +has been constantly receiving immigrants from that great and productive +island. The considerable length of time the Moluccas have remained +isolated is further indicated by the occurrence of two peculiar genera +of birds, Semioptera and Lycocorax, which are found nowhere else. + +We are able to divide this small archipelago into two well marked +groups--that of Ceram, including also Bouru. Amboyna, Banda, and Ke; and +that of Gilolo, including Morty, Batchian, Obi, Ternate, and other small +islands. These divisions have each a considerable number of peculiar +species, no less than fifty-five being found in the Ceram group only; +and besides this, most of the separate islands have some species +peculiar to themselves. Thus Morty island has a peculiar kingfisher, +honeysucker, and starling; Ternate has a ground-thrush (Pitta) and +a flycatcher; Banda has a pigeon, a shrike, and a Pitta; Ke has two +flycatchers, a Zosterops, a shrike, a king-crow and a cuckoo; and the +remote Timor-Laut, which should probably come into the Moluccan group, +has a cockatoo and lory as its only known birds, and both are of +peculiar species. + +The Moluccas are especially rich in the parrot tribe, no less than +twenty-two species, belonging to ten genera, inhabiting them. Among +these is the large red-crested cockatoo, so commonly seen alive in +Europe, two handsome red parrots of the genus Eclectus, and five of the +beautiful crimson lories, which are almost exclusively confined to these +islands and the New Guinea group. The pigeons are hardly less abundant +or beautiful, twenty-one species being known, including twelve of the +beautiful green fruit pigeons, the smaller kinds of which are +ornamented with the most brilliant patches of colour on the head and +the under-surface. Next to these come the kingfishers, including sixteen +species, almost all of which are beautiful, end many are among the most +brilliantly-coloured birds that exist. + +One of the most curious groups of birds, the Megapodii, or mound-makers, +is very abundant in the Moluccas. They are gallinaceous birds, about the +size of a small fowl, and generally of a dark ashy or sooty colour, +and they have remarkably large and strong feet and long claws. They are +allied to the "Maleo" of Celebes, of which an account has already been +given, but they differ in habits, most of these birds frequenting the +scrubby jungles along the sea-shore, where the soil is sandy, and there +is a considerable quantity of debris, consisting of sticks, shells, +seaweed, leaves, &c. Of this rubbish the Megapodius forms immense +mounds, often six or eight feet high and twenty or thirty feet in +diameter, which they are enabled to do with comparative ease, by means +of their large feet, with which they can grasp and throw backwards a +quantity of material. In the centre of this mound, at a depth of two or +three feet, the eggs are deposited, and are hatched by the gentle heat +produced by the fermentation of the vegetable matter of the mound. +When I first saw these mounds in the island of Lombock, I could hardly +believe that they were made by such small birds, but I afterwards met +with them frequently, and have once or twice come upon the birds engaged +in making them. They run a few steps backwards, grasping a quantity of +loose material in one foot, and throw it a long way behind them. When +once properly buried the eggs seem to be no more cared for, the young +birds working their way up through the heap of rubbish, and running off +at once into the forest. They come out of the egg covered with thick +downy feathers, and have no tail, although the wings are full developed. + +I was so fortunate as to discover a new species (Megapodius wallacei), +which inhibits Gilolo, Ternate, and Bouru. It is the handsomest bird of +the genus, being richly banded with reddish brown on the back and wings; +and it differs from the other species in its habits. It frequents the +forests of the interior, and comes down to the sea-beach to deposit its +eggs, but instead of making a mound, or scratching a hole to receive +them, it burrows into the sand to the depth of about three feet +obliquely downwards, and deposits its eggs at the bottom. It then +loosely covers up the mouth of the hole, and is said by the natives to +obliterate and disguise its own footmarks leading to and from the hole, +by making many other tracks and scratches in the neighbourhood. It lays +its eggs only at night, and at Bouru a bird was caught early one morning +as it was coming out of its hole, in which several eggs were found. All +these birds seem to be semi-nocturnal, for their loud wailing cries may +be constantly heard late into the night and long before daybreak in the +morning. The eggs are all of a rusty red colour, and very large for the +size of the bird, being generally three or three and a quarter inches +long, by two or two and a quarter wide. They are very good eating, and +are much sought after by the natives. + +Another large and extraordinary bird is the Cassowary, which inhabits +the island of Ceram only. It is a stout and strong bird, standing five +or six feet high, and covered with long coarse black hair-like feathers. +The head is ornamented with a large horny calque or helmet, and the bare +skin of the neck is conspicuous with bright blue and red colours. The +wings are quite absent, and are replaced by a group of horny black +spines like blunt porcupine quills. + +These birds wander about the vast mountainous forests that cover the +island of Ceram, feeding chiefly on fallen fruits, and on insects or +crustacea. The female lays from three to five large and beautifully +shagreened green eggs upon a bed of leaves, the male and female sitting +upon them alternately for about a month. This bird is the helmeted +cassowary (Casuarius galeatus) of naturalists, and was for a long time +the only species known. Others have since been discovered in New Guinea, +New Britain, and North Australia. + +It was in the Moluccas that I first discovered undoubted cases of +"mimicry" among birds, and these are so curious that I must briefly +describe them. It will be as well, however, first to explain what is +meant by mimicry in natural history. At page 205 of the first volume of +this work, I have described a butterfly which, when at rest, so closely +resembles a dead leaf, that it thereby escape the attacks of its +enemies. This is termed a "protective resemblance." If however the +butterfly, being itself savoury morsel to birds, had closely resembled +another butterfly which was disagreeable to birds, and therefore never +eaten by them, it would be as well protected as if it resembled a leaf; +and this is what has been happily termed "mimicry" by Mr. Bates, who +first discovered the object of these curious external imitations of one +insect by another belonging to a distinct genus or family, and sometimes +even to a distinct order. The clear-winged moth which resemble wasps and +hornets are the best examples of "mimicry" in our own country. + +For a long time all the known cases of exact resemblance of one creature +to quite a different one were confined to insects, and it was therefore +with great pleasure that I discovered in the island of Bouru two birds +which I constantly mistook for each other, and which yet belonged to two +distinct and somewhat distant families. One of these is a honeysucker +named Tropidorhynchus bouruensis, and the other a kind of oriole, which +has been called Mimeta bouruensis. The oriole resembles the honeysucker +in the following particulars: the upper and under surfaces of the +two birds are exactly of the same tints of dark and light brown; the +Tropidorhynchus has a large bare black patch round the eyes; this is +copied in the Mimeta by a patch of black feathers. The top of the +head of the Tropidorhynchus has a scaly appearance from the narrow +scale-formed feathers, which are imitated by the broader feathers of +the Mimeta having a dusky line down each. The Tropidorhynchus has a pale +ruff formed of curious recurved feathers on the nape (which has given +the whole genus the name of Friar birds); this is represented in the +Mimeta by a pale band in the same position. Lastly, the bill of the +Tropidorhynchus is raised into a protuberant keel at the base, and the +Mimeta has the same character, although it is not a common one in the +genus. The result is, that on a superficial examination the birds are +identical, although they leave important structural differences, and +cannot be placed near each other in any natural arrangement. + +In the adjacent island of Ceram we find very distinct species of both +these genera, and, strange to say, these resemble each other quite as +closely as do those of Bouru The Tropidorhynchus subcornutus is of an +earthy brown colour, washed with ochreish yellow, with bare orbits, +dusky: cheeks, and the usual recurved nape-ruff: The Mimeta forsteni +which accompanies it, is absolutely identical in the tints of every +part of the body, and the details are copied just as minutely as in the +former species. + +We have two kinds of evidence to tell us which bird in this case is the +model, and which the copy. The honeysuckers are coloured in a manner +which is very general in the whole family to which they belong, while +the orioles seem to have departed from the gay yellow tints so common +among their allies. We should therefore conclude that it is the latter +who mimic the former. If so, however, they must derive some advantage +from the imitation, and as they are certainly weak birds, with small +feet and claws, they may require it. Now the Tropidorhynchi are very +strong and active birds, having powerful grasping claws, and long, +curved, sharp beaks. They assemble together in groups and small flocks, +and they haw a very loud bawling note which can be heard at a great +distance, and serves to collect a number together in time of danger. +They are very plentiful and very pugnacious, frequently driving away +crows and even hawks, which perch on a tree where a few of them are +assembled. It is very probable, therefore, that the smaller birds of +prey have learnt to respect these birds and leave them alone, and it may +thus be a great advantage for the weaker and less courageous Mimetas +to be mistaken for them. This being case, the laws of Variation and +Survival of the Fittest, will suffice to explain how the resemblance has +been brought about, without supposing any voluntary action on the part +of the birds themselves; and those who have read Mr. Darwin's "Origin of +Species" will have no difficulty in comprehending the whole process. + +The insects of the Moluccas are pre-eminently beautiful, even when +compared with the varied and beautiful productions of other parts of the +Archipelago. The grand bird-winged butterflies (Ornithoptera) here reach +their maximum of size and beauty, and many of the Papilios, Pieridae +Danaidae, and Nymphalidae are equally preeminent. There is, perhaps, no +island in the world so small as Amboyna where so many grand insects are +to be found. Here are three of the very finest Ornithopterae--priamus, +helena, and remiss; three of the handsomest and largest +Papilios--ulysses, deiphobus, and gambrisius; one of the handsomest +Pieridae, Iphias leucippe; the largest of the Danaidae, Hestia idea; +and two unusually large and handsome Nymphalidae--Diadema pandarus, +and Charaxes euryalus. Among its beetles are the extraordinary Euchirus +longimanus, whose enormous legs spread over a space of eight inches, +and an unusual number of large and handsome Longicorns, Anthribidae, and +Buprestidae. + +The beetles figured on the plate as characteristic of the Moluccas are: +1. A small specimen of the Euchirus longimanus, or Long-armed Chafer, +which has been already mentioned in the account of my residence at +Amboyna (Chapter XX.). The female has the fore legs of moderate length. +2. A fine weevil, (an undescribed species of Eupholus,) of rich blue and +emerald green colours, banded with black. It is a native of Ceram and +Goram, and is found on foliage. 3. A female of Xenocerus semiluctuosus, +one of the Anthribidae of delicate silky white and black colours. It +is abundant on fallen trunks and stumps in Ceram and Amboyna. 4. An +undescribed species of Xenocerus; a male, with very long and curious +antenna, and elegant black and white markings. It is found on fallen +trunks in Batchian. 5. An undescribed species of Arachnobas, a curious +genus of weevils peculiar to the Moluccas and New Guinea, and remarkable +for their long legs, and their habit of often sitting on leaves, and +turning rapidly round the edge to the under-surface when disturbed. It +was found in Gilolo. All these insects are represented of the natural +size. + +Like the birds, the insects of the Moluccas show a decided affinity +with those of New Guinea rather than with the productions of the great +western islands of the Archipelago, but the difference in form and +structure between the productions of the east and west is not nearly +so marked here as in birds. This is probably due to the more immediate +dependence of insects on climate and vegetation, and the greater +facilities for their distribution in the varied stages of egg, pupa, and +perfect insect. This has led to a general uniformity in the insect-life +of the whole Archipelago, in accordance with the general uniformity +of its climate and vegetation; while on the other hand the great +susceptibility of the insect organization to the action of external +conditions has led to infinite detailed modifications of form and +colour, which have in many cases given a considerable diversity to the +productions of adjacent islands. + +Owing to the great preponderance among the birds, of parrots, pigeons, +kingfishers, and sunbirds, almost all of gay or delicate colours, and +many adorned with the most gorgeous plumage, and to the numbers of very +large and showy butterflies which are almost everywhere to be met with, +the forests of the Moluccas offer to the naturalist a very striking +example of the luxuriance and beauty of animal life in the tropics. Yet +the almost entire absence of Mammalia, and of such wide-spread groups of +birds as woodpeckers, thrushes, jays, tits, and pheasants, must convince +him that he is in a part of the world which has, in reality but little +in common with the great Asiatic continent, although an unbroken chain +of islands seems to link them to it. + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS IN A NATIVE PRAU. + +(DECEMBER, 1856.) + +IT was the beginning of December, and the rainy season at Macassar had +just set in. For nearly three months had beheld the sun rise daily above +the palm-groves, mount to the zenith, and descend like a globe of fire +into the ocean, unobscured for a single moment of his course. Now dark +leaden clouds had gathered over the whole heavens, and seemed to have +rendered him permanently invisible. The strong east winds, warm and dry +and dust-laden, which had hitherto blown as certainly as the sun had +risen, were now replaced by variable gusty breezes and heavy rains, +often continuous for three days and nights together; and the parched +and fissured rice stubbles which during the dry weather had extended in +every direction for miles around the town, were already so flooded as +to be only passable by boats, or by means of a labyrinth of paths on the +top of the narrow banks which divided the separate properties. + +Five months of this kind of weather might be expected in Southern +Celebes, and I therefore determined to seek some more favourable climate +for collecting in during that period, and to return in the next dry +season to complete my exploration of the district. Fortunately for me +I was in one of the treat emporiums of the native trade of the +archipelago. Rattans from Borneo, sandal-wood and bees'-was from Flores +and Timor, tripang from the Gulf of Carpentaria, cajputi-oil from Bouru, +wild nutmegs and mussoi-bark from New Guinea, are all to be found in the +stores of the Chinese and Bugis merchants of Macassar, along with the +rice and coffee which are the chief products of the surrounding country. +More important than all these however is the trade to Aru, a group of +islands situated on the south-west coast of New Guinea, and of which +almost the whole produce comes to Macassar in native vessels. These +islands are quite out of the track of all European trade, and are +inhabited only by black mop-headed savages, who yet contribute to the +luxurious tastes of the most civilized races. Pearls, mother-of-pearl, +and tortoiseshell find their way to Europe, while edible birds' nests +and "tripang" or sea-slug are obtained by shiploads for the gastronomic +enjoyment of the Chinese. + +The trade to these islands has existed from very early times, and it +is from them that Birds of Paradise, of the two kinds known to Linnaeus +were first brought The native vessels can only make the voyage once a +year, owing to the monsoons. They leave Macassar in December or January +at the beginning of the west monsoon, and return in July or August +with the full strength of the east monsoon. Even by the Macassar people +themselves, the voyage to the Aru Islands is looked upon as a rather +wild and romantic expedition, fall of novel sights and strange +adventures. He who has made it is looked up to as an authority, and it +remains with many the unachieved ambition of their lives. I myself had +hoped rather than expected ever to reach this "Ultima Thule" of the +East: and when I found that I really could do so now, had I but courage +to trust myself for a thousand miles' voyage in a Bugis prau, and for +six or seven months among lawless traders and ferocious savages, I felt +somewhat as I did when, a schoolboy, I was for the first time allowed +to travel outside the stage-coach, to visit that scene of all that is +strange and new and wonderful to young imaginations-London! + +By the help of some kind friends I was introduced to the owner of one +of the large praus which was to sail in a few days. He was a Javanese +half-caste, intelligent, mild, and gentlemanly in his manners, and had +a young and pretty Dutch wife, whom he was going to leave behind during +his absence. When we talked about passage money he would fix no sum, but +insisted on leaving it entirely to me to pay on my return exactly what +I liked. "And then," said he, "whether you give me one dollar or a +hundred, I shall be satisfied, and shall ask no more." + +The remainder of my stay was fully occupied in laying in stores, +engaging servants, and making every other preparation for an absence of +seven months from even the outskirts of civilization. On the morning of +December 13th, when we went on board at daybreak, it was raining hard. +We set sail and it came on to blow. Our boat was lost astern, our sails +damaged, and the evening found us hack again in Macassar harbour. We +remained there four days longer, owing to its raining all the time, thus +rendering it impossible to dry and repair the huge mat sails. All these +dreary days I remained on board, and during the rare intervals when it +didn't rain, made myself acquainted with our outlandish craft, some of +the peculiarities of which I will now endeavour to describe. + +It was a vessel of about seventy tons burthen, and shaped something like +a Chinese junk. The deck sloped considerably downward to the bows, which +are thus the lowest part of the ship. There were two large rudders, +but instead of being planed astern they were hung on the quarters from +strong cross beams, which projected out two or three feet on each side, +and to which extent the deck overhung the sides of the vessel amidships. +The rudders were not hinged but hung with slings of rattan, the friction +of which keeps them in any position in which they are placed, and thus +perhaps facilitates steering. The tillers were not on deck, but entered +the vessel through two square openings into a lower or half deck about +three feet high, in which sit the two steersmen. In the after part of +the vessel was a low poop, about three and a half feet high, which +forms the captain's cabin, its furniture consisting of boxes, mats, and +pillows. In front of the poop and mainmast was a little thatched house +on deck, about four feet high to the ridge; and one compartment of this, +forming a cabin six and a half feet long by five and a half wide, I had +all to myself, and it was the snuggest and most comfortable little place +I ever enjoyed at sea. It was entered by a low sliding door of thatch +on one side, and had a very small window on the other. The floor was of +split bamboo, pleasantly elastic, raised six inches above the deck, +so as to be quite dry. It was covered with fine cane mats, for the +manufacture of which Macassar is celebrated; against the further wall +were arranged my guncase, insect-boxes, clothes, and books; my mattress +occupied the middle, and next the door were my canteen, lamp, and little +store of luxuries for the voyage; while guns, revolver, and hunting +knife hung conveniently from the roof. During these four miserable days +I was quite jolly in this little snuggery more so than I should have +been if confined the same time to the gilded and uncomfortable saloon of +a first-class steamer. Then, how comparatively sweet was everything +on board--no paint, no tar, no new rope, (vilest of smells to the +qualmish!) no grease, or oil, or varnish; but instead of these, bamboo +and rattan, and coir rope and palm thatch; pure vegetable fibres, which +smell pleasantly if they smell at all, and recall quiet scenes in the +green and shady forest. + +Our ship had two masts, if masts they can be called c which were great +moveable triangles. If in an ordinary ship you replace the shrouds and +backstay by strong timbers, and take away the mast altogether, you have +the arrangement adopted on board a prau. Above my cabin, and resting on +cross-beams attached to the masts, was a wilderness of yards and spars, +mostly formed of bamboo. The mainyard, an immense affair nearly a +hundred feet long, was formed of many pieces of wood and bamboo bound +together with rattans in an ingenious manner. The sail carried by this +was of an oblong shape, and was hung out of the centre, so that when the +short end was hauled down on deck the long end mounted high in the air, +making up for the lowness of the mast itself. The foresail was of the +same shape, but smaller. Both these were of matting, and, with two jibs +and a fore and aft sail astern of cotton canvas, completed our rig. + +The crew consisted of about thirty men, natives of Macassar and the +adjacent coasts and islands. They were mostly young, and were short, +broad-faced, good-humoured looking fellows. Their dress consisted +generally of a pair of trousers only, when at work, and a handkerchief +twisted round the head, to which in the evening they would add a thin +cotton jacket. Four of the elder men were "jurumudis," or steersmen, who +had to squat (two at a time) in the little steerage before described, +changing every six hours. Then there was an old man, the "juragan," +or captain, but who was really what we should call the first mate; he +occupied the other half of the little house on deck. There were about +ten respectable men, Chinese or Bugis, whom our owner used to call "his +own people." He treated them very well, shared his meals with them, and +spoke to them always with perfect politeness; yet they were most of them +a kind of slave debtors, bound over by the police magistrate to work +for him at mere nominal wages for a term of years till their debts were +liquidated. This is a Dutch institution in this part of the world, and +seems to work well. It is a great boon to traders, who can do nothing +in these thinly-populated regions without trusting goods to agents +and petty dealers, who frequently squander them away in gambling and +debauchery. The lower classes are almost all in a chronic state of debt. +The merchant trusts them again and again, till the amount is something +serious, when he brings them to court and has their services allotted to +him for its liquidation. The debtors seem to think this no disgrace, but +rather enjoy their freedom from responsibility, and the dignity of their +position under a wealthy and well-known merchant. They trade a little on +their own account, and both parties seem to get on very well together. +The plan seems a more sensible one than that which we adopt, of +effectually preventing a man from earning anything towards paying his +debts by shutting him up in a jail. + +My own servants were three in number. Ali, the Malay boy whom I had +picked up in Borneo, was my head man. He had already been with me a +year, could turn his hand to anything, and was quite attentive and +trustworthy. He was a good shot, and fond of shooting, and I had taught +him to skin birds very well. The second, named Baderoon, was a Macassar +lad; also a pretty good boy, but a desperate gambler. Under pretence of +buying a house for his mother, and clothes, for himself, he had received +four months' wages about a week before we sailed, and in a day or two +gambled away every dollar of it. He had come on board with no clothes, +no betel, or tobacco, or salt fish, all which necessary articles I was +obliged to send Ali to buy for him. These two lads were about sixteen, I +should suppose; the third was younger, a sharp little rascal named Baso, +who had been with me a month or two, and had learnt to cook tolerably. +He was to fulfil the important office of cook and housekeeper, for +I could not get any regular servants to go to such a terribly remote +country; one might as well ask a chef de cuisine to go to Patagonia. + +On the fifth day that I had spent on board (Dec. 15th) the rain ceased, +and final preparations were made for starting. Sails were dried and +furled, boats were constantly coming and going, and stores for the +voyage, fruit, vegetables, fish, and palm sugar, were taken on board. +In the afternoon two women arrived with a large party of friends and +relations, and at parting there was a general noserubbing (the Malay +kiss), and some tears shed. These were promising symptoms for our +getting off the next day; and accordingly, at three in the morning, the +owner came on board, the anchor was immediately weighed, and by four we +set sail. Just as we were fairly off and clear of the other praus, the +old juragan repeated some prayers, all around responding with "Allah il +Allah," and a few strokes on a gong as an accompaniment, concluding with +all wishing each other "Salaamat jalan," a safe and happy journey. +We had a light breeze, a calm sea, and a fine morning, a prosperous +commencement of our voyage of about a thousand miles to the far-famed +Aru Islands. + +The wind continued light and variable all day, with a calm in the +evening before the land breeze sprang up, were then passing the island +of "Tanakaki" (foot of the land), at the extreme south of this part of +Celebes. There are some dangerous rocks here, and as I was standing by +the bulwarks, I happened to spit over the side; one of the men begged I +would not do so just now, but spit on deck, as they were much afraid +of this place. Not quite comprehending, I made him repeat his request, +when, seeing he was in earnest, I said, "Very well, I suppose there are +'hantus' (spirits) here." "Yes," said he, "and they don't like anything +to be thrown overboard; many a prau has been lost by doing it." Upon +which I promised to be very careful. At sunset the good Mahometans +on board all repeated a few words of prayer with a general chorus, +reminding me of the pleasing and impressive "Ave. Maria" of Catholic +countries. + +Dec. 20th.-At sunrise we were opposite the Bontyne mountain, said to be +one of the highest in Celebes. In the afternoon we passed the Salayer +Straits and had a little squall, which obliged us to lower our huge +mast, sails, and heavy yards. The rest of the evening we had a fine west +wind, which carried us on at near five knots an hour, as much as our +lumbering old tub can possibly go. + +Dec. 21st.-A heavy swell from the south-west rolling us about most +uncomfortably. A steady wind was blowing however, and we got on very +well. + +Dec. 22d.-The swell had gone down. We passed Boutong, a large island, +high, woody, and populous, the native place of some of our crew. A small +prau returning from Bali to the island of Goram overtook us. The nakoda +(captain) was known to our owner. They had been two years away, but were +full of people, with several black Papuans on board. At 6 P.M. we passed +Wangiwangi, low but not flat, inhabited and subject to Boutong. We had +now fairly entered the Molucca Sea. After dark it was a beautiful +sight to look down on our rudders, from which rushed eddying streams of +phosphoric light gemmed with whirling sparks of fire. It resembled (more +nearly than anything else to which I can compare it) one of the large +irregular nebulous star-clusters seen through a good telescope, with the +additional attraction of ever-changing form and dancing motion. + +Dec. 23d.-Fine red sunrise; the island we left last evening barely +visible behind us. The Goram prau about a mile south of us. They have +no compass, yet they have kept a very true course during the night. +Our owner tells me they do it by the swell of the sea, the direction of +which they notice at sunset, and sail by it during the night. In these +seas they are never (in fine weather) more than two days without seeing +land. Of course adverse winds or currents sometimes carry them away, +but they soon fall in with some island, and there are always some old +sailors on board who know it, and thence take a new course. Last night +a shark about five feet long was caught, and this morning it was cut up +and cooked. In the afternoon they got another, and I had a little fried, +and found it firm and dry, but very palatable. In the evening the sun +set in a heavy bank of clouds, which, as darkness came on, assumed a +fearfully black appearance. According to custom, when strong wind or +rain is expected, our large sails-were furled, and with their yards let +down on deck, and a small square foresail alone kept up. The great mat +sails are most awkward things to manage in rough weather. The yards +which support them are seventy feet long, and of course very heavy, and +the only way to furl them being to roll up the sail on the boom, it is +a very dangerous thing to have them standing when overtaken by a squall. +Our crew; though numerous enough for a vessel of 700 instead of one of +70 tons, have it very much their own way, and there seems to be seldom +more than a dozen at work at a time. When anything important is to +be done, however, all start up willingly enough, but then all think +themselves at liberty to give their opinion, and half a dozen voices are +heard giving orders, and there is such a shrieking and confusion that it +seems wonderful anything gets done at all. + +Considering we have fifty men of several tribes and tongues onboard, +wild, half-savage looking fellows, and few of them feeling any of the +restraints of morality or education, we get on wonderfully well. There +is no fighting or quarrelling, as there would certainly be among the +same number of Europeans with as little restraint upon their actions, +and there is scarcely any of that noise and excitement which might be +expected. In fine weather the greater part of them are quietly enjoying +themselves--some are sleeping under the shadow of the sails; others, +in little groups of three or four, are talking or chewing betel; one is +making a new handle to his chopping-knife, another is stitching away +at a new pair of trousers or a shirt, and all are as quiet and +well-conducted as on board the best-ordered English merchantman. Two or +three take it by turns to watch in the bows and see after the braces +and halyards of the great sails; the two steersmen are below in the +steerage; our captain, or the juragan, gives the course, guided partly +by the compass and partly by the direction of the wind, and a watch of +two or three on the poop look after the trimming of the sails and call +out the hours by the water-clock. This is a very ingenious contrivance, +which measures time well in both rough weather and fine. It is simply +a bucket half filled with water, in which floats the half of a +well-scraped cocoa-nut shell. In the bottom of this shell is a very +small hole, so that when placed to float in the bucket a fine thread of +water squirts up into it. This gradually fills the shell, and the size +of the hole is so adjusted to the capacity of the vessel that, exactly +at the end of an hour, plump it goes to the bottom. The watch then cries +out the number of hours from sunrise and sets the shell afloat again +empty. This is a very good measurer of time. I tested it with my watch +and found that it hardly varied a minute from one hour to another, nor +did the motion of the vessel have any effect upon it, as the water in +the bucket of course kept level. It has a great advantage for a rude +people in being easily understood, in being rather bulky and easy +to see, and in the final submergence being accompanied with a little +bubbling and commotion of the water, which calls the attention to it. It +is also quickly replaced if lost while in harbour. + +Our captain and owner I find to be a quiet, good-tempered man, who seems +to get on very well with all about him. When at sea he drinks no wine or +spirits, but indulges only in coffee and cakes, morning and afternoon, +in company with his supercargo and assistants. He is a man of some +little education, can read and write well both Dutch and Malay, uses a +compass, and has a chart. He has been a trader to Aru for many years, +and is well known to both Europeans and natives in this part of the +world. + +Dec. 24th.-Fine, and little wind. No land in sight for the first time +since we left Macassar. At noon calm, with heavy showers, in which our +crew wash their clothes, anti in the afternoon the prau is covered with +shirts, trousers, and sarongs of various gay colours. I made a discovery +to-day which at first rather alarmed me. The two ports, or openings, +through which the tillers enter from the lateral rudders are not more +than three or four feet above the surface of the water, which thus has +a free entrance into the vessel. I of course had imagined that this +open space from one side to the other was separated from the hold by +a water-tight bulkhead, so that a sea entering might wash out at the +further side, and do no more harm than give the steersmen a drenching. +To my surprise end dismay, however, I find that it is completely open to +the hold, so that half-a-dozen seas rolling in on a stormy night would +nearly, or quite, swamp us. Think of a vessel going to sea for a month +with two holes, each a yard square, into the hold, at three feet above +the water-line,-holes, too, which cannot possibly be closed! But our +captain says all praus are so; and though he acknowledges the danger, +"he does not know how to alter it--the people are used to it; he does +not understand praus so well as they do, and if such a great alteration +were made, he should be sure to have difficulty in getting a crew!" This +proves at all events that praus must be good sea-boats, for the captain +has been continually making voyages in them for the last ten years, and +says he has never known water enough enter to do any harm. + +Dec.25th.-Christmas-day dawned upon us with gusts of wind, driving rain, +thunder and lightning, added to which a short confused sea made our +queer vessel pitch and roll very uncomfortably. About nine o'clock, +however, it cleared up, and we then saw ahead of us the fine island of +Bouru, perhaps forty or fifty miles distant, its mountains wreathed with +clouds, while its lower lands were still invisible. The afternoon was +fine, and the wind got round again to the west; but although this is +really the west monsoon, there is no regularity or steadiness about it, +calms and breezes from every point of the compass continually occurring. +The captain, though nominally a Protestant, seemed to have no idea of +Christmas-day as a festival. Our dinner was of rice and curry as usual, +and an extra glass of wine was all I could do to celebrate it. + +Dec. 26th.--Fine view of the mountains of Bouru, which we have now +approached considerably. Our crew seem rather a clumsy lot. They do not +walk the deck with the easy swing of English sailors, but hesitate +and stagger like landsmen. In the night the lower boom of our mainsail +broke, and they were all the morning repairing it. It consisted of two +bamboos lashed together, thick end to thin, and was about seventy feet +long. The rigging and arrangement of these praus contrasts strangely +with that of European vessels, in which the various ropes and spars, +though much more numerous, are placed so as not to interfere with each +other's action. Here the case is quite different; for though there are +no shrouds or stays to complicate the matter, yet scarcely anything can +be done without first clearing something else out of the way. The large +sails cannot be shifted round to go on the other tack without first +hauling down the jibs, and the booms of the fore and aft sails have to +be lowered and completely detached to perform the same operation. Then +there are always a lot of ropes foul of each other, and all the sails +can never be set (though they are so few) without a good part of their +surface having the wind kept out of them by others. Yet praus are much +liked even by those who have had European vessels, because of their +cheapness both in first cost and in keeping up; almost all repairs can +be done by the crew, and very few European stores are required. + +Dec. 28th.--This day we saw the Banda group, the volcano first +appearing,--a perfect cone, having very much the outline of the Egyptian +pyramids, and looking almost as regular. In the evening the smoke rested +over its summit like a small stationary cloud. This was my first view +of an active volcano, but pictures and panoramas have so impressed +such things on one's mind, that when we at length behold them they seem +nothing extraordinary. + +Dec. 30th.--Passed the island of Teor, and a group near it, which are +very incorrectly marked on the charts. Flying-fish were numerous to-day. +It is a smaller species than that of the Atlantic, and more active and +elegant in its motions. As they skim along the surface they turn on +their sides, so as fully to display their beautiful fins, taking a +flight of about a hundred yards, rising and falling in a most graceful +manner. At a little distance they exactly resemble swallows, and no one +who sees them can doubt that they really do fly, not merely descend in +an oblique direction from the height they gain by their first spring. In +the evening an aquatic bird, a species of booby (Sula fiber.) rested on +our hen-coop, and was caught by the neck by one of my boys. + +Dec. 31st--At daybreak the Ke Islands (pronounced Kay) were in sight, +where we are to stay a few days. About noon we rounded the northern +point, and endeavoured to coast along to the anchorage; but being now +on the leeward side of the island, the wind came in violent irregular +gusts, and then leaving us altogether, we were carried back by a strong +current. Just then two boats-load of natives appeared, and our owner +having agreed with them to tow us into harbour, they tried to do so, +assisted by our own boat, but could make no way. We were therefore +obliged to anchor in a very dangerous place on a rocky bottom, and we +were engaged till nearly dark getting hawsers secured to some rocks +under water. The coast of Ke along which we had passed was very +picturesque. Light coloured limestone rocks rose abruptly from the water +to the height of several hundred feet, everywhere broken into jutting +peaks and pinnacles, weather-worn into sharp points and honeycombed +surfaces, and clothed throughout with a most varied and luxuriant +vegetation. The cliffs above the sea offered to our view screw-pines +and arborescent Liliaceae of strange forms, mingled with shrubs and +creepers; while the higher slopes supported a dense growth of forest +trees. Here and there little bays and inlets presented beaches of +dazzling whiteness. The water was transparent as crystal, and tinged +the rock-strewn slope which plunged steeply into its unfathomable depths +with colours varying from emerald to lapis-lazuli. The sea was calm as a +lake, and the glorious sun of the tropics threw a flood of golden light +over all. The scene was to me inexpressibly delightful. I was in a new +world, and could dream of the wonderful productions hid in those rocky +forests, and in those azure abysses. But few European feet had ever +trodden the shores I gazed upon its plants, and animals, and men were +alike almost unknown, and I could not help speculating on what my +wanderings there for a few days might bring to light. + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. THE KE ISLANDS. + +(JANUARY 1857) + +THE native boats that had come to meet us were three or four in number, +containing in all about fifty men. + +They were long canoes, with the bow and stern rising up into a beak +six or night feet high, decorated with shells and waving plumes of +cassowaries hair. I now had my first view of Papuans in their own +country, and in less than five minutes was convinced that the opinion +already arrived at by the examination of a few Timor and New Guinea +slaves was substantially correct, and that the people I now had an +opportunity of comparing side by side belonged to two of the most +distinct and strongly marked races that the earth contains. Had I been +blind, I could have been certain that these islanders were not Malays. +The loud, rapid, eager tones, the incessant motion, the intense vital +activity manifested in speech and action, are the very antipodes of the +quiet, unimpulsive, unanimated Malay These Ke men came up singing and +shouting, dipping their paddles deep in the water and throwing up clouds +of spray; as they approached nearer they stood up in their canoes and +increased their noise and gesticulations; and on coming alongside, +without asking leave, and without a moment's hesitation, the greater +part of them scrambled up on our deck just as if they were come to take +possession of a captured vessel. Then commenced a scene of indescribable +confusion. These forty black, naked, mop-headed savages seemed +intoxicated with joy and excitement. Not one of them could remain still +for a moment. Every individual of our crew was in turn surrounded and +examined, asked for tobacco or arrack, grinned at and deserted for +another. All talked at once, and our captain was regularly mobbed by +the chief men, who wanted to be employed to tow us in, and who begged +vociferously to be paid in advance. A few presents of tobacco made their +eyes glisten; they would express their satisfaction by grins and shouts, +by rolling on deck, or by a headlong leap overboard. Schoolboys on an +unexpected holiday, Irishmen at a fair, or mid-shipmen on shore, would +give but a faint idea of the exuberant animal enjoyment of these people. + +Under similar circumstances Malays could not behave as these Papuans +did. If they came on board a vessel (after asking permission), not a +word would be at first spoken, except a few compliments, and only after +some time, and very cautiously, world any approach be made to business. +One would speak at a time, with a low voice and great deliberation, +and the mode of making a bargain would be by quietly refusing all your +offers, or even going away without saying another word about the matter, +unless advanced your price to what they were willing to accept. +Our crew, many of whom had not made the voyage before, seemed quite +scandalized at such unprecedented bad manners, and only very gradually +made any approach to fraternization with the black fellows. They +reminded me of a party of demure and well-behaved children suddenly +broken in upon by a lot of wild romping, riotous boys, whose conduct +seems most extraordinary and very naughty. These moral features are +more striking and more conclusive of absolute diversity than oven +the physical contrast presented by the two races, though that is +sufficiently remarkable. The sooty blackness of the skin, the mop-like +head of frizzly hair, and, most important of all, the marked form of +countenance of quite a different type from that of the Malay, are +what we cannot believe to result from mere climatal or other modifying +influences on one and the same race. The Malay face is of the Mongolian +type, broad and somewhat flat. The brows are depressed, the mouth wide, +but not projecting, and the nose small and well formed but for the great +dilatation of the nostrils. The face is smooth, and rarely develops the +trace of a beard; the hair black, coarse, and perfectly straight. The +Papuan, on the other hand, has a face which we may say is compressed and +projecting. The brows are protuberant and overhanging, the mouth +large and prominent, while the nose is very large, the apex elongated +downwards, the ridge thick, and the nostrils large. It is an obtrusive +and remarkable feature in the countenance, the very reverse of what +obtains in the Malay face. The twisted beard and frizzly hair complete +this remarkable contrast. Hero then I had reached a new world, inhabited +by a strange people. Between the Malayan tribes, among whom I had for +some years been living, and the Papuan races, whose country I had now +entered, we may fairly say that there is as much difference, both +moral and physical, as between the red Indians of South America and the +negroes of Guinea on the opposite side of the Atlantic. + +Jan. 1st, 1857.-This has been a day of thorough enjoyment. I have +wandered in the forests of an island rarely seen by Europeans. Before +daybreak we left our anchorage, and in an hour reached the village of +Har, where we were to stay three or four days. The range of hills here +receded so as to form a small bay, and they were broken up into peaks +and hummocks with intervening flats and hollows. A broad beach of +the whitest sand lined the inner part of the bay, backed by a mass of +cocoa-nut palms, among which the huts were concealed, and surmounted by +a dense and varied growth of timber. Canoes and boats of various sizes +were drawn up on the beach and one or two idlers, with a few children +and a dog, gazed at our prau as we came to an anchor. + +When we went on shore the first thing that attracted us was a large and +well-constructed shed, under which a long boat was being built, while +others in various stages of completion were placed at intervals along +the beach. Our captain, who wanted two of moderate size for the trade +among the islands at Aru, immediately began bargaining for them, and in +a short tine had arranged the nuns number of brass guns, gongs, sarongs, +handkerchiefs, axes, white plates, tobacco, and arrack, which he was to +give for a hair which could be got ready in four days. We then went +to the village, which consisted only of three or four huts, situated +immediately above the beach on an irregular rocky piece of ground +overshadowed with cocoa-nuts, palms, bananas, and other fruit trees. +The houses were very rude, black, and half rotten, raised a few feet on +posts with low sides of bamboo or planks, and high thatched roofs. They +had small doors and no windows, an opening under the projecting gables +letting the smoke out and a little light in. The floors were of strips +of bamboo, thin, slippery, and elastic, and so weak that my feet were +in danger of plunging through at every step. Native boxes of +pandanus-leaves and slabs of palm pith, very neatly constructed, mats +of the same, jars and cooking pots of native pottery, and a few European +plates and basins, were the whole furniture, and the interior was +throughout dark and smoke-blackened, and dismal in the extreme. + +Accompanied by Ali and Baderoon, I now attempted to make some +explorations, and we were followed by a train of boys eager to see what +we were going to do. The most trodden path from the beach led us into a +shady hollow, where the trees were of immense height and the undergrowth +scanty. From the summits of these trees came at intervals a deep booming +sound, which at first puzzled us, but which we soon found to proceed +from some large pigeons. My boys shot at them, and after one or two +misses, brought one down. It was a magnificent bird twenty inches long, +of a bluish white colour, with the back wings and tail intense metallic +green, with golden, blue, and violet reflexions, the feet coral red, +and the eyes golden yellow. It is a rare species, which I have named +Carpophaga concinna, and is found only in a few small islands, where, +however, it abounds. It is the same species which in the island of Banda +is called the nutmeg-pigeon, from its habit of devouring the fruits, +the seed or nutmeg being thrown up entire and uninjured. Though these +pigeons have a narrow beak, yet their jaws and throat are so extensible +that they can swallow fruits of very large size. I had before shot a +species much smaller than this one, which had a number of hard globular +palm-fruits in its crop, each more than an inch in diameter. + +A little further the path divided into two, one leading along the beach, +and across mangrove and sago swamps the other rising to cultivated +grounds. We therefore returned, and taking a fresh departure from +the village, endeavoured to ascend the hills and penetrate into the +interior. The path, however, was a most trying one. Where there was +earth, it was a deposit of reddish clay overlying the rock, and was worn +so smooth by the attrition of naked feet that my shoes could obtain no +hold on the sloping surface. A little farther we came to the bare rock, +and this was worse, for it was so rugged and broken, and so honeycombed +and weatherworn into sharp points and angles, that my boys, who had +gone barefooted all their lives, could not stand it. Their feet began to +bleed, and I saw that if I did not want them completely lamed it would +be wise to turn lack. My own shoes, which were rather thin, were but a +poor protection, and would soon have been cut to pieces; yet our little +naked guides tripped along with the greatest ease and unconcern, and +seemed much astonished at our effeminacy in not being able to take a +walk which to them was a perfectly agreeable one. During the rest of our +stay in the island we were obliged to confine ourselves to the vicinity +of the shore and the cultivated grounds, and those more level portions +of the forest where a little soil had accumulated and the rock had been +less exposed to atmospheric action. + +The island of Ke (pronounced exactly as the letter K, but erroneously +spelt in our maps Key or Ki) is long and narrow, running in a north and +south direction, and consists almost entirely of rock and mountain. It +is everywhere covered with luxuriant forests, and in its bays and inlets +the sand is of dazzling whiteness, resulting from the decomposition of +the coralline limestone of which it is entirely composed. In all the +little swampy inlets and valleys sago trees abound, and these supply the +main subsistence of the natives, who grow no rice, and have scarcely any +other cultivated products but cocoa-nuts, plantains, and yams. From the +cocoa-nuts, which surround every hut, and which thrive exceedingly on +the porous limestone soil and under the influence of salt breezes, oil +is made which is sold at a good price to the Aru traders, who all touch +here to lay in their stuck of this article, as well as to purchase boats +and native crockery. Wooden bowls, pans, and trays are also largely made +here, hewn out of solid blocks of wood with knife and adze; and these +are carried to all parts of the Moluccas. But the art in which the +natives of Ke pre-eminently excel is that of boat building. Their +forests supply abundance of fine timber, though, probably not more +so than many other islands, and from some unknown causes these remote +savages have come to excel in what seems a very difficult art. Their +small canoes are beautifully formed, broad and low in the centre, but +rising at each end, where they terminate in high-pointed beaks more +or less carved, and ornamented with a plume of feathers. They are not +hollowed out of a tree, but are regularly built of planks running from +ego to end, and so accurately fitted that it is often difficult to find +a place where a knife-blade can be inserted between the joints. The +larger ones are from 20 to 30 tons burthen, and are finished ready for +sea without a nail or particle of iron being used, and with no other +tools than axe, adze, and auger. These vessels are handsome to look at, +good sailers, and admirable sea-boats, and will make long voyages with +perfect safety, traversing the whole Archipelago from New Guinea to +Singapore in seas which, as every one who has sailed much in them can +testify, are not so smooth and tempest-free as word-painting travellers +love to represent them. + +The forests of Ke produce magnificent timber, tall, straight, and +durable, of various qualities, some of which are said to be superior +to the best Indian teak. To make each pair of planks used in the +construction of the larger boats an entire tree is consumed. It is +felled, often miles away from the shore, cut across to the proper +length, and then hewn longitudinally into two equal portions. Each of +these forms a plank by cutting down with the axe to a uniform thickness +of three or four inches, leaving at first a solid block at each end to +prevent splitting. Along the centre of each plank a series of projecting +pieces are left, standing up three or four inches, about the same width, +and a foot long; these are of great importance in the construction of +the vessel. When a sufficient number of planks have been made, they are +laboriously dragged through the forest by three or four men each to the +beach, where the boat is to be built. A foundation piece, broad in the +middle and rising considerably at each end, is first laid on blocks and +properly shored up. The edges of this are worked true and smooth with +the adze, and a plank, properly curved and tapering at each end, is held +firmly up against it, while a line is struck along it which allows it to +be cut so as to fit exactly. A series of auger holes, about as large as +one's finger, are then bored along the opposite edges, and pins of very +hard wood are fitted to these, so that the two planks are held firmly, +and can be driven into the closest contact; and difficult as this seems +to do without any other aid than rude practical skill in forming each +edge to the true corresponding curves, and in poring the holes so as +exactly to match both in position and direction, yet so well is it +done that the best European shipwright cannot produce sounder or +closer-fitting joints. The boat is built up in this way by fitting plank +to plank till the proper height and width are obtained. We have now a +skin held together entirely by the hardwood pins connecting the edges of +the planks, very strong and elastic, but having nothing but the adhesion +of these pins to prevent the planks gaping. In the smaller boats seats, +in the larger ones cross-beams, are now fixed. They are sprung into +slight notches cut to receive them, and are further secured to the +projecting pieces of the plank below by a strong lashing of rattan. Ribs +are now formed of single pieces of tough wood chosen and trimmed so as +exactly to fit on to the projections from each plank, being slightly +notched to receive them, and securely bound to them by rattans passed +through a hole in each projecting piece close to the surface of the +plank. The ends are closed against the vertical prow and stern posts, +and further secured with pegs and rattans, and then the boat is +complete; and when fitted with rudders, masts, and thatched covering, +is ready to do battle with, the waves. A careful consideration of the +principle of this mode of construction, and allowing for the strength +and binding qualities of rattan (which resembles in these respects wire +rather than cordage), makes me believe that a vessel carefully built +in this manner is actually stronger and safer than one fastened in the +ordinary way with nails. + +During our stay here we were all very busy. Our captain was daily +superintending the completion of his two small praus. All day long +native boats were coming with fish, cocoa-nuts, parrots and lories, +earthen pans, sirip leaf, wooden bowls, and trays, &c. &e., which every +one of the fifty inhabitants of our prau seemed to be buying on his own +account, till all available and most unavailable space of our vessel +was occupied with these miscellaneous articles: for every man on board +a prau considers himself at liberty to trade, and to carry with him +whatever he can afford to buy. + +Money is unknown and valueless here--knives, cloth, and arrack forming +the only medium of exchange, with tobacco for small coin. Every +transaction is the subject of a special bargain, and the cause of much +talking. It is absolutely necessary to offer very little, as the natives +are never satisfied till you add a little more. They are then far better +pleased than if you had given them twice the amount at first and refused +to increase it. + +I, too, was doing a little business, having persuaded some of the +natives to collect insects for me; and when they really found that I +gave them most fragrant tobacco for worthless black and green beetles, I +soon had scores of visitors, men, women, and children, bringing bamboos +full of creeping things, which, alas! too frequently had eaten each +other into fragments during the tedium of a day's confinement. Of one +grand new beetle, glittering with ruby and emerald tints, I got a large +quantity, having first detected one of its wing-cases ornamenting the +outside of a native's tobacco pouch. It was quite a new species, and had +not been found elsewhere than on this little island. It is one of the +Buprestidae, and has been named Cyphogastra calepyga. + +Each morning after an early breakfast I wandered by myself into the +forest, where I found delightful occupation in capturing the large and +handsome butterflies, which were tolerably abundant, and most of them +new to me; for I was now upon the confines of the Moluccas and New +Guinea,--a region the productions of which were then among the most +precious and rare in the cabinets of Europe. Here my eyes were feasted +for the first time with splendid scarlet lories on the wing, as well +as by the sight of that most imperial butterfly, the "Priamus" of +collectors, or a closely allied species, but flying so high that I did +not succeed in capturing a specimen. One of them was brought me in a +bamboo, bored up with a lot of beetles, and of course torn to pieces. +The principal drawback of the place for a collector is the want of good +paths, and the dreadfully rugged character of the surface, requiring +the attention to be so continually directed to securing a footing, as to +make it very difficult to capture active winged things, who pass out of +reach while one is glancing to see that the next step may not plunge one +into a chasm or over a precipice. Another inconvenience is that there +are no running streams, the rock being of so porous a nature that the +surface-water everywhere penetrates its fissures; at least such is the +character of the neighbourhood we visited, the only water being small +springs trickling out close to the sea-beach. + +In the forests of Ke, arboreal Liliaceae and Pandanaceae abound, and +give a character to the vegetation in the more exposed rocky places. +Flowers were scarce, and there were not many orchids, but I noticed +the fine white butterfly-orchis, Phalaenopsis grandiflora, or a species +closely allied to it. The freshness and vigour of the vegetation was +very pleasing, and on such an arid rocky surface was a sure indication +of a perpetually humid climate. Tall clean trunks, many of them +buttressed, and immense trees of the fig family, with aerial roots +stretching out and interlacing and matted together for fifty or a +hundred feet above the ground, were the characteristic features; and +there was an absence of thorny shrubs and prickly rattans, which would +have made these wilds very pleasant to roam in, had it not been for +the sharp honeycombed rocks already alluded to. In damp places a fine +undergrowth of broadleaved herbaceous plants was found, about which +swarmed little green lizards, with tails of the most "heavenly blue," +twisting in and out among the stalks and foliage so actively that I +often caught glimpses of their tails only, when they startled me by +their resemblance to small snakes. Almost the only sounds in these +primeval woods proceeded from two birds, the red lories, who utter +shrill screams like most of the parrot tribe, and the large green +nutmeg-pigeon, whose voice is either a loud and deep boom, like two +notes struck upon a very large gong, or sometimes a harsh toad-like +croak, altogether peculiar and remarkable. Only two quadrupeds are +said by the natives to inhabit the island--a wild pig and a Cuscus, or +Eastern opossum, of neither of which could I obtain specimens. + +The insects were more abundant, and very interesting. Of butterflies +I caught thirty-five species, most of them new to me, and many quite +unknown in European collections. Among them was the fine yellow and +black Papilio euchenor, of which but few specimens had been previously +captured, and several other handsome butterflies of large size, as well +as some beautiful little "blues," and some brilliant dayflying moths. +The beetle tribe were less abundant, yet I obtained some very fine and +rare species. On the leaves of a slender shrub in an old clearing I +found several fine blue and black beetles of the genus Eupholus, which +almost rival in beauty the diamond beetles of South America. Some +cocoa-nut palms in blossom on the beach were frequented by a fine green +floral beetle (Lomaptera) which, when the flowers were shaken, flew off +like a small swarm of bees. I got one of our crew to climb up the +tree, and he brought me a good number in his hand; and seeing they were +valuable, I sent him up again with my net to shake the flowers into, and +thus secured a large quantity. My best capture, however, was the +superb insect of the Buprestis family, already mentioned as having been +obtained from the natives, who told me they found it in rotten trees in +the mountains. + +In the forest itself the only common and conspicuous coleoptera were +two tiger beetles. One, Therates labiata, was much larger than our green +tiger beetle, of a purple black colour, with green metallic glosses, +and the broad upper lip of a bright yellow. It was always found upon +foliage, generally of broad-leaned herbaceous plants, and in damp and +gloomy situations, taking frequent short flights from leaf to leaf, and +preserving an alert attitude, as if always looking out for its prey. Its +vicinity could be immediately ascertained, often before it was seen, +by a very pleasant odour, like otto of roses, which it seems to emit +continually, and which may probably be attractive to the small insects +on which it feeds. The other, Tricondyla aptera, is one of the +most curious forms in the family of the Cicindelidae, and is almost +exclusively confined to the Malay islands. In shape it resembles a very +large ant, more than an inch long, and of a purple black colour. Like an +ant also it is wingless, and is generally found ascending trees, passing +around the trunks in a spiral direction when approached, to avoid +capture, so that it requires a sudden run and active fingers to secure +a specimen. This species emits the usual fetid odour of the ground +beetles. My collections during our four days' stay at Ke were as +follow:--Birds, 13 species; insects, 194 species; and 3 kinds of +land-shells. + +There are two kinds of people inhabiting these islands--the indigenes, +who have the Papuan characters strongly marked, and who are pagans; and +a mixed race, who are nominally Mahometans, and wear cotton clothing, +while the former use only a waist cloth of cotton or bark. These +Mahometans are said to have been driven out of Banda by the early +European settlers. They were probably a brown race, more allied to the +Malays, and their mixed descendants here exhibit great variations of +colour, hair, and features, graduating between the Malay and Papuan +types. It is interesting to observe the influence of the early +Portuguese trade with these countries in the words of their language, +which still remain in use even among these remote and savage islanders. +"Lenco" for handkerchief, and "faca" for knife, are here used to the +exclusion of the proper Malay terms. The Portuguese and Spaniards were +truly wonderful conquerors and colonizers. They effected more rapid +changes in the countries they conquered than any other nations of modern +times, resembling the Romans in their power of impressing their own +language, religion, and manners on rode and barbarous tribes. + +The striking contrast of character between these people and the Malays +is exemplified in many little traits. One day when I was rambling in the +forest, an old man stopped to look at me catching an insect. He stood +very quiet till I had pinned and put it away in my collecting box, when +he could contain himself no longer, but bent almost double, and enjoyed +a hearty roar of laughter. Every one will recognise this as a true negro +trait. A Malay would have stared, and asked with a tone of bewilderment +what I was doing, for it is but little in his nature to laugh, never +heartily, and still less at or in the presence of a stranger, to whom, +however, his disdainful glances or whispered remarks are less agreeable +than the most boisterous open expression of merriment. The women here +were not so much frightened at strangers, or made to keep themselves so +much secluded as among the Malay races; the children were more merry and +had the "nigger grin," while the noisy confusion of tongues among the +men, and their excitement on very ordinary occasions, are altogether +removed from the general taciturnity and reserve of the Malay. + +The language of the Ke people consists of words of one, two, or three +syllables in about equal proportions, and has many aspirated and a +few guttural sounds. The different villages have slight differences of +dialect, but they are mutually intelligible, and, except in words +that have evidently been introduced during a long-continued commercial +intercourse, seem to have no affinity whatever with the Malay languages. + +Jan. 6th.-The small boats being finished, we sailed for Aru at 4 P.M., +and as we left the shores of Ke had a line view of its rugged and +mountainous character; ranges of hills, three or four thousand feet +high, stretching southwards as far as the eye could reach, everywhere +covered with a lofty, dense, and unbroken forest. We had very light +winds, and it therefore took us thirty hours to make the passage of +sixty miles to the low, or flat, but equally forest-covered Aru Islands, +where we anchored in the harbour of Dobbo at nine in the evening of the +next day. + +My first voyage in a prau being thus satisfactorily terminated, I must, +before taking leave of it for some months, bear testimony to the merits +of the queer old-world vessel. Setting aside all ideas of danger, which +is probably, after all, not more than in any other craft, I must declare +that I have never, either before or since, made a twenty days' voyage +so pleasantly, or perhaps, more correctly speaking, with so little +discomfort. This I attribute chiefly to having my small cabin on deck, +and entirely to myself, to having my own servants to wait upon me, and +to the absence of all those marine-store smells of paint, pitch, tallow, +and new cordage, which are to me insupportable. Something is also to be +put down to freedom from all restraint of dress, hours of meals, &c., +and to the civility and obliging disposition of the captain. I had +agreed to have my meals with him, but whenever I wished it I had them in +my own berth, and at what hours I felt inclined. The crew were all civil +and good-tempered, and with very little discipline everything went on +smoothly, and the vessel was kept very clean and in pretty good order, +so that on the whole I was much delighted with the trip, and was +inclined to rate the luxuries of the semi-barbarous prau as surpassing +those of the most magnificent screw-steamer, that highest result of our +civilisation. + + + +CHAPTER XXX. THE ARU ISLANDS--RESIDENCE IN DOBBO + +(JANUARY TO MARCH 1857.) + +On the 8th of January, 1857, I landed at Dobbo, the trading settlement +of the Bugis and Chinese, who annually visit the Aru Islands. It +is situated on the small island of Wamma, upon a spit of sand which +projects out to the north, and is just wide enough to contain three rows +of houses. Though at first sight a most strange and desolate-looking +place to build a village on, it has many advantages. There is a clear +entrance from the west among the coral reefs that border the land, and +there is good anchorage for vessels, on one side of the village or the +other, in both the east and west monsoons. Being fully exposed to the +sea-breezes in three directions it is healthy, and the soft sandy heath +offers great facilities for hauling up the praus, in order to secure +them from sea-worms and prepare them for the homeward voyage. At its +southern extremity the sand-bank merges in the beach of the island, +and is backed by a luxuriant growth of lofty forest. The houses are of +various sizes, but are all built after one pattern, being merely large +thatched sheds, a small portion of which, next the entrance, is used as +a dwelling, while the rest is parted oft; and often divided by one or +two floors, in order better to stow away merchandise and native produce. + +As we had arrived early in the season, most of the houses were +empty, and the place looked desolate in the extreme--the whole of +the inhabitants who received us on our landing amounting to about +half-a-dozen Bugis and Chinese. Our captain, Herr Warzbergen, had +promised to obtain a house for me, but unforeseen difficulties presented +themselves. One which was to let had no roof; and the owner, who was +building it on speculation, could not promise to finish it in less +than a month. Another, of which the owner was dead, and which I might +therefore take undisputed possession of as the first comer, wanted +considerable repairs, and no one could be found to do the work, +although about four times its value was offered. The captain, therefore, +recommended me to take possession of a pretty good house near his own, +whose owner was not expected for some weeks; and as I was anxious to be +on shore, I immediately had it cleared out, and by evening had all my +things housed, and was regularly installed as an inhabitant of Dobbo. +I had brought with me a cane chair, and a few light boards, which were +soon rigged up into a table and shelves. A broad bamboo bench served as +sofa and bedstead, my boxes were conveniently arranged, my mats spread +on the floor, a window cut in the palm-leaf wall to light my table, +and though the place was as miserable and gloomy a shed as could be +imagined, I felt as contented as if I had obtained a well-furnished +mansion, and looked forward to a month's residence in it with unmixed +satisfaction. + +The next morning, after an early breakfast, I set off to explore +the virgin forests of Aru, anxious to set my mind at rest as to the +treasures they were likely to yield, and the probable success of my +long-meditated expedition. A little native imp was our guide, seduced by +the gift of a German knife, value three-halfpence, and my Macassar boy +Baderoon brought his chopper to clear the path if necessary. + +We had to walk about half a mile along the beach, the ground behind the +village being mostly swampy, and then turned into the forest along a +path which leads to the native village of Wamma, about three miles off +on the other side of the island. The path was a narrow one, and very +little used, often swampy and obstructed by fallen trees, so that after +about a mile we lost it altogether, our guide having turned back, and we +were obliged to follow his example. In the meantime, however, I had not +been idle, and my day's captures determined the success of my journey +in an entomological point of view. I had taken about thirty species of +butterflies, more than I had ever captured in a day since leaving the +prolific banks of the Amazon, and among them were many most rare and +beautiful insects, hitherto only known by a few specimens from New +Guinea. The large and handsome spectre butterfly, Hestia durvillei; the +pale-winged peacock butterfly, Drusilla catops; and the most brilliant +and wonderful of the clear-winged moths, Cocytia durvillei, were +especially interesting, as well, as several little "blues," equalling in +brilliancy and beauty anything the butterfly world can produce. In the +other groups of insects I was not so successful, but this was not to +be wondered at in a mere exploring ramble, when only what is most +conspicuous and novel attracts the attention. Several pretty beetles, a +superb "bug," and a few nice land-shells were obtained, and I returned +in the afternoon well satisfied with my first trial of the promised +land. + +The next two days were so wet and windy that there was no going out; but +on the succeeding one the sun shone brightly, and I had the good fortune +to capture one of the most magnificent insects the world contains, the +great bird-winged butterfly, Ornithoptera Poseidon. I trembled with +excitement as I saw it coming majestically towards me, and could hardly +believe I had really succeeded in my stroke till I had taken it out +of the net and was gazing, lost in admiration, at the velvet black and +brilliant green of its wings, seven inches across, its bolder body, and +crimson breast. It is true I had seen similar insects in cabinets at +home, but it is quite another thing to capture such oneself-to feel it +struggling between one's fingers, and to gaze upon its fresh and living +beauty, a bright gem shirring out amid the silent gloom of a dark and +tangled forest. The village of Dobbo held that evening at least one +contented man. + +Jan. 26th.--Having now been here a fortnight, I began to understand a +little of the place and its peculiarities. Praus continually arrived, +and the merchant population increased almost daily. Every two or three +days a fresh house was opened, and the necessary repairs made. In every +direction men were bringing in poles, bamboos, rattans, and the leaves +of the nipa palm to construct or repair the walls, thatch, doors, and +shutters of their houses, which they do with great celerity. Some of the +arrivals were Macassar men or Bugis, but more from the small island of +Goram, at the east end of Ceram, whose inhabitants are the petty traders +of the far East. Then the natives of Aru come in from the other side of +the islands (called here "blakang tana," or "back of the country") with +the produce they have collected during the preceding six months, and +which they now sell to the traders, to some of whom they are most likely +in debt. + +Almost all, or I may safely say all, the new arrivals pay me a visit, +to see with their own eyes the unheard-of phenomenon of a person come to +stay at Dobbo who does not trade! They have their own ideas of the uses +that may possibly be made of stuffed birds, beetles, and shells which +are not the right shells--that is, "mother-of-pearl." They every day +bring me dead and broken shells, such as I can pick up by hundreds on +the beach, and seem quite puzzled and distressed when I decline them. +If, however, there are any snail shells among a lot, I take them, and +ask for more--a principle of selection so utterly unintelligible to +them, that they give it up in despair, or solve the problem by imputing +hidden medical virtue to those which they see me preserve so carefully. + +These traders are all of the Malay race, or a mixture of which Malay is +the chef ingredient, with the exception of a few Chinese. The natives of +Aru, on the other hand, are, Papuans, with black or sooty brown skims, +woolly or frizzly hair, thick-ridged prominent noses, and rather slender +limbs. Most of them wear nothing but a waist-cloth, and a few of them +may be seen all day long wandering about the half-deserted streets of +Dobbo offering their little bit of merchandise for sale. + +Living in a trader's house everything is brought to me as well as to +the rest,--bundles of smoked tripang, or "beche de mer," looking like +sausages which have been rolled in mud and then thrown up the chimney; +dried sharks' fins, mother-of-pearl shells, as well as birds of +Paradise, which, however, are so dirty and so badly preserved that I +have as yet found no specimens worth purchasing. When I hardly look at +the articles, and make no offer for them, they seem incredulous, and, +as if fearing they have misunderstood me, again offer them, and declare +what they want in return--knives, or tobacco, or sago, or handkerchiefs. +I then have to endeavour to explain, through any interpreter who may be +at hand, that neither tripang nor pearl oyster shells have any charms +for me, and that I even decline to speculate in tortoiseshell, but that +anything eatable I will buy--fish, or turtle, or vegetables of any sort. +Almost the only food, however, that we can obtain with any regularity, +are fish and cockles of very good quality, and to supply our daily +wants it is absolutely necessary to be always provided with four +articles--tobacco, knives, sago-cakes, and Dutch copper doits--because +when the particular thing asked for is not forthcoming, the fish pass +on to the next house, and we may go that day without a dinner. It +is curious to see the baskets and buckets used here. The cockles are +brought in large volute shells, probably the Cymbium ducale, while +gigantic helmet-shells, a species of Cassis, suspended by a rattan +handle, form the vessels in which fresh water is daily carried past my +door. It is painful to a naturalist to see these splendid shells with +their inner whorls ruthlessly broken away to fit them for their ignoble +use. + +My collections, however, got on but slowly, owing to the unexpectedly +bad weather, violent winds with heavy showers having been so continuous +as only to give me four good collecting days out of the first sixteen I +spent here. Yet enough had been collected to show me that with time and +fine weather I might expect to do something good. From the natives I +obtained some very fine insects and a few pretty land-shells; and of +the small number of birds yet shot more than half were known New Guinea +species, and therefore certainly rare in European collections, while the +remainder were probably new. In one respect my hopes seemed doomed to +be disappointed. I had anticipated the pleasure of myself preparing fine +specimens of the Birds of Paradise, but I now learnt that they are all +at this season out of plumage, and that it is in September and October +that they have the long plumes of yellow silky feathers in full +perfection. As all the praus return in July, I should not be able to +spend that season in Aru without remaining another whole year, which +was out of the question. I was informed, however, that the small +red species, the "King Bird of Paradise," retains its plumage at all +seasons, and this I might therefore hope to get. + +As I became familiar with the forest scenery of the island, I perceived +it to possess some characteristic features that distinguished it +from that of Borneo and Malacca, while, what is very singular and +interesting, it recalled to my mind the half-forgotten impressions of +the forests of Equatorial America. For example, the palms were much more +abundant than I had generally found them in the East, more generally +mingled with the other vegetation, more varied in form and aspect, +and presenting some of those lofty and majestic smooth-stemmed, +pinnate-leaved species which recall the Uauassu (Attalea speciosa) of +the Amazon, but which I had hitherto rarely met with in the Malayan +islands. + +In animal life the immense number and variety of spiders and of lizards +were circumstances that recalled the prolific regions of south America, +more especially the abundance and varied colours of the little jumping +spiders which abound on flowers and foliage, and are often perfect gems +of beauty. The web-spinning species were also more numerous than I had +ever seen them, and were a great annoyance, stretching their nets +across the footpaths just about the height of my face; and the threads +composing these are so strong and glutinous as to require much trouble +to free oneself from them. Then their inhabitants, great yellow-spotted +monsters with bodies two inches long, and legs in proportion, are +not pleasant to o run one's nose against while pursuing some gorgeous +butterfly, or gazing aloft in search of some strange-voiced bird. I soon +found it necessary not only to brush away the web, but also to destroy +the spinner; for at first, having cleared the path one day, I found the +next morning that the industrious insects had spread their nets again in +the very same places. + +The lizards were equally striking by their numbers, variety, and the +situations in which they were found. The beautiful blue-tailed species +so abundant in Ke was not seen here. The Aru lizards are more varied +but more sombre in their colours--shades of green, grey, brown, and even +black, being very frequently seen. Every shrub and herbaceous plant was +alive with them, every rotten trunk or dead branch served as a station +for some of these active little insect-hunters, who, I fear, to satisfy +their gross appetites, destroy many gems of the insect world, which +would feast the eyes and delight the heart of our more discriminating +entomologists. Another curious feature of the jungle here was the +multitude of sea-shells everywhere met with on the ground and high up on +the branches and foliage, all inhabited by hermit-crabs, who forsake the +beach to wander in the forest. I lave actually seen a spider carrying +away a good-sized shell and devouring its (probably juvenile) tenant. On +the beach, which I had to walls along every morning to reach the forest, +these creatures swarmed by thousands. Every dead shell, from the largest +to the most minute, was appropriated by them. They formed small social +parties of ten or twenty around bits of stick or seaweed, but dispersed +hurriedly at the sound of approaching footsteps. After a windy night, +that nasty-looking Chinese delicacy the sea-slug was sometimes thrown +up on the beach, which was at such times thickly strewn with some of the +most beautiful shells that adorn our cabinets, along with fragments +and masses of coral and strange sponges, of which I picked up more than +twenty different sorts. In many cases sponge and coral are so much +alike that it is only on touching them that they can be distinguished. +Quantities of seaweed, too, are thrown up; but strange as it may seem, +these are far less beautiful and less varied than may be found on any +favourable part of our own coasts. + +The natives here, even those who seem to be of pare Papuan race, were +much more reserved and taciturn than those of Ke. This is probably +because I only saw them as yet among strangers and in small parties, +One must see the savage at home to know what he really is. Even here, +however, the Papuan character sometimes breaks out. Little boys sing +cheerfully as they walk along, or talk aloud to themselves (quite a +negro characteristic); and try all they can, the men cannot conceal +their emotions in the true Malay fashion. A number of them were one day +in my house, and having a fancy to try what sort of eating tripang would +be, I bought a couple, paying for them with such an extravagant quantity +of tobacco that the seller saw I was a green customer. He could not, +however, conceal his delight, but as he smelt the fragrant weed, and +exhibited the large handful to his companions, he grinned and twisted +and gave silent chuckles in a most expressive pantomime. I had often +before made the same mistake in paying a Malay for some trifle. In no +case, however, was his pleasure visible on his countenance--a dull and +stupid hesitation only showing his surprise, which would be exhibited +exactly in the same way whether he was over or under paid. These little +moral traits are of the greatest interest when taken in connexion with +physical features. They do not admit of the same ready explanation by +external causes which is so frequently applied to the latter. Writers +on the races of mankind have too often to trust to the information of +travellers who pass rapidly from country to country, and thus have few +opportunities of becoming acquainted with peculiarities of national +character, or even of ascertaining what is really the average physical +conformation of the people. Such are exceedingly apt to be deceived +in places where two races have long, intermingled, by looking on +intermediate forms and mixed habits as evidences of a natural transition +from one race to the other, instead of an artificial mixture of two +distinct peoples; and they will be the more readily led into this error +if, as in the present case, writers on the subject should have been in +the habit of classing these races as mere varieties of one stock, as +closely related in physical conformation as from their geographical +proximity one might suppose they ought to be. So far as I have yet seen, +the Malay and Papuan appear to be as widely separated as any two human +races that exist, being distinguished by physical, mental, and moral +characteristics, all of the most marked and striking kind. + +Feb 5th.--I took advantage of a very fine calm day to pay a visit to the +island of Wokan, which is about a mile from us, and forms part of the +"canna busar," or mainland of Aru. This is a large island, extending +from north to south about a hundred miles, but so low in many parts as +to be intersected by several creeks, which run completely through it, +offering a passage for good-sized vessels. On the west side, where we +are, there are only a few outlying islands, of which ours (Wamma) is +the principal; but on the east coast are a great number of islands, +extending some miles beyond the mainland, and forming the "blakang +tang," or "back country," of the traders, being the principal seat of +the pearl, tripang, and tortoiseshell fisheries. To the mainland many of +the birds and animals of the country are altogether confined; the +Birds of paradise, the black cockatoo, the great brush-turkey, and +the cassowary, are none of them found on Wamma or any of the detached +islands. I did not, however, expect in this excursion to see any decided +difference in the forest or its productions, and was therefore agreeably +surprised. The beach was overhung with the drooping branches of lame +trees, loaded with Orchideae, ferns, and other epiphytal plants. In the +forest there was more variety, some parts being dry, and with trees of +a lower growth, while in others there were some of the most beautiful +palms I have ever seen, with a perfectly straight, smooth, slender stem, +a hundred feet high, and a crown of handsome drooping leaves. But +the greatest novelty and most striking feature to my eyes were the +tree-ferns, which, after seven years spent in the tropics, I now saw in +perfection for the first time. All I had hitherto met with were slender +species, not more than twelve feet high, and they gave not the least +idea of the supreme beauty of trees bearing their elegant heads +of fronds more than thirty feet in the air, like those which were +plentifully scattered about this forest. There is nothing in tropical +vegetation so perfectly beautiful. + +My boys shot five sorts of birds, none of which we had obtained during +a month's shooting in Wamma. Two were very pretty flycatchers, already +known from New Guinea; one of them (Monarcha chrysomela), of brilliant +black and bright orange colours, is by some authors considered to be the +most beautiful of all flycatchers; the other is pure white and velvety +black, with a broad fleshy ring round the eye of are azure blue colour; +it is named the "spectacled flycatcher" (Monarcha telescopthalma), +and was first found in New Guinea, along with the other, by the French +naturalists during the voyage of the discovery-ship Coquille. + +Feb. 18th.--Before leaving Macassar, I had written to the Governor of +Amboyna requesting him to assist me with the native chiefs of Aru. I now +received by a vessel which had arrived from Amboyna a very polite answer +informing me that orders had been sent to give me every assistance that +I might require; and I was just congratulating myself on being at +length able to get a boat and men to go to the mainland and explore +the interior, when a sudden check came in the form of a piratical +incursion. A small prau arrived which had been attacked by pirates and +had a man wounded. They were said to have five boats, but more were +expected to be behind and the traders were all in consternation, fearing +that their small vessels sent trading to the "blakang tana" would be +plundered. The Aru natives were of course dreadfully alarmed, as these +marauders attack their villages, burn and murder, and carry away women +and children for slaves. Not a man will stir from his village for some +time, and I must remain still a prisoner in Dobbo. The Governor of +Amboyna, out of pure kindness, has told the chiefs that they are to be +responsible for my safety, so that they have au excellent excuse for +refusing to stir. + +Several praus went out in search of the pirates, sentinels were +appointed, and watch-fires lighted on the beach to guard against the +possibility of a night attack, though it was hardly thought they would +be bold enough to attempt to plunder Dobbo. The next day the praus +returned, and we had positive information that these scourges of the +Eastern seas were really among us. One of Herr Warzbergen's small praus +also arrived in a sad plight. It had been attacked six days before, just +as it was returning, from the "blakang tana." The crew escaped in +their small boat and hid in the jungle, while the pirates came up +and plundered the vessel. They took away everything but the cargo of +mother-of-pearl shell, which was too bulky for them. All the clothes and +boxes of the men, and the sails and cordage of the prau, were cleared +off. They had four large war boats, and fired a volley of musketry as +they came up, and sent off their small boats to the attack. After they +had left, our men observed from their concealment that three had stayed +behind with a small boat; and being driven to desperation by the sight +of the plundering, one brave fellow swam off armed only with his parang, +or chopping-knife, and coming on them unawares made a desperate attack, +killing one and wounding the other two, receiving himself numbers of +slight wounds, and then swimming off again when almost exhausted. Two +other prams were also plundered, and the crew of one of them murdered to +a man. They are said to be Sooloo pirates, but have Bugis among them. +On their way here they have devastated one of the small islands east of +Ceram. It is now eleven years since they have visited Aru, and by thus +making their attacks at long and uncertain intervals the alarm +dies away, and they find a population for the most part unarmed and +unsuspicious of danger. None of the small trading vessels now carry +arms, though they did so for a year or two after the last attack, which +was just the time when there was the least occasion for it. A week later +one of the smaller pirate boats was captured in the "blakang tana." +Seven men were killed and three taken prisoners. The larger vessels have +been often seen but cannot be caught, as they have very strong crews, +and can always escape by rowing out to sea in the eye of the wind, +returning at night. They will thus remain among the innumerable islands +and channels, till the change of the monsoon enables them to sail +westward. + +March 9th.-For four or five days we have had a continual gale of wind, +with occasional gusts of great fury, which seem as if they would send +Dobbo into the sea. Rain accompanies it almost every alternate hour, so +that it is not a pleasant time. During such weather I can do little, but +am busy getting ready a boat I have purchased, for an excursion into +the interior. There is immense difficulty about men, but I believe the +"Orang-kaya," or head man of Wamma, will accompany me to see that I +don't run into danger. + +Having become quite an old inhabitant of Dobbo, I will endeavour to +sketch the sights and sounds that pervade it, and the manners and +customs of its inhabitants. The place is now pretty full, and the +streets present a far more cheerful aspect than when we first arrived. +Every house is a store, where the natives barter their produce for +what they are most in need of. Knives, choppers, swords, guns, tobacco, +gambier, plates, basins, handkerchiefs, sarongs, calicoes, and arrack, +are the principal articles wanted by the natives; but some of the stores +contain also tea, coffee, sugar, wine, biscuits, &c., for the supply +of the traders; and others are full of fancy goods, china ornaments, +looking-glasses, razors, umbrellas, pipes, and purses, which take the +fancy of the wealthier natives. Every fine day mats are spread before +the doors and the tripang is put out to dry, as well as sugar, +salt, biscuit, tea, cloths, and other things that get injured by +an excessively moist atmosphere. In the morning and evening, spruce +Chinamen stroll about or chat at each other's doors, in blue trousers, +white jacket, and a queue into which red silk is plaited till it reaches +almost to their heels. An old Bugis hadji regularly takes an evening +stroll in all the dignity of flowing green silk robe and gay turban, +followed by two small boys carrying his sirih and betel boxes. + +In every vacant space new houses are being built, and all sorts of odd +little cooking-sheds are erected against the old ones, while in some +out-of-the-way corners, massive log pigsties are tenanted by growing +porkers; for how can the Chinamen exist six months without one feast of +pig? + +Here and there are stalls where bananas are sold, and every morning +two little boys go about with trays of sweet rice and crated cocoa-nut, +fried fish, or fried plantains; and whichever it may be, they have +but one cry, and that is "Chocolat-t--t!" This must be a Spanish or +Portuguese cry, handed down for centuries, while its meaning has been +lost. The Bugis sailors, while hoisting the main sail, cry out, "Vela a +vela,--vela, vela, vela!" repeated in an everlasting chorus. As "vela" +is Portuguese a sail, I supposed I had discovered the origin of this, +but I found afterwards they used the same cry when heaving anchor, and +often chanted it to "hela," which is so much an universal expression +of exertion and hard breathing that it is most probably a mere +interjectional cry. + +I daresay there are now near five hundred people in Dobbo of various +races, all met in this remote corner of the East, as they express it, +"to look for their fortune;" to get money any way they can. They are +most of them people who have the very worst reputation for honesty as +well as every other form of morality,--Chinese, Bugis, Ceramese, and +half-caste Javanese, with a sprinkling of half-wild Papuans from Timor, +Babber, and other islands, yet all goes on as yet very quietly. This +motley, ignorant, bloodthirsty, thievish population live here without +the shadow of a government, with no police, no courts, and no lawyers; +yet they do not cut each other's throats, do not plunder each other day +and night, do not fall into the anarchy such a state of things might be +supposed to lead to. It is very extraordinary! It puts strange thoughts +into one's head about the mountain-load of government under which people +exist in Europe, and suggests the idea that we may be over-governed. +Think of the hundred Acts of Parliament annually enacted to prevent us, +the people of England, from cutting each other's throats, or from doing +to our neighbour as we would not be done by. Think of the thousands of +lawyers and barristers whose whole lives are spent in telling us what +the hundred Acts of Parliament mean, and one would be led to infer that +if Dobbo has too little law England has too much. + +Here we may behold in its simplest form the genius of Commerce at the +work of Civilization. Trade is the magic that keeps all at peace, and +unites these discordant elements into a well-behaved community. All +are traders, and know that peace and order are essential to successful +trade, and thus a public opinion is created which puts down all +lawlessness. Often in former year, when strolling along the Campong Glam +in Singapore, I have thought how wild and ferocious the Bugis sailors +looked, and how little should like to trust myself among them. But now I +find them to be very decent, well-behaved fellows; I walk daily unarmed +in the jungle, where I meet them continually; I sleep in a palm-leaf +hut, which any one may enter, with as little fear and as little +danger of thieves or murder as if I were under the protection of the +Metropolitan police. It is true the Dutch influence is felt here. The +islands are nominally under the government of the Moluccas, which the +native chiefs acknowledge; and in most years a commissioner arrives from +Amboyna, who makes the tour of the islands, hears complaints, settle +disputes, and carries away prisoner any heinous offender. This year he +is not expected to come, as no orders have yet been received to prepare +for him; so the people of Dobbo will probably be left to their own +devices. One day a man was caught in the act of stealing a piece of +iron from Herr Warzbergen's house, which he had entered by making a hole +through the thatch wall. In the evening the chief traders of the place, +Bugis and Chinese, assembled, the offender was tried and found guilty, +and sentenced to receive twenty lashes on the spot. They were given +with a small rattan in the middle of the street, not very severely, +the executioner appeared to sympathise a little with the culprit. The +disgrace seemed to be thought as much of as the pain; for though any +amount of clever cheating is thought rather meritorious than otherwise, +open robbery and housebreaking meet with universal reprobation. + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. THE ARU ISLANDS.--JOURNEY AND RESIDENCE IN THE INTERIOR. + +(MARCH TO MAY 1857.) + +MY boat was at length ready, and having obtained two men besides my own +servants, after an enormous amount of talk and trouble, we left Dobbo on +the morning of March 13th, for the mainland of Aru. By noon we reached +the mouth of a small river or creek, which we ascended, winding among +mangrove, swamps, with here and there a glimpse of dry land. In two +hours we reached a house, or rather small shed, of the most miserable +description, which our steersman, the "Orang-kaya" of Wamma, said was +the place we were to stay at, and where he had assured me we could get +every kind of bird and beast to be found in Aru. The shed was occupied +by about a dozen men, women, and children; two cooking fires were +burning in it, and there seemed little prospect of my obtaining +any accommodation. I however deferred inquiry till I had seen the +neighbouring forest, and immediately started off with two men, net, and +guns, along a path at the back of the house. In an hour's walk I saw +enough to make me determine to give the place a trial, and on my return, +finding the "Orang-kaya" was in a strong fever-fit and unable to do +anything, I entered into negotiations with the owner of the house for +the use of a slip at one end of it about five feet wide, for a week, +and agreed to pay as rent one "parang," or chopping-knife. I then +immediately got my boxes and bedding out of the boat, hung up a shelf +for my bird-skins and insects, and got all ready for work next morning. +My own boys slept in the boat to guard the remainder of my property; a +cooking place sheltered by a few mats was arranged under a tree close +by, and I felt that degree of satisfaction and enjoyment which I always +experience when, after much trouble and delay, I am on the point of +beginning work in a new locality. + +One of my first objects was to inquire for the people who are accustomed +to shoot the Paradise birds. They lived at some distance in the jungle, +and a man was sent to call them. When they arrived, we had a talk by +means of the "Orang-kaya" as interpreter, and they said they thought +they could get some. They explained that they shoot the birds with a bow +and arrow, the arrow having a conical wooden cap fitted to the end as +large as a teacup, so as to kill the bird by the violence of the blow +without making any wound or shedding any blood. The trees frequented +by the birds are very lofty; it is therefore necessary to erect a small +leafy covering or hut among the branches, to which the hunter mounts +before daylight in the morning and remains the whole day, and whenever +a bird alights they are almost sure of securing it. (See Frontispiece.) +They returned to their homes the same evening, and I never saw anything +more of them, owing, as I afterwards found, to its being too early to +obtain birds in good plumage. + +The first two or three days of our stay here were very wet, and I +obtained but few insects or birds, but at length, when I was beginning +to despair, my boy Baderoon returned one day with a specimen which +repaid me for months of delay and expectation. It was a small bird a +little less than a thrush. The greater part of its plumage was of an +intense cinnabar red, with a gloss as of spun glass. On the head the +feathers became short and velvety, and shaded into rich orange. Beneath, +from the breast downwards, was pure white, with the softness and gloss +of silk, and across the breast a band of deep metallic green separated +this colour from the red of the throat. Above each eye was a round spot +of the same metallic green; the bill was yellow, and the feet and legs +were of a fine cobalt ķille, strikingly contrasting with all the other +parts of the body. Merely in arrangement of colours and texture of +plumage this little bird was a gem of the first water, yet there +comprised only half its strange beauty. Springing from each side of +the breast, and ordinarily lying concealed under the wings, were little +tufts of greyish feathers about two inches long, and each terminated by +a broad band of intense emerald green. These plumes can be raised at the +will of the bird, and spread out into a pair of elegant fans when the +wings are elevated. But this is not the only ornament. The two middle +feathers of the tail are in the form of slender wires about five inches +long, and which diverge in a beautiful double curve. About half an inch +of the end of this wire is webbed on the outer side only, awe coloured +of a fine metallic green, and being curled spirally inwards form a pair +of elegant glittering buttons, hanging five inches below the body, and +the same distance apart. These two ornaments, the breast fans and the +spiral tipped tail wires, are altogether unique, not occurring on any +other species of the eight thousand different birds that are known to +exist upon the earth; and, combined with the most exquisite beauty of +plumage, render this one of the most perfectly lovely of the many lovely +productions of nature. My transports of admiration and delight quite +amused my Aru hosts, who saw nothing more in the "Burong raja" than we +do in the robin of the goldfinch. + +Thus one of my objects in coming to the far fast was accomplished. I +had obtained a specimen of the King Bird of Paradise (Paradisea regia), +which had been described by Linnaeus from skins preserved in a mutilated +state by the natives. I knew how few Europeans had ever beheld the +perfect little organism I now gazed upon, and how very imperfectly +it was still known in Europe. The emotions excited in the minds of a +naturalist, who has long desired to see the actual thing which he has +hitherto known only by description, drawing, or badly-preserved external +covering--especially when that thing is of surpassing rarity and beauty, +require the poetic faculty fully to express them. The remote island in +which I found myself situated, in an almost unvisited sea, far from +the tracks of merchant fleets and navies; the wild luxuriant tropical +forest, which stretched far away on every side; the rude uncultured +savages who gathered round me,--all had their influence in determining +the emotions with which I gazed upon this "thing of beauty." I thought +of the long ages of the past, during which the successive generations of +this little creature had run their course--year by year being born, and +living and dying amid these dark and gloomy woods, with no intelligent +eye to gaze upon their loveliness; to all appearance such a wanton waste +of beauty. Such ideas excite a feeling of melancholy. It seems sad, that +on the one hand such exquisite creatures should live out their lives and +exhibit their charms only in these wild inhospitable regions, doomed for +ages yet to come to hopeless barbarism; while on the other hand, +should civilized man ever reach these distant lands, and bring moral, +intellectual, and physical light into the recesses of these virgin +forests, we may be sure that he will so disturb the nicely-balanced +relations of organic and inorganic nature as to cause the disappearance, +and finally the extinction, of these very beings whose wonderful +structure and beauty he alone is fitted to appreciate and enjoy. This +consideration must surely tell us that all living things were _not_ +made for man. Many of them have no relation to him. The cycle of their +existence has gone on independently of his, and is disturbed or broken +by every advance in man's intellectual development; and their happiness +and enjoyment, their loves and hates, their struggles for existence, +their vigorous life and early death, would seem to be immediately +related to their own well-being and perpetuation alone, limited only by +the equal well-being and perpetuation of the numberless other organisms +with which each is more or less intimately connected. + +After the first king-bird was obtained, I went with my men into the +forest, and we were not only rewarded with another in equally perfect +plumage, but I was enabled to see a little of the habits of both it +and the larger species. It frequents the lower trees of the less dense +forests: and is very active, flying strongly with a whirring sound, +and continually hopping or flying from branch to branch. It eats hard +stone-bearing fruits as large as a gooseberry, and often flutters its +wings after the manner of the South American manakins, at which time +it elevates and expands the beautiful fans with which its breast is +adorned. The natives of Aru call it "Goby-goby." + +One day I get under a tree where a number of the Great Paradise birds +were assembled, but they were high up in the thickest of the foliage, +and flying and jumping about so continually that I could get no good +view of them. At length I shot one, but it was a young specimen, and was +entirely of a rich chocolate-brown colour, without either the metallic +green throat or yellow plumes of the full-grown bird. All that I had yet +seen resembled this, and the natives told me that it would be about +two months before any would be found in full plumage. I still hoped, +therefore, to get some. Their voice is most extraordinary. At early +morn, before the sun has risen, we hear a loud cry of "Wawk-wawk-wawk, +wķk-wķk-wķk," which resounds through the forest, changing its direction +continually. This is the Great Bird of Paradise going to seek his +breakfast. Others soon follow his example; lories and parroquets cry +shrilly, cockatoos scream, king-hunters croak and bark, and the various +smaller birds chirp and whistle their morning song. As I lie listening +to these interesting sounds, I realize my position as the first European +who has ever lived for months together in the Aru islands, a place which +I had hoped rather than expected ever to visit. I think how many besides +my self have longed to reach these almost fairy realms, and to see with +their own eyes the many wonderful and beautiful things which I am daily +encountering. But now Ali and Baderoon are up and getting ready their +guns and ammunition, and little Brio has his fire lighted and is boiling +my coffee, and I remember that I had a black cockatoo brought in late +last night, which I must skin immediately, and so I jump up and begin my +day's work very happily. + +This cockatoo is the first I have seen, and is a great prize. It has +a rather small and weak body, long weak legs, large wings, and an +enormously developed head, ornamented with a magnificent crest, and +armed with a sharp-pointed hoofed bill of immense size and strength. The +plumage is entirely black, but has all over it the curious powdery white +secretion characteristic of cockatoo. The cheeks are bare, and of an +intense blood-red colour. Instead of the harsh scream of the white +cockatoos, its voice is a somewhat plaintive whistle. The tongue is a +curious organ, being a slender fleshy cylinder of a deep red colour, +terminated by a horny black plate, furrowed across and somewhat +prehensile. The whole tongue has a considerable extensile power. I will +here relate something of the habits of this bird, with which I have +since become acquainted. It frequents the lower parts of the forest, and +is seen singly, or at most two or three together. It flies slowly and +noiselessly, and may be killed by a comparatively slight wound. It eats +various fruits and seeds, but seems more particularly attached to the +kernel of the kanary-nut, which grows on a lofty forest tree (Canarium +commune), abundant in the islands where this bird is found; and the +manner in which it gets at these seeds shows a correlation of structure +and habits, which would point out the "kanary" as its special food. The +shell of this nut is so excessively hard that only a heavy hammer will +crack it; it is somewhat triangular, and the outside is quite smooth. +The manner in which the bird opens these nuts is very curious. Taking +one endways in its bill and keeping it firm by a pressure of the tongue, +it cuts a transverse notch by a lateral sawing motion of the sharp-edged +lower mandible. This done, it takes hold of the nut with its foot, and +biting off a piece of leaf retains it in the deep notch of the upper +mandible, and again seizing the nut, which is prevented from slipping by +the elastic tissue of the leaf, fixes the edge of the lower mandible in +the notch, and by a powerful nip breaks of a piece of the shell, again +taking the nut in its claws, it inserts the very long and sharp point +of the bill and picks out the kernel, which is seized hold of, morsel +by morsel, by the extensible tongue. Thus every detail of form and +structure in the extraordinary bill of this bird seems to have its use, +and we may easily conceive that the black cockatoos have maintained +themselves in competition with their more active and more numerous white +allies, by their power of existing on a kind of food which no other bird +is able to extract from its stony shell. The species is the Microglossum +aterrimum of naturalists. + +During the two weeks which I spent in this little settlement, I had good +opportunities of observing the natives at their own home, and living in +their usual manner. There is a great monotony and uniformity in everyday +savage life, and it seemed to me a more miserable existence than when it +had the charm of novelty. To begin with the most important fact in +the existence of uncivilized peoples--their food--the Aru men have no +regular supply, no staff of life, such as bread, rice, mandiocca, maize, +or sago, which are the daily food of a large proportion of mankind. +They have, however, many sorts of vegetables, plantains, yams, sweet +potatoes, and raw sago; and they chew up vast quantities of sugar-cane, +as well as betel-nuts, gambir, and tobacco. Those who live on the coast +have plenty of fish; but when inland, as we are here, they only go to +the sea occasionally, and then bring home cockles and other shell-fish +by the boatload. Now and then they get wild pig or kangaroo, but too +rarely to form anything like a regular part of their diet, which is +essentially vegetable; and what is of more importance, as affecting +their health, green, watery vegetables, imperfectly cooked, and even +these in varying and often in sufficient quantities. To this diet may be +attributed the prevalence of skin diseases, and ulcers on the legs and +joints. The scurfy skin disease so common among savages has a close +connexion with the poorness and irregularity of their living. The +Malays, who are never without their daily rice, are generally free from +it; the hill-Dyaks of Borneo, who grow rice and live well, are clean +skinned while the less industrious and less cleanly tribes, who live for +a portion of the year on fruits and vegetables only, are very subject to +this malady. It seems clear that in this, as in other respects, man +is not able to make a beast of himself with impunity, feeding like the +cattle on the herbs and fruits of the earth, and taking no thought of +the morrow. To maintain his health and beauty he must labour to prepare +some farinaceous product capable of being stored and accumulated, so as +to give him a regular supply of wholesome food. When this is obtained, +he may add vegetables, fruits, and meat with advantage. + +The chief luxury of the Aru people, besides betel and tobacco, is arrack +(Java rum), which the traders bring in great quantities and sell very +cheap. A day's fishing or rattan cutting will purchase at least a +half-gallon bottle; and when the tripang or birds' nests collected +during a season are sold, they get whole boxes, each containing fifteen +such bottles, which the inmates of a house will sit round day and night +till they have finished. They themselves tell me that at such bouts they +often tear to pieces the house they are in, break and destroy everything +they can lay their hands on, and make such an infernal riot as is +alarming to behold. + +The houses and furniture are on a par with the food. A rude shed, +supported on rough and slender sticks rather than posts, no walls, +but the floor raised to within a foot of the eaves, is the style of +architecture they usually adopt. Inside there are partition walls of +thatch, forming little boxes or sleeping places, to accommodate the +two or three separate families that usually live together. A few mats, +baskets, and cooking vessels, with plates and basins purchased from the +Macassar traders, constitute their whole furniture; spears and bows +are their weapons; a sarong or mat forms the clothing of the women, a +waistcloth of the men. For hours or even for days they sit idle in their +houses, the women bringing in the vegetables or sago which form their +food. Sometimes they hunt or fish a little, or work at their houses or +canoes, but they seem to enjoy pure idleness, and work as little as they +can. They have little to vary the monotony of life, little that can be +called pleasure, except idleness and conversation. And they certainly +do talk! Every evening there is a little Babel around me: but as I +understand not a word of it, I go on with my book or work undisturbed. +Now and then they scream and shout, or laugh frantically for variety; +and this goes on alternately with vociferous talking of men, women, and +children, till long after I am in my mosquito curtain and sound asleep. + +At this place I obtained some light on the complicated mixture of +races in Aru, which would utterly confound an ethnologist. Many of the +natives, though equally dark with the others, have little of the Papuan +physiognomy, but have more delicate features of the European type, with +more glossy, curling hair: These at first quite puzzled me, for they +have no more resemblance to Malay than to Papuan, and the darkness of +skin and hair would forbid the idea of Dutch intermixture. Listening to +their conversation, however, I detected some words that were familiar +to me. "Accabķ" was one; and to be sure that it was not an accidental +resemblance, I asked the speaker in Malay what "accabķ" meant, and +was told it meant "done or finished," a true Portuguese word, with its +meaning retained. Again, I heard the word "jafui" often repeated, and +could see, without inquiry, that its meaning was "he's gone," as in +Portuguese. "Porco," too, seems a common name, though the people have no +idea of its European meaning. This cleared up the difficulty. I at once +understood that some early Portuguese traders had penetrated to these +islands, and mixed with the natives, influencing their language, +and leaving in their descendants for many generations the visible +characteristics of their race. If to this we add the occasional mixture +of Malay, Dutch, and Chinese with the indigenous Papuans, we have +no reason to wonder at the curious varieties of form and feature +occasionally to be met with in Aru. In this very house there was a +Macassar man, with an Aru wife and a family of mixed children. In Dobbo +I saw a Javanese and an Amboyna man, each with an Aru wife and family; +and as this kind of mixture has been going on for at least three hundred +years, and probably much longer, it has produced a decided effect on the +physical characteristics of a considerable portion of the population of +the islands, more especially in Dobbo and the parts nearest to it. + +March 28th.--The "Orang-kaya" being very ill with fever had begged to go +home, and had arranged with one of the men of the house to go on with me +as his substitute. Now that I wanted to move, the bugbear of the pirates +was brought up, and it was pronounced unsafe to go further than the next +small river. This world not suit me, as I had determined to traverse the +channel called Watelai to the "blakang-tana;" but my guide was firm +in his dread of pirates, of which I knew there was now no danger, as +several vessels had gone in search of them, as well as a Dutch gunboat +which had arrived since I left Dobbo. I had, fortunately, by this time +heard that the Dutch "Commissie" had really arrived, and therefore +threatened that if my guide did not go with me immediately, I would +appeal to the authorities, and he would certainly be obliged to gig +a back the cloth which the "Orang-kaya" had transferred to him in +prepayment. This had the desired effect; matters were soon arranged, and +we started the next morning. The wind, however, was dead against us, +and after rowing hard till midday we put in to a small river where +there were few huts, to cook our dinners. The place did not look very +promising, but as we could not reach our destination, the Watelai river, +owing to the contrary wind, I thought we might as well wait here a day +or two. I therefore paid a chopper for the use of a small shed, and +got my bed and some boxes on shore. In the evening, after dark, we were +suddenly alarmed by the cry of "Bajak! bajak!" (Pirates!) The men all +seized their bows and spears, and rushed down to the beach; we got hold +of our guns and prepared for action, but in a few minutes all came back +laughing and chattering, for it had proved to be only a small boat and +some of their own comrades returned from fishing. When all was quiet +again, one of the men, who could speak a little Malay, came to me and +begged me not to sleep too hard. "Why?" said I. "Perhaps the pirates may +really come," said he very seriously, which made me laugh and assure him +I should sleep as hard as I could. + +Two days were spent here, but the place was unproductive of insects or +birds of interest, so we made another attempt to get on. As soon as we +got a little away from the land we had a fair wind, and in six hours' +sailing reached the entrance of the Watelai channel, which divides the +most northerly from the middle portion of Aru. At its mouth this was +about half a mile wide, but soon narrowed, and a mile or two on it +assumed entirely the aspect of a river about the width of the Thames at +London, winding among low but undulating and often hilly country. +The scene was exactly such as might be expected in the interior of +a continent. The channel continued of a uniform average width, with +reaches and sinuous bends, one bank being often precipitous, or even +forming vertical cliffs, while the other was flat and apparently +alluvial; and it was only the pure salt-water, and the absence of any +stream but the slight flux and reflux of the tide, that would enable a +person to tell that he was navigating a strait and not a river. The +wind was fair, and carried us along, with occasional assistance from our +oars, till about three in the afternoon, when we landed where a little +brook formed two or three basins in the coral rock, and then fell in a +miniature cascade into the salt water river. Here we bathed and cooked +our dinner, and enjoyed ourselves lazily till sunset, when we pursued +our way for two hours snore, and then moored our little vessel to an +overhanging tree for the night. + +At five the next morning we started again, and in an hour overtook four +large praus containing the "Commissie," who had come from Dobbo to make +their official tour round the islands, and had passed us in the eight. I +paid a visit to the Dutchmen, one of whom spoke a little English, but +we found that we could get on much better with Malay. They told me that +they had been delayed going after the pirates to one of the northern +islands, and had seen three of their vessels but could not catch them, +because on being pursued they rowed out in the wind's eye, which they +are enabled to do by having about fifty oars to each boat. Having had +some tea with thorn, I bade them adieu, and turned up a narrow channel +which our pilot said would take us to the village of Watelai, on the +west side of Are. After going some miles we found the channel nearly +blocked up with coral, so that our boat grated along the bottom, +crunching what may truly be called the living rock. Sometimes all hands +had to get out and wade, to lighten the vessel and lift it over the +shallowest places; but at length we overcame all obstacles and reached a +wide bay or estuary studded with little rocks and islets, and opening +to the western sea and the numerous islands of the "blakang-tuna." I now +found that the village we were going to was miles away; that we should +have to go out to sea, and round a rocky point. A squall seemed coming +on, and as I have a horror of small boats at sea, and from all I could +learn Watelai village was not a place to stop at (no birds of Paradise +being found there), I determined to return and go to a village I had +heard of up a tributary of the Watelai river, and situated nearly in the +centre of the mainland of Aru. The people there were said to be good, +and to be accustomed to hunting and bird-catching, being too far inland +to get any part of their food from the sea. While I was deciding this +point the squall burst upon us, and soon raised a rolling sea in the +shallow water, which upset an oil bottle and a lamp, broke some of my +crockery, and threw us all into confusion. Rowing hard we managed to get +back into the main river by dusk, and looked out for a place to cook +our suppers. It happened to be high water, and a very high tide, so that +every piece of sand or beach was covered, and it was with the greatest +difficulty, and after much groping in the dark, that we discovered a +little sloping piece of rock about two feet square on which to make a +fire and cook some rice. The next day we continued our way back, and +on the following day entered a stream on the south side of the Watelai +river, and ascending to where navigation ceased found the little village +of Wanumbai, consisting of two large houses surrounded by plantations, +amid the virgin forests of Aru. + +As I liked the look of the place, and was desirous of staying some time, +I sent my pilot to try and make a bargain for house accommodation. The +owner and chief man of the place made many excuses. First, he was afraid +I would not like his house, and then was doubtful whether his son, +who was away, would like his admitting me. I had a long talk with him +myself, and tried to explain what I was doing, and how many things I +would buy of them, and showed him my stock of heads, and knives, and +cloth, and tobacco, all of which I would spend with his family and +friends if he would give me house-room. He seemed a little staggered at +this, and said he, would talk to his wife, and in the meantime I went +for a little walk to see the neighbourhood. When I came back, I again +sent my pilot, saying that I would go away if he would not dive me part +of his house. In about half an hour he returned with a demand for about +half the cost of building a house, for the rent of a small portion of it +for a few weeks. As the only difficulty now was a pecuniary one, I got +out about ten yards of cloth, an axe, with a few beads and some tobacco, +and sent them as my final offer for the part of the house which I had +before pointed out. This was accepted after a little more talk, and I +immediately proceeded to take possession. + +The house was a good large one, raised as usual about seven feet on +posts, the walls about three or four feet more, with a high-pitched +roof. The floor was of bamboo laths, and in the sloping roof way an +immense shutter, which could be lifted and propped up to admit light +and air. At the end where this was situated the floor was raised about a +foot, and this piece, about ten feet wide by twenty long, quite open to +the rest of the house, was the portion I was to occupy. At one end of +this piece, separated by a thatch partition, was a cooking place, with +a clay floor and shelves for crockery. At the opposite end I had my +mosquito curtain hung, and round the walls we arranged my boxes and +other stores, fated up a table and seat, and with a little cleaning and +dusting made the place look quite comfortable. My boat was then hauled +up on shore, and covered with palm-leaves, the sails and oars brought +indoors, a hanging-stage for drying my specimens erected outside the +house and another inside, and my boys were set to clean their gnus and +get all ready for beginning work. + +The next day I occupied myself in exploring the paths in the immediate +neighbourhood. The small river up which we had ascended ceases to be +navigable at this point, above which it is a little rocky brook, which +quite dries up in the hot season. There was now, however, a fair stream +of water in it; and a path which was partly in and partly by the side of +the water, promised well for insects, as I here saw the magnificent +blue butterfly, Papilio ulysses, as well as several other fine species, +flopping lazily along, sometimes resting high up on the foliage which +drooped over the water, at others settling down on the damp rock or on +the edges of muddy pools. A little way on several paths branched off +through patches of second-growth forest to cane-fields, gardens, and +scattered houses, beyond which again the dark wall of verdure striped +with tree-trunks, marked out the limits of the primeval forests. The +voices of many birds promised good shooting, and on my return I found +that my boys had already obtained two or three kinds I had not seen +before; and in the evening a native brought me a rare and beautiful +species of ground-thrush (Pitta novaeguinaeae) hitherto only known from +New Guinea. + +As I improved my acquaintance with them I became much interested in +these people, who are a fair sample of the true savage inhabitants of +the Aru Islands, tolerably free from foreign admixture. The house I +lived in contained four or five families, and there were generally +from six to a dozen visitors besides. They kept up a continual row +from morning till night--talking, laughing, shouting, without +intermission--not very pleasant, but interesting as a study of national +character. My boy Ali said to me, "Banyak quot bitchara Orang Aru" (The +Aru people are very strong talkers), never having been accustomed to +such eloquence either in his own or any other country he had hitherto +visited. Of an evening the men, having got over their first shyness, +began to talk to me a little, asking about my country, &c., and in +return I questioned them about any traditions they had of their own +origin. I had, however, very little success, for I could not possibly +make them understand the simple question of where the Aru people first +came from. I put it in every possible way to them, but it was a subject +quite beyond their speculations; they had evidently never thought of +anything of the kind, and were unable to conceive a thing so remote and +so unnecessary to be thought about, as their own origin. Finding this +hopeless, I asked if they knew when the trade with Aru first began, when +the Bugis and Chinese and Macassar men first came in their praus to buy +tripang and tortoise-shell, and birds' nests, and Paradise birds? + +This they comprehended, but replied that there had always been the same +trade as long as they or their fathers recollected, but that this was +the first time a real white man had come among them, and, said they, +"You see how the people come every day from all the villages round to +look at you." This was very flattering, and accounted for the great +concourse of visitors which I had at first imagined was accidental. A +few years before I had been one of the gazers at the Zoolus, and the +Aztecs in London. Now the tables were turned upon me, for I was to these +people a new and strange variety of man, and had the honour of affording +to them, in my own person, an attractive exhibition, gratis. + +All the men and boys of Aru are expert archers, never stirring without +their bows and arrows. They shoot all sorts of birds, as well as pigs +and kangaroos occasionally, and thus have a tolerably good supply of +meat to eat with their vegetables. The result of this better living is +superior healthiness, well-made bodies, and generally clear skins. They +brought me numbers of small birds in exchange for beads or tobacco, but +mauled them terribly, notwithstanding my repeated instructions. When +they got a bird alive they would often tie a string to its leg, and keep +it a day or two, till its plumage was so draggled and dirtied as to be +almost worthless. One of the first things I got from there was a living +specimen of the curious and beautiful racquet-tailed kingfisher. Seeing +how much I admired it, they afterwards brought me several more, which +wore all caught before daybreak, sleeping in cavities of the rocky banks +of the stream. My hunters also shot a few specimens, and almost all +of them had the red bill more or less clogged with mud and earth. This +indicates the habits of the bird, which, though popularly a king-fisher, +never catches fish, but lives on insects and minute shells, which it +picks up in the forest, darting down upon them from its perch on some +low branch. The genus Tanysiptera, to which this bird belongs, is +remarkable for the enormously lengthened tail, which in all other +kingfishers is small and short. Linnaeus named the species known to +him "the goddess kingfisher" (Alcedo dea), from its extreme grace and +beauty, the plumage being brilliant blue and white, with the bill red, +like coral. Several species of these interesting birds are now known, +all confined within the very limited area which comprises the Moluccas, +New Guinea, and the extreme North of Australia. They resemble each other +so closely that several of them can only be distinguished by careful +comparison. One of the rarest, however, which inhabits New Guinea, is +very distinct from the rest, being bright red beneath instead of white. +That which I now obtained was a new one, and has been named Tanysiptera +hydrocharis, but in general form and coloration it is exactly similar to +the larger species found in Amboyna, and figured at page 468 of my first +volume. + +New and interesting birds were continually brought in, either by my own +boys or by the natives, and at the end of a week Ali arrived triumphant +one afternoon with a fine specimen of the Great Bird of Paradise. +The ornamental plumes had not yet attained their full growth, but the +richness of their glossy orange colouring, and the exquisite delicacy +of the loosely waving feathers, were unsurpassable. At the same time a +great black cockatoo was brought in, as well as a fine fruit-pigeon and +several small birds, so that we were all kept hard at work skinning +till sunset. Just as we had cleared away and packed up for the night, +a strange beast was brought, which had been shot by the natives. It +resembled in size, and in its white woolly covering, a small fat +lamb, but had short legs, hand-like feet with large claws, and a long +prehensile tail. It was a Cuscus (C. maculatus), one of the curious +marsupial animals of the Papuan region, and I was very desirous to +obtain the skin. The owners, however, said they wanted to eat it; and +though I offered them a good price, and promised to give them all the +meat, there was grout hesitation. Suspecting the reason, I offered, +though it was night, to set to work immediately and get out the body for +them, to which they agreed. The creature was much hacked about, and the +two hind feet almost cut off; but it was the largest and finest specimen +of the kind I had seen; and after an hour's hard work I handed over the +body to the owners, who immediately cut it up and roasted it for supper. + +As this was a very good place for birds, I determined to remain a month +longer, and took the opportunity of a native boat going to Dobbo, to +send Ali for a fresh supply of ammunition and provisions. They started +on the 10th of April, and the house was crowded with about a hundred +men, boys, women, and girls, bringing their loads of sugar-cane, +plantains, sirih-leaf, yams, &c.; one lad going from each house to sell +the produce and make purchases. The noise was indescribable. At least +fifty of the hundred were always talking at once, and that not in the +low measured tones of the apathetically polite Malay, but with loud +voices, shouts, and screaming laughter, in which the women and children +were even more conspicuous than the men. It was only while gazing at me +that their tongues were moderately quiet, because their eyes were fully +occupied. The black vegetable soil here overlying the coral rock is very +rich, and the sugar-cane was finer than any I had ever seen. The canes +brought to the boat were often ten and even twelve feet long, and thick +in proportion, with short joints throughout, swelling between the knots +with the abundance of the rich juice. At Dobbo they get a high price +for it, 1d. to 3d. a stick, and there is an insatiable demand among the +crews of the praus and the Baba fishermen. Here they eat it continually. +They half live on it, and sometimes feed their pigs with it. Near every +house are great heaps of the refuse cane; and large wicker-baskets +to contain this refuse as it is produced form a regular part of the +furniture of a house. Whatever time of the day you enter, you are sure +to find three or four people with a yard of cane in one hand, a knife +in the other, and a basket between their legs, hacking, paring, chewing, +and basket-filling, with a persevering assiduity which reminds one of a +hungry cow grazing, or of a caterpillar eating up a leaf. + +After five days' absence the boats returned from Dobbo, bringing Ali and +all the things I had sent for quite safe. A large party had assembled to +be ready to carry home the goods brought, among which were a good many +cocoa-nut, which are a great luxury here. It seems strange that they +should never plant them; but the reason simply is, that they cannot +bring their hearts to bury a good nut for the prospective advantage of +a crop twelve years hence. There is also the chance of the fruits being +dug up and eaten unless watched night and day. Among the things I had +sent for was a box of arrack, and I was now of course besieged with +requests for a little drop. I gave them a flask (about two bottles), +which was very soon finished, and I was assured that there were many +present who had not had a taste. As I feared my box would very soon be +emptied if I supplied all their demands, I told them I had given them +one, but the second they must pay for, and that afterwards I must have +a Paradise bird for each flask. They immediately sent round to all the +neighbouring houses, and mustered up a rupee in Dutch copper money, got +their second flask, and drunk it as quickly as the first, and were then +very talkative, but less noisy and importunate than I had expected. Two +or three of them got round me and begged me for the twentieth time to +tell them the name of my country. Then, as they could not pronounce it +satisfactorily, they insisted that I was deceiving them, and that it +was a name of my own invention. One funny old man, who bore a ludicrous +resemblance, to a friend of mine at home, was almost indignant. +"Ung-lung! "said he, "who ever heard of such a name?--ang +lang--anger-lung--that can't be the name of your country; you are +playing with us." Then he tried to give a convincing illustration. "My +country is Wanumbai--anybody can say Wanumbai. I'm an orang-Wanumbai; +but, N-glung! who ever heard of such a name? Do tell us the real name of +your country, and then when you are gone we shall know how to talk about +you." To this luminous argument and remonstrance I could oppose nothing +but assertion, and the whole party remained firmly convinced that I +was for some reason or other deceiving them. They then attacked me on +another point--what all the animals and birds and insects and shells +were preserved so carefully for. They had often asked me this before, +and I had tried to explain to them that they would be stuffed, and made +to look as if alive, and people in my country would go to look at them. +But this was not satisfying; in my country there must be many better +things to look at, and they could not believe I would take so much +trouble with their birds and beasts just for people to look at. They did +not want to look at them; and we, who made calico and glass and knives, +and all sorts of wonderful things, could not want things from Aru to +look at. They had evidently been thinking about it, and had at length +got what seemed a very satisfactory theory; for the same old man said to +me, in a low, mysterious voice, "What becomes of them when you go on to +the sea?" "Why, they are all packed up in boxes," said I "What did you +think became of them?" "They all come to life again, don't they?" said +he; and though I tried to joke it off, and said if they did we should +have plenty to eat at sea, he stuck to his opinion, and kept repeating, +with an air of deep conviction, "Yes, they all come to life again, +that's what they do--they all come to life again." + +After a little while, and a good deal of talking among themselves, he +began again--"I know all about it--oh yes! Before you came we had rain +every day--very wet indeed; now, ever since you have been here, it is +fine hot weather. Oh, yes! I know all about it; you can't deceive me." +And so I was set down as a conjurer, and was unable to repel the charge. +But the conjurer was completely puzzled by the next question: "What," +said the old man, "is the great ship, where the Bugis and Chinamen go to +sell their things? It is always in the great sea--its name is Jong; tell +us all about it." In vain I inquired what they knew about it; they knew +nothing but that it was called "Jong," and was always in the sea, +and was a very great ship, and concluded with, "Perhaps that is your +country?" Finding that I could not or would not tell them anything about +"Jong," there came more regrets that I would not tell them the real name +of my country; and then a long string of compliments, to the effect that +I was a much better sort of a person than the Bugis and Chinese, who +sometimes came to trade with them, for I gave them things for nothing, +and did not try to cheat them. How long would I stop? was the next +earnest inquiry. Would I stay two or three months? They would get me +plenty of birds and animals, and I might soon finish all the goods I had +brought, and then, said the old spokesman, "Don't go away, but send for +more things from Dobbo, and stay here a year or two." And then again the +old story, "Do tell us the name of your country. We know the Bugis men, +and the Macassar men, and the Java men, and the China men; only you, +we don't know from what country you come. Ung-lung! it can't be; I know +that is not the name of your country." Seeing no end to this long talk, +I said I was tired, and wanted to go to sleep; so after begging--one a +little bit of dry fish for his supper, and another a little salt to eat +with his sago--they went off very quietly, and I went outside and took +a stroll round the house by moonlight, thinking of the simple people +and the strange productions of Aru, and then turned in under my mosquito +curtain; to sleep with a sense of perfect security in the midst of these +good-natured savages. + +We now had seven or eight days of hot and dry weather, which reduced the +little river to a succession of shallow pools connected by the smallest +possible thread of trickling water. If there were a dry season like that +of Macassar, the Aru Islands would be uninhabitable, as there is no part +of them much above a hundred feet high; and the whole being a mass of +porous coralline rock, allows the surface water rapidly to escape. +The only dry season they have is for a month or two about September +or October, and there is then an excessive scarcity of water, so that +sometimes hundreds of birds and other animals die of drought. The +natives then remove to houses near the sources of the small streams, +where, in the shady depths of the forest, a small quantity of water +still remains. Even then many of them have to go miles for their water, +which they keep in large bamboos and use very sparingly. They assure +me that they catch and kill game of all kinds, by watching at the water +holes or setting snares around them. That would be the time for me +to make my collections; but the want of water would be a terrible +annoyance, and the impossibility of getting away before another whole +year had passed made it out of the question. + +Ever since leaving Dobbo I had suffered terribly from insects, who +seemed here bent upon revenging my long-continued persecution of their +race. At our first stopping-place sand-flies were very abundant at +night, penetrating to every part of the body, and producing a more +lasting irritation than mosquitoes. My feet and ankles especially +suffered, and were completely covered with little red swollen specks, +which tormented me horribly. On arriving here we were delighted to find +the house free from sand-flies or mosquitoes, but in the plantations +where my daily walks led me, the day-biting mosquitoes swarmed, and +seemed especially to delight in attaching my poor feet. After a month's +incessant punishment, those useful members rebelled against such +treatment and broke into open insurrection, throwing out numerous +inflamed ulcers, which were very painful, and stopped me from walking. +So I found myself confined to the house, and with no immediate prospect +of leaving it. Wounds or sores in the feet are especially difficult to +heal in hot climates, and I therefore dreaded them more than any other +illness. The confinement was very annoying, as the fine hot weather was +excellent for insects, of which I had every promise of obtaining a fine +collection; and it is only by daily and unremitting search that the +smaller kinds, and the rarer and more interesting specimens, can be +obtained. When I crawled down to the river-side to bathe, I often +saw the blue-winged Papilio ulysses, or some other equally rare and +beautiful insect; but there was nothing for it but patience, and +to return quietly to my bird-skinning, or whatever other work I had +indoors. The stings and bites and ceaseless irritation caused by these +pests of the tropical forests, would be borne uncomplainingly; but to be +kept prisoner by them in so rich and unexplored a country where rare and +beautiful creatures are to be met with in every forest ramble--a country +reached by such a long and tedious voyage, and which might not in the +present century be again visited for the same purpose--is a punishment +too severe for a naturalist to pass over in silence. + +I had, however, some consolation in the birds my boys brought home +daily, more especially the Paradiseas, which they at length obtained in +full plumage. It was quite a relief to my mind to get these, for I could +hardly have torn myself away from Aru had I not obtained specimens. + +But what I valued almost as much as the birds themselves was the +knowledge of their habits, which I was daily obtaining both from the +accounts of my hunters, and from the conversation of the natives. The +birds had now commenced what the people here call their "sacaleli," or +dancing-parties, in certain trees in the forest, which are not fruit +trees as I at first imagined, but which have an immense tread of +spreading branches and large but scattered leaves, giving a clear space +for the birds to play and exhibit their plumes. On one of these trees +a dozen or twenty full-plumaged male birds assemble together, raise +up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite +plumes, keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly +across from branch to branch in great excitement, so that the whole tree +is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion. +(See Frontispiece.) The bird itself is nearly as large as a crow, and +is of a rich coffee brown colour. The head and neck is of a pure straw +yellow above and rich metallic green beneath. The long plumy tufts of +golden orange feathers spring from the sides beneath each wing, and when +the bird is in repose are partly concealed by them. At the time of its +excitement, however, the wings are raised vertically over the back, the +head is bent down and stretched out, and the long plumes are raised up +and expanded till they form two magnificent golden fans, striped with +deep red at the base, and fading off into the pale brown tint of +the finely divided and softly waving points. The whole bird is then +overshadowed by them, the crouching body, yellow head, and emerald green +throat forming but the foundation and setting to the golden glory which +waves above. When seen in this attitude, the Bird of Paradise really +deserves its name, and must be ranked as one of the most beautiful and +most wonderful of living things. I continued also to get specimens +of the lovely little king-bird occasionally, as well as numbers of +brilliant pigeons, sweet little parroquets, and many curious small +birds, most nearly resembling those of Australia and New Guinea. + +Here, as among most savage people I have dwelt among, I was delighted +with the beauty of the human form-a beauty of which stay-at-home +civilized people can scarcely have any conception. What are the finest +Grecian statues to the living, moving, breathing men I saw daily around +me? The unrestrained grace of the naked savage as he goes about +his daily occupations, or lounges at his ease, must be seen to be +understood; and a youth bending his bow is the perfection of manly +beauty. The women, however, except in extreme youth, are by no means so +pleasant to look at as the men. Their strongly-marked features are very +unfeminine, and hard work, privations, and very early marriages soon +destroy whatever of beauty or grace they may for a short time possess. +Their toilet is very simple, but also, I am sorry to say, very coarse, +and disgusting. It consists solely of a mat of plaited strips of palm +leaves, worn tight round the body, and reaching from the hips to the +knees. It seems not to be changed till worn out, is seldom washed, and +is generally very dirty. This is the universal dress, except in a few +cases where Malay "sarongs" have come into use. Their frizzly hair is +tied in a bench at the back of the head. They delight in combing, or +rather forking it, using for that purpose a large wooden fork with four +diverging prongs, which answers the purpose of separating and arranging +the long tangled, frizzly mass of cranial vegetation much better than +any comb could do. The only ornaments of the women are earrings and +necklaces, which they arrange in various tasteful ways. The ends of a +necklace are often attached to the earrings, and then looped on to +the hair-knot behind. This has really an elegant appearance, the beads +hanging gracefully on each side of the head, and by establishing a +connexion with the earrings give an appearance of utility to those +barbarous ornaments. We recommend this style to the consideration of +those of the fair sex who still bore holes in their ears and hang rings +thereto. Another style of necklace among these Papuan belles is to wear +two, each hanging on one side of the neck and under the opposite arm, so +as to cross each other. This has a very pretty appearance, in part due +to the contrast of the white beads or kangaroo teeth of which they are +composed with the dark glossy skin. The earrings themselves are formed +of a bar of copper or silver, twisted so that the ends cross. The men, +as usual among savages, adorn themselves more than the women. They wear +necklaces, earrings, and finger rings, and delight in a band of plaited +grass tight round the arm just below the shoulder, to which they attach +a bunch of hair or bright coloured feathers by way of ornament. The +teeth of small animals, either alone, or alternately with black or white +beads, form their necklaces, and sometimes bracelets also. For +these latter, however, they prefer brass wire, or the black, horny, +wing-spines of the cassowary, which they consider a charm. Anklets of +brass or shell, and tight plaited garters below the knee, complete their +ordinary decorations. + +Some natives of Kobror from further south, and who are reckoned the +worst and least civilized of the Aru tribes, came one day to visit us. +They have a rather more than usually savage appearance, owing to the +greater amount of ornaments they use--the most conspicuous being a +large horseshoe-shaped comb which they wear over the forehead, the ends +resting on the temples. The back of the comb is fastened into a piece of +wood, which is plated with tin in front, and above is attached a plume +of feathers from a cock's tail. In other respects they scarcely differed +from the people I was living with. They brought me a couple of birds, +some shells and insects; showing that the report of the white man and +his doing had reached their country. There was probably hardly a man in +Aru who had not by this time heard of me. + +Besides the domestic utensils already mentioned, the moveable property +of a native is very scanty. He has a good supply of spears and bows +and arrows for hunting, a parang, or chopping-knife, and an axe-for the +stone age has passed away here, owing to the commercial enterprise of +the Bugis and other Malay races. Attached to a belt, or hung across +his shoulder, he carries a little skin pouch and an ornamented +bamboo, containing betel-nut, tobacco, and lime, and a small German +wooden-handled knife is generally stuck between his waist-cloth of bark +and his bare shin. Each man also possesses a "cadjan," or sleeping-mat, +made of the broad leaves of a pandanus neatly sewn together in three +layers. This mat is abort four feet square, and when folded has one end +sewn up, so that it forms a kind of sack open at one side. In the closed +corner the head or feet can be placed, or by carrying it on the head +in a shower it forms both coat and umbrella. It doubles up ix a small +compass for convenient carriage, and then forms a light and elastic +cushion, so that on a journey it becomes clothing, house, bedding, and +furniture, all in one. + +The only ornaments in an Aru horse are trophies of the chase--jaws of +wild pigs, the heads and backbones of cassowaries, and plumes made from +the feathers of the Bird of Paradise, cassowary, and domestic fowl. +The spears, shields, knife-handles, and other utensils are more or less +carved in fanciful designs, and the mats and leaf boxes are painted or +plaited in neat patterns of red, black, and yellow colours. I must not +forget these boxes, which are most ingeniously made of the pith of +a balm leaf pegged together, lined inside with pandanus leaves, and +outside with the same, or with plaited grass. All the joints and angles +are coffered with strips of split rattan sewn neatly on. The lid is +covered with the brown leathery spathe of the Areca palm, which is +impervious to water, and the whole box is neat, strong, and well +finished. They are made from a few inches to two or three feet long, and +being much esteemed by the Malay as clothes-boxes, are a regular article +of export from Aru. The natives use the smaller ones for tobacco or +betel-nut, but seldom have clothes enough to require the larger ones, +which are only made for sale. + +Among the domestic animals which may generally be seen in native houses, +are gaudy parrots, green, red, and blue, a few domestic fowls, which +have baskets hung for them to lay in under the eaves, and who sleep on +the ridge, and several half-starved wolfish-baking dogs. Instead of rats +and mice there are curious little marsupial animals about the same size, +which run about at night and nibble anything eatable that may be left +uncovered. Four or five different kinds of ants attack everything not +isolated by water, and one kind even swims across that; great spiders +lurk in baskets and boxes, or hide in the folds of my mosquito curtain; +centipedes and millepedes are found everywhere. I have caught them under +my pillow and on my bead; while in every box, and under every hoard +which has lain for some days undisturbed, little scorpions are sure to +be found snugly ensconced, with their formidable tails quickly turned +up ready for attack or defence. Such companions seem very alarming +and dangerous, but all combined are not so bad as the irritation of +mosquitoes, or of the insect pests often found at home. These latter are +a constant and unceasing source of torment and disgust, whereas you +may live a long time among scorpions, spiders, and centipedes, ugly and +venomous though they are, and get no harm from them. After living twelve +years in the tropics, I have never yet been bitten or stung by either. + +The lean and hungry dogs before mentioned were my greatest enemies, +and kept me constantly on the watch. If my boys left the bird they +were skinning for an instant, it was sure to be carried off. Everything +eatable had to be hung up to the roof, to be out of their reach. Ali +had just finished skinning a fine King Bird of Paradise one day, when +he dropped the skin. Before he could stoop to pick it up, one of this +famished race had seized upon it, and he only succeeded in rescuing +it from its fangs after it was torn to tatters. Two skins of the +large Paradisea, which were quite dry and ready to pack away, were +incautiously left on my table for the night, wrapped up in paper. The +next morning they were gone, and only a few scattered feathers indicated +their fate. My hanging shelf was out of their reach; but having stupidly +left a box which served as a step, a full-plumaged Paradise bird was +next morning missing; and a dog below the house was to be seen still +mumbling over the fragments, with the fine golden plumes all trampled +in the mud. Every night, as soon as I was in bed, I could hear them +searching about for what they could devour, under my table, and all +about my boxes and baskets, keeping me in a state of suspense till +morning, lest something of value might incautiously have been left +within their read. They would drink the oil of my floating lamp and eat +the wick, and upset or break my crockery if my lazy boys had neglected +to wash away even the smell of anything eatable. Bad, however, as they +are here, they were worse in a Dyak's house in Borneo where I was once +staying, for there they gnawed off the tops of my waterproof boots, +ate a large piece out of an old leather game-bag, besides devouring a +portion of my mosquito curtain! + +April 28th.--Last evening we had a grand consultation, which had +evidently been arranged and discussed beforehand. A number of the +natives gathered round me, and said they wanted to talk. Two of the best +Malay scholars helped each other, the rest putting in hints and ideas +in their own language. They told me a long rambling story; but, partly +owing to their imperfect knowledge of Malay, partly through my ignorance +of local terms, and partly through the incoherence of their narrative, I +could not make it out very clearly. It was, however, a tradition, and +I was glad to find they had anything of the kind. A long time ago, they +said, some strangers came to Aru, and came here to Wanumbai, and the +chief of the Wanumbai people did not like them, and wanted them to go +away, but they would not go, and so it came to fighting, and many Aru +men were killed, and some, along with the chief, were taken prisoners, +and carried away by the strangers. Some of the speakers, however, said +that he was not carried away, but went away in his own boat to escape +from the foreigners, and went to the sea and never came back again. But +they all believe that the chief and the people that went with him still +live in some foreign country; and if they could but find out where, they +would send for them to come back again. Now having some vague idea that +white men must know every country beyond the sea, they wanted to know +if I had met their people in my country or in the sea. They thought they +must be there, for they could not imagine where else they could be. They +had sought for them everywhere, they said--on the land and in the sea, +in the forest and on the mountains, in the air and in the sky, and could +not find them; therefore, they must be in my country, and they begged +me to tell them, for I must surely know, as I came from across the +great sea. I tried to explain to them that their friends could not have +reached my country in small boats; and that there were plenty of islands +like Aru all about the sea, which they would be sure to find. Besides, +as it was so long ago, the chief and all the people must be dead. But +they quite laughed at this idea, and said they were sure they were +alive, for they had proof of it. And then they told me that a good many +years ago, when the speakers were boys, some Wokan men who were out +fishing met these lost people in the sea, and spoke to them; and the +chief gave the Wokan men a hundred fathoms of cloth to bring to the men +of Wanumbai, to show that they were alive and would soon come back to +them, but the Wokan men were thieves, and kept the cloth, and they only +heard of it afterwards; and when they spoke about it, the Wokan men +denied it, and pretended they had not received the cloth;--so they were +quite sure their friends were at that time alive and somewhere in the +sea. And again, not many years ago, a report came to them that some +Bugis traders had brought some children of their lost people; so they +went to Dobbo to see about it, and the owner of the house, who was now +speaking to me, was one who went; but the Bugis man would not let them +see the children, and threatened to kill them if they came into his +house. He kept the children shut up in a large box, and when he went +away he took them with him. And at the end of each of these stories, +they begged me in an imploring tone to tell them if I knew where their +chief and their people now were. + +By dint of questioning, I got some account of the strangers who had +taken away their people. They said they were wonderfully strong, and +each one could kill a great many Aru men; and when they were wounded, +however badly, they spit upon the place, and it immediately became well. +And they made a great net of rattans, and entangled their prisoners in +it, and sunk them in the water; and the next day, when they pulled +the net up on shore, they made the drowned men come to life again, and +carried them away. + +Much more of the same kind was told me, but in so confused and rambling +a manner that I could make nothing out of it, till I inquired how long +ago it was that all this happened, when they told me that after their +people were taken away the Bugis came in their praus to trade in Aru, +and to buy tripang and birds' nests. It is not impossible that something +similar to what they related to me really happened when the early +Portuguese discoverers first came to Aru, and has formed the foundation +for a continually increasing accumulation of legend and fable. I have +no doubt that to the next generation, or even before, I myself shall be +transformed into a magician or a demigod, a worker of miracles, and +a being of supernatural knowledge. They already believe that all the +animals I preserve will come to life again; and to their children it +will be related that they actually did so. An unusual spell of fine +weather setting in just at my arrival has made them believe I can +control the seasons; and the simple circumstance of my always walking +alone in the forest is a wonder and a mystery to them, as well as my +asking them about birds and animals I have not yet seen, and showing +an acquaintance with their form, colours, and habits. These facts are +brought against me when I disclaim knowledge of what they wish me to +tell them. "You must know," say they; "you know everything: you make the +fine weather for your men to shoot, and you know all about our birds and +our animals as well as we do; and you go alone into the forest and +are not afraid." Therefore every confession of ignorance on my part is +thought to be a blind, a mere excuse to avoid telling them too much. My +very writing materials and books are to them weird things; and were I to +choose to mystify them by a few simple experiments with lens and magnet, +miracles without end would in a few years cluster about me; and future +travellers, penetrating to Wanumbai, world h hardly believe that a poor +English naturalist, who had resided a few months among them, could have +been the original of the supernatural being to whom so many marvels were +attributed. + +Far some days I had noticed a good deal of excitement, and many +strangers came and went armed with spears and cutlasses, bows and +shields. I now found there was war near us--two neighbouring villages +having a quarrel about some matter of local politics that I could not +understand. They told me it was quite a common thing, and that they are +rarely without fighting somewhere near. Individual quarrels are taken up +by villages and tribes, and the nonpayment of the stipulated price for a +wife is one of the most frequent causes of bitterness and bloodshed. One +of the war shields was brought me to look at. It was made of rattans +and covered with cotton twist, so as to be both light, strong, and very +tough. I should think it would resist any ordinary bullet. Abort the +middle there was au arm-hole with a shutter or flap over it. This +enables the arm to be put through and the bow drawn, while the body +and face, up to the eyes, remain protected, which cannot be done if +the shield is carried on the arm by loops attached at the back in the +ordinary way. A few of the young men from our house went to help their +friends, but I could not bear that any of them were hurt, or that there +was much hard fighting. + +May 8th.-I had now been six weeks at Wanumbai, but for more than half +the time was laid up in the house with ulcerated feet. My stores being +nearly exhausted, and my bird and insect boxes full, and having no +immediate prospect of getting the use of my legs again, I determined +on returning to Dobbo. Birds had lately become rather scarce, and the +Paradise birds had not yet become as plentiful as the natives assured me +they would be in another month. The Wanumbai people seemed very sorry +at my departure; and well they might be, for the shells and insects they +picked up on the way to and from their plantations, and the birds the +little boys shot with their bows and arrows, kept them all well supplied +with tobacco and gambir, besides enabling them to accumulate a stock +of beads and coppers for future expenses. The owner of the house was +supplied gratis with a little rice, fish, or salt, whenever he asked for +it, which I must say was not very often. On parting, I distributed among +them my remnant stock of salt and tobacco, and gave my host a flask +of arrack, and believe that on the whole my stay with these simple +and good-natured people was productive of pleasure and profit to +both parties. I fully intended to come back; and had I known that +circumstances would have prevented my doing so, shoed have felt some +sorrow in leaving a place where I had first seen so many rare and +beautiful living things, and bad so fully enjoyed the pleasure which +fills the heart of the naturalist when he is so fortunate as to discover +a district hitherto unexplored, and where every day brings forth new and +unexpected treasures. We loaded our boat in the afternoon, and, starting +before daybreak, by the help of a fair wind reached Dobbo late the same +evening. + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. THE ARU ISLANDS.--SECOND RESIDENCE AT DOBBO. + +(MAY AND JUNE 1857.) + +DOBBO was full to overflowing, and I was obliged to occupy the +court-house where the Commissioners hold their sittings. They had now +left the island, and I found the situation agreeable, as it was at the +end of the village, with a view down the principal street. It was a mere +shed, but half of it had a roughly boarded floor, and by putting up a +partition and opening a window I made it a very pleasant abode. In one +of the boxes I had left in charge of Herr Warzbergen, a colony of small +ants had settled and deposited millions of eggs. It was luckily a fine +hot day, and by carrying the box some distance from the house, and +placing every article in the sunshine for an hour or two, I got rid of +them without damage, as they were fortunately a harmless species. + +Dobbo now presented an animated appearance. Five or six new houses +had been added to the street; the praus were all brought round to the +western side of the point, where they were hauled up on the beach, and +were being caulked and covered with a thick white lime-plaster for the +homeward voyage, making them the brightest and cleanest looking +things in the place. Most of the small boats had returned from the +"blakang-tana" (back country), as the side of the islands towards New +Guinea is called. Piles of firewood were being heaped up behind the +houses; sail-makers and carpenters were busy at work; mother-of-pearl +shell was being tied up in bundles, and the black and ugly smoked +tripang was having a last exposure to the sun before loading. The spare +portion of the crews were employed cutting and squaring timber, and +boats from Ceram and Goram were constantly unloading their cargoes of +sago-cake for the traders' homeward voyage. The fowls, ducks, and goats +all looked fat and thriving on the refuse food of a dense population, +and the Chinamen's pigs were in a state of obesity that foreboded early +death. Parrots and Tories and cockatoos, of a dozen different binds, +were suspended on bamboo perches at the doors of the houses, with +metallic green or white fruit-pigeons which cooed musically at noon and +eventide. Young cassowaries, strangely striped with black and brown, +wandered about the houses or gambolled with the playfulness of kittens +in the hot sunshine, with sometimes a pretty little kangaroo, caught in +the Aru forests, but already tame and graceful as a petted fawn. + +Of an evening there were more signs of life than at the time of my +former residence. Tom-toms, jews'-harps, and even fiddles were to be +heard, and the melancholy Malay songs sounded not unpleasantly far into +the night. Almost every day there was a cock-fight in the street. The +spectators make a ring, and after the long steel spurs are tied on, +and the poor animals are set down to gash and kill each other, the +excitement is immense. Those who lave made bets scream and yell and jump +frantically, if they think they are going to win or lose, but in a very +few minutes it is all over; there is a hurrah from the winners, the +owners seize their cocks, the winning bird is caressed and admired, the +loser is generally dead or very badly wounded, and his master may often +be seen plucking out his feathers as he walks away, preparing him for +the cooking pot while the poor bird is still alive. + +A game at foot-ball, which generally took place at sunset, was, however, +much more interesting to me. The ball used is a rather small one, and is +made of rattan, hollow, light, and elastic. The player keeps it dancing +a little while on his foot, then occasionally on his arm or thigh, till +suddenly he gives it a good blow with the hollow of the foot, and sends +it flying high in the air. Another player runs to meet it, and at its +first bound catches it on his foot and plays in his turn. The ball must +never be touched with the hand; but the arm, shoulder, knee, or +thigh are used at pleasure to rest the foot. Two or three played very +skilfully, keeping the ball continually flying about, but the place was +too confined to show off the game to advantage. One evening a quarrel +arose from some dispute in the game, and there was a great row, and +it was feared there would be a fight about it--not two men only, but a +party of a dozen or twenty on each side, a regular battle with knives +and krisses; but after a large amount of talk it passed off quietly, and +we heard nothing about it afterwards. + +Most Europeans being gifted by nature with a luxuriant growth of hair +upon their faces, think it disfigures them, and keep up a continual +struggle against her by mowing down every morning the crop which has +sprouted up flaring the preceding twenty-four hours. Now the men of +Mongolian race are, naturally, just as many of us want to he. They +mostly pass their lives with faces as smooth and beardless as an +infant's. But shaving seems an instinct of the human race; for many of +these people, having no hair to take off their faces, shave their heads. +Others, however, set resolutely to work to force nature to give them a +beard. One of the chief cock-fighters at Dobbo was a Javanese, a sort of +master of the ceremonies of the ring, who tied on the spars and acted as +backer-up to one of the combatants. This man had succeeded, by assiduous +cultivation, in raising a pair of moustaches which were a triumph of +art, for they each contained about a dozen hairs more than three inches +long, and which, being well greased and twisted, were distinctly visible +(when not too far off) as a black thread hanging down on each side of +his mouth. But the beard to match was the difficulty, for nature had +cruelly refused to give him a rudiment of hair on his chin, and the most +talented gardener could not do much if he had nothing to cultivate. +But true genius triumphs over difficulties. Although there was no hair +proper on the chin; there happened to be, rather on one side of it, a +small mole or freckle which contained (as such things frequently do) a +few stray hairs. These had been made the most of. They had reached four +or five inches in length, and formed another black thread dangling +from the left angle of the chin. The owner carried this as if it +were something remarkable (as it certainly was); he often felt it +affectionately, passed it between his fingers, and was evidently +extremely proud of his moustaches and beard! + +One of the most surprising things connected with Aru was the excessive +cheapness of all articles of European or native manufacture. We +were here two thousand miles beyond Singapore and Batavia, which are +themselves emporiums of the "far east," in a place unvisited by, and +almost unknown to, European traders; everything reached us through at +least two or three hands, often many more; yet English calicoes and +American cotton cloths could be bought for 8s. the piece, muskets for +15s., common scissors and German knives at three-halfpence each, and +other cutlery, cotton goods, and earthenware in the same proportion. +The natives of this out-of-the-way country can, in fact, buy all these +things at about the same money price as our workmen at home, but in +reality very much cheaper, for the produce of a few hours' labour +enables the savage to purchase in abundance what are to him luxuries, +while to the European they are necessaries of life. The barbarian is no +happier and no better off for this cheapness. On the contrary, it has +a most injurious effect on him. He wants the stimulus of necessity to +force him to labour; and if iron were as dear as silver, and calico as +costly as satin, the effect would be beneficial to him. As it is, he +has more idle hours, gets a more constant supply of tobacco, and can +intoxicate himself with arrack more frequently and more thoroughly; for +your Aru man scorns to get half drunk-a tumbler full of arrack is but a +slight stimulus, and nothing less than half a gallon of spirit will make +him tipsy to his own satisfaction. + +It is not agreeable to reflect on this state of things. At least half +of the vast multitudes of uncivilized peoples, on whom our gigantic +manufacturing system, enormous capital, and intense competition force +the produce of our looms and workshops, would be not a whit worse off +physically, and would certainly be improved morally, if all the articles +with which w e supply them were double or treble their present prices. +If at the same time the difference of cost, or a large portion of +it, could find its way into the pockets of the manufacturing workmen, +thousands would be raised from want to comfort, from starvation to +health, and would be removed from one of the chief incentives to crime. +It is difficult for an Englishman to avoid contemplating with pride our +gigantic and ever-increasing manufactures and commerce, and thinking +everything good that renders their progress still more rapid, either +by lowering the price at which the articles can be produced, or by +discovering new markets to which they may be sent. If, however, the +question that is so frequently asked of the votaries of the less popular +sciences were put here--"Cui bono?"--it would be found more difficult to +answer than had been imagined. The advantages, even to the few who reap +them, would be seen to be mostly physical, while the wide-spread moral +and intellectual evils resulting from unceasing labour, low wages, +crowded dwellings, and monotonous occupations, to perhaps as large a +number as those who gain any real advantage, might be held to show +a balance of evil so great, as to lead the greatest admirers of our +manufactures and commerce to doubt the advisability of their further +development. It will be said: "We cannot stop it; capital must be +employed; our population must be kept at work; if we hesitate a moment, +other nations now hard pressing us will get ahead, and national ruin +will follow." Some of this is true, some fallacious. It is undoubtedly a +difficult problem which we have to solve; and I am inclined to think it +is this difficulty that makes men conclude that what seems a necessary +and unalterable state of things must be good-that its benefits must be +greater than its evils. This was the feeling of the American advocates +of slavery; they could not see an easy, comfortable way out of it. In +our own case, however, it is to be hoped, that if a fair consideration +of the matter in all its hearings shows that a preponderance of evil +arises from the immensity of our manufactures and commerce-evil which +must go on increasing with their increase-there is enough both of +political wisdom and true philanthropy in Englishmen, to induce them to +turn their superabundant wealth into other channels. The fact that has +led to these remarks is surely a striking one: that in one of the most +remote corners of the earth savages can buy clothing cheaper than the +people of the country where it is made; that the weaver's child should +shiver in the wintry wind, unable to purchase articles attainable by the +wild natives of a tropical climate, where clothing is mere ornament or +luxury, should make us pause ere we regard with unmixed admiration the +system which has led to such a result, and cause us to look with some +suspicion on the further extension of that system. It must be remembered +too that our commerce is not a purely natural growth. It has been ever +fostered by the legislature, and forced to an unnatural luxuriance by +the protection of our fleets and armies. The wisdom and the justice of +this policy have been already doubted. So soon, therefore, as it is seen +that the further extension of our manufactures and commerce would be an +evil, the remedy is not far to seek. + +After six weeks' confinement to the house I was at length well, and +could resume my daily walks in the forest. I did not, however, find it +so productive as when I had first arrived at Dobbo. There was a damp +stagnation about the paths, and insects were very scarce. In some of my +best collecting places I now found a mass of rotting wood, mingled with +young shoots, and overgrown with climbers, yet I always managed to +add something daily to my extensive collections. I one day met with +a curious example of failure of instinct, which, by showing it to be +fallible, renders it very doubtful whether it is anything more than +hereditary habit, dependent on delicate modifications of sensation. Some +sailors cut down a good-sized tree, and, as is always my practice, I +visited it daily for some time in search of insects. Among other +beetles came swarms of the little cylindrical woodborers (Platypus, +Tesserocerus, &c.), and commenced making holes in the bark. After a day +or two I was surprised to find hundreds of them sticking in the holes +they had bored, and on examination discovered that the milky sap of the +tree was of the nature of gutta-percha, hardening rapidly on exposure to +the air, and glueing the little animals in self-dug graves. The habit +of boring holes in trees in which to deposit their eggs, was not +accompanied by a sufficient instinctive knowledge of which trees were +suitable, and which destructive to them. If, as is very probable, these +trees have an attractive odour to certain species of borers, it might +very likely lead to their becoming extinct; while other species, to whom +the same odour was disagreeable, and who therefore avoided the dangerous +trees, would survive, and would be credited by us with an instinct, +whereas they would really be guided by a simple sensation. + +Those curious little beetles, the Brenthidae, were very abundant in Aru. +The females have a pointed rostrum, with which they bore deep holes in +the bark of dead trees, often burying the rostrum up to the eyes, and +in these holes deposit their eggs. The males are larger, and have the +rostrum dilated at the end, and sometimes terminating in a good-sized +pair of jaws. I once saw two males fighting together; each had a +fore-leg laid across the neck of the other, and the rostrum bent quite +in an attitude of defiance, and looking most ridiculous. Another time, +two were fighting for a female, who stood close by busy at her boring. +They pushed at each other with their rostra, and clawed and thumped, +apparently in the greatest rage, although their coats of mail must +have saved both from injury. The small one, however, soon ran away, +acknowledging himself vanquished. In most Coleoptera the female is +larger than the male, and it is therefore interesting, as bearing on the +question of sexual selection, that in this case, as in the stag-beetles +where the males fight together, they should be not only better armed, +but also much larger than the females. Just as we were going away, a +handsome tree, allied to Erythrina, was in blossom, showing its masses +of large crimson flowers scattered here and there about the forest. +Could it have been seen from an elevation, it would have had a fine +effect; from below I could only catch sight of masses of gorgeous colour +in clusters and festoons overhead, about which flocks of blue and orange +lories were fluttering and screaming. + +A good many people died at Dobbo this season; I believe about twenty. +They were buried in a little grove of Casuarinas behind my house. Among +the traders was a. Mahometan priest, who superintended the funerals, +which were very simple. The body was wrapped up in new white cotton +cloth, and was carried on a bier to the grave. All the spectators sat +down on the ground, and the priest chanted some verses from the Koran. +The graves were fenced round with a slight bamboo railing, and a little +carved wooden head-post was put to mark the spot. There was also in the +village a small mosque, where every Friday the faithful went to pray. +This is probably more remote from Mecca than any other mosque in +the world, and marks the farthest eastern extension of the Mahometan +religion. The Chinese here, as elsewhere, showed their superior wealth +and civilization by tombstones of solid granite brought from Singapore, +with deeply-cut inscriptions, the characters of which are painted in +red, blue, and gold. No people have more respect for the graves of +their relations and friends than this strange, ubiquitous, money-getting +people. + +Soon after we had returned to Dobbo, my Macassar boy, Baderoon, took his +wages and left me, because I scolded him for laziness. He then occupied +himself in gambling, and at first had some luck, and bought ornaments, +and had plenty of money. Then his luck turned; he lost everything, +borrowed money and lost that, and was obliged to become the slave of his +creditor till he had worked out the debt. He was a quick and active lad +when he pleased, but was apt to be idle, and had such an incorrigible +propensity for gambling, that it will very likely lead to his becoming a +slave for life. + +The end of June was now approaching, the east monsoon had set +in steadily, and in another week or two Dobbo would be deserted. +Preparations for departure were everywhere visible, and every sunny day +(rather rare now) the streets were as crowded and as busy as +beehives. Heaps of tripang were finally dried and packed up in sacks; +mother-of-pearl shell, tied up with rattans into convenient bundles, was +all day long being carried to the beach to be loaded; water-casks were +filled, and cloths and mat-sails mended and strengthened for the run +home before the strong east wind. Almost every day groups of natives +arrived from the most distant parts of the islands, with cargoes of +bananas and sugar-cane to exchange for tobacco, sago, bread, and other +luxuries, before the general departure. The Chinamen killed their fat +pig and made their parting feast, and kindly sent me some pork, and a +basin of birds' nest stew, which had very little more taste than a dish +of vermicelli. My boy Ali returned from Wanumbai, where I had sent him +alone for a fortnight to buy Paradise birds and prepare the skins; he +brought me sixteen glorious specimens, and had he not been very ill with +fever and ague might have obtained twice the number. He had lived +with the people whose house I had occupied, and it is a proof of their +goodness, if fairly treated, that although he took with him a quantity +of silver dollars to pay for the birds they caught, no attempt was made +to rob him, which might have been done with the most perfect impunity. +He was kindly treated when ill, and was brought back to me with the +balance of the dollars he had not spent. + +The Wanumbai people, like almost all the inhabitants of the Aru Islands, +are perfect savages, and I saw no signs of any religion. There are, +however, three or four villages on the coast where schoolmasters from +Amboyna reside, and the people are nominally Christians, and are to some +extent educated and civilized. I could not get much real knowledge of +the customs of the Aru people during the short time I was among them, +but they have evidently been considerably influenced by their long +association with Mahometan traders. They often bury their dead, although +the national custom is to expose the body an a raised stage till it +decomposes. Though there is no limit to the number of wives a man may +have, they seldom exceed one or two. A wife is regularly purchased from +the parents, the price being a large assortment of articles, always +including gongs, crockery, and cloth. They told me that some of the +tribes kill the old men and women when they can no longer work, but I +saw many very old and decrepid people, who seemed pretty well attended +to. No doubt all who have much intercourse with the Bugis and Ceramese +traders gradually lose many of their native customs, especially as these +people often settle in their villages and marry native women. + +The trade carried on at Dobbo is very considerable. This year there were +fifteen large praus from Macassar, and perhaps a hundred small boats +from Ceram, Goram, and Ke. The Macassar cargoes are worth about Ŗ1,000. +each, and the other boats take away perhaps about Ŗ3,000, worth, so that +the whole exports may be estimated at Ŗ18,000. per annum. The largest +and most bulky items are pearl-shell and tripang, or "beche-de-mer," +with smaller quantities of tortoise-shell, edible birds' nests, pearls, +ornamental woods, timber, and Birds of Paradise. These are purchased +with a variety of goods. Of arrack, about equal in strength to ordinary +West India rum, 3,000 boxes, each containing fifteen half-gallon +bottles, are consumed annually. Native cloth from Celebes is much +esteemed for its durability, and large quantities are sold, as well as +white English calico and American unbleached cottons, common crockery, +coarse cutlery, muskets, gunpowder, gongs, small brass cannon, and +elephants' tusks. These three last articles constitute the wealth of the +Aru people, with which they pay for their wives, or which they hoard +up as "real property." Tobacco is in immense demand for chewing, and +it must be very strong, or an Aru man will not look at it. Knowing +how little these people generally work, the mass of produce obtained +annually shows that the islands must be pretty thickly inhabited, +especially along the coasts, as nine-tenths of the whole are marine +productions. + +It was on the 2d of July that we left Aru, followed by all the Macassar +praus, fifteen in number, who had agreed to sail in company. We passed +south of Banda, and then steered due west, not seeing land for three +days, till we sighted some low islands west of Bouton. We had a strong +and steady south-east wind day and night, which carried us on at about +five knots an hour, where a clipper ship would have made twelve. The sky +was continually cloudy, dark, and threatening, with occasional drizzling +showers, till we were west of Bouru, when it cleared up and we enjoyed +the bright sunny skies of the dry season for the rest of our voyage. +It is about here, therefore that the seasons of the eastern and western +regions of the Archipelago are divided. West of this line from June to +December is generally fine, and often very dry, the rest of the year +being the wet season. East of it the weather is exceedingly uncertain, +each island, and each side of an island, having its own peculiarities. +The difference seems to consist not so much in the distribution of the +rainfall as in that of the clouds and the moistness of the atmosphere. +In Aru, for example, when we left, the little streams were all dried up, +although the weather was gloomy; while in January, February, and March, +when we had the hottest sunshine and the finest days, they were always +flowing. The driest time of all the year in Aru occurs in September and +October, just as it does in Java and Celebes. The rainy seasons agree, +therefore, with those of the western islands, although the weather is +very different. The Molucca sea is of a very deep blue colour, quite +distinct from the clear light blue of the Atlantic. In cloudy and dull +weather it looks absolutely black, and when crested with foam has a +stern and angry aspect. The wind continued fair and strong during our +whole voyage, and we reached Macassar in perfect safety on the evening +of the 11th of July, having made the passage from Aru (more than a +thousand miles) in nine and a half days. + +My expedition to the Aru Islands had been eminently successful. Although +I had been for months confined to the house by illness, and had lost +much time by the want of the means of locomotion, and by missing the +right season at the right place, I brought away with me more than nine +thousand specimens of natural objects, of about sixteen hundred distinct +species. I had made the acquaintance of a strange and little-known race +of men; I had become familiar with the traders of the far East; I had +revelled in the delights of exploring a new fauna and flora, one of the +most remarkable and most beautiful and least-known in the world; and +I had succeeded in the main object for which I had undertaken the +journey-namely, to obtain fine specimens of the magnificent Birds of +Paradise, and to be enabled to observe them in their native forests. By +this success I was stimulated to continue my researches in the Moluccas +and New Guinea for nearly five years longer, and it is still the portion +of my travels to which I look back with the most complete satisfaction. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. THE ARU ISLANDS--PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ASPECTS OF +NATURE. + +IN this chapter I propose to give a general sketch of the physical +geography of the Aru Islands, and of their relation to the surrounding +countries; and shall thus be able to incorporate the information +obtained from traders, and from the works of other naturalists with +my own observations in these exceedingly interesting and little-known +regions. + +The Aru group may be said to consist of one very large central island +with a number of small ones scattered round it. The great island is +called by the natives and traders "Tang-busar" (great or mainland), to +distinguish it as a whole from Dobbo, or any of the detached islands. It +is of an irregular oblong form, about eighty miles from north to south, +and forty or fifty from east to west, in which direction it is traversed +by three narrow channels, dividing it into four portions. These channels +are always called rivers by the traders, which puzzled me much till I +passed through one of them, and saw how exceedingly applicable the +name was. The northern channel, called the river of Watelai, is about +a quarter of a mile wide at its entrance, but soon narrows to abort the +eighth of a mile, which width it retains, with little variation, during +its whole, length of nearly fifty miles, till it again widens at its +eastern mouth. Its course is moderately winding, and the hanks are +generally dry and somewhat elevated. In many places there are low cliffs +of hard coralline limestone, more or less worn by the action of water; +while sometimes level spaces extend from the banks to low ranges of +hills a little inland. A few small streams enter it from right and left, +at the mouths of which are some little rocky islands. The depth is +very regular, being from ten to fifteen fathoms, and it has thus every +feature of a true river, but for the salt water and the absence of a +current. The other two rivers, whose names are Vorkai and Maykor, are +said to be very similar in general character; but they are rather near +together, and have a number of cross channels intersecting the flat +tract between them. On the south side of Maykor the banks are +very rocky, and from thence to the southern extremity of Aru is +an uninterrupted extent of rather elevated and very rocky country, +penetrated by numerous small streams, in the high limestone cliffs +bordering which the edible birds' nests of Aru are chiefly obtained. +All my informants stated that the two southern rivers are larger than +Watelai. + +The whole of Aru is low, but by no means so flat as it has been +represented, or as it appears from the sea. Most of it is dry rocky +ground, with a somewhat undulating surface, rising here and there +into abrupt hillocks, or cut into steep and narrow ravines. Except the +patches of swamp which are found at the mouths of most of the small +rivers, there is no absolutely level ground, although the greatest +elevation is probably not more than two hundred feet. The rock which +everywhere appears in the ravines and brooks is a coralline limestone, +in some places soft and pliable, in others so hard and crystalline as to +resemble our mountain limestone. + +The small islands which surround the central mass are very numerous; +but most of them are on the east side, where they form a fringe, often +extending ten or fifteen miles from the main islands. On the west there +are very few, Wamma and Palo Pabi being the chief, with Ougia, and +Wassia at the north-west extremity. On the east side the sea is +everywhere shallow, and full of coral; and it is here that the +pearl-shells are found which form one of the chief staples of Aru trade. +All the islands are covered with a dense and very lofty forest. + +The physical features here described are of peculiar interest, and, as +far as I am aware, are to some extent unique; for I have been unable +to find any other record of an island of the size of Aru crossed +by channels which exactly resemble true rivers. How these channels +originated were a complete puzzle to me, till, after a long +consideration of the whole of the natural phenomena presented by +these islands, I arrived at a conclusion which I will now endeavour to +explain. There are three ways in which we may conceive islands which +are not volcanic to have been formed, or to have been reduced to their +present condition, by elevation, by subsidence, or by separation from +a continent or larger island. The existence of coral rock, or of raised +beaches far inland, indicates recent elevation; lagoon coral-islands, +and such as have barrier or encircling reefs, have suffered subsidence; +while our own islands, whose productions are entirely those of the +adjacent continent, have been separated from it. Now the Aru Islands are +all coral rock, and the adjacent sea is shallow and full of coral, it is +therefore evident that they have been elevated from beneath the ocean +at a not very distant epoch. But if we suppose that elevation to be the +first and only cause of their present condition, we shall find ourselves +quite unable to explain the curious river-channels which divide them. +Fissures during upheaval would not produce the regular width, the +regular depth, or the winding curves which characterise them; and the +action of tides and currents during their elevation might form straits +of irregular width and depth, but not the river-like channels which +actually exist. If, again, we suppose the last movement to have been +one of subsidence, reducing the size of the islands, these channels +are quite as inexplicable; for subsidence would necessarily lead to +the flooding of all low tracts on the banks of the old rivers, and thus +obliterate their courses; whereas these remain perfect, and of nearly +uniform width from end to end. + +Now if these channels have ever been rivers they must have flowed from +some higher regions, and this must have been to the east, because on the +north and west the sea-bottom sinks down at a short distance from the +shore to an unfathomable depth; whereas on the east, a shallow sea, +nowhere exceeding fifty fathoms, extends quite across to New Guinea, a +distance of about a hundred and fifty miles. An elevation of only three +hundred feet would convert the whole of this sea into moderately high +land, and make the Aru Islands a portion of New Guinea; and the rivers +which have their mouths at Utanata and Wamuka, might then have flowed on +across Aru, in the channels which are now occupied by salt water. +Then the intervening land sunk down, we must suppose the land that +now constitutes Aru to have remained nearly stationary, a not very +improbable supposition, when we consider the great extent of the +shallow sea, and the very small amount of depression the land need have +undergone to produce it. + +But the fact of the Aru Islands having once been connected with New +Guinea does not rest on this evidence alone. There is such a striking +resemblance between the productions of the two countries as only exists +between portions of a common territory. I collected one hundred species +of land-birds in the Aru Islands, and about eighty of them, have been +found on the mainland of New Guinea. Among these are the great wingless +cassowary, two species of heavy brush turkeys, and two of short winged +thrushes; which could certainly not have passed over the 150 miles of +open sea to the coast of New Guinea. This barrier is equally effectual +in the case of many other birds which live only in the depths of the +forest, as the kinghunters (Dacelo gaudichaudi), the fly-catching wrens +(Todopsis), the great crown pigeon (Goura coronata), and the small wood +doves (Ptilonopus perlatus, P. aurantiifrons, and P. coronulatus). +Now, to show the real effect of such barrier, let us take the island of +Ceram, which is exactly the same distance from New Guinea, but separated +from it by a deep sea. Cut of about seventy land-birds inhabiting Ceram, +only fifteen are found in New Guinea, and none of these are terrestrial +or forest-haunting species. The cassowary is distinct; the kingfishers, +parrots, pigeons, flycatchers, honeysuckers, thrushes, and cuckoos, are +almost always quite distinct species. More than this, at least twenty +genera, which are common to New Guinea and Aru, do not extend into +Ceram, indicating with a force which every naturalist will appreciate, +that the two latter countries have received their faunas in a radically +different manner. Again, a true kangaroo is found in Aru, and the same +species occurs in Mysol, which is equally Papuan in its productions, +while either the same, or one closely allied to it, inhabits New Guinea; +but no such animal is found in Ceram, which is only sixty miles from +Mysol. Another small marsupial animal (Perameles doreyanus) is common +to Aru and New Guinea. The insects show exactly the same results. The +butterflies of Aru are all either New Guinea species, or very slightly +modified forms; whereas those of Ceram are more distinct than are the +birds of the two countries. + +It is now generally admitted that we may safely reason on such facts +as those, which supply a link in the defective geological record. The +upward and downward movements which any country has undergone, and the +succession of such movements, can be determined with much accuracy; +but geology alone can tell us nothing of lands which have entirely +disappeared beneath the ocean. Here physical geography and the +distribution of animals and plants are of the greatest service. By +ascertaining the depth of the seas separating one country from another, +we can form some judgment of the changes which are taking place. If +there are other evidences of subsidence, a shallow sea implies a former +connexion of the adjacent lands; but if this evidence is wanting, or if +there is reason to suspect a rising of the land, then the shallow +sea may be the result of that rising, and may indicate that the two +countries will be joined at some future time, but not that they have +previously been so. The nature of the animals and plants inhabiting +these countries will, however, almost always enable us to determine this +question. Mr. Darwin has shown us how we may determine in almost every +case, whether an island has ever been connected with a continent or +larger land, by the presence or absence of terrestrial Mammalia and +reptiles. What he terms "oceanic islands" possess neither of these +groups of animals, though they may have a luxuriant vegetation, and a +fair number of birds, insects, and landshells; and we therefore conclude +that they have originated in mid-ocean, and have never been connected +with the nearest masses of land. St. Helena, Madeira, and New Zealand +are examples of oceanic islands. They possess all other classes of life, +because these have means of dispersion over wide spaces of sea, which +terrestrial mammals and birds have not, as is fully explained in Sir +Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology," and Mr. Darwin's "Origin of +Species." On the other hand, an island may never have been actually +connected with the adjacent continents or islands, and yet may possess +representatives of all classes of animals, because many terrestrial +mammals and some reptiles have the means of passing over short distances +of sea. But in these cases the number of species that have thus migrated +will be very small, and there will be great deficiencies even in birds +and flying insects, which we should imagine could easily cross over. +The island of Timor (as I have already shown in Chapter XIII) bears this +relation to Australia; for while it contains several birds and insects +of Australian forms, no Australian mammal or reptile is found in it, +and a great number of the most abundant and characteristic forms of +Australian birds and insects are entirely absent. Contrast this with the +British Islands, in, which a large proportion of the plants, insects, +reptiles, and Mammalia of the adjacent parts of the continent are fully +represented, while there are no remarkable deficiencies of extensive +groups, such as always occur when there is reason to believe there has +been no such connexion. The case of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, and the +Asiatic continent is equally clear; many large Mammalia, terrestrial +birds, and reptiles being common to all, while a large number more +are of closely allied forms. Now, geology has taught us that this +representation by allied forms in the same locality implies lapse of +time, and we therefore infer that in Great Britain, where almost +every species is absolutely identical with those on the Continent, the +separation has been very recent; while in Sumatra and Java, where a +considerable number of the continental species are represented by allied +forms, the separation was more remote. + +From these examples we may see how important a supplement to geological +evidence is the study of the geographical distribution of animals and +plants, in determining the former condition of the earth's surface; and +how impossible it is to understand the former without taking the latter +into account. The productions of the Aru Islands offer the strangest +evidence, that at no very distant epoch they formed a part of New +Guinea; and the peculiar physical features which I have described, +indicate that they must have stood at very nearly the same level then as +they do now, having been separated by the subsidence of the great plain +which formerly connected them with it. + +Persons who have formed the usual ideas of the vegetation of the tropics +who picture to themselves the abundance and brilliancy of the flowers, +and the magnificent appearance of hundreds of forest trees covered with +masses of coloured blossoms, will be surprised to hear, that though +vegetation in Aru is highly luxuriant and varied, and would afford +abundance of fine and curious plants to adorn our hothouses, yet bright +and showy flowers are, as a general rule, altogether absent, or so very +scarce as to produce no effect whatever on the general scenery. To give +particulars: I have visited five distinct localities in the islands, I +have wandered daily in the forests, and have passed along upwards of a +hundred miles of coast and river during a period of six months, much of +it very fine weather, and till just as I was about to leave, I never saw +a single plant of striking brilliancy or beauty, hardly a shrub equal to +a hawthorn, or a climber equal to a honeysuckle! It cannot be said that +the flowering season had not arrived, for I saw many herbs, shrubs, +and forest trees in flower, but all had blossoms of a green or +greenish-white tint, not superior to our lime-trees. Here and there on +the river banks and coasts are a few Convolvulaceae, not equal to our +garden Ipomaeas, and in the deepest shades of the forest some fine +scarlet and purple Zingiberaceae, but so few and scattered as to be +nothing amid the mass of green and flowerless vegetation. Yet the noble +Cycadaceae and screw-pines, thirty or forty feet high, the elegant tree +ferns, the lofty palms, and the variety of beautiful and curious plants +which everywhere meet the eye, attest the warmth and moisture of the +tropics, and the fertility of the soil. + +It is true that Aru seemed to me exceptionally poor in flowers, but +this is only an exaggeration of a general tropical feature; for my +whole experience in the equatorial regions of the west and the east has +convinced me, that in the most luxuriant parts of the tropics, flowers +are less abundant, on the average less showy, and are far less effective +in adding colour to the landscape than in temperate climates. I have +never seen in the tropics such brilliant masses of colour as even +England can show in her furze-clad commons, her heathery mountain-sides, +her glades of wild hyacinths, her fields of poppies, her meadows of +buttercups and orchises--carpets of yellow, purple, azure-blue, and +fiery crimson, which the tropics can rarely exhibit. We, have smaller +masses of colour in our hawthorn and crab trees, our holly and +mountain-ash, our boom; foxgloves, primroses, and purple vetches, which +clothe with gay colours the whole length and breadth of our land, These +beauties are all common. They are characteristic of the country and the +climate; they have not to be sought for, but they gladden the eye at +every step. In the regions of the equator, on the other hand, whether it +be forest or savannah, a sombre green clothes universal nature. You may +journey for hours, and even for days, and meet with nothing to break the +monotony. Flowers are everywhere rare, and anything at all striking is +only to be met with at very distant intervals. + +The idea that nature exhibits gay colours in the tropics, and that the +general aspect of nature is there more bright and varied in hue than +with us, has even been made the foundation of theories of art, and we +have been forbidden to use bright colours in our garments, and in the +decorations of our dwellings, because it was supposed that we should be +thereby acting in opposition to the teachings of nature. The argument +itself is a very poor one, since it might with equal justice be +maintained, that as we possess faculties for the appreciation of +colours, we should make up for the deficiencies of nature and use the +gayest tints in those regions where the landscape is most monotonous. +But the assumption on which the argument is founded is totally false, +so that even if the reasoning were valid, we need not be afraid of +outraging nature, by decorating our houses and our persons with +all those gay hues which are so lavishly spread over our fields and +mountains, our hedges, woods, and meadows. + +It is very easy to see what has led to this erroneous view of the nature +of tropical vegetation. In our hothouses and at our flower-shows we +gather together the finest flowering plants from the most distant +regions of the earth, and exhibit them in a proximity to each other +which never occurs in nature. A hundred distinct plants, all with +bright, or strange, or gorgeous flowers, make a wonderful show when +brought together; but perhaps no two of these plants could ever be seen +together in a state of nature, each inhabiting a distant region or a +different station. Again, all moderately warm extra-European countries +are mixed up with the tropics in general estimation, and a vague idea +is formed that whatever is preeminently beautiful must come from +the hottest parts of the earth. But the fact is quite the contrary. +Rhododendrons and azaleas are plants of temperate regions, the grandest +lilies are from temperate Japan, and a large proportion of our most +showy flowering plants are natives of the Himalayas, of the Cape, of the +United States, of Chili, or of China and Japan, all temperate regions. +True, there are a great number of grand and gorgeous flowers in the +tropics, but the proportion they bear to the mass of the vegetation is +exceedingly small; so that what appears an anomaly is nevertheless a +fact, and the effect of flowers on the general aspect of nature is far +less in the equatorial than in the temperate regions of the earth. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. NEW GUINEA.--DOREY. + +(MARCH TO JULY 1858.) + +AFTER my return from Gilolo to Ternate, in March 1858, I made +arrangements for my long-wished-for voyage to the mainland of New +Guinea, where I anticipated that my collections would surpass those +which I had formed at the Aru Islands. The poverty of Ternate in +articles used by Europeans was shown, by my searching in vain +through all the stores for such common things as flour, metal spoons, +wide-mouthed phials, beeswax, a penknife, and a stone or metal pestle +and mortar. I took with me four servants: my head man Ali, and a Ternate +lad named Jumaat (Friday), to shoot; Lahagi, a steady middle-aged man, +to cut timber and assist me in insect-collecting; and Loisa, a Javanese +cook. As I knew I should have to build a house at Dorey, where I was +going, I took with me eighty cadjans, or waterproof mats, made of +pandanus leaves, to cover over my baggage on first landing, and to help +to roof my house afterwards. + +We started on the 25th of March in the schooner Hester Helena, belonging +to my friend Mr. Duivenboden, and bound on a trading voyage along the +north coast of New Guinea. Having calms and light airs, we were three +days reaching Gane, near the south end of Gilolo, where we stayed to +fill up our water-casks and buy a few provisions. We obtained fowls, +eggs, sago, plantains, sweet potatoes, yellow pumpkins, chilies, fish, +and dried deer's meat; and on the afternoon of the 29th proceeded on our +voyage to Dorey harbour. We found it, however, by no means easy to get +along; for so near to the equator the monsoons entirely fail of their +regularity, and after passing the southern point of Gilolo we had calms, +light puffs of wind, and contrary currents, which kept us for five days +in sight of the same islands between it and Poppa. A squall them +brought us on to the entrance of Dampier's Straits, where we were again +becalmed, and were three more days creeping through them. Several native +canoes now came off to us from Waigiou on one side, and Batanta on the +other, bringing a few common shells, palm-leaf mats, cocoa-nuts, and +pumpkins. They were very extravagant in their demands, being accustomed +to sell their trifles to whalers and China ships, whose crews will +purchase anything at ten times its value. My only purchases were a float +belonging to a turtle-spear, carved to resemble a bird, and a very well +made palm-leaf box, for which articles I gave a copper ring and a yard +of calico. The canoes were very narrow and furnished with an outrigger, +and in some of them there was only one man, who seemed to think nothing +of coming out alone eight or ten miles from shore. The people were +Papuans, much resembling the natives of Aru. + +When we had got out of the Straits, and were fairly in the great Pacific +Ocean, we had a steady wind for the first time since leaving Ternate, +but unfortunately it was dead ahead, and we had to beat against it, +tacking on and off the coast of New Guinea. I looked with intense +interest on those rugged mountains, retreating ridge behind ridge into +the interior, where the foot of civilized man had never trod. There +was the country of the cassowary and the tree-kangaroo, and those dark +forests produced the most extraordinary and the most beautiful of the +feathered inhabitants of the earth--the varied species of Birds of +Paradise. A few days more and I hoped to be in pursuit of these, and of +the scarcely less beautiful insects which accompany them. We had still, +however, for several days only calms and light head-winds, and it was +not till the 10th of April that a fine westerly breeze set in, followed +by a squally night, which kept us off the entrance of Dorey harbour. +The next morning we entered, and came to anchor off the small island +of Mansinam, on which dwelt two German missionaries, Messrs. Otto and +Geisler. The former immediately came on board to give us welcome, +and invited us to go on shore and breakfast with him. We were then +introduced to his companion who was suffering dreadfully from an abscess +on the heel, which had confined him to the house for six months--and +to his wife, a young German woman, who had been out only three months. +Unfortunately she could speak no Malay or English, and had to guess at +our compliments on her excellent breakfast by the justice we did to it. + +These missionaries were working men, and had been sent out, as being +more useful among savages than persons of a higher class. They had +been here about two years, and Mr. Otto had already learnt to speak the +Papuan language with fluency, and had begun translating some portions of +the Bible. The language, however, is so poor that a considerable number +of Malay words have to be used; and it is very questionable whether it +is possible to convey any idea of such a book, to a people in so low a +state of civilization. The only nominal converts yet made are a few of +the women; and some few of the children attend school, and are being +taught to read, but they make little progress. There is one feature of +this mission which I believe will materially interfere with its moral +effect. The missionaries are allowed to trade to eke out the very small +salaries granted them from Europe, and of course are obliged to carry +out the trade principle of buying cheap and selling dear, in order to +make a profit. Like all savages the natives are quite careless of the +future, and when their small rice crops are gathered they bring a large +portion of it to the missionaries, and sell it for knives, beads, axes, +tobacco, or any other articles they may require. A few months later, in +the wet season, when food is scarce, they come to buy it back again, and +give in exchange tortoiseshell, tripang, wild nutmegs, or other produce. +Of course the rice is sold at a much higher rate than it was bought, as +is perfectly fair and just--and the operation is on the whole thoroughly +beneficial to the natives, who would otherwise consume and waste their +food when it was abundant, and then starve--yet I cannot imagine that +the natives see it in this light. They must look upon the trading +missionaries with some suspicion, and cannot feel so sure of their +teachings being disinterested, as would be the case if they acted like +the Jesuits in Singapore. The first thing to be done by the missionary +in attempting to improve savages, is to convince them by his actions +that lie comes among them for their benefit only, and not for any +private ends of his own. To do this he must act in a different way from +other men, not trading and taking advantage of the necessities of those +who want to sell, but rather giving to those who are in distress. It +would be well if he conformed himself in some degree to native customs, +and then endeavoured to show how these customs might be gradually +modified, so as to be more healthful and more agreeable. A few energetic +and devoted men acting in this way might probably effect a decided moral +improvement on the lowest savage tribes, whereas trading missionaries, +teaching what Jesus said, but not doing as He did, can scarcely be +expected to do more than give them a very little of the superficial +varnish of religion. + +Dorey harbour is in a fine bay, at one extremity of which an elevated +point juts out, and, with two or three small islands, forms a sheltered +anchorage. The only vessel it contained when we arrived was a Dutch +brig, laden with coals for the use of a war-steamer, which was expected +daily, on an exploring expedition along the coasts of New Guinea, for +the purpose of fixing on a locality for a colony. In the evening we paid +it a visit, and landed at the village of Dorey, to look out for a place +where I could build my house. Mr. Otto also made arrangements for me +with some of the native chiefs, to send men to cut wood, rattans, and +bamboo the next day. + +The villages of Mansinam and Dorey presented some features quite new +to me. The houses all stand completely in the water, and are reached by +long rude bridges. They are very low, with the roof shaped like a large +boat, bottom upwards. The posts which support the houses, bridges, and +platforms are small crooked sticks, placed without any regularity, and +looking as if they were tumbling down. The floors are also formed of +sticks, equally irregular, and so loose and far apart that I found it +almost impossible to walls on them. The walls consist of bits of boards, +old boats, rotten mats, attaps, and palm-leaves, stuck in anyhow here +and there, and having altogether the most wretched and dilapidated +appearance it is possible to conceive. Under the eaves of many of the +houses hang human skulls, the trophies of their battles with the +savage Arfaks of the interior, who often come to attack them. A large +boat-shaped council-house is supported on larger posts, each of which +is grossly carved to represent a naked male or female human figure, and +other carvings still more revolting are placed upon the platform before +the entrance. The view of an ancient lake-dweller's village, given as +the frontispiece of Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man," is chiefly +founded on a sketch of this very village of Dorey; but the extreme +regularity of the structures there depicted has no place in the +original, any more than it probably had in the actual lake-villages. + +The people who inhabit these miserable huts are very similar to the Ke +and Aru islanders, and many of them are very handsome, being tall and +well-made, with well-cut features and large aquiline noses. Their +colour is a deep brown, often approaching closely to black, and the fine +mop-like heads of frizzly hair appear to be more common than elsewhere, +and are considered a great ornament, a long six-pronged bamboo fork +being kept stuck in them to serve the purpose of a comb; and this is +assiduously used at idle moments to keep the densely growing mass from +becoming matted and tangled. The majority have short woolly hair, which +does not seem capable of an equally luxuriant development. A growth of +hair somewhat similar to this, and almost as abundant, is found among +the half-breeds between the Indian and Negro in South America. Can this +be an indication that the Papuans are a mixed race? + +For the first three days after our arrival I was fully occupied from +morning to night building a house, with the assistance of a dozen +Papuans and my own men. It was immense trouble to get our labourers to +work, as scarcely one of them could speak a word of Malay; and it was +only by the most energetic gesticulations, and going through a regular +pantomime of what was wanted, that we could get them to do anything. If +we made them understand that a few more poles were required, which two +could have easily cut, six or eight would insist upon going together, +although we needed their assistance in other things. One morning ten of +them came to work, bringing only one chopper between them, although they +knew I had none ready for use. + +I chose a place about two hundred yards from the beach, on an elevated +ground, by the side of the chief path from the village of Dorey to +the provision-grounds and the forest. Within twenty yards was a little +stream; which furnished us with excellent water and a nice place to +bathe. There was only low underwood to clear away, while some fine +forest trees stood at a short distance, and we cut down the wood for +about twenty yards round to give us light and air. The house, about +twenty feet by fifteen; was built entirely of wood, with a bamboo floor, +a single door of thatch, and a large window, looking over the sea, at +which I fixed my table, and close beside it my bed, within a little +partition. I bought a number of very large palm-leaf mats of the +natives, which made excellent walls; while the mats I had brought myself +were used on the roof, and were covered over with attaps as soon as we +could get them made. Outside, and rather behind, was a little hut, used +for cooking, and a bench, roofed over, where my men could sit to skin +birds and animals. When all was finished, I had my goods and stores +brought up, arranged them conveniently inside, and then paid my Papuans +with knives and choppers, and sent them away. The next day our schooner +left for the more eastern islands, and I found myself fairly established +as the only European inhabitant of the vast island of New Guinea. + +As we had some doubt about the natives, we slept at first with loaded +guns beside us and a watch set; but after a few days, finding the people +friendly, and feeling sure that they would not venture to attack five +well-armed men, we took no further precautions. We had still a day or +two's work in finishing up the house, stopping leaks, putting up our +hanging shelves for drying specimens inside and out, and making the path +down to the water, and a clear dry space in front of the horse. + +On the 17th, the steamer not having arrived, the coal-ship left, having +lain here a month, according to her contract; and on the same day +my hunters went out to shoot for the first time, and brought home a +magnificent crown pigeon and a few common birds. The next day they were +more successful, and I was delighted to see them return with a Bird +of Paradise in full plumage, a pair of the fine Papuan lories (Lorius +domicella), four other lories and parroquets, a grackle (Gracula +dumonti), a king-hunter (Dacelo gaudichaudi), a racquet-tailed +kingfisher (Tanysiptera galatea), and two or three other birds of less +beauty. + +I went myself to visit the native village on the hill behind Dorey, and +took with me a small present of cloth, knives, and beads, to secure the +good-will of the chief, and get him to send some men to catch or shoot +birds for me. The houses were scattered about among rudely cultivated +clearings. Two which I visited consisted of a central passage, on each +side of which opened short passages, admitting to two rooms, each of +which was a house accommodating a separate family. They were elevated at +least fifteen feet above the ground, on a complete forest of poles, +and were so rude and dilapidated that some of the small passages had +openings in the floor of loose sticks, through which a child might fall. +The inhabitants seemed rather uglier than those at Dorey village. They +are, no doubt, the true indigenes of this part of New Guinea, living in +the interior, and subsisting by cultivation and hunting. The Dorey men, +on the other hand, are shore-dwellers, fishers and traders in a small +way, and have thus the character of a colony who have migrated from +another district. These hillmen or "Arfaks" differed much in physical +features. They were generally black, but some were brown like Malays. +Their hair, though always more or less frizzly, was sometimes short and +matted, instead of being long, loose, and woolly; and this seemed to +be a constitutional difference, not the effect of care and cultivation. +Nearly half of them were afflicted with the scurfy skin-disease. The +old chief seemed much pleased with his present, and promised (through +an interpreter I brought with me) to protect my men when they came +there shooting, and also to procure me some birds and animals. While +conversing, they smoked tobacco of their own growing, in pipes cut from +a single piece of wood with a long upright handle. + +We had arrived at Dorey about the end of the wet season, when the whole +country was soaked with moisture The native paths were so neglected as +to be often mere tunnels closed over with vegetation, and in such places +there was always a fearful accumulation of mud. To the naked Papuan this +is no obstruction. He wades through it, and the next watercourse makes +him clean again; but to myself, wearing boots and trousers, it was a +most disagreeable thing to have to go up to my knees in a mud-hole every +morning. The man I brought with me to cut wood fell ill soon after +we arrived, or I would have set him to clear fresh paths in the worst +places. For the first ten days it generally rained every afternoon and +all night r but by going out every hour of fine weather, I managed to +get on tolerably with my collections of birds and insects, finding most +of those collected by Lesson during his visit in the Coquille, as well +as many new ones. It appears, however, that Dorey is not the place for +Birds of Paradise, none of the natives being accustomed to preserve +them. Those sold here are all brought from Amberbaki, about a hundred +miles west, where the Doreyans go to trade. + +The islands in the bay, with the low lands near the coast, seem to have +been formed by recently raised coral reef's, and are much strewn with +masses of coral but little altered. The ridge behind my house, which +runs out to the point, is also entirely coral rock, although there are +signs of a stratified foundation in the ravines, and the rock itself is +more compact and crystalline. It is therefore, probably older, a more +recent elevation having exposed the low grounds and islands. On the +other side of the bay rise the great mass of the Arfak mountains, +said by the French navigators to be about ten thousand feet high, and +inhabited by savage tribes. These are held in great dread by the Dorey +people, who have often been attacked and plundered by them, and have +some of their skulls hanging outside their houses. If I was seem going +into the forest anywhere in the direction of the mountains, the little +boys of the village would shout after me, "Arfaki! Arfaki?" just as they +did after Lesson nearly forty years before. + +On the 15th of May the Dutch war-steamer Etna arrived; but, as the coals +had gone, it was obliged to stay till they came back. The captain knew +when the coalship was to arrive, and how long it was chartered to stay +at Dorey, and could have been back in time, but supposed it would wait +for him, and so did not hurry himself. The steamer lay at anchor just +opposite my house, and I had the advantage of hearing the half-hourly +bells struck, which was very pleasant after the monotonous silence +of the forest. The captain, doctor, engineer, and some other of the +officers paid me visits; the servants came to the brook to wash clothes, +and the son of the Prince of Tidore, with one or two companions, to +bathe; otherwise I saw little of them, and was not disturbed by visitors +so much as I had expected to be. About this time the weather set in +pretty fine, but neither birds nor insects became much more abundant, +and new birds-were very scarce. None of the Birds of Paradise except the +common one were ever met with, and we were still searching in vain for +several of the fine birds which Lesson had obtained here. Insects were +tolerably abundant, but were not on the average so fine as those of +Amboyna, and I reluctantly came to the conclusion that Dorey was not a +good collecting locality. Butterflies were very scarce, and were mostly +the same as those which I had obtained at Aru. + +Among the insects of other orders, the most curious and novel were +a group of horned flies, of which I obtained four distinct species, +settling on fallen trees and decaying trunks. These remarkable insects, +which have been described by Mr. W. W. Saunders as a new genus, under +the name of Elaphomia or deer-flies, are about half an inch long, +slender-bodied, and with very long legs, which they draw together so as +to elevate their bodies high above the surface they are standing upon. +The front pair of legs are much shorter, and these are often stretched +directly forwards, so as to resemble antenna. The horns spring from +beneath the eye, and seem to be a prolongation of the lower part of +the orbit. In the largest and most singular species, named Elaphomia +cervicornis or the stag-horned deer-fly, these horns are nearly as +long as the body, having two branches, with two small snags near their +bifurcation, so as to resemble the horns of a stag. They are black, with +the tips pale, while the body and legs are yellowish brown, and the eyes +(when alive) violet and green. The next species (Elaphomia wallacei) is +of a dark brown colour, banded and spotted with yellow. The horns +are about one-third the length of the insect, broad, flat, and of an +elongated triangular foam. They are of a beautiful pink colour, edged +with black, and with a pale central stripe. The front part of the head +is also pink, and the eyes violet pink, with a green stripe across them, +giving the insect a very elegant and singular appearance. The third +species (Elaphomia alcicornis, the elk-horned deer-fly) is a little +smaller than the two already described, but resembling in colour +Elaphomia wallacei. The horns are very remarkable, being suddenly +dilated into a flat plate, strongly toothed round the outer margin, +and strikingly resembling the horns of the elk, after which it has been +named. They are of a yellowish colour, margined with brown, and tipped +with black on the three upper teeth. The fourth species (Elaphomia +brevicornis, the short-horned deer-fly) differs considerably from the +rest. It is stouter in form, of a nearly black colour, with a yellow +ring at the base of the abdomen; the wings have dusky stripes, and the +head is compressed and dilated laterally, with very small flat horns; +which are black with a pale centre, and look exactly like the rudiment +of the horns of the two preceding species. None of the females have any +trace of the horns, and Mr. Saunders places in the same genus a species +which has no horns in either sex (Elaphomia polita). It is of a shining +black colour, and resembles Elaphomia cervicornis in form, size, and +general appearance. The figures above given represent these insects of +their natural size and in characteristic attitudes. + +The natives seldom brought me anything. They are poor creatures, and, +rarely shoot a bird, pig, or kangaroo, or even the sluggish opossum-like +Cuscus. The tree-kangaroos are found here, but must be very scarce, +as my hunters, although out daily in the forest, never once saw them. +Cockatoos, lories, and parroquets were really the only common +birds. Even pigeons were scarce, and in little variety, although we +occasionally got the fine crown pigeon, which was always welcome as an +addition to our scantily furnished larder. + +Just before the steamer arrived I had wounded my ankle by clambering +among the trunks and branches of fallen trees (which formed my best +hunting grounds for insects), and, as usual with foot wounds in this +climate, it turned into an obstinate ulcer, keeping me in the house +for several days. When it healed up it was followed by an internal +inflammation of the foot, which by the doctor's advice I poulticed +incessantly for four or five days, bringing out a severe inflamed +swelling on the tendon above the heel. This had to be leeched, and +lanced, and doctored with ointments and poultices for several weeks, +till I was almost driven to despair,--for the weather was at length +fine, and I was tantalized by seeing grand butterflies flying past my +door, and thinking of the twenty or thirty new species of insects that +I ought to be getting every day. And this, too, in New Guinea--a country +which I might never visit again,--a country which no naturalist had ever +resided in before,--a country which contained more strange and new +and beautiful natural objects than any other part of the globe. The +naturalist will be able to appreciate my feelings, sitting from morning +to night in my little hut, unable to move without a crutch, and my only +solace the birds my hunters brought in every afternoon, and the few +insects caught by my Ternate man, Lahagi, who now went out daily in my +place, but who of course did not get a fourth part of what I should have +obtained. To add to my troubles all my men were more or less ill, some +with fever, others with dysentery or ague; at one time there were three +of them besides myself all helpless, the coon alone being well, and +having enough to do to wait upon us. The Prince of Tidore and the +Resident of Panda were both on board the steamer, and were seeking Birds +of Paradise, sending men round in every direction, so that there was +no chance of my getting even native skins of the rarer kinds; and any +birds, insects, or animals the Dorey people had to sell were taken on +board the steamer, where purchasers were found for everything, and where +a larger variety of articles were offered in exchange than I had to +show. + +After a month's close confinement in the house I was at length able to +go out a little, and about the same time I succeeded in getting a boat +and six natives to take Ali and Lahagi to Amberbaki, and to bring them +back at the end of a month. Ali was charged to buy all the Birds of +Paradise he could get, and to shoot and skin all other rare or new +birds; and Lahagi was to collect insects, which I hoped might be more +abundant than at Dorey. When I recommenced my daily walks in search +of insects, I found a great change in the neighbourhood, and one very +agreeable to me. All the time I had been laid up the ship's crew and the +Javanese soldiers who had been brought in a tender (a sailing ship +which had arrived soon after the Etna), had been employed cutting down, +sawing, and splitting large trees for firewood, to enable the steamer to +get back to Amboyna if the coal-ship did not return; and they had also +cleared a number of wide, straight paths through the forest in various +directions, greatly to the astonishment of the natives, who could not +make out what it all meant. I had now a variety of walks, and a good +deal of dead wood on which to search for insects; but notwithstanding +these advantages, they were not nearly so plentiful as I had found them +at Sarawak, or Amboyna, or Batchian, confirming my opinion that Dorey +was not a good locality. It is quite probable, however, that at a +station a few miles in the interior, away from the recently elevated +coralline rocks and the influence of the sea air, a much more abundant +harvest might be obtained. + +One afternoon I went on board the steamer to return the captain's visit, +and was shown some very nice sketches (by one of the lieutenants), made +on the south coast, and also at the Arfak mountain, to which they had +made an excursion. From these and the captain's description, it appeared +that the people of Arfak were similar to those of Dorey, and I could +hear nothing of the straight-haired race which Lesson says inhabits the +interior, but which no one has ever seen, and the account of which I +suspect has originated in some mistake. The captain told me he had made +a detailed survey of part of the south coast, and if the coal arrived +should go away at once to Humboldt Pay, in longitude 141° east, which is +the line up to which the Dutch claim New Guinea. On board the tender +I found a brother naturalist, a German named Rosenberg, who was +draughtsman to the surveying staff. He had brought two men with him to +shoot and skin birds, and had been able to purchase a few rare skins +from the natives. Among these was a pair of the superb Paradise Pie +(Astrapia nigra) in tolerable preservation. They were brought from the +island of Jobie, which may be its native country, as it certainly is +of the rarer species of crown pigeon (Goura steursii), one of which was +brought alive and sold on board. Jobie, however, is a very dangerous +place, and sailors are often murdered there when on shore; sometimes the +vessels themselves being attacked. Wandammen, on the mainland opposite +Jobie, inhere there are said to be plenty of birds, is even worse, and +at either of these places my life would not have been worth a week's +purchase had I ventured to live alone and unprotected as at Dorey. On +board the steamer they had a pair of tree kangaroos alive. They differ +chiefly from the ground-kangaroo in having a more hairy tail, not +thickened at the base, and not used as a prop; and by the powerful claws +on the fore-feet, by which they grasp the bark and branches, and seize +the leaves on which they feed. They move along by short jumps on their +hind-feet, which do not seem particularly well adapted for climbing +trees. It has been supposed that these tree-kangaroos are a special +adaptation to the swampy, half-drowned forests of, New Guinea, in place +of the usual form of the group, which is adapted only to dry ground. Mr. +Windsor Earl makes much of this theory, but, unfortunately for it, +the tree-kangaroos are chiefly found in the northern peninsula of New +Guinea, which is entirely composed of hills and mountains with very +little flat land, while the kangaroo of the low flat Aru Islands +(Dorcopsis asiaticus) is a ground species. A more probable supposition +seems to lie, that the tree-kangaroo has been modified to enable it to +feed on foliage in the vast forests of New Guinea, as these form the +great natural feature which distinguishes that country from Australia. + +On June 5th, the coal-ship arrived, having been sent back from Amboyna, +with the addition of some fresh stores for the steamer. The wood, which +had been almost all taken on board, was now unladen again, the coal +taken in, and on the 17th both steamer and tender left for Humboldt Bay. +We were then a little quiet again, and got something to eat; for while +the vessels were here every bit of fish or vegetable was taken on board, +and I had often to make a small parroquet serve for two meals. My men +now returned from Amberbaki, but, alas brought me almost nothing. They +had visited several villages, and even went two days' journey into the +interior, but could find no skins of Birds of Paradise to purchase, +except the common kind, and very few even of those. The birds found +were the same as at Dorey, but were still scarcer. None of the natives +anywhere near the coast shoot or prepare Birds of Paradise, which come +from far in the interior over two or three ranges of mountains, passing +by barter from village to village till they reach the sea. There the +natives of Dorey buy them, and on their return home sell them to the +Bugis or Ternate traders. It is therefore hopeless for a traveller to go +to any particular place on the coast of New Guinea where rare Paradise +birds may have been bought, in hopes of obtaining freshly killed +specimens from the natives; and it also shows the scarcity of these +birds in any one locality, since from the Amberbaki district, a +celebrated place, where at least five or six species have been procured, +not one of the rarer ones has been obtained this year. The Prince of +Tidore, who would certainly have got them if any were to be had, was +obliged to put up with a few of the common yellow ones. I think it +probable that a longer residence at Dorey, a little farther in the +interior, might show that several of the rarer kinds were found there, +as I obtained a single female of the fine scale-breasted Ptiloris +magnificus. I was told at Ternate of a bird that is certainly not yet +known in Europe, a black King Paradise Bird, with the curled tail and +beautiful side plumes of the common species, but all the rest of the +plumage glossy black. The people of Dorey knew nothing about this, +although they recognised by description most of the otter species. + +When the steamer left, I was suffering from a severe attack of fever. In +about a week I got over this, but it was followed by such a soreness of +the whole inside of the mouth, tongue, and gums, that for many days +I could put nothing solid between my lips, but was obliged to subsist +entirely on slops, although in other respects very well. At the same +time two of my men again fell ill, one with fever, the other with +dysentery, and both got very bad. I did what I could for them with my +small stock of medicines, but they lingered on for some weeks, till +on June 26th poor Jumaat died. He was about eighteen years of age, a +native, I believe, of Bouton, and a quiet lad, not very active, but +doing his work pretty steadily, and as well as he was able. As my men +were all Mahometans, I let them bury him in their own fashion, giving +them some new cotton cloth for a shroud. + +On July 6th the steamer returned from the eastward. The weather was +still terribly wet, when, according to rule, it should have been fine +and dry. We had scarcely anything to eat, and were all of us ill. +Fevers, colds, and dysentery were continually attacking us, and made me +long I-o get away from New Guinea, as much as ever I had longed to +come there. The captain of the Etna paid me a visit, and gave me a very +interesting account of his trip. They had stayed at Humboldt Bay several +days, and found it a much more beautiful and more interesting place +than Dorey, as well as a better harbour. The natives were quite +unsophisticated, being rarely visited except by stray whalers, and they +were superior to the Dorey people, morally and physically. They went +quite naked. Their houses were some in the water and some inland, and +were all neatly and well built; their fields were well cultivated, +and the paths to them kept clear and open, in which respects Dorey is +abominable. They were shy at first, and opposed the boats with hostile +demonstrations, beading their bows, and intimating that they would shoot +if an attempt was made to land. Very judiciously the captain gave way, +but threw on shore a few presents, and after two or three trials they +were permitted to land, and to go about and see the country, and were +supplied with fruits and vegetables. All communication was carried on +with them by signs--the Dorey interpreter, who accompanied the steamer, +being unable to understand a word of their language. No new birds or +animals were obtained, but in their ornaments the feathers of Paradise +birds were seen, showing, as might be expected, that these birds range +far in this direction, and probably all over New Guinea. + +It is curious that a rudimental love of art should co-exist with such +a very low state of civilization. The people of Dorey are great carvers +and painters. The outsides of the houses, wherever there is a plank, are +covered with rude yet characteristic figures. The high-peaked prows of +their boats are ornamented with masses of open filagree work, cut out +of solid blocks of wood, and often of very tasteful design, As a +figurehead, or pinnacle, there is often a human figure, with a head +of cassowary feathers to imitate the Papuan "mop." The floats of their +fishing-lines, the wooden beaters used in tempering the clay for their +pottery, their tobacco-boxes, and other household articles, are covered +with carving of tasteful and often elegant design. Did we not already +know that such taste and skill are compatible with utter barbarism, we +could hardly believe that the same people are, in other matters, utterly +wanting in all sense of order, comfort, or decency. Yet such is the +case. They live in the most miserable, crazy, and filthy hovels, which +are utterly destitute of anything that can be called furniture; not a +stool, or bench, or board is seen in them, no brush seems to be known, +and the clothes they wear are often filthy bark, or rags, or sacking. +Along the paths where they daily pass to and from their provision +grounds, not an overhanging bough or straggling briar ever seems to be +cut, so that you have to brush through a rank vegetation, creep under +fallen trees and spiny creepers, and wade through pools of mud and mire, +which cannot dry up because the sun is not allowed to penetrate. Their +food is almost wholly roots and vegetables, with fish or game only as +an occasional luxury, and they are consequently very subject to various +skin diseases, the children especially being often miserable-looking +objects, blotched all over with eruptions and sores. If these people are +not savages, where shall we find any? Yet they have all a decided love +for the fine arts, and spend their leisure time in executing works whose +good taste and elegance would often be admired in our schools of design! + +During the latter part of my stay in New Guinea the weather was very +wet, my only shooter was ill, and birds became scarce, so that my only +resource was insect-hunting. I worked very hard every hour of fine +weather, and daily obtained a number of new species. Every dead tree +and fallen log was searched and searched again; and among the dry and +rotting leaves, which still hung on certain trees which had been cut +down, I found an abundant harvest of minute Coleoptera. Although I never +afterwards found so many large and handsome beetles as in Borneo, yet +I obtained here a great variety of species. For the first two or three +weeks, while I was searching out the best localities, I took about 30 +different kinds of beetles n day, besides about half that number of +butterflies, and a few of the other orders. But afterwards, up to the +very last week, I averaged 49 species a day. On the 31st of May, I took +78 distinct sorts, a larger number than I had ever captured before, +principally obtained among dead trees and under rotten bark. A good long +walk on a fine day up the hill, and to the plantations of the natives, +capturing everything not very common that came in my way, would produce +about 60 species; but on the last day of June I brought home no less +than 95 distinct kinds of beetles, a larger number than I ever obtained +in one day before or since. It was a fine hot day, and I devoted it to +a search among dead leaves, beating foliage, and hunting under rotten +bark, in all the best stations I had discovered during my walks. I was +out from ten in the morning till three in the afternoon, and it took +me six hours' work at home to pin and set out all the specimens, and +to separate the species. Although T had already been working this shot +daily for two months and a half, and had obtained over 800 species +of Coleoptera, this day's work added 32 new ones. Among these were 4 +Longicorns, 2 Caribidae, 7 Staphylinidae, 7 Curculionidae, 2 Copridae, 4 +Chrysomelidae, 3 Heteromera, 1 Elates, and 1 Buprestis. Even on the last +day I went out, I obtained 10 new species; so that although I collected +over a thousand distinct sorts of beetles in a space not much exceeding +a square mile during the three months of my residence at Dorey, I cannot +believe that this represents one half the species really inhabiting the +same spot, or a fourth of what might be obtained in an area extending +twenty miles in each direction. + +On the 22d of July the schooner Hester Helena arrived, and five days +afterwards we bade adieu to Dorey, without much regret, for in no place +which I have visited have I encountered more privations and annoyances. +Continual rain, continual sickness, little wholesome food, with a plague +of ants and files, surpassing anything I had before met with, required +all a naturalist's ardour to encounter; and when they were uncompensated +by great success in collecting, became all the more insupportable. This +long thought-of and much-desired voyage to New Guinea had realized none +of my expectations. Instead of being far better than the Aru Islands, it +was in almost everything much worse. Instead of producing several of +the rarer Paradise birds, I had not even seen one of them, and had +not obtained any one superlatively fine bird or insect. I cannot deny, +however, that Dorey was very rich in ants. One small black kind was +excessively abundant. Almost every shrub and tree was more or less +infested with it, and its large papery nests were everywhere to be seen. +They immediately took possession of my house, building a large nest +in the roof, and forming papery tunnels down almost every post. They +swarmed on my table as I was at work setting out my insects, carrying +them off from under my very nose, and even tearing them from the cards +on which they were gummed if I left them for an instant. They crawled +continually over my hands and face, got into my hair, and roamed at will +over my whole body, not producing much inconvenience till they began +to bite, which they would do on meeting with any obstruction to their +passage, and with a sharpness which made me jump again and rush to +undress and turn out the offender. They visited my bed also, so that +night brought no relief from their persecutions; and I verily believe +that during my three and a half months' residence at Dorey I was never +for a single hour entirely free from them. They were not nearly so +voracious as many other kinds, but their numbers and ubiquity rendered +it necessary to be constantly on guard against them. + +The flies that troubled me most were a large kind of blue-bottle or +blow-fly. These settled in swarms on my bird skins when first put out to +dry, filling their plumage with masses of eggs, which, if neglected, the +next day produced maggots. They would get under the wings or under the +body where it rested on the drying-board, sometimes actually raising it +up half an inch by the mass of eggs deposited in a few hours; and every +egg was so firmly glued to the fibres of the feathers, as to make it +a work of much time and patience to get them off without injuring the +bird. In no other locality have I ever been troubled with such a plague +as this. + +On the 29th we left Dorey, and expected a quick voyage home, as it was +the time of year when we ought to have had steady southerly and easterly +winds. Instead of these, however, we had calms and westerly breezes, +and it was seventeen days before we reached Ternate, a distance of five +hundred miles only, which, with average winds, could have been done in +five days. It was a great treat to me to find myself back again in my +comfortable house, enjoying milk to my tea and coffee, fresh bread and +butter, and fowl and fish daily for dinner. This New Guinea voyage had +used us all up, and I determined to stay and recruit before I commenced +any fresh expeditions. My succeeding journeys to Gilolo and Batchian +have already been narrated, and if; now only remains for me to give an +account of my residence in Waigiou, the last Papuan territory I visited +in search of Birds of Paradise. + + + +CHAPTER XXXV. VOYAGE FROM CERAM TO WAIGIOU. + +(JUNE AND JULY 1860.) + +IN my twenty-fifth chapter I have described my arrival at Wahai, on my +way to Mysol and Waigiou, islands which belong to the Papuan district, +and the account of which naturally follows after that of my visit to the +mainland of New Guinea. I now take up my narrative at my departure from +Wahai, with the intention of carrying various necessary stores to my +assistant, Mr. Allen, at Silinta, in Mysol, and then continuing my +journey to Waigiou. It will be remembered that I was travelling in a +small prau, which I had purchased and fitted up in Goram, and that, +having been deserted by my crew on the coast of Ceram, I had obtained +four men at Wahai, who, with my Amboynese hunter, constituted my crew. + +Between Ceram and Mysol there are sixty miles of open sea, and along +this wide channel the east monsoon blows strongly; so that with native +praus, which will not lay up to the wind, it requires some care in +crossing. In order to give ourselves sufficient leeway, we sailed back +from Wahai eastward, along the coast of Ceram, with the land-breeze; but +in the morning (June 18th) had not gone nearly so far as I expected. +My pilot, an old and experienced sailor, named Gurulampoko, assured me +there was a current setting to the eastward, and that we could easily +lay across to Silinta, in Mysol. As we got out from the land the wind +increased, and there was a considerable sea, which made my short little +vessel plunge and roll about violently. By sunset we had not got +halfway across, but could see Mysol distinctly. All night we went along +uneasily, and at daybreak, on looking out anxiously, I found that we had +fallen much to the westward during the night, owing, no doubt, to the +pilot being sleepy and not keeping the boat sufficiently close to the +wind. We could see the mountains distinctly, but it was clear we should +not reach Silinta, and should have some difficulty in getting to the +extreme westward point of the island. The sea was now very boisterous, +and our prau was continually beaten to leeward by the waves, and after +another weary day we found w e could not get to Mysol at all, but might +perhaps reach the island called Pulo Kanary, about ten miles to the +north-west. Thence we might await a favourable wind to reach Waigamma, +on the north side of the island, and visit Allen by means of a small +boat. + +About nine o'clock at night, greatly to my satisfaction, we got under +the lea of this island, into quite smooth water--for I had been very +sick and uncomfortable, and had eaten scarcely anything since the +preceding morning. We were slowly nearing the shore, which the smooth +dark water told us we could safely approach; and were congratulating +ourselves on soon being at anchor, with the prospect of hot coffee, a +good supper, and a sound sleep, when the wind completely dropped, and we +had to get out the oars to row. We were not more than two hundred yards +from the shore, when I noticed that we seemed to get no nearer although +the men were rowing hard, but drifted to the westward, and the prau +would not obey the helm, but continually fell off, and gave us much +trouble to bring her up again. Soon a laud ripple of water told us we +were seized by one of those treacherous currents which so frequently +frustrate all the efforts of the voyager in these seas; the men threw +down the oars in despair, and in a few minutes we drifted to leeward +of the island fairly out to sea again, and lost our last chance of ever +reaching Mysol! Hoisting our jib, we lay to, and in the morning found +ourselves only a few miles from the island, but wit, such a steady wind +blowing from its direction as to render it impossible for us to get back +to it. + +We now made sail to the northward, hoping soon to get a more southerly +wind. Towards noon the sea was much smoother, and with a S.S.E. wind we +were laying in the direction of Salwatty, which I hoped to reach, as +I could there easily get a boat to take provisions and stores to my +companion in Mysol. This wind did not, however, last long, but died away +into a calm; and a light west wind springing up, with a dark bank of +clouds, again gave us hopes of reaching Mysol. We were soon, however, +again disappointed. The E.S.E. wind began to blow again with violence, +and continued all night in irregular gusts, and with a short cross sea +tossed us about unmercifully, and so continually took our sails aback, +that we were at length forced to run before it with our jib only, to +escape being swamped by our heavy mainsail. After another miserable and +anxious night, we found that we had drifted westward of the island of +Poppa, and the wind being again a little southerly, we made all sail +in order to reach it. This we did not succeed in doing, passing to the +north-west, when the wind again blew hard from the E.S.E., and our last +hope of finding a refuge till better weather was frustrated. This was a +very serious matter to me, as I could not tell how Charles Allen might +act, if, after waiting in vain for me, he should return to Wahai, and +find that I had left there long before, and had not since been heard +of. Such an event as our missing an island forty miles long would hardly +occur to him, and he would conclude either that our boat had foundered, +or that my crew had murdered me and run away with her. However, as it +was physically impossible now for me to reach him, the only thing to be +done was to make the best of my way to Waigiou, and trust to our meeting +some traders, who might convey to him the news of my safety. + +Finding on my map a group of three small islands, twenty-five miles +north of Poppa, I resolved, if possible, to rest there a day or two. We +could lay our boat's head N.E. by N.; but a heavy sea from the eastward +so continually beat us off our course, and we made so much leeway, +that I found it would be as much as we could do to reach them. It was a +delicate point to keep our head in the best direction, neither so close +to the wind as to stop our way, or so free as to carry us too far to +leeward. I continually directed the steersman myself, and by incessant +vigilance succeeded, just at sunset, in bringing our boat to an anchor +under the lee of the southern point of one of the islands. The anchorage +was, however, by no means good, there being a fringing coral reef, dry +at low water, beyond which, on a bottom strewn with masses of coral, we +were obliged to anchor. We had now been incessantly tossing about for +four days in our small undecked boat, with constant disappointments +and anxiety, and it was a great comfort to have a night of quiet and +comparative safety. My old pilot had never left the helm for more than +an hour at a time, when one of the others would relieve him for a little +sleep; so I determined the next morning to look out for a secure and +convenient harbour, and rest on shore for a day. + +In the morning, finding it would be necessary for us to get round a +rocky point, I wanted my men to go on shore and cut jungle-rope, by +which to secure us from being again drafted away, as the wind was +directly off shore. I unfortunately, however, allowed myself to be +overruled by the pilot and crew, who all declared that it was the +easiest thing possible, and that they would row the boat round the point +in a few minutes. They accordingly got up the anchor, set the jib, and +began rowing; but, just as I had feared, we drifted rapidly off shore, +and had to drop anchor again in deeper water, and much farther off. The +two best men, a Papuan and a Malay now swam on shore, each carrying a +hatchet, and went into the jungle to seek creepers for rope. After +about an hour our anchor loosed hold, and began to drag. This alarmed +me greatly, and we let go our spare anchor, and, by running out all our +cable, appeared tolerably secure again. We were now most anxious for the +return of the men, and were going to fire our muskets to recall them, +when we observed them on the beach, some way off, and almost immediately +our anchors again slipped, and we drifted slowly away into deep water. +We instantly seized the oars, but found we could not counteract the wind +and current, and our frantic cries to the men were not heard till we had +got a long way off; as they seemed to be hunting for shell-fish on +the beach. Very soon, however, they stared at us, and in a few minutes +seemed to comprehend their situation; for they rushed down into the +water, as if to swim off, but again returned on shore, as if afraid to +make the attempt. We had drawn up our anchors at first not to check our +rowing; but now, finding we could do nothing, we let them both hang down +by the full length of the cables. This stopped our way very much, and we +drifted from shore very slowly, and hoped the men would hastily form a +raft, or cut down a soft-wood tree, and paddle out, to us, as we were +still not more than a third of a mile from shore. They seemed, however, +to have half lost their senses, gesticulating wildly to us, running +along the beach, then going unto the forest; and just when we thought +they had prepared some mode of making an attempt to reach us, we saw +the smoke of a fire they had made to cook their shell-fish! They had +evidently given up all idea of coming after us, and we were obliged to +look to our own position. + +We were now about a mile from shore, and midway between two of the +islands, but we were slowly drifting out, to sea to the westward, and +our only chance of yet saving the men was to reach the opposite shore. +We therefore sot our jib and rowed hard; but the wind failed, and we +drifted out so rapidly that we had some difficulty in reaching the +extreme westerly point of the island. Our only sailor left, then +swam ashore with a rope, and helped to tow us round the point into a +tolerably safe and secure anchorage, well sheltered from the wind, but +exposed to a little swell which jerked our anchor and made us rather +uneasy. We were now in a sad plight, having lost our two best men, and +being doubtful if we had strength left to hoist our mainsail. We had +only two days' water on board, and the small, rocky, volcanic island +did not promise us much chance of finding any. The conduct of the men on +shore was such as to render it doubtful if they would make any serious +attempt to reach us, though they might easily do so, having two good +choppers, with which in a day they could male a small outrigger raft on +which they could safely cross the two miles of smooth sea with the wind +right aft, if they started from the east end of the island, so as to +allow for the current. I could only hope they would be sensible enough +to make the attempt, and determined to stay as long as I could to give +them the chance. + +We passed an anxious night, fearful of again breaking our anchor or +rattan cable. In the morning (23d), finding all secure, I waded on shore +with my two men, leaving the old steersman and the cook on board, with +a loaded musketto recall us if needed. We first walked along the beach, +till stopped by the vertical cliffs at the east end of the island, +finding a place where meat had been smoked, a turtle-shell still greasy, +and some cut wood, the leaves of which were still green, showing that +some boat had been here very recently. We then entered the jungle, +cutting our way up to the top of the hill, but when we got there could +see nothing, owing to the thickness of the forest. Returning, we cut +some bamboos, and sharpened them to dig for water in a low spot where +some sago-trees were growing; when, just as we were going to begin, Hoi, +the Wahai man, called out to say he had found water. It was a deep hole +among the Sago trees, in stiff black clay, full of water, which was +fresh, but smelt horribly from the quantity of dead leaves and sago +refuse that had fallen in. Hastily concluding that it was a spring, or +that the water had filtered in, we baled it all out as well as a dozen +or twenty buckets of mud and rubbish, hoping by night to have a good +supply of clean water. I then went on board to breakfast, leaving my two +men to make a bamboo raft to carry us on shore and back without wading. +I had scarcely finished when our cable broke, and we bumped against +the rocks. Luckily it was smooth and calm, and no damage was done. We +searched for and got up our anchor, and found teat the cable had been +cut by grating all night upon the coral. Had it given way in the night, +we might have drifted out to sea without our anchor, or been seriously +damaged. In the evening we went to fetch water from the well, when, +greatly to our dismay, we found nothing but a little liquid mud at the +bottom, and it then became evident that the hole was one which had been +made to collect rain water, and would never fill again as long as the +present drought continued. As we did not know what we might suffer for +want of water, we filled our jar with this muddy stuff so that it might +settle. In the afternoon I crossed over to the other side of the island, +and made a large fire, in order that our men might see we were still +there. + +The next day (24th) I determined to have another search for water; and +when the tide was out rounded a rocky point and went to the extremity of +the island without finding any sign of the smallest stream. On our way +back, noticing a very small dry bed of a watercourse, I went up it to +explore, although everything was so dry that my men loudly declared it +was useless to expect water there; but a little way up I was rewarded by +finding a few pints in a small pool. We searched higher up in every hole +and channel where water marks appeared, but could find not a drop more. +Sending one of my men for a large jar and teacup, we searched along the +beach till we found signs of another dry watercourse, and on ascending +this were so fortunate as to discover two deep sheltered rock-holes +containing several gallons of water, enough to fill all our jars. When +the cup came we enjoyed a good drink of the cool pure water, and before +we left had carried away, I believe, every drop on the island. + +In the evening a good-sized prau appeared in sight, making apparently +for the island where our men were left, and we had some hopes they might +be seen and picked up, but it passed along mid-channel, and did not +notice the signals we tried to make. I was now, however, pretty easy as +to the fate of the men. There was plenty of sago on our rocky island, +and there world probably be some on the fiat one they were left on. They +had choppers, and could cut down a tree and make sago, and would most +likely find sufficient water by digging. Shell-fish were abundant, +and they would be able to manage very well till some boat should touch +there, or till I could send and fetch them. The next day we devoted to +cutting wood, filling up our jars with all the water we could find, +and making ready to sail in the evening. I shot a small lory closely +resembling a common species at Ternate, and a glossy starling +which differed from the allied birds of Ceram and Matabello. Large +wood-pigeons and crows were the only other birds I saw, but I did not +obtain specimens. + +About eight in the evening of June 25th we started, and found that with +all hands at work we could just haul up our mainsail. We had a fair wind +during the night and sailed north-east, finding ourselves in the morning +about twenty miles west of the extremity of Waigiou with a number of +islands intervening. About ten o'clock we ran full on to a coral reef, +which alarmed us a good deal, but luckily got safe off again. About two +in the afternoon we reached an extensive coral reef, and were sailing +close alongside of it, when the wind suddenly dropped, and we drifted on +to it before we could get in our heavy mainsail, which we were obliged +to let run down and fall partly overboard. We had much difficulty in +getting off, but at last got into deep water again, though with reefs +and islands all around us. At night we did not know what to do, as no +one on board could tell where we were or what dangers might surround us, +the only one of our crew who was acquainted with the coast of Waigiou +having been left on the island. We therefore took in all sail and +allowed ourselves to drift, as we were some miles from the nearest +land. A light breeze, however, sprang up, and about midnight we found +ourselves again bumping over a coral reef. As it was very dark, and we +knew nothing of our position, we could only guess how to get off again, +and had there been a little more wind we might have been knocked to +pieces. However, in about half an hour we did get off, and then thought +it best to anchor on the edge of the reef till morning. Soon after +daylight on the 7th, finding our prau had received no damage, we sailed +on with uncertain winds and squalls, threading our way among islands +and reefs, and guided only by a small map, which was very incorrect +and quite useless, and by a general notion of the direction we ought +to take. In the afternoon we found a tolerable anchorage under a small +island and stayed for the night, and I shot a large fruit-pigeon new to +me, which I have since named Carpophaga tumida. I also saw and shot at +the rare white-headed kingfisher (Halcyon saurophaga), but did not kill +it. The next morning we sailed on, and having a fair wind reached the +shores of the large island of Waigiou. On rounding a point we again ran +full on to a coral reef with our mainsail up, but luckily the wind had +almost died away, and with a good deal of exertion we managed get safely +off. + +We now had to search for the narrow channel among islands, which we knew +was somewhere hereabouts, and which leads to the villages on the south +side of Waigiou. Entering a deep bay which looked promising, we got to +the end of it, but it was then dusk, so we anchored for the night, and +having just finished all our water could cook no rice for supper. Next +morning early (29th) we went on shore among the mangroves, and a little +way inland found some water, which relieved our anxiety considerably, +and left us free to go along the coast in search of the opening, or of +some one who could direct us to it. During the three days we had now +been among the reefs and islands, we had only seen a single small canoe, +which had approached pretty near to us, and then, notwithstanding our +signals, went off in another direction. The shores seemed all desert; +not a house, or boat, or human being, or a puff of smoke was to be seen; +and as we could only go on the course that the ever-changing wind would +allow us (our hands being too few to row any distance), our prospects of +getting to our destination seemed rather remote and precarious. Having +gone to the eastward extremity of the deep bay we had entered, without +finding any sign of an opening, we turned westward; and towards evening +were so fortunate as to find a small village of seven miserable houses +built on piles in the water. Luckily the Orang-kaya, or head man, could +speak a little. Malay, and informed us that the entrance to the strait +was really in the bay we had examined, but that it was not to be seen +except when close inshore. He said the strait was often very narrow, and +wound among lakes and rocks and islands, and that it would take two days +to reach the large village of Muka, and three more to get to Waigiou. I +succeeded in hiring two men to go with us to Muka, bringing a small boat +in which to return; but we had to wait a day for our guides, so I took +my gun and made a little excursion info the forest. The day was wet and +drizzly, and I only succeeded in shooting two small birds, but I saw the +great black cockatoo, and had a glimpse of one or two Birds of Paradise, +whose loud screams we had heard on first approaching the coast. Leaving +the village the next morning (July 1st) with a light wind, it took us +all day to reach the entrance to the channel, which resembled a small +river, and was concealed by a projecting point, so that it was no wonder +we did not discover it amid the dense forest vegetation which everywhere +covers these islands to the water's edge. A little way inside it becomes +bounded by precipitous rocks, after winding among which for about two +miles, we emerged into what seemed a lake, but which was in fact a deep +gulf having a narrow entrance on the south coast. This gulf was studded +along its shores with numbers of rocky islets, mostly mushroom shaped, +from the `eater having worn away the lower part of the soluble coralline +limestone, leaving them overhanging from ten to twenty feet. Every islet +was covered will strange-looping shrubs and trees, and was generally +crowned by lofty and elegant palms, which also studded the ridges of +the mountainous shores, forming one of the most singular and picturesque +landscapes I have ever seen. The current which had brought us through +the narrow strait now ceased, and we were obliged to row, which with our +short and heavy prau was slow work. I went on shore several times, but +the rocks were so precipitous, sharp, and honeycombed, that I found +it impossible to get through the tangled thicket with which they were +everywhere clothed. It took us three days to get to the entrance of the +gulf, and then the wind was such as to prevent our going any further, +and we might have had to wait for days or weeps, when, much to my +surprise and gratification, a boat arrived from Muka with one of the +head men, who had in some mysterious manner heard I was on my way, +and had come to my assistance, bringing a present of cocoa-nuts and +vegetables. Being thoroughly acquainted with the coast, and having +several extra men to assist us, he managed to get the prau along by +rowing, poling, or sailing, and by night had brought us safely into +harbour, a great relief after our tedious and unhappy voyage. We had +been already eight days among the reefs and islands of Waigiou, coming +a distance of about fifty miles, and it was just forty days since we had +sailed from Goram. + +Immediately on our arrival at Muka, I engaged a small boat and three +natives to go in search of my lost men, and sent one of my own men with +them to make sure of their going to the right island. In ten days they +returned, but to my great regret and disappointment, without the men. +The weather had been very bad, and though they had reached an island +within sight of that in which the men were, they could get no further. +They had waited there six days for better weather, and then, having no +more provisions, and the man I had sent with them being very ill and +not expected to live, they returned. As they now knew the island, I was +determined they should make another trial, and (by a liberal payment of +knives, handkerchiefs, and tobacco, with plenty of provisions) persuaded +them to start back immediately, and make another attempt. They did not +return again till the 29th of July, having stayed a few days at their +own village of Bessir on the way; but this time they had succeeded and +brought with them my two lost men, in tolerable health, though thin and +weak. They had lived exactly a month on the island had found water, +and had subsisted on the roots and tender flower-stalks of a species of +Bromelia, on shell-fish and on a few turtles' eggs. Having swum to the +island, they had only a pair of trousers and a shirt between them, but +had made a hut of palm-leaves, and had altogether got on very well. They +saw that I waited for them three days at the opposite island, but had +been afraid to cross, lest the current should have carried them out to +sea, when they would have been inevitably lost. They had felt sure I +would send for them on the first opportunity, and appeared more grateful +than natives usually are for my having done so; while I felt much +relieved that my voyage, though sufficiently unfortunate, had not +involved loss of life. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. WAIGIOU. + +(JULY TO SEPTEMBER 1860.) + +THE village of Muka, on the south coast of Waigiou, consists of a number +of poor huts, partly in the water and partly on shore, and scattered +irregularly over a space of about half a mile in a shallow bay. Around +it are a few cultivated patches, and a good deal of second-growth woody +vegetation; while behind, at the distance of about half a mile, rises +the virgin forest, through which are a few paths to some houses and +plantations a mile or two inland. The country round is rather flat, +and in places swampy, and there are one or two small streams which run +behind the village into the sea below it. Finding that no house could +be had suitable to my purpose, and hawing so often experienced the +advantages of living close to or just within the forest, I obtained the +assistance of half-a-dozen men; and having selected a spot near the path +and the stream, and close to a fine fig-tree, which stood just within +the forest, we cleared the ground and set to building a house. As I did +not expect to stay here so long as I had done at Dorey, I built a long, +low, narrow shed, about seven feet high on one side and four on the +other, which required but little wood, and was put up very rapidly. Our +sails, with a few old attaps from a deserted but in the village, formed +the walls, and a quantity of "cadjans," or palm-leaf mats, covered in +the roof. On the third day my house was finished, and all my things put +in and comfortably arranged to begin work, and I was quite pleased at +having got established so quickly and in such a nice situation. + +It had been so far fine weather, but in the night it rained hard, and we +found our mat roof would not keep out water. It first began to drop, +and then to stream over everything. I had to get up in the middle of the +night to secure my insect-boxes, rice, and other perishable articles, +and to find a dry place to sleep in, for my bed was soaked. Fresh leaks +kept forming as the rain continued, and w e all passed a very miserable +and sleepless night. In the morning the sun shone brightly, and +everything was put out to dry. We tried to find out why the mats leaked, +and thought we had discovered that they had been laid on upside down. +Having shifted there all, and got everything dry and comfortable by the +evening, we again went to bed, and before midnight were again awaked by +torrent of rain and leaks streaming in upon us as bad as ever. There +was no more sleep for us that night, and the next day our roof was again +taken to pieces, and we came to the conclusion that the fault was a want +of slope enough in the roof for mats, although it would be sufficient +for the usual attap thatch. I therefore purchased a few new and some old +attaps, and in the parts these would not cover we put the mats double, +and then at last had the satisfaction of finding our roof tolerably +water-tight. + +I was now able to begin working at the natural history of the island. +When I first arrived I was surprised at being told that there were no +Paradise Birds at Muka, although there were plenty at Bessir, a place +where the natives caught them and prepared the skins. I assured the +people I had heard the cry of these birds close to the village, but they +world not believe that I could know their cry. However, the very first +time I went into the forest I not only heard but saw them, and was +convinced there were plenty about; but they were very shy, and it was +some time before we got any. My hunter first shot a female, and I one +day got very close to a fine male. He was, as I expected, the rare red +species, Paradisea rubra, which alone inhabits this island, and is found +nowhere else. He was quite low down, running along a bough searching +for insects, almost like a woodpecker, and the long black riband-like +filaments in his tail hung down in the most graceful double curve +imaginable. I covered him with my gun, and was going to use the barrel +which had a very small charge of powder and number eight shot, so as +not to injure his plumage, but the gun missed fire, and he was off in an +instant among the thickest jungle. Another day we saw no less than eight +fine males at different times, and fired four times at them; but though +other birds at the same distance almost always dropped, these all got +away, and I began to think we were not to get this magnificent species. +At length the fruit ripened on the fig-tree close by my house, and many +birds came to feed on it; and one morning, as I was taking my coffee, a +male Paradise Bird was seen to settle on its top. I seized my gun, ran +under the tree, and, gazing up, could see it flying across from branch +to branch, seizing a fruit here and another there, and then, before I +could get a sufficient aim to shoot at such a height (for it was one of +the loftiest trees of the tropics), it was away into the forest. They +now visited the tree every morning; but they stayed so short a time, +their motions were so rapid, and it was so difficult to see them, owing +to the lower trees, which impeded the view, that it was only after +several days' watching, and one or two misses, that I brought down my +bird--a male in the most magnificent plumage. + +This bird differs very much from the two large species which I had +already obtained, and, although it wants the grace imparted by their +long golden trains, is in many respects more remarkable and more +beautiful. The head, back, and shoulders are clothed with a richer +yellow, the deep metallic green colour of the throat extends further +over the head, and the feathers are elongated on the forehead into two +little erectile crests. The side plumes are shorter, but are of a +rich red colour, terminating in delicate white points, and the middle +tail-feathers are represented by two long rigid glossy ribands, which +are black, thin, and semi-cylindrical, and droop gracefully in a +spiral curve. Several other interesting birds were obtained, and about +half-a-dozen quite new ones; but none of any remarkable beauty, except +the lovely little dove, Ptilonopus pulchellus, which with several +other pigeons I shot on the same fig-tree close to my house. It is of +a beautiful green colour above, with a forehead of the richest crimson, +while beneath it is ashy white and rich yellow, banded with violet red. + +On the evening of our arrival at Muka I observed what appeared like a +display of Aurora Borealis, though I could hardly believe that this was +possible at a point a little south of the equator. The night was clear +and calm, and the northern sky presented a diffused light, with a +constant succession of faint vertical flashings or flickerings, exactly +similar to an ordinary aurora in England. The next day was fine, but +after that the weather was unprecedentedly bad, considering that it +ought to have been the dry monsoon. For near a month we had wet weather; +the sun either not appearing at all, or only for an hour or two about +noon. Morning and evening, as well as nearly all night, it rained or +drizzled, and boisterous winds, with dark clouds, formed the daily +programme. With the exception that it was never cold, it was just such +weather as a very bad English November or February. + +The people of Waigiou are not truly indigenes of the island, which +possesses no "Alfuros," or aboriginal inhabitants. They appear to be +a mixed race, partly from Gilolo, partly from New Guinea. Malays and +Alfuros from the former island have probably settled here, and many of +them have taken Papuan wives from Salwatty or Dorey, while the influx of +people from those places, and of slaves, has led to the formation of a +tribe exhibiting almost all the transitions from a nearly pure Malayan +to an entirely Papuan type. The language spoken by them is entirely +Papuan, being that which is used on all the coasts of Mysol, Salwatty, +the north-west of New Guinea, and the islands in the great Geelvink +Bay,--a fact which indicates the way in which the coast settlements have +been formed. The fact that so many of the islands between New Guinea and +the Moluccas--such as Waigiou, Guebe, Poppa, Obi, Batchian, as well as +the south and east peninsulas of Gilolo--possess no aboriginal tribes, +but are inhabited by people who are evidently mongrels and wanderers, is +a remarkable corroborative proof of the distinctness of the Malayan and +Papuan races, and the separation of the geographical areas they inhabit. +If these two great races were direct modifications, the one of +the other, we should expect to find in the intervening region some +homogeneous indigenous race presenting intermediate characters. For +example, between the whitest inhabitants of Europe and the black Klings +of South India, there are in the intervening districts homogeneous races +which form a gradual transition from one to the other; while in America, +although there is a perfect transition from the Anglo-Saxon to the +negro, and from the Spaniard to the Indian, there is no homogeneous +race forming a natural transition from one to the other. In the Malay +Archipelago we have an excellent example of two absolutely distinct +races, which appear to have approached each other, and intermingled in +an unoccupied territory at a very recent epoch in the history of man; +and I feel satisfied that no unprejudiced person could study them on +the spot without being convinced that this is the true solution of the +problem, rather than the almost universally accepted view that they are +but modifications of one and the same race. + +The people of Muka live in that abject state of poverty that is almost +always found where the sago-tree is abundant. Very few of them take the +trouble to plant any vegetables or fruit, but live almost entirely on +sago and fish, selling a little tripang or tortoiseshell to buy the +scanty clothing they require. Almost all of them, however, possess one +or more Papuan slaves, on whose labour they live in almost absolute +idleness, just going out on little fishing or trading excursions, as an +excitement in their monotonous existence. They are under the rule of the +Sultan of Tidore, and every year have to pay a small tribute of Paradise +birds, tortoiseshell, or sago. To obtain these, they go in the fine +season on a trading voyage to the mainland of New Guinea, and getting a +few goods on credit from some Ceram or Bugis trader, make hard bargains +with the natives, and gain enough to pay their tribute, and leave a +little profit for themselves. + +Such a country is not a very pleasant one to live in, for as there are +no superfluities, there is nothing to sell; and had it not been for a +trader from Ceram who was residing there during my stay, who had a small +vegetable garden, and whose men occasionally got a few spare fish, I +should often have had nothing to eat. Fowls, fruit, and vegetables are +luxuries very rarely to be purchased at Muka; and even cocoa-nuts, so +indispensable for eastern cookery, are not to be obtained; for though +there are some hundreds of trees in the village, all the fruit is eaten +green, to supply the place of the vegetables the people are too lazy +to cultivate. Without eggs, cocoa-nuts, or plantains, we had very short +commons, and the boisterous weather being unpropitious for fishing, we +had to live on what few eatable birds we could shoot, with an occasional +cuscus, or eastern opossum, the only quadruped, except pigs, inhabiting +the island. + +I had only shot two male Paradiseas on my tree when they ceased visiting +it, either owing to the fruit becoming scarce, or that they were wise +enough to know there was danger. We continued to hear and see them in +the forest, but after a month had not succeeded in shooting any more; +and as my chief object in visiting Waigiou was to get these birds, I +determined to go to Bessir, where there are a number of Papuans who +catch and preserve them. I hired a small outrigger boat for this +journey, and left one of my men to guard my house and goods. We had +to wait several days for fine weather, and at length started early +one morning, and arrived late at night, after a rough and disagreeable +passage. The village of Bessir was built in the water at the point of +a small island. The chief food of the people was evidently shell-fish, +since great heaps of the shells had accumulated in the shallow water +between the houses and the land, forming a regular "kitchen-midden" for +the exploration of some future archeologist. We spent the night in the +chief's house, and the next morning went over to the mainland to look +out for a place where I could reside. This part of Waigiou is really +another island to the south of the narrow channel we had passed through +in coming to Muka. It appears to consist almost entirely of raised +coral, whereas the northern island contains hard crystalline rocks. The +shores were a range of low limestone cliffs, worn out by the water, so +that the upper part generally overhung. At distant intervals were little +coves and openings, where small streams came down from the interior; and +in one of these we landed, pulling our boat up on a patch of white sandy +beach. Immediately above was a large newly-made plantation of yams and +plantains, and a small hot, which the chief said we might have the use +of, if it would do for me. It was quite a dwarf's house, just eight feet +square, raised on posts so that the floor was four and a half feet above +the ground, and the highest part of the ridge only five feet above the +flour. As I am six feet and an inch in my stockings, I looked at this +with some dismay; but finding that the other houses were much further +from water, were dreadfully dirty, and were crowded with people, I at +once accepted the little one, and determined to make the best of it. +At first I thought of taking out the floor, which would leave it high +enough to walk in and out without stooping; but then there would not be +room enough, so I left it just as it was, had it thoroughly cleaned out, +and brought up my baggage. The upper story I used for sleeping in, and +for a store-room. In the lower part (which was quite open all round) I +fixed up a small table, arranged my boxes, put up hanging-shelves, laid +a mat on the ground with my wicker-chair upon it, hung up another mat on +the windward side, and then found that, by bending double and carefully +creeping in, I could sit on my chair with my head just clear of the +ceiling. Here I lived pretty comfortably for six weeks, taking all my +meals and doing all my work at my little table, to and from which I had +to creep in a semi-horizontal position a dozen times a day; and, after +a few severe knocks on the head by suddenly rising from my chair, learnt +to accommodate myself to circumstances. We put up a little sloping +cooking-but outside, and a bench on which my lads could skin their +birds. At night I went up to my little loft, they spread their mats on +the floor below, and we none of us grumbled at our lodgings. + +My first business was to send for the men who were accustomed to catch +the Birds of Paradise. Several came, and I showed them my hatchets, +beads, knives, and handkerchiefs; and explained to them, as well as I +could by signs, the price I would give for fresh-killed specimens. It is +the universal custom to pay for everything in advance; but only one man +ventured on this occasion to take goods to the value of two birds. The +rest were suspicious, and wanted to see the result of the first bargain +with the strange white man, the only one who had ever come to their +island. After three days, my man brought me the first bird--a very fine +specimen, and alive, but tied up in a small bag, and consequently its +tail and wing feathers very much crushed and injured. I tried to explain +to him, and to the others that came with him, that I wanted them as +perfect as possible, and that they should either kill them, or keep +them on a perch with a string to their leg. As they were now apparently +satisfied that all was fair, and that I had no ulterior designs upon +them, six others took away goods; some for one bird, some for more, and +one for as many as six. They said they had to go a long way for them, +and that they would come back as soon as they caught any. At intervals +of a few days or a week, some of them would return, bringing me one or +more birds; but though they did not bring any more in bags, there was +not much improvement in their condition. As they caught them a long way +off in the forest, they would scarcely ever come with one, but would +tie it by the leg to a stick, and put it in their house till they caught +another. The poor creature would make violent efforts to escape, would +get among the ashes, or hang suspended by the leg till the limb was +swollen and half-putrefied, and sometimes die of starvation and worry. +One had its beautiful head all defiled by pitch from a dammar torch; +another had been so long dead that its stomach was turning green. +Luckily, however, the skin and plumage of these birds is so firm and +strong, that they bear washing and cleaning better than almost any other +sort; and I was generally able to clean them so well that they did not +perceptibly differ from those I had shot myself. + +Some few were brought me the same day they were caught, and I had an +opportunity of examining them in all their beauty and vivacity. As soon +as I found they were generally brought alive, I set one of my men to +make a large bamboo cage with troughs for food and water, hoping to be +able to keep some of them. I got the natives to bring me branches of +a fruit they were very fond of, and I was pleased to find they ate it +greedily, and would also take any number of live grasshoppers I gave +them, stripping off the legs and wings, and then swallowing them. They +drank plenty of water, and were in constant motion, jumping about the +cage from perch to perch, clinging on the top and sides, and rarely +resting a moment the first day till nightfall. The second day they were +always less active, although they would eat as freely as before; and on +the morning of the third day they were almost always found dead at the +bottom of the cage, without any apparent cause. Some of them ate boiled +rice as well as fruit and insects; but after trying many in succession, +not one out of ten lived more than three days. The second or third +day they would be dull, and in several cases they were seized with +convulsions, and fell off the perch, dying a few hours afterwards. +I tried immature as well as full-plumaged birds, but with no better +success, and at length gave it up as a hopeless task, and confined my +attention to preserving specimens in as good a condition as possible. + +The Red Birds of Paradise are not shot with blunt arrows, as in the Aru +Islands and some parts of New Guinea, but are snared in a very ingenious +manner. A large climbing Arum bears a red reticulated fruit, of which +the birds are very fond. The hunters fasten this fruit on a stout forked +stick, and provide themselves with a fine but strong cord. They then +seep out some tree in the forest on which these birds are accustomed to +perch, and climbing up it fasten the stick to a branch and arrange the +cord in a noose so ingeniously, that when the bird comes to eat the +fruit its legs are caught, and by pulling the end of the cord, which +hangs down to the ground, it comes free from the branch and brings down +the bird. Sometimes, when food is abundant elsewhere, the hunter sits +from morning till night under his tree with the cord in his hand, and +even for two or three whole days in succession, without even getting a +bite; while, on the other hand, if very lucky, he may get two or three +birds in a day. There are only eight or ten men at Bessir who practise +this art, which is unknown anywhere else in the island. I determined, +therefore, to stay as long as possible, as my only chance of getting a +good series of specimens; and although I was nearly starved, everything +eatable by civilized man being scarce or altogether absent, I finally +succeeded. + +The vegetables and fruit in the plantations around us did not suffice +for the wants of the inhabitants, and were almost always dug up or +gathered before they were ripe. It was very rarely we could purchase +a little fish; fowls there were none; and we were reduced to live upon +tough pigeons and cockatoos, with our rice and sago, and sometimes we +could not get these. Having been already eight months on this voyage, my +stock of all condiments, spices and butter, was exhausted, and I found +it impossible to eat sufficient of my tasteless and unpalatable food +to support health. I got very thin and weak, and had a curious disease +known (I have since heard) as brow-ague. Directly after breakfast every +morning an intense pain set in on a small spot on the right temple. It +was a severe burning ache, as bad as the worst toothache, and lasted +about two hours, generally going off at noon. When this finally ceased, +I had an attack of fever, which left me so weak and so unable to eat our +regular food, that I feel sure my life was saved by a couple of tins of +soup which I had long reserved for some such extremity. I used often to +go out searching after vegetables, and found a great treasure in a lot +of tomato plants run wild, and bearing little fruits about the size of +gooseberries. I also boiled up the tops of pumpkin plants and of ferns, +by way of greens, and occasionally got a few green papaws. The natives, +when hard up for food, live upon a fleshy seaweed, which they boil till +it is tender. I tried this also, but found it too salt and bitter to be +endured. + +Towards the end of September it became absolutely necessary for me to +return, in order to make our homeward voyage before the end of the east +monsoon. Most of the men who had taken payment from me had brought the +birds they had agreed for. One poor fellow had been so unfortunate +as not to get one, and he very honestly brought back the axe he had +received in advance; another, who had agreed for six, brought me the +fifth two days before I was to start, and went off immediately to the +forest again to get the other. He did not return, however, and we loaded +our boat, and were just on the point of starting, when he came running +down after us holding up a bird, which he handed to me, saying with +great satisfaction, "Now I owe you nothing." These were remarkable and +quite unexpected instances of honesty among savages, where it would have +been very easy for them to have been dishonest without fear of detection +or punishment. + +The country round about Bessir was very hilly and rugged, bristling with +jagged and honey-combed coralline rocks, and with curious little chasms +and ravines. The paths often passed through these rocky clefts, which in +the depths of the forest were gloomy and dark in the extreme, and +often full of fine-leaved herbaceous plants and curious blue-foliaged +Lycopodiaceae. It was in such places as these that I obtained many of +my most beautiful small butterflies, such as Sospita statira and Taxila +pulchra, the gorgeous blue Amblypodia hercules, and many others. On the +skirts of the plantations I found the handsome blue Deudorix despoena, +and in the shady woods the lovely Lycaena wallacei. Here, too, I +obtained the beautiful Thyca aruna, of the richest orange on the upper +side; while below it is intense crimson and glossy black; and a superb +specimen of a green Ornithoptera, absolutely fresh and perfect, and +which still remains one of the glories of my cabinet. + +My collection of birds, though not very rich in number of species, was +yet very interesting. I got another specimen of the rare New Guinea +kite (Henicopernis longicauda), a large new goatsucker (Podargus +superciliaris), and a most curious ground-pigeon of an entirely new +genus, and remarkable for its long and powerful bill. It has been named +Henicophaps albifrons. I was also much pleased to obtain a fine series +of a large fruit-pigeon with a protuberance on the bill (Carpophaga +tumida), and to ascertain that this was not, as had been hitherto +supposed, a sexual character, but was found equally in male and female +birds. I collected only seventy-three species of birds in Waigiou, but +twelve of them were entirely new, and many others very rare; and as I +brought away with me twenty-four fine specimens of the Paradisea rubra, +I did not regret my visit to the island, although it had by no means +answered my expectations. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII. VOYAGE FROM WAIGIOU TO TERNATE. + +(SEPTEMBER 29 To NOVEMBER 5, 1860.) + +I HAD left the old pilot at Waigiou to take care of my house and to get +the prau into sailing order--to caulk her bottom, and to look after +the upper works, thatch, and ringing. When I returned I found it nearly +ready, and immediately began packing up and preparing for the voyage. +Our mainsail had formed one side of our house, but the spanker and jib +had been put away in the roof, and on opening them to see if any repairs +were wanted, to our horror we found that some rats had made them their +nest, and had gnawed through them in twenty places. We had therefore +to buy matting and make new sails, and this delayed us till the 29th of +September, when we at length left Waigiou. + +It took us four days before we could get clear of the land, having +to pass along narrow straits beset with reefs and shoals, and full of +strong currents, so that an unfavourable wind stopped us altogether. One +day, when nearly clear, a contrary tide and head wind drove us ten miles +back to our anchorage of the night before. This delay made us afraid of +running short of water if we should be becalmed at sea, and we therefore +determined, if possible, to touch at the island where our men had +been lost, and which lay directly in our proper course. The wind was, +however, as usual, contrary, being S.S.W. instead of S.S.E., as it +should have been at this time of the year, and all we could do was to +reach the island of Gagie, where we came to an anchor by moonlight under +bare volcanic hills. In the morning we tried to enter a deep bay, at +the head of which some Galela fishermen told us there was water, but a +head-wind prevented us. For the reward of a handkerchief, however, +they took us to the place in their boat, and we filled up our jars and +bamboos. We then went round to their camping-place on the north coast +of the island to try and buy something to eat, but could only get smoked +turtle meat as black and as hard as lumps of coal. A little further on +there was a plantation belonging to Guebe people, but under the care +of a Papuan slave, and the next morning we got some plantains and a few +vegetables in exchange for a handkerchief and some knives. On leaving +this place our anchor had got foul in some rock or sunken log in very +deep water, and after many unsuccessful attempts, we were forced to +cut our rattan cable and leave it behind us. We had now only one anchor +left. + +Starting early, on the 4th of October, the same S.S.W wind continued, +and we began to fear that we should hardly clear the southern point +of Gilolo. The night of the 5th was squally, with thunder, but after +midnight it got tolerably fair, and we were going along with a light +wind and looking out for the coast of Gilolo, which we thought we +must be nearing, when we heard a dull roaring sound, like a heavy surf, +behind us. In a short time the roar increased, and we saw a white line +of foam coming on, which rapidly passed us without doing any harm, as +our boat rose easily over the wave. At short intervals, ten or a +dozen others overtook us with bleat rapidity, and then the sea became +perfectly smooth, as it was before. I concluded at once that these must +be earthquake waves; and on reference to the old voyagers we find +that these seas have been long subject to similar phenomena. Dampier +encountered them near Mysol and New Guinea, and describes them as +follows: "We found here very strange tides, that ran in streams, making +a great sea, and roaring so loud that we could hear them before they +came within a mile of us. The sea round about them seemed all broken, +and tossed the ship so that she would not answer her helm. These +ripplings commonly lasted ten or twelve minutes, and then the sea became +as still and smooth as a millpond. We sounded often when in the midst of +them, but found no ground, neither could we perceive that they drove us +any way. We had in one night several of these tides, that came mostly +from the west, and the wind being from that quarter we commonly heard +them a long time before they came, and sometimes lowered our topsails, +thinking it was a gust of wind. They were of great length, from north to +south, but their breadth not exceeding 200 yards, and they drove a great +pace. For though we had little wind to move us, yet these world +soon pass away, and leave the water very smooth, and just before we +encountered them we met a great swell, but it did not break." Some time +afterwards, I learnt that an earthquake had been felt on the coast of +Gilolo the very day we had encountered these curious waves. + +When daylight came, we saw the land of Gilolo a few miles off, but the +point was unfortunately a little to windward of us. We tried to brace up +all we could to round it, but as we approached the shore we got into a +strong current setting northward, which carried us so rapidly with it +that we found it necessary to stand off again, in order to get out of +its influence. Sometimes we approached the point a little, and our hopes +revived; then the wind fell, and we drifted slowly away. Night found +us in nearly the same position as we had occupied in the morning, so +we hung down our anchor with about fifteen fathoms of cable to prevent +drifting. On the morning of the 7th we were however, a good way up +the coast, and we now thought our only chance would be to got close +in-shore, where there might be a return current, and we could then row. +The prau was heavy, and my men very poor creatures for work, so that it +took us six hours to get to the edge of the reef that fringed the shore; +and as the wind might at any moment blow on to it, our situation was a +very dangerous one. Luckily, a short distance off there was a sandy bay, +where a small stream stopped the growth of the coral; and by evening we +reached this and anchored for the night. Here we found some Galela men +shooting deer and pigs; but they could not or would not speak Malay, and +we could get little information from them. We found out that along shore +the current changed with the tide, while about a mile out it was always +one way, and against us; and this gave us some hopes of getting back to +the point, from which we were now distant twenty miles. Next morning we +found that the Galela men had left before daylight, having perhaps some +vague fear of our intentions, anal very likely taking me for a pirate. +During the morning a boat passed, and the people informed us that, at +a short distance further towards the point, there was a much better +harbour, where there were plenty of Galela men, from whom we, might +probably get some assistance. + +At three in the afternoon, when the current turned, we started; but +having a head-wind, made slow progress. At dusk we reached the entrance +of the harbour, but an eddy and a gust of wind carried us away and out +to sea. After sunset there was a land breeze, and we sailed a little to +the south-east. It then became calm, and we hung down our anchor forty +fathoms, to endeavour to counteract the current; but it was of little +avail, and in the morning we found ourselves a good way from shore, and +just opposite our anchorage of the day before, which we again reached by +hard rowing. I gave the men this day to rest and sleep; and the next day +(Oct. 10th) we again started at two in the morning with a land breeze. +After I had set them to their oars, and given instructions to keep +close in-shore, and on no account to get out to sea, I went below, being +rather unwell. At daybreak I found, to my great astonishment, that +we were again far off-shore, and was told that the wind had gradually +turned more ahead, and had carried us out--none of them having the sense +to take down the sail and row in-shore, or to call me. As soon as it was +daylight, we saw that we had drifted back, and were again opposite our +former anchorage, and, for the third time, had to row hard to get to it. +As we approached the shore, I saw that the current was favourable to us, +and we continued down the coast till we were close to the entrance to +the lower harbour. Just as we were congratulating ourselves on having at +last reached it, a strong south-east squall came on, blowing us back, +and rendering it impossible for us to enter. Not liking the idea of +again returning, I determined on trying to anchor, and succeeded in +doing so, in very deep water and close to the reefs; but the prevailing +winds were such that, should we not hold, we should have no difficulty +in getting out to sea. By the time the squall had passed, the current +had turned against us, and we expected to have to wait till four in the +afternoon, when we intended to enter the harbour. + +Now, however, came the climax of our troubles. The swell produced by the +squall made us jerk our cable a good deal, and it suddenly snapped +low down in the water. We drifted out to sea, and immediately set our +mainsail, but we were now without any anchor, and in a vessel so poorly +manned that it could not be rowed against the most feeble current or the +slightest wind, it word be madness to approach these dangerous shores +except in the most perfect calm. We had also only three days' food left. +It was therefore out of the question making any further attempts to get +round the point without assistance, and I at once determined to run +to the village of Gani-diluar, about ten miles further north, where we +understood there was a good harbour, and where we might get provisions +and a few more rowers. Hitherto winds and currents load invariably +opposed our passage southward, and we might have expected them to +be favourable to us now we had turned our bowsprit in an opposite +direction. But it immediately fell calm, and then after a time a +westerly land breeze set in, which would not serve us, and we had to +row again for hours, and when night came had not reached the village. We +were so fortunate, however, as to find a deep sheltered cove where the +water was quite smooth, and we constructed a temporary anchor by filling +a sack with stones from our ballast, which being well secured by a +network of rattans held us safely during the night. The next morning +my men went on shore to cut wood suitable for making fresh anchors, +and about noon, the current turning in our favour, we proceeded to the +village, where we found an excellent and well-protected anchorage. + +On inquiry, we found that the head men resided at the other Gani on the +western side of the peninsula, and it was necessary to send messengers +across (about half a day's journey) to inform them of my arrival, and +to beg them to assist me. I then succeeded in buying a little sago, some +dried deer-meat and cocoa-nuts, which at once relieved our immediate +want of something to eat. At night we found our bag of atones still held +us very well, and we slept tranquilly. + +The next day (October 12th), my men set to work making anchors and oars. +The native Malay anchor is ingeniously constructed of a piece of tough +forked timber, the fluke being strengthened by twisted rattans binding +it to the stem, while the cross-piece is formed of a long flat +stone, secured in the same manner. These anchors when well made, hold +exceedingly arm, and, owing to the expense of iron, are still almost +universally used on board the smaller praus. In the afternoon the head +men arrived, and promised me as many rowers as I could put on the +prau, and also brought me a few eggs and a little rice, which were very +acceptable. On the 14th there was a north wind all day, which would +have been invaluable to us a few days earlier, but which was now only +tantalizing. On the 16th, all being ready, we started at daybreak with +two new anchors and ten rowers, who understood their work. By evening we +had come more than half-way to the point, and anchored for the night in +a small bay. At three the next morning I ordered the anchor up, but the +rattan cable parted close to the bottom, having been chafed by rocks, +and we then lost our third anchor on this unfortunate voyage. The day +was calm, and by noon we passed the southern point of Gilolo, which had +delayed us eleven days, whereas the whole voyage during this monsoon +should not have occupied more than half that time. Having got round the +point our course was exactly in the opposite direction to what it had +been, and now, as usual, the wind changed accordingly, coming from the +north and north-west,--so that we still had to row every mile up to the +village of Gani, which we did not reach till the evening of the 18th. A +Bugis trader who was residing there, and the Senaji, or chief, were +very kind; the former assisting me with a spare anchor and a cable, and +making me a present of some vegetables, and the latter baking fresh sago +cakes for my men; and giving rue a couple of fowls, a bottle of oil, and +some pumpkins. As the weather was still very uncertain, I got four +extra men to accompany me to Ternate, for which place we started on the +afternoon of the 20th. + +We had to keep rowing all night, the land breezes being too weak to +enable us to sail against the current. During the afternoon of the 21st +we had an hour's fair wind, which soon changed into a heavy squall with +rain, and my clumsy men let the mainsail get taken aback and nearly +upset us, tearing the sail; and, what was worse, losing an hour's fair +wind. The night was calm, and we made little progress. + +On the 22d we had light head-winds. A little before noon we passed, with +the assistance of our oars, the Paciencia Straits, the narrowest part +of the channel between Batchian and Gilolo. These were well named by the +early Portuguese navigators, as the currents are very strong, and there +are so many eddies, that even with a fair wind vessels are often quite +unable to pass through them. In the afternoon a strong north wind (dead +ahead) obliged us to anchor twice. At nigh it was calm, and we crept +along slowly with our oars. + +On the 23d we still had the wind ahead, or calms. We then crossed over +again to the mainland of Gilolo by the advice of our Gani men, who knew +the coast well. Just as we got across we had another northerly squall +with rain, and had to anchor on the edge of a coral reef for the night. +I called up my men about three on the morning of the 24th, but there was +no wind to help us, and we rowed along slowly. At daybreak there was a +fair breeze from the south, but it lasted only an hour. All the rest of +the day we had nothing but calms, light winds ahead, and squalls, and +made very little progress. + +On the 25th we drifted out to the middle of the channel, but made no +progress onward. In the afternoon we sailed and rowed to the south end +of Kaiķa, and by midnight reached the village. I determined to stay here +a few days to rest and recruit, and in hopes of getting better weather. +I bought some onions and other vegetables, and plenty of eggs, and my +men baked fresh sago cakes. I went daily to my old hunting-ground in +search of insects, but with very poor success. It was now wet, squally +weather, and there appeared a stagnation of insect life. We Staved five +days, during which time twelve persons died in the village, mostly from +simple intermittent fever, of the treatment of which the natives are +quite ignorant. During the whole of this voyage I had suffered greatly +from sunburnt lips, owing to having exposed myself on deck all day to +loon after our safety among the shoals and reefs near Waigiou. The +salt in the air so affected them that they would not heal, but became +excessively painful, and bled at the slightest touch, and for a long +time it was with great difficulty I could eat at all, being obliged +to open my mouth very wide, and put in each mouthful with the greatest +caution. I kept them constantly covered with ointment, which was itself +very disagreeable, and they caused me almost constant pain for more than +a month, as they did not get well till I had returned to Ternate, and +was able to remain a week indoors. + +A boat which left for Ternate, the day after we arrived, was obliged to +return the next day, on account of bad weather. On the 31st we went out +to the anchorage at the mouth of the harbour, so as to be ready to start +at the first favourable opportunity. + +On the 1st of November I called up my men at one in the morning, and we +started with the tide in our favour. Hitherto it had usually been calm +at night, but on this occasion we had a strong westerly squall with +rain, which turned our prau broadside, and obliged us to anchor. When it +had passed we went on rowing all night, but the wind ahead counteracted +the current in our favour, and we advanced but little. Soon after +sunrise the wind became stronger and more adverse, and as we had a +dangerous lee-shore which we could not clear, we had to put about +and get an offing to the W.S.W. This series of contrary winds and bad +weather ever since we started, not having had a single day of fair wind, +was very remarkable. My men firmly believed there was something unlucky +in the boat, and told me I ought to have had a certain ceremony gone +through before starting, consisting of boring a hole in the bottom and +pouring some kind of holy oil through it. It must be remembered that +this was the season of the south-east monsoon, and yet we had not had +even half a day's south-east wind since we left Waigiou. Contrary winds, +squalls, and currents drifted us about the rest of the day at their +pleasure. The night was equally squally and changeable, and kept us hard +at work taking in and making sail, and rowing in the intervals. + +Sunrise on the 2d found us in the middle of the ten-mile channel between +Kaiķa and Makian. Squalls and showers succeeded each other during the +morning. At noon there was a dead calm, after which a light westerly +breeze enabled us to reach a village on Makian in the evening. Here I +bought some pumelos (Citrus decumana), kanary-nuts, and coffee, and let +my men have a night's sleep. + +The morning of the 3d was fine, and we rowed slowly along the coast of +Makian. The captain of a small prau at anchor, seeing me on deck and +guessing who I was, made signals for us to stop, and brought me a letter +from Charles Allen, who informed me he had been at Ternate twenty days, +and was anxiously waiting my arrival. This was good news, as I was +equally anxious about him, and it cheered up my spirits. A light +southerly wind now sprung up, and we thought we were going to have fine +weather. It soon changed, however, to its old quarter, the west; dense +clouds gathered over the sky, and in less than half an hour we had the +severest squall we had experienced during our whole voyage. Luckily we +got our great mainsail down in time, or the consequences might have been +serious. It was a regular little hurricane, and my old Bugis steersman +began shouting out to "Allah! il Allah!" to preserve us. We could only +keep up our jib, which was almost blown to rags, but by careful handling +it kept us before the wind, and the prau behaved very well. Our small +boat (purchased at Gani) was towing astern, and soon got full of water, +so that it broke away and we saw no more of it. In about an hour the +fury of the wind abated a little, and in two more we were able to hoist +our mainsail, reefed and half-mast high. Towards evening it cleared up +and fell calm, and the sea, which had been rather high, soon went down. +Not being much of a seaman myself I had been considerably alarmed, and +even the old steersman assured me he had never been in a worse squall +all his life. He was now more than ever confirmed in his opinion of the +unluckiness of the boat, and in the efficiency of the holy oil which all +Bugis praus had poured through their bottoms. As it was, he imputed +our safety and the quick termination of the squall entirely to his own +prayers, saying with a laugh, "Yes, that's the way we always do on board +our praus; when things are at the worst we stand up and shout out our +prayers as loud as we can, and then Tuwan Allah helps us." + +After this it took us two days more to reach Ternate, having our usual +calms, squalls, and head-winds to the very last; and once having to +return back to our anchorage owing to violent gusts of wind just as we +were close to the town. Looking at my whole voyage in this vessel from +the time when I left Goram in May, it will appear that rely experiences +of travel in a native prau have not been encouraging. My first crew +ran away; two men were lost for a month on a desert island; we were +ten times aground on coral reefs; we lost four anchors; the sails were +devoured by rats; the small boat was lost astern; we were thirty-eight +days on the voyage home, which should not have taken twelve; we were +many times short of food and water; we had no compass-lamp, owing to +there not being a drop of oil in Waigiou when we left; and to crown all, +during the whole of our voyages from Goram by Ceram to Waigiou, and from +Waigiou to Ternate, occupying in all seventy-eight days, or only +twelve days short of three months (all in what was supposed to be the +favourable season), we had not one single day of fair wind. We were +always close braced up, always struggling against wind, tide, and +leeway, and in a vessel that would scarcely sail nearer than eight +points from the wind. Every seaman will admit that my first voyage in my +own boat was a most unlucky one. + +Charles Allen had obtained a tolerable collection of birds and insects +at Mysol, but far less than he would have done if I had not been so +unfortunate as to miss visiting him. After waiting another week or two +till he was nearly starved, he returned to Wahai in Ceram, and heard, +much to his surprise, that I had left a fortnight before. He was delayed +there more than a month before he could get back to the north side of +Mysol, which he found a much better locality, but it was not yet the +season for the Paradise Birds; and before he had obtained more than a +few of the common sort, the last prau was ready to leave for Ternate, +and he was obliged to take the opportunity, as he expected I would be +waiting there for him. + +This concludes the record of my wanderings. I next went to Timor, and +afterwards to Bourn, Java, and Sumatra, which places have already been +described. Charles Allen made a voyage to New Guinea, a short account of +which will be given in my next chapter on the Birds of Paradise. On +his return he went to the Sula Islands, and made a very interesting +collection which served to determine the limits of the zoological group +of Celebes, as already explained in my chapter on the natural history of +that island. His next journey was to Flores and Solor, where he obtained +some valuable materials, which I have used in my chapter on the natural +history of the Timor group. He afterwards went to Coti on the east coast +of Borneo, from which place I was very anxious to obtain collections, +as it is a quite new locality as far as possible from Sarawak, and I +had heard very good accounts of it. On his return thence to Sourabaya in +Java, he was to have gone to the entirely unknown Sumba or Sandal-wood +Island. Most unfortunately, however, he was seized with a terrible fever +on his arrival at Coti, and, after lying there some weeks, was taken to +Singapore in a very bad condition, where he arrived after I had left for +England. When he recovered he obtained employment in Singapore, and I +lost his services as a collector. + +The three concluding chapters of my work will treat of the birds of +Paradise, the Natural History of the Papuan Islands, and the Races of +Man in the Malay Archipelago. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE BIRDS OF PARADISE. + +AS many of my journeys were made with the express object of obtaining +specimens of the Birds of Paradise, and learning something of their +habits and distribution; and being (as far as I am aware) the only +Englishman who has seen these wonderful birds in their native forests, +and obtained specimens of many of them, I propose to give here, in a +connected form, the result of my observations and inquiries. + +When the earliest European voyagers reached the Moluccas in search of +cloves and nutmegs, which were then rare and precious spices, they were +presented with the dried shins of birds so strange and beautiful as to +excite the admiration even of those wealth-seeking rovers. The Malay +traders gave them the name of "Manuk dewata," or God's birds; and the +Portuguese, finding that they had no feet or wings, and not being able +to learn anything authentic about then, called them "Passaros de Col," +or Birds of the Sun; while the learned Dutchmen, who wrote in Latin, +called them "Avis paradiseus," or Paradise Bird. John van Linschoten +gives these names in 1598, and tells us that no one has seen these birds +alive, for they live in the air, always turning towards the sun, and +never lighting on the earth till they die; for they have neither feet +nor wings, as, he adds, may be seen by the birds carried to India, and +sometimes to Holland, but being very costly they were then rarely seen +in Europe. More than a hundred years later Mr. William Funnel, who +accompanied Dampier, and wrote an account of the voyage, saw specimens +at Amboyna, and was told that they came to Banda to eat nutmegs, which +intoxicated them and made them fall down senseless, when they were +killed by ants. Down to 1760, when Linnaeus named the largest species, +Paradisea apoda (the footless Paradise Bird), no perfect specimen had +been seen in Europe, and absolutely nothing was known about them. And +even now, a hundred years later, most books state that they migrate +annually to Ternate, Banda, and Amboyna; whereas the fact is, that they +are as completely unknown in those islands in a wild state as they are +in England. Linnaeus was also acquainted with a small species, which he +named Paradisea regia (the King Bird of Paradise), and since then nine +or ten others have been named, all of which were first described from +skins preserved by the savages of New Guinea, and generally more or less +imperfect. These are now all known in the Malay Archipelago as "Burong +coati," or dead birds, indicating that the Malay traders never saw them +alive. + +The Paradiseidae are a group of moderate-sized birds, allied in +their structure and habits to crows, starlings, and to the Australian +honeysuckers; but they are characterised by extraordinary developments +of plumage, which are unequalled in any other family of birds. In +several species large tufts of delicate bright-coloured feathers spring +from each side of the body beneath the wings, forming trains, or fans, +or shields; and the middle feathers of the tail are often elongated into +wires, twisted into fantastic shapes, or adorned with the most brilliant +metallic tints. In another set of species these accessory plumes spring +from the head, the back, or the shoulders; while the intensity of colour +and of metallic lustre displayed by their plumage, is not to be equalled +by any other birds, except, perhaps, the humming-birds, and is not +surpassed even by these. They have been usually classified under +two distinct families, Paradiseidae and Epimachidae, the latter +characterised by long and slender beaks, and supposed to be allied to +the Hoopoes; but the two groups are so closely allied in every essential +point of structure and habits, that I shall consider them as forming +subdivisions of one family. I will now give a short description of each +of the known species, and then add some general remarks on their natural +history. + +The Great Bird of Paradise (Paradisea apoda of Linnaeus) is the largest +species known, being generally seventeen or eighteen inches from the +beak to the tip of the tail. The body, wings, and tail are of a rich +coffee-brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish-violet or +purple-brown. The whole top of the head and neck is of an exceedingly +delicate straw-yellow, the feathers being short and close set, so as +to resemble plush or velvet; the lower part of the throat up to the eye +clothed with scaly feathers of an emerald, green colour, and with a rich +metallic gloss, and velvety plumes of a still deeper green extend in +a band across the forehead and chin as far as the eye, which is bright +yellow. The beak is pale lead blue; and the feet, which are rather large +and very strong and well formed, are of a pale ashy-pink. The two middle +feathers of the tail have no webs, except a very small one at the base +and at the extreme tip, forming wire-like cirrhi, which spread out in +an elegant double curve, and vary from twenty-four to thirty-four inches +long. From each side of the body, beneath the wings, springs a dense +tuft of long and delicate plumes, sometimes two feet in length, of the +most intense golden-orange colour and very glossy, but changing towards +the tips into a pale brown. This tuft of plumage cam be elevated and +spread out at pleasure, so as almost to conceal the body of the bird. + +These splendid ornaments are entirely confined to the male sex, while +the female is really a very plain and ordinary-looking bird of a uniform +coffee-brown colour which never changes, neither does she possess the +long tail wires, nor a single yellow or green feather about the dead. +The young males of the first year exactly resemble the females, so that +they can only be distinguished by dissection. The first change is the +acquisition of the yellow and green colour on the head and throat, and +at the same time the two middle tail feathers grow a few inches longer +than the rest, but remain webbed on both sides. At a later period these +feathers are replaced by the long bare shafts of the full length, as +in the adult bird; but there is still no sign of the magnificent orange +side-plumes, which later still complete the attire of the perfect +male. To effect these changes there must be at least three successive +moultings; and as the birds were found by me in all the stages about the +same time, it is probable that they moult only once a year, and that +the full plumage is not acquired till the bird is four years old. It +was long thought that the fine train of feathers was assumed for a short +time only at the breeding season, but my own experience, as well as the +observation of birds of an allied species which I brought home with +me, and which lived two years in this country, show that the complete +plumage is retained during the whole year, except during a short period +of moulting as with most other birds. + +The Great Bird of Paradise is very active and vigorous and seems to be +in constant motion all day long. It is very abundant, small flocks +of females and young male being constantly met with; and though the +full-plumaged birds are less plentiful, their loud cries, which are +heard daily, show that they also are very numerous. Their note is, +"Wawk-wawk-wawk-Wok-wok-wok," and is so loud and shrill as to be heard a +great distance, and to form the most prominent and characteristic animal +sound in the Aru Islands. The mode of nidification is unknown; but the +natives told me that the nest was formed of leaves placed on an ant's +nest, or on some projecting limb of a very lofty tree, and they believe +that it contains only one young bird. The egg is quite unknown, and the +natives declared they had never seen it; and a very high reward offered +for one by a Dutch official did not meet with success. They moult about +January or February, and in May, when they are in full plumage, the +males assemble early in the morning to exhibit themselves in the +singular manner already described at p. 252. This habit enables the +natives to obtain specimens with comparative ease. As soon as they find +that the birds have fled upon a tree on which to assemble, they build a +little shelter of palm leaves in a convenient place among the branches, +and the hunter ensconces himself in it before daylight, armed with his +bow and a number of arrows terminating in a round knob. A boy waits +at the foot of the tree, and when the birds come at sunrise, and a +sufficient number have assembled, and have begun to dance, the hunter +shoots with his blunt arrow so strongly as to stun the bird, which drops +down, and is secured and killed by the boy without its plumage being +injured by a drop of blood. The rest take no notice, and fall one after +another till some of them take the alarm. (See Frontispiece.) + +The native mode of preserving them is to cut off the wings and feet, and +then skin the body up to the beak, taking out the skull. A stout stick +is then run up through the specimen coming out at the mouth. Round this +some leaves are stuffed, and the whole is wrapped up in a palm spathe +and dried in the smoky hut. By this plan the head, which is really +large, is shrunk up almost to nothing, the body is much reduced and +shortened, and the greatest prominence is given to the flowing plumage. +Some of these native skins are very clean, and often have wings and feet +left on; others are dreadfully stained with smoke, and all hive a most +erroneous idea of the proportions of the living bird. + +The Paradisea apoda, as far as we have any certain knowledge, is +confined to the mainland of the Aru Islands, never being found in the +smaller islands which surround the central mass. It is certainly not +found in any of the parts of New Guinea visited by the Malay and Bugis +traders, nor in any of the other islands where Birds of Paradise are +obtained. But this is by no means conclusive evidence, for it is only in +certain localities that the natives prepare skins, and in other places +the same birds may be abundant without ever becoming known. It is +therefore quite possible that this species may inhabit the great +southern mass of New Guinea, from which Aru has been separated; +while its near ally, which I shall next describe, is confined to the +north-western peninsula. + +The Lesser Bird of Paradise (Paradisea papuana of Bechstein), "Le petit +Emeraude" of French authors, is a much smaller bird than the preceding, +although very similar to it. It differs in its lighter brown colour, not +becoming darker or purpled on the breast; in the extension of the yellow +colour all over the upper part of the back and on the wing coverts; +in the lighter yellow of the side plumes, which have only a tinge of +orange, and at the tips are nearly pure white; and in the comparative +shortness of the tail cirrhi. The female differs remarkably front +the same sex in Paradisea apoda, by being entirely white on the under +surface of the body, and is thus a much handsomer bird. The young males +are similarly coloured, and as they grow older they change to brown, +and go through the same stages in acquiring the perfect plumage as has +already been described in the allied species. It is this bird which is +most commonly used in ladies' head-dresses in this country, and also +forms an important article of commerce in the East. + +The Paradisea papuana has a comparatively wide range, being the common +species on the mainland of New Guinea, as well as on the islands of +Mysol, Salwatty, Jobie, Biak and Sook. On the south coast of New +Guinea, the Dutch naturalist, Muller, found it at the Oetanata river in +longitude 136° E. I obtained it myself at Dorey; and the captain of the +Dutch steamer Etna informed me that he had seen the feathers among the +natives of Humboldt Bay, in 141° E. longitude. It is very probable, +therefore, that it ranges over the whole of the mainland of New Guinea. + +The true Paradise Birds are omnivorous, feeding on fruits and +insects--of the former preferring the small figs; of the latter, +grasshoppers, locusts, and phasmas, as well as cockroaches and +caterpillars. When I returned home, in 1862, I was so fortunate as to +find two adult males of this species in Singapore; and as they seemed +healthy, and fed voraciously on rice, bananas, and cockroaches, I +determined on giving the very high price asked for them--Ŗ100.--and to +bring them to England by the overland route under my own care. On my way +home I stayed a week at Bombay, to break the journey, and to lay in a +fresh stock of bananas for my birds. I had great difficulty, however, +in supplying them with insect food, for in the Peninsular and Oriental +steamers cockroaches were scarce, and it was only by setting traps in +the store-rooms, and by hunting an hour every night in the forecastle, +that I could secure a few dozen of these creatures,--scarcely enough +for a single meal. At Malta, where I stayed a fortnight, I got plenty +of cockroaches from a bake-house, and when I left, took with me several +biscuit-tins' full, as provision for the voyage home. We came through +the Mediterranean in March, with a very cold wind; and the only place on +board the mail-steamer where their large cage could be accommodated was +exposed to a strong current of air down a hatchway which stood open day +and night, yet the birds never seemed to feel the cold. During the night +journey from Marseilles to Paris it was a sharp frost; yet they arrived +in London in perfect health, and lived in the Zoological Gardens for +one, and two years, often displaying their beautiful plumes to the +admiration of the spectators. It is evident, therefore, that the +Paradise Birds are very hardy, and require air and exercise rather +than heat; and I feel sure that if a good sized conservators` could +be devoted to them, or if they could be turned loose in the tropical +department of the Crystal Palace or the Great Palm House at Kew, they +would live in this country for many years. + +The Red Bird of Paradise (Paradisea rubra of Viellot), though allied to +the two birds already described, is much more distinct from them than +they are from each other. It is about the same size as Paradisea papuana +(13 to 14 inches long), but differs from it in many particulars. The +side plumes, instead of being yellow, are rich crimson, and only extend +about three or four inches beyond the end of the tail; they are somewhat +rigid, and the ends are curved downwards and inwards, and are tipped +with white. The two middle tail feathers, instead of being simply +elongated and deprived of their webs, are transformed into stiff black +ribands, a quarter of an inch wide, but curved like a split quill, and +resembling thin half cylinders of horn or whalebone. When a dead bird +is laid on its back, it is seen that these ribands take a curve or set, +which brings them round so as to meet in a double circle on the neck +of the bird; but when they hang downwards, during life, they assume a +spiral twist, and form an exceedingly graceful double curve. They are +about twenty-two inches long, and always attract attention as the most +conspicuous and extraordinary feature of the species. The rich metallic +green colour of the throat extends over the front half of the head to +behind the eyes, and on the forehead forms a little double crest of +scaly feathers, which adds much to the vivacity of the bird's aspect. +The bill is gamboge yellow, and the iris blackish olive. (Figure at p. +353.) + +The female of this species is of a tolerably uniform coffee-brown +colour, but has a blackish head, and the nape neck, and shoulders +yellow, indicating the position of the brighter colours of the male. The +changes of plumage follow the same order of succession as in the other +species, the bright colours of the head and neck being first developed, +then the lengthened filaments of the tail, and last of all, the red side +plumes. I obtained a series of specimens, illustrating the manner in +which the extraordinary black tail ribands are developed, which is very +remarkable. They first appear as two ordinary feathers, rather shorter +than the rest of the tail; the second stage would no doubt be that shown +in a specimen of Paradisea apoda, in which the feathers are moderately +lengthened, and with the web narrowed in the middle; the third stage is +shown by a specimen which has part of the midrib bare, and terminated +by a spatulate web; in another the bare midrib is a little dilated +and semi-cylindrical, and the terminal web very small; in a fifth, the +perfect black horny riband is formed, but it bears at its extremity +a brown spatulate web, while in another a portion of the black riband +itself bears, for a portion of its length, a narrow brown web. It is +only after these changes are fully completed that the red side plumes +begin to appear. + +The successive stages of development of the colours and plumage of the +Birds of Paradise are very interesting, from the striking manner in +which they accord with the theory of their having been produced by the +simple action of variation, and the cumulative power of selection by the +females, of those male birds which were more than usually ornamental. +Variations of _colour_ are of all others the most frequent and the +most striking, and are most easily modified and accumulated by man's +selection of them. We should expect, therefore, that the sexual +differences of _colour_ would be those most early accumulated and fixed, +and would therefore appear soonest in the young birds; and this is +exactly what occurs in the Paradise Birds. Of all variations in the +_form_ of birds' feathers, none are so frequent as those in the head and +tail. These occur more, or less in every family of birds, and are easily +produced in many domesticated varieties, while unusual developments of +the feathers of the body are rare in the whole class of birds, and have +seldom or never occurred in domesticated species. In accordance with +these facts, we find the scale-formed plumes of the throat, the crests +of the head, and the long cirrhi of the tail, all fully developed before +the plumes which spring from the side of the body begin to mane their +appearance. If, on the other hand, the male Paradise Birds have not +acquired their distinctive plumage by successive variations, but have +been as they are mow from the moment they first appeared upon the earth, +this succession becomes at the least unintelligible to us, for we can +see no reason why the changes should not take place simultaneously, or +in a reverse order to that in which they actually occur. + +What is known of the habits of this bird, and the way in which it is +captured by the natives, have already been described at page 362. + +The Red Bird of Paradise offers a remarkable case of restricted +range, being entirely confined to the small island of Waigiou, off the +north-west extremity of New Guinea, where it replaces the allied species +found in the other islands. + +The three birds just described form a well-marked group, agreeing in +every point of general structure, in their comparatively large size, +the brown colour of their bodies, wings, and tail, and in the peculiar +character of the ornamental plumage which distinguishes the male bird. +The group ranges nearly over the whole area inhabited by the family of +the Paradiseidae, but each of the species has its own limited region, +and is never found in the same district with either of its close allies. +To these three birds properly belongs the generic title Paradisea, or +true Paradise Bird. + +The next species is the Paradisea regia of Linnaeus, or Ding Bird of +Paradise, which differs so much from the three preceding species as +to deserve a distinct generic name, and it has accordingly been called +Cicinnurus regius. By the Malays it is called "Burong rajah," or King +Bird, and by the natives of the Aru Islands "Goby-goby." + +This lovely little bird is only about six and a half inches long, partly +owing to the very short tail, which does not surpass the somewhat square +wings. The head, throat, and entire upper surface are of the richest +glossy crimson red, shading to orange-crimson on the forehead, where the +feathers extend beyond the nostrils more than half-way down the beak. +The plumage is excessively brilliant, shining in certain lights with a +metallic or glassy lustre. The breast and belly are pure silky white, +between which colour and the red of the throat there is a broad band of +rich metallic green, and there is a small spot of the same colour close +above each eye. From each side of the body beneath the wing, springs +a tuft of broad delicate feathers about an inch and a half long, of an +ashy colour, but tipped with a broad band of emerald green, bordered +within by a narrow line of buff: These plumes are concealed beneath the +wing, but when the bird pleases, can be raised and spread out so as to +form an elegant semicircular fan on each shoulder. But another ornament +still more extraordinary, and if possible more beautiful, adorns this +little bird. The two middle tail feathers are modified into very slender +wirelike shafts, nearly six inches long, each of which bears at the +extremity, on the inner side only, a web of an emerald green colour, +which is coiled up into a perfect spiral disc, and produces a most +singular and charming effect. The bill is orange yellow, and the feet +and legs of a fine cobalt blue. (See upper figure on the plate at the +commencement of this chapter.) + +The female of this little gem is such a plainly coloured bird, that it +can at first sight hardly be believed to belong to the same species. The +upper surface is of a dull earthy brown, a slight tinge of orange red +appearing only on the margins of the quills. Beneath, it is of a paler +yellowish brown, scaled and banded with narrow dusky markings. The young +males are exactly like the female, and they no doubt undergo a series of +changes as singular as those of Paradisea rubra; but, unfortunately, I +was unable to obtain illustrative specimens. + +This exquisite little creature frequents the smaller trees in the +thickest parts of the forest, feeding on various fruits; often of a very +large size for so small a bird. It is very active both on its wings and +feet, and makes a whirring sound while flying, something like the +South American manakins. It often flutters its wings and displays the +beautiful fan which adorns its breast, while the star-bearing tail wires +diverge in an elegant double curve. It is tolerably plentiful in the +Aru Islands, which led to it, being brought to Europe at an early period +along with Paradisea apoda. It also occurs in the island of Mysol and in +every part of New Guinea which has been visited by naturalists. + +We now come to the remarkable little bird called the "Magnificent," +first figured by Buffon, and named Paradisea speciosa by Boddaert, +which, with one allied species, has been formed into a separate genus +by Prince Buonaparte, under the name of Diphyllodes, from the curious +double mantle which clothes the back. + +The head is covered with short brown velvety feathers, which advance on +the back so as to cover the nostrils. From the nape springs a dense mass +of feathers of a straw-yellow colour, and about one and a half inches +long, forming a mantle over the upper part of the back. Beneath this, +and forming a band about one-third of an inch beyond it, is a second +mantle of rich, glossy, reddish-brown fathers. The rest of the bath is +orange-brown, the tail-coverts and tail dark bronzy, the wings light +orange-buff: The whole under surface is covered with an abundance of +plumage springing from the margins of the breast, and of a rich deep +green colour, with changeable hues of purple. Down the middle of the +breast is a broad band of scaly plumes of the same colour, while the +chin and throat are of a rich metallic bronze. From the middle of the +tail spring two narrow feathers of a rich steel blue, and about ten +inches long. These are webbed on the inner side only, and curve outward, +so as to form a double circle. + +From what we know of the habits of allied species, we may be sure that +the greatly developed plumage of this bird is erected and displayed in +some remarkable manner. The mass of feathers on the under surface are +probably expanded into a hemisphere, while the beautiful yellow mantle +is no doubt elevated so as to give the bird a very different appearance +from that which it presents in the dried and flattened skins of the +natives, through which alone it is at present known. The feet appear to +be dark blue. + +This rare and elegant little bird is found only on the mainland of New +Guinea, and in the island of Mysol. + +A still more rare and beautiful species than the last is the Diphyllodes +wilsoni, described by Mr. Cassin from a native skin in the rich museum +of Philadelphia. The same bird was afterwards named "Diphyllodes +respublica" by Prince Buonaparte, and still later, "Schlegelia calva," +by Dr. Bernstein, who was so fortunate as to obtain fresh specimens in +Waigiou. + +In this species the upper mantle is sulphur yellow, the lower one and +the wings pure red, the breast plumes dark green, and the lengthened +middle tail feathers much shorter than in the allied species. The most +curious difference is, however, that the top of the head is bald, the +bare skin being of a rich cobalt blue, crossed by several lines of black +velvety feathers. + +It is about the same size as Diphyllodes speciosa, and is no doubt +entirely confined to the island of Waigiou. The female, as figured and +described by Dr. Bernstein, is very like that of Cicinnurus regius, +being similarly banded beneath; and we may therefore conclude that its +near ally, the "Magnificent," is at least equally plain in this sex, of +which specimens have not yet been obtained. + +The Superb Bird of Paradise was first figured by Buffon, and was +named by Boddaert, Paradisea atra, from the black ground colour of its +plumage. It forms the genus Lophorina of Viellot, and is one of the +rarest and most brilliant of the whole group, being only known +front mutilated native skins. This bird is a little larger than the +Magnificent. The ground colour of the plumage is intense black, but with +beautiful bronze reflections on the neck, and the whole head scaled with +feathers of brilliant metallic green and blue. Over its breast it bears +a shield formed of narrow and rather stiff feathers, much elongated +towards the sides, of a pure bluish-green colour, and with a satiny +gloss. But a still more extraordinary ornament is that which springs +from the back of the neck,--a shield of a similar form to that on the +breast, but much larger, and of a velvety black colour, glossed with +bronze and purple. The outermost feathers of this shield are half +an inch longer than the wing, and when it is elevated it must, in +conjunction with the breast shield, completely change the form and whole +appearance of the bird. The bill is black, and the feet appear to be +yellow. + +This wonderful little bird inhabits the interior of the northern +peninsula of New Guinea only. Neither I nor Mr. Allen could hear +anything of it in any of the islands or on any part of the coast. It is +true that it was obtained from the coast-natives by Lesson; but when +at Sorong in 1861, Mr. Allen learnt that it is only found three days' +journey in the interior. Owing to these "Black Birds of Paradise," as +they are called, not being so much valued as articles of merchandise, +they now seem to be rarely preserved by the natives, and it thus +happened that during several years spent on the coasts of New Guinea +and in the Moluccas I was never able to obtain a skin. We are therefore +quite ignorant of the habits of this bird, and also of its female, +though the latter is no doubt as plain and inconspicuous as in all the +other species of this family. + +The Golden, or Six-shafted, Paradise Bird, is another rare species, +first figured by Buffon, and never yet obtained in perfect condition. It +was named by Boddaert, Paradisea sexpennis, and forms the genus +Parotia of Viellot. This wonderful bird is about the size of the female +Paradisea rubra. The plumage appear, at first sight black, but it glows +in certain light with bronze and deep purple. The throat and breast are +scaled with broad flat feathers of an intense golden hue, changing to +green and blue tints in certain lights. On the back of the head is a +broad recurved band of feathers, whose brilliancy is indescribable, +resembling the sheen of emerald and topaz rather than any organic +substance. Over the forehead is a large patch of pure white feathers, +which shine like satin; and from the sides of the head spring the six +wonderful feathers from which the bird receives its name. These are +slender wires, six inches long, with a small oval web at the extremity. +In addition to these ornaments, there is also an immense tuft of soft +feathers on each side of the breast, which when elevated must entirely +hide the wings, and give the bird au appearance of being double its real +bulk. The bill is black, short, and rather compressed, with the feathers +advancing over the nostrils, as in Cicinnurus regius. This singular and +brilliant bird inhabits the same region as the Superb Bird of Paradise, +and nothing whatever is known about it but what we can derive from an +examination of the skins preserved by the natives of New Guinea. + +The Standard Wing, named Semioptera wallacei by Mr. G. R. Gray, is +an entirely new form of Bird of Paradise, discovered by myself in the +island of Batchian, and especially distinguished by a pair of long +narrow feathers of a white colour, which spring from among the short +plumes which clothe the bend of the wing, and are capable of being +erected at pleasure. The general colour of this bird is a delicate +olive-brown, deepening to a loud of bronzy olive in the middle of the +back, and changing to a delicate ashy violet with a metallic gloss, on +the crown of the head. The feathers, which cover the nostrils and extend +half-way down the beak, are loose and curved upwards. Beneath, it is +much more beautiful. The scale-like feathers of the breast are margined +with rich metallic blue-green, which colour entirely covers the throat +and sides of the neck, as well as the long pointed plumes which spring +from the sides of the breast, and extend nearly as far as the end of the +wings. The most curious feature of the bird, however, and one altogether +unique in the whole class, is found in the pair of long narrow delicate +feathers which spring from each wing close to the bend. On lifting the +wing-coverts they are seen to arise from two tubular horny sheaths, +which diverge from near the point of junction of the carpal bones. As +already described at p. 41, they are erectile, and when the bird +is excited are spread out at right angles to the wing and slightly +divergent. They are from six to six and a half inches long, the upper +one slightly exceeding the lower. The total length of the bird is eleven +inches. The bill is horny olive, the iris deep olive, and the feet +bright orange. + +The female bird is remarkably plain, being entirely of a dull pale +earthy brown, with only a slight tinge of ashy violet on the head to +relieve its general monotony; and the young males exactly resemble her. +(See figures at p. 41.) + +This bird, frequents the lower trees of the forests, and, like most +Paradise Birds, is in constant motion--flying from branch to branch, +clinging to the twigs and even to the smooth and vertical trunks almost +as easily as a woodpecker. It continually utters a harsh, creaking note, +somewhat intermediate between that of Paradisea apoda, and the more +musical cry of Cicinnurus regius. The males at short intervals open and +flutter their wings, erect the long shoulder feathers, and spread out +the elegant green breast shields. + +The Standard Wing is found in Gilolo as well as in Batchian, and all +the specimens from the former island have the green breast shield rather +longer, the crown of the head darker violet, and the lower parts of the +body rather more strongly scaled with green. This is the only Paradise +Bird yet found in the Moluccan district, all the others being confined +to the Papuan Islands and North Australia. + +We now come to the Epimachidae, or Long-billed Birds of Paradise, which, +as before stated, ought not to be separated from the Paradiseidae by the +intervention of any other birds. One of the most remarkable of these is +the Twelve-wired Paradise Bird, Paradises alba of Blumenbach, but now +placed in the genus Seleucides of Lesson. + +This bird is about twelve inches long, of which the compressed and +curved beak occupies two inches. The colour of the breast and upper +surface appears at first sight nearly black, but a close examination +shows that no part of it is devoid of colour; and by holding it in +various lights, the most rich and glowing tints become visible. The +head, covered with short velvety feathers, which advance on the chic +much further than on the upper part of the beak, is of a purplish bronze +colour; the whole of the back and shoulders is rich bronzy green, while +the closed wings and tail are of the most brilliant violet purple, all +the plumage having a delicate silky gloss. The mass of feathers which +cover the breast is really almost black, with faint glosses of green +and purple, but their outer edges are margined with glittering bands of +emerald green. The whole lower part of the body is rich buffy yellow, +including the tuft of plumes which spring from the sides, and extend an +inch and a half beyond the tail. When skins are exposed to the light +the yellow fades into dull white, from which circumstance it derived its +specific name. About six of the innermost of these plumes on each side +have the midrib elongated into slender black wires, which bend at right +angles, and curve somewhat backwards to a length of about ten inches, +forming one of those extraordinary and fantastic ornaments with which +this group of birds abounds. The bill is jet black, and the feet +bright yellow. (See lower figure on the plate at the beginning of this +chapter). + +The female, although not quite so plain a bird as in some other species, +presents none of the gay colours or ornamental plumage of the male. The +top of the head and back of the neck are black, the rest of the upper +parts rich reddish brown; while the under surface is entirely yellowish +ashy, somewhat blackish on the breast, and crossed throughout with +narrow blackish wavy bands. + +The Seleucides alba is found in the island of Salwatty, and in the +north-western parts of New Guinea, where it frequents flowering trees, +especially sago-palms and pandani, sucking the flowers, round and +beneath which its unusually large and powerful feet enable it to cling. +Its motions are very rapid. It seldom rests more than a few moments on +one tree, after which it flies straight off, and with great swiftness, +to another. It has a loud shrill cry, to be heard a long way, consisting +of "Cah, cah," repeated five or six times in a descending scale, and at +the last note it generally flies away. The males are quite solitary in +their habits, although, perhaps, they assemble at pertain times like the +true Paradise Birds. All the specimens shot and opened by my assistant +Mr. Allen, who obtained this fine bird during his last voyage to New +Guinea, had nothing in their stomachs but a brown sweet liquid, +probably the nectar of the flowers on which they had been feeding. They +certainly, however, eat both fruit and insects, for a specimen which +I saw alive on board a Dutch steamer ate cockroaches and papaya fruit +voraciously. This bird had the curious habit of resting at noon with the +bill pointing vertically upwards. It died on the passage to Batavia, and +I secured the body and formed a skeleton, which shows indisputably that +it is really a Bird of Paradise. The tongue is very long and extensible, +but flat and little fibrous at the end, exactly like the true +Paradiseas. + +In the island of Salwatty, the natives search in the forests till they +find the sleeping place of this bird, which they know by seeing its +dung upon the ground. It is generally in a low bushy tree. At night they +climb up the trap, and either shoot the birds with blunt arrows, or even +catch them alive with a cloth. In New Guinea they are caught by placing +snares on the trees frequented by them, in the same way as the Red +Paradise birds are caught in Waigiou, and which has already been +described at page 362. + +The great Epimaque, or Long-tailed Paradise Bird (Epimachus magnus), is +another of these wonderful creatures, only known by the imperfect skins +prepared by the natives. In its dark velvety plumage, glowed with bronze +and purple, it resembles the Seleucides alba, but it bears a magnificent +tail more than two feet long, glossed on the upper surface with the most +intense opalescent blue. Its chief ornament, however, consists in the +group of broad plumes which spring from the sides of the breast, and +which are dilated at the extremity, and banded with the most vivid +metallic blue and green. The bill is long and curved, and the feet +black, and similar to those of the allied forms. The total length of +this fine bird is between three and four feet. + +This splendid bird inhabits the mountains of New Guinea, in the same +district with the Superb and the Six-shafted Paradise Birds, and I was +informed is sometimes found in the ranges near the coast. I was several +times assured by different natives that this bird makes its nest in +a hole under ground, or under rocks, always choosing a place with two +apertures, so that it may enter at one and go out at the other. This is +very unlike what we should suppose to be the habits of the bird, but it +is not easy to conceive how the story originated if it is not true; +and all travellers know that native accounts of the habits of animals, +however strange they may seem, almost invariably turn out to be correct. + +The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird (Epimachus magnificus of Cuvier) is now +generally placed with the Australian Rifle birds in the genus Ptiloris. +Though very beautiful, these birds are less strikingly decorated with +accessory plumage than the other species we have been describing, their +chief ornament being a more or less developed breastplate of stiff +metallic green feathers, and a small tuft of somewhat hairy plumes on +the sides of the breast. The back and wings of this species are of +an intense velvety black, faintly glossed in certain lights with rich +purple. The two broad middle tail feathers are opalescent green-blue +with a velvety surface, and the top of the head is covered with feathers +resembling scales of burnished steel. A large triangular space covering +the chin, throat, and breast, is densely scaled with feathers, having a +steel-blue or green lustre, and a silky feel. This is edged below with +a narrow band of black, followed by shiny bronzy green, below which the +body is covered with hairy feathers of a rich claret colour, deepening +to black at the tail. The tufts of side plumes somewhat resemble those +of the true Birds of Paradise, but are scanty, about as long as the +tail, and of a black colour. The sides of the head are rich violet, and +velvety feathers extend on each side of the beak over the nostrils. + +I obtained at Dorey a young male of this bird, in a state of plumage +which is no doubt that of the adult female, as is the case in all the +allied species. The upper surface, wings, and tail are rich reddish +brown, while the under surface is of a pale ashy colour, closely barred +throughout with narrow wavy black bands. There is also a pale banded +stripe over the eye, and a long dusky stripe from the gape down each +side of the neck. This bird is fourteen inches long, whereas the native +skins of the adult male are only about ten inches, owing to the way +in which the tail is pushed in, so as to give as much prominence as +possible to the ornamental plumage of the breast. + +At Cape York, in North Australia, there is a closely allied species, +Ptiloris alberti, the female of which is very similar to the young male +bird here described. The beautiful Rifle Birds of Australia, which +much resemble those Paradise Birds, are named Ptiloris paradiseus +and Ptiloris victories, The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird seems to be +confined to the mainland of New Guinea, and is less rare than several of +the other species. + +There are three other New Guinea birds which are by some authors classed +with the Birds of Paradise, and which, being almost equally remarkable +for splendid plumage, deserve to be noticed here. The first is the +Paradise pie (Astrapia nigra of Lesson), a bird of the size of Paradises +rubra, but with a very long tail, glossed above with intense violet. +The back is bronzy black, the lower parts green, the throat and neck +bordered with loose broad feathers of an intense coppery hue, while on +the top of the head and neck they are glittering emerald green, All the +plumage round the head is lengthened and erectile, and when spread out +by the living bird must lave an effect hardly surpassed by any of the +true Paradise birds. The bill is black and the feet yellow. The Astrapia +seems to me to be somewhat intermediate between the Paradiseidae and +Epimachidae. + +There is an allied species, having a bare carunculated head, which has +been called Paradigalla carunculata. It is believed to inhabit, with the +preceding, the mountainous, interior of New Guinea, but is exceedingly +rare, the only known specimen being in the Philadelphia Museum. + +The Paradise Oriole is another beautiful bird, which is now sometimes +classed with the Birds of Paradise. It has been named Paradises aurea +and Oriolus aureus by the old naturalists, and is now generally +placed in the same genus as the Regent Bird of Australia (Sericulus +chrysocephalus). But the form of the bill and the character of the +plumage seem to me to be so different that it will have to form a +distinct genus. This bird is almost entirely yellow, with the exception +of the throat, the tail, and part of the wings and back, which are +black; but it is chiefly characterised by a quantity of long feathers of +an intense glossy orange colour, which cover its neck down to the middle +of the back, almost like the hackles of a game-cock. + +This beautiful bird inhabits the mainland of New Guinea, and is also +found in Salwatty, but is so rare that I was only able to obtain one +imperfect native skin, and nothing whatever is known of its habits. + +I will now give a list of all the Birds of Paradise yet known, with the +places they are believed to inhabit. + +1. Paradisea apoda (The Great Paradise Bird). Aru Islands. + +2. Paradisea papuana (The Lesser Paradise Bird). New Guinea. Mysol, +Jobie. + +3. Paradisea rubra (The Red Paradise Bird). Waigiou. + +4. Cicinnurus regius (The King Paradise Bird). New Guinea, Aru Islands, +Mysol, Salwatty. + +5. Diphyllodes speciosa (The Magnificent). New Guinea, Mysol, Salwatty. + +6. Diphyllodes wilsoni (The Red Magnificent). Waigiou. + +7. Lophorina atra (The Superb). New Guinea. + +8. Parotia sexpennis (The Golden Paradise Bird). New Guinea. + +9. Semioptera wallacei (The Standard Wing). Batchian, Gilolo. + +10. Epimachus magnus (The Long-tailed Paradise Bird). New Guinea + +11. Seleucides albs (The Twelve-wired Paradise Bird).New Guinea, +Salwatty. + +12. Ptiloris magnifica (The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird). New Guinea. + +13. Ptiloris alberti (Prince Albert's Paradise Bird). North Australia. + +14. Ptiloris Paradisea (The Rifle Bird). East Australia. + +15. Ptiloris victoriae (The Victorian Rifle Bird). North-East Australia. + +16. Astrapia nigra (The Paradise Pie). New Guinea. + +17. Paradigalla carunculata (The Carunculated Paradise Pie). New Guinea. + +18. (?) Sericulus aureus (The Paradise Oriole). New Guinea, Salwatty. + +We see, therefore, that of the eighteen species which seem to deserve a +place among the Birds of Paradise, eleven are known to inhabit the great +island of New Guinea, eight of which are entirely confined to it and the +hardly separated island of Salwatty. But if we consider those islands +which are now united to New Guinea by a shallow sea to really form a +part of it, we shall find that fourteen of the Paradise Birds belong +to that country, while three inhabit the northern and eastern parts +of Australia, and one the Moluccas. All the more extraordinary and +magnificent species are, however, entirely confined to the Papuan +region. + +Although I devoted so much time to a search after these wonderful birds, +I only succeeded myself in obtaining five species during a residence +of many months in the Aru Islands, New Guinea, and Waigiou. Mr. Allen's +voyage to Mysol did not procure a single additional species, but we +both heard of a place called Sorong, on the mainland of New Guinea, +near Salwatty, where we were told that all the kinds we desired could be +obtained. We therefore determined that he should visit this place, and +endeavour to penetrate into the interior among the natives, who actually +shoot and skin the Birds of Paradise. He went in the small prau I +had fitted up at Goram, and through the kind assistance of the Dutch +Resident at Ternate, a lieutenant and two soldiers were sent by the +Sultan of Tidore to accompany and protect him, and to assist him in +getting men and in visiting the interior. + +Notwithstanding these precautions, Mr. Allen met with difficulties in +this voyage which we had neither of us encountered before. To understand +these, it is necessary to consider that the Birds of Paradise are an +article of commerce, and are the monopoly of the chiefs of the coast +villages, who obtain them at a low rate from the mountaineers, and sell +them to the Bugis traders. A portion is also paid every year as tribute +to the Sultan of Tidore. The natives are therefore very jealous of a +stranger, especially a European, interfering in their trade, and above +all of going into the interior to deal with the mountaineers themselves. +They of course think he will raise the prices in the interior, and +lessen the supply on the coast, greatly to their disadvantage; they also +think their tribute will be raised if a European takes back a quantity +of the rare sorts; and they have besides a vague and very natural dread +of some ulterior object in a white man's coming at so much trouble and +expense to their country only to get Birds of Paradise, of which they +know he can buy plenty (of the common yellow ones which alone they +value) at Ternate, Macassar, or Singapore. + +It thus happened that when Mr. Allen arrived at Sorong, and explained +his intention of going to seek Birds of Paradise in the interior, +innumerable objections were raised. He was told it was three or four +days' journey over swamps and mountains; that the mountaineers were +savages and cannibals, who would certainly kill him; and, lastly, that +not a man in the village could be found who dare go with him. After some +days spent in these discussions, as he still persisted in making the +attempt, and showed them his authority from the Sultan of Tidore to go +where he pleased and receive every assistance, they at length provided +him with a boat to go the first part of the journey up a river; at the +same time, however, they sent private orders to the interior villages +to refuse to sell any provisions, so as to compel him to return. On +arriving at the village where they were to leave the river and strike +inland, the coast people returned, leaving Mr. Allen to get on as +he could. Here he called on the Tidore lieutenant to assist him, and +procure men as guides and to carry his baggage to the villages of the +mountaineers. This, however, was not so easily done. A quarrel took +place, and the natives, refusing to obey the imperious orders of the +lieutenant, got out their knives and spears to attack him and his +soldiers; and Mr. Allen himself was obliged to interfere to protect +those who had come to guard him. The respect due to a white man and the +timely distribution of a few presents prevailed; and, on showing +the knives, hatchets, and beads he was willing to give to those who +accompanied him, peace was restored, and the next day, travelling over +a frightfully rugged country, they reached the villages of the +mountaineers. Here Mr. Allen remained a month without any interpreter +through whom he could understand a word or communicate a want. However, +by signs and presents and a pretty liberal barter, he got on very well, +some of them accompanying him every day in the forest to shoot, and +receiving a small present when he was successful. + +In the grand matter of the Paradise Birds, however, little was done. +Only one additional species was found, the Seleucides alba, of which +he had already obtained a specimen in Salwatty; but he learnt that the +other kinds' of which he showed them drawings, were found two or three +days' journey farther in the interior. When I sent my men from Dorey to +Amberbaki, they heard exactly the same story--that the rarer sorts +were only found several days' journey in the interior, among rugged +mountains, and that the skins were prepared by savage tribes who had +never even been seen by any of the coast people. + +It seems as if Nature had taken precautions that these her choicest +treasures should not be made too common, and thus be undervalued. This +northern coast of New Guinea is exposed to the full swell of the Pacific +Ocean, and is rugged and harbourless. The country is all rocky and +mountainous, covered everywhere with dense forests, offering in its +swamps and precipices and serrated ridges an almost impassable barrier +to the unknown interior; and the people are dangerous savages, in the +very lowest stage of barbarism. In such a country, and among such a +people, are found these wonderful productions of Nature, the Birds +of Paradise, whose exquisite beauty of form and colour and strange +developments of plumage are calculated to excite the wonder and +admiration of the most civilized and the most intellectual of mankind, +and to furnish inexhaustible materials for study to the naturalist, and +for speculation to the philosopher. + +Thus ended my search after these beautiful birds. Five voyages to +different parts of the district they inhabit, each occupying in its +preparation and execution the larger part of a year, produced me only +five species out of the fourteen known to exist in the New Guinea +district. The kinds obtained are those that inhabit the coasts of New +Guinea and its islands, the remainder seeming to be strictly confined +to the central mountain-ranges of the northern peninsula; and our +researches at Dorey and Amberbaki, near one end of this peninsula, and +at Salwatty and Sorong, near the other, enable me to decide with some +certainty on the native country of these rare and lovely birds, good +specimens of which have never yet been seen in Europe. + +It must be considered as somewhat extraordinary that, during five years' +residence and travel in Celebes, the Moluccas, and New Guinea, I should +never have been able to purchase skins of half the species which Lesson, +forty years ago, obtained during a few weeks in the same countries. I +believe that all, except the common species of commerce, are now much +more difficult to obtain than they were even twenty years ago; and I +impute it principally to their having been sought after by the Dutch +officials through the Sultan of Tidore. The chiefs of the annual +expeditions to collect tribute have had orders to get all the rare sorts +of Paradise Birds; and as they pay little or nothing for them (it being +sufficient to say they are for the Sultan), the head men of the +coast villages would for the future refuse to purchase them from the +mountaineers, and confine themselves instead to the commoner species, +which are less sought after by amateurs, but are a more profitable +merchandise. The same causes frequently lead the inhabitants of +uncivilized countries to conceal minerals or other natural products with +which they may become acquainted, from the fear of being obliged to pay +increased tribute, or of bringing upon themselves a new and oppressive +labour. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PAPUAN ISLANDS. + +NEW GUINEA, with the islands joined to it by a shallow sea, constitute +the Papuan group, characterised by a very close resemblance in their +peculiar forms of life. Having already, in my chapters on the Aru +Islands and on the Birds of Paradise, given some details of the natural +history of this district, I shall here confine myself to a general +sketch of its animal productions, and of their relations to those of the +rest of the world. + +New Guinea is perhaps the largest island on the globe, being a little +larger than Borneo. It is nearly fourteen hundred miles long, and in the +widest part four hundred broad, and seems to be everywhere covered with +luxuriant forests. Almost everything that is yet known of its natural +productions comes from the north-western peninsula, and a few islands +grouped around it. These do not constitute a tenth part of the area of +the whole island, and are so cut off from it, that their fauna may well +he somewhat different; yet they have produced us (with a very partial +exploration) no less than two hundred and fifty species of land birds, +almost all unknown elsewhere, and comprising some of the most curious +and most beautiful of the feathered tribes. It is needless to say how +much interest attaches to the far larger unknown portion of this +great island, the greatest terra incognita that still remains for the +naturalist to explore, and the only region where altogether new and +unimagined forms of life may perhaps be found. There is now, I am +happy to say, some chance that this great country will no longer +remain absolutely unknown to us. The Dutch Government have granted +well-equipped steamer to carry a naturalist (Mr. Rosenberg, already +mentioned in this work) and assistants to New Guinea, where they are +to spend some years in circumnavigating the island, ascending its +large rivers a< far as possible into the interior, and making extensive +collections of its natural productions. + +The Mammalia of New Guinea and the adjacent islands, yet discovered, +are only seventeen in number. Two of these are bats, one is a pig of a +peculiar species (Sus papuensis), and the rest are all marsupials. The +bats are, no doubt, much more numerous, but there is every reason to +believe that whatever new land Mammalia man be discovered will belong +to the marsupial order. One of these is a true kangaroo, very similar +to some of middle-sized kangaroos of Australia, and it is remarkable as +being the first animal of the kind ever seen by Europeans. It inhabits +Mysol and the Aru Islands (an allied species being found in New Guinea), +and was seen and described by Le Brun in 1714, from living specimens at +Batavia. A much more extraordinary creature is the tree-kangaroo, two +species of which are known from New Guinea. These animals do not differ +very strikingly in form from the terrestrial kangaroos, and appear to be +but imperfectly adapted to an arboreal life, as they move rather slowly, +and do not seem to have a very secure footing on the limb of a tree. The +leaping power of the muscular tail is lost, and powerful claws have been +acquired to assist in climbing, but in other respects the animal seems +better adapted to walls on terra firma. This imperfect adaptation may +be due to the fact of there being no carnivore in New Guinea, and no +enemies of any kind from which these animals have to escape by rapid +climbing. Four species of Cuscus, and the small flying opossum, also +inhabit New Guinea; and there are five other smaller marsupials, one of +which is the size of a rat, and takes its place by entering houses and +devouring provisions. + +The birds of New Guinea offer the greatest possible contrast to the +Mammalia, since they are more numerous, more beautiful, and afford more +new, curious, and elegant forms than those of any other island on the +globe. Besides the Birds of Paradise, which we have already sufficiently +considered, it possesses a number of other curious birds, which in the +eyes of the ornithologist almost serves to distinguish it as one of the +primary divisions of the earth. Among its thirty species of parrots are +the Great Pluck Cockatoo, and the little rigid-tailed Nasiterna, the +giant and the dwarf of the whole tribe. The bare-headed Dasyptilus +is one of the most singular parrots known; while the beautiful little +long-tailed Charmosyna, and the great variety of gorgeously-coloured +lories, have no parallels elsewhere. Of pigeons it possesses about forty +distinct species, among which are the magnificent crowned pigeons, now +so well known in our aviaries, and pre-eminent both for size and beauty; +the curious Trugon terrestris, which approaches the still more strange +Didunculus of Samoa; and a new genus (Henicophaps), discovered by +myself, which possesses a very long and powerful bill, quite unlike that +of any other pigeon. Among its sixteen kingfishers, it possesses the +carious hook-billed Macrorhina, and a red and blue Tanysiptera, the most +beautiful of that beautiful genus. Among its perching birds are the fine +genus of crow-like starlings, with brilliant plumage (Manucodia); the +carious pale-coloured crow (Gymnocorvus senex); the abnormal red and +black flycatcher (Peltops blainvillii); the curious little boat-billed +flycatchers (Machaerirhynchus); and the elegant blue flycatcher-wrens +(Todopsis). + +The naturalist will obtain a clearer idea of the variety and interest of +the productions of this country, by the statement, that its land birds +belong to 108 genera, of which 20 are exclusively characteristic of it; +while 35 belong to that limited area which includes the Moluccas and +North Australia, and whose species of these genera have been entirely +derived from New Guinea. About one-half of the New Guinea genera are +found also in Australia, about one-third in India and the Indo-Malay +islands. + +A very curious fact, not hitherto sufficiently noticed, is the +appearance of a pure Malay element in the birds of New Guinea. We +find two species of Eupetes, a curious Malayan genus allied to the +forked-tail water-chats; two of Alcippe, an Indian and Malay wren-like +form; an Arachnothera, quite resembling the spider-catching honeysuckers +of Malacca; two species of Gracula, the Mynahs of India; and a curious +little black Prionochilus, a saw-billed fruit pecker, undoubtedly allied +to the Malayan form, although perhaps a distinct genus. Now not one +of these birds, or anything allied to them, occurs in the Moluccas, or +(with one exception) in Celebes or Australia; and as they are most of +them birds of short flight, it is very difficult to conceive how or when +they could have crossed the space of more than a thousand miles, which +now separates them from their nearest allies. Such facts point to +changes of land and sea on a large scale, and at a rate which, measured +by the time required for a change of species, must be termed rapid. +By speculating on such changes, we may easily see how partial waves +of immigration may have entered New Guinea, and how all trace of their +passage may have been obliterated by the subsequent disappearance of the +intervening land. + +There is nothing that the study of geology teaches us that is more +certain or more impressive than the extreme instability of the earth's +surface. Everywhere beneath our feet we find proofs that what is land +has been sea, and that where oceans now spread out has once been land; +and that this change from sea to land, and from land to sea, has taken +place, not once or twice only, but again and again, during countless +ages of past time. Now the study of the distribution of animal life upon +the present surface of the earth, causes us to look upon this constant +interchange of land and sea--this making and unmaking of continents, +this elevation and disappearance of islands--as a potent reality, which +has always and everywhere been in progress, and has been the main agent +in determining the manner in which living things are now grouped and +scattered over the earth's surface. And when we continually come upon +such little anomalies of distribution as that just now described, we +find the only rational explanation of them, in those repeated elevations +and depressions which have left their record in mysterious, but still +intelligible characters on the face of organic nature. + +The insects of New Guinea are less known than the birds, but they seem +almost equally remarkable for fine forms and brilliant colours. The +magnificent green and yellow Ornithopterae are abundant, and have most +probably spread westward from this point as far as India. Among the +smaller butterflies are several peculiar genera of Nymphalidae and +Lycaenidae, remarkable for their large size, singular markings, or +brilliant coloration. The largest and most beautiful of the clear-winged +moths (Cocytia d'urvillei) is found here, as well as the large and +handsome green moth (Nyctalemon orontes). The beetles furnish us with +many species of large size, and of the most brilliant metallic lustre, +among which the Tmesisternus mirabilis, a longicorn beetle of a golden +green colour; the excessively brilliant rose-chafers, Lomaptera wallacei +and Anacamptorhina fulgida; one of the handsomest of the Buprestidae, +Calodema wallacei; and several fine blue weevils of the genus Eupholus, +are perhaps the most conspicuous. Almost all the other orders furnish us +with large or extraordinary forms. The curious horned flies have already +been mentioned; and among the Orthoptera the great shielded grasshoppers +are the most remarkable. The species here figured (Megalodon ensifer) +has the thorax covered by a large triangular horny shield, two and a +half inches long, with serrated edges, a somewhat wavy, hollow surface, +and a faun median line, so as very closely to resemble a leaf. The +glossy wing-coverts (when fully expanded, more than nine inches across) +are of a fine green colour and so beautifully veined as to imitate +closely some of the large shining tropical leaves. The body is short, +and terminated in the female by a long curved sword-like ovipositor (not +seen in the cut), and the legs are all long and strongly-spined. These +insects are sluggish in their motions, depending for safety on their +resemblance to foliage, their horny shield and wing-coverts, and their +spiny legs. + +The large islands to the east of New Guinea are very little known, but +the occurrence of crimson lories, which are quite absent from Australia, +and of cockatoos allied to those of New Guinea and the Moluccas, shows +that they belong to the Papuan group; and we are thus able to define the +Malay Archipelago as extending eastward to the Solomon's Islands. New +Caledonia and the New Hebrides, on the other hand, seem more nearly +allied to Australia; and the rest of the islands of the Pacific, though +very poor in all forms of life, possess a few peculiarities which +compel us to class them as a separate group. Although as a matter +of convenience I have always separated the Moluccas as a distinct +zoological group from New Guinea, I have at the same time pointed out +that its fauna was chiefly derived from that island, just as that +of Timor was chiefly derived from Australia. If we were dividing the +Australian region for zoological purposes alone, we should form three +great groups: one comprising Australia, Timor, and Tasmania; another +New Guinea, with the islands from Bouru to the Solomon's group; and the +third comprising the greater part of the Pacific Islands. + +The relation of the New Guinea fauna to that of Australia is very close. +It is best marked in the Mammalia by the abundance of marsupials, and +the almost complete absence of all other terrestrial forms. In birds +it is less striking, although still very clear, for all the remarkable +old-world forms which are absent from the one are equally so from the +other, such as Pheasants, Grouse, Vultures, and Woodpeckers; while +Cockatoos, Broad-tailed Parrots, Podargi, and the great families of the +Honeysuckers and Brush-turkeys, with many others, comprising no less +than twenty-four genera of land-birds, are common to both countries, and +are entirely confined to them. + +When we consider the wonderful dissimilarity of the two regions in all +those physical conditions which were once supposed to determine the +forms of life-Australia, with its open plains, stony deserts, dried up +rivers, and changeable temperate climate; New Guinea, with its luxuriant +forests, uniformly hot, moist, and evergreen--this great similarity in +their productions is almost astounding, and unmistakeably points to +a common origin. The resemblance is not nearly so strongly marked in +insects, the reason obviously being, that this class of animals are much +more immediately dependent on vegetation and climate than are the +more highly organized birds and Mammalia. Insects also have far more +effective means of distribution, and have spread widely into every +district favourable to their development and increase. The giant +Ornithopterae have thus spread from New Guinea over the whole +Archipelago, and as far as the base of the Himalayas; while the elegant +long-horned Anthribidae have spread in the opposite direction from +Malacca to New Guinea, but owing to unfavourable conditions have not +been able to establish themselves in Australia. That country, on the +other hand, has developed a variety of flower-haunting Chafers and +Buprestidae, and numbers of large and curious terrestrial Weevils, +scarcely any of which are adapted to the damp gloomy forests of New +Guinea, where entirely different forms are to be found. There are, +however, some groups of insects, constituting what appear to be the +remains of the ancient population of the equatorial parts of the +Australian region, which are still almost entirely confined to it. Such +are the interesting sub-family of Longicorn coleoptera--Tmesisternitae; +one of the best-marked genera of Buprestidae--Cyphogastra; and the +beautiful weevils forming the genus Eupholus. Among butterflies we have +the genera Mynes, Hypocista, and Elodina, and the curious eye-spotted +Drusilla, of which last a single species is found in Java, but in no +other of the western islands. + +The facilities for the distribution of plants are still greater than +they are for insects, and it is the opinion of eminent botanists, +that no such clearly-defined regions pan be marked out in botany as in +zoology. The causes which tend to diffusion are here most powerful, and +have led to such intermingling of the floras of adjacent regions that +none but broad and general divisions can now be detected. These remarks +have an important bearing on the problem of dividing the surface of the +earth into great regions, distinguished by the radical difference of +their natural productions. Such difference we now know to be the direct +result of long-continued separation by more or less impassable barriers; +and as wide oceans and great contrast: of temperature are the most +complete barriers to the dispersal of all terrestrial forms of life, +the primary divisions of the earth should in the main serve for all +terrestrial organisms. However various may be the effects of climate, +however unequal the means of distribution; these will never altogether +obliterate the radical effects of long-continued isolation; and it is my +firm conviction, that when the botany and the entomology of New Guinea +and the surrounding islands become as well known as are their mammals +and birds, these departments of nature will also plainly indicate the +radical distinctions of the Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan regions of +the great Malay Archipelago. + + + + +CHAPTER XL. THE RACES OF MAN IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. + +PROPOSE to conclude this account of my Eastern travels, with a short +statement of my views as to the races of man which inhabit the +various parts of the Archipelago, their chief physical and mental +characteristics, their affinities with each other and with surrounding +tribes, their migrations, and their probable origin. + +Two very strongly contrasted races inhabit the Archipelago--the Malays, +occupying almost exclusively the larger western half of it, and the +Papuans, whose headquarters are New Guinea and several of the adjacent +islands. Between these in locality, are found tribes who are also +intermediate in their chief characteristics, and it is sometimes a nice +point to determine whether they belong to one or the other race, or have +been formed by a mixture of the two. + +The Malay is undoubtedly the most important of these two races, as it +is the one which is the most civilized, which has come most into contact +with Europeans, and which alone has any place in history. What may +be called the true Malay races, as distinguished from others who +have merely a Malay element in their language, present a considerable +uniformity of physical and mental characteristics, while there are very +great differences of civilization and of language. They consist of four +great, and a few minor semi-civilized tribes, and a number of others who +may be termed savages. The Malays proper inhabit the Malay peninsula, +and almost all the coast regions of Borneo and Sumatra. They all +speak the Malay language, or dialects of it; they write in the Arabic +character, and are Mahometans in religion. The Javanese inhabit Java, +part of Sumatra, Madura, Bali, and Bart of Lombock. They speak the +Javanese and Kawi languages, which they write in a native character. +They are now Mahometans in Java, but Brahmins in Bali and Lombock. The +Bugis are the inhabitants of the greater parts of Celebes, and there +seems to be an allied people in Sumbawa. They speak the Bugis and +Macassar languages, with dialects, and have two different native +characters in which they write these. They are all Mahometans. The +fourth great race is that of the Tagalas in the Philippine Islands, +about whom, as I did not visit those Islands, I shall say little. Many +of them are now Christians, and speak Spanish as well as their native +tongue, the Tagala. The Moluccan-Malays, who inhabit chiefly Ternate, +Tidore, Batchian, and Amboyna, may be held to form a fifth division of +semi-civilized Malays. They are all Mahometans, but they speak a variety +of curious languages, which seem compounded of Bugis and Javanese, with +the languages of the savage tribes of the Moluccas. + +The savage Malays are the Dyaks of Borneo; the Battaks and other wild +tribes of Sumatra; the Jakuns of the Malay Peninsula; the aborigines of +Northern Celebes, of the Sula island, and of part of Bouru. + +The colour of all these varied tribes is a light reddish brown, with +more or less of an olive tinge, not varying in any important degree +over an extent of country as large as all Southern Europe. The hair is +equally constant, being invariably black and straight, and of a rather +coarse texture, so that any lighter tint, or any wave or curl in it, is +an almost certain proof of the admixture of some foreign blood. The face +is nearly destitute of beard, and the breast and limbs are free from +hair. The stature is tolerably equal, and is always considerably below +that of the average European; the body is robust, the breast well +developed, the feet small, thick, and short, the hands small and rather +delicate. The face is a little broad, and inclined to be flat; the +forehead is rather rounded, the brows low, the eyes black and very +slightly oblique; the nose is rather small, not prominent, but straight +and well-shaped, the apex a little rounded, the nostrils broad and +slightly exposed; the cheek-bones are rather prominent, the mouth large, +the lips broad and well cut, but not protruding, the chin round and +well-formed. + +In this description there seems little to object to on the score of +beauty, and yet on the whole the Malays are certainly not handsome. In +youth, however, they are often very good-looking, and many of the boys +and girls up to twelve or fifteen years of age are very pleasing, and +some have countenances which are in their way almost perfect. I am +inclined to think they lose much of their good looks by bad habits +and irregular living. At a very early age they chew betel and tobacco +almost incessantly; they suffer much want and exposure in their +fishing and other excursions; their lives are often passed in alternate +starvation and feasting, idleness and excessive labour,--and this +naturally produces premature old age and harshness of features. + +In character the Malay is impassive. He exhibits a reserve, diffidence, +and even bashfulness, which is in some degree attractive, and leads the +observer to thinly that the ferocious and bloodthirsty character imputed +to the race must be grossly exaggerated. He is not demonstrative. His +feelings of surprise, admiration, or fear, are never openly manifested, +and are probably not strongly felt. He is slow and deliberate in speech, +and circuitous in introducing the subject he has come expressly to +discuss. These are the main features of his moral nature, and exhibit +themselves in every action of his life. + +Children and women are timid, and scream and run at the unexpected sight +of a European. In the company of men they are silent, and are generally +quiet and obedient. When alone the Malay is taciturn; he neither +talks nor sings to himself. When several are paddling in a canoe, they +occasionally chant a monotonous and plaintive song. He is cautious of +giving offence to his equals. He does not quarrel easily about money +matters; dislikes asking too frequently even for payment of his just +debts, and will often give them up altogether rather than quarrel with +his debtor. Practical joking is utterly repugnant to his disposition; +for he is particularly sensitive to breaches of etiquette, or any +interference with the personal liberty of himself or another. As an +example, I may mention that I have often found it very difficult to get +one Malay servant to waken another. He will call as loud as he can, but +will hardly touch, much less shake his comrade. I have frequently had to +waken a hard sleeper myself when on a land or sea journey. + +The higher classes of Malays are exceedingly polite, and have all +the quiet ease and dignity of the best-bred Europeans. Yet this is +compatible with a reckless cruelty and contempt of human life, which +is the dark side of their character. It is not to be wondered at, +therefore, that different persons give totally opposite accounts of +them--one praising them for their soberness, civility, and good-nature; +another abusing them for their deceit, treachery, and cruelty. The old +traveller Nicolo Conti, writing in 1430, says: "The inhabitants of Java +and Sumatra exceed every other people in cruelty. They regard killing a +man as a mere jest; nor is any punishment allotted for such a deed. If +any one purchase a new sword, and wish to try it, he will thrust it +into the breast of the first person he meets. The passers-by examine the +wound, and praise the skill of the person who inflicted it, if he thrust +in the weapon direct." Yet Drake says of the south of Java: "The people +(as are their kings) are a very loving, true, and just-dealing people;" +and Mr. Crawfurd says that the Javanese, whom he knew thoroughly, are "a +peaceable, docile, sober, simple, and industrious people." Barbosa, on +the other hand, who saw them at Malacca about 1660, says: "They are +a people of great ingenuity, very subtle in all their dealings; very +malicious, great deceivers, seldom speaking the truth; prepared to do +all manner of wickedness, and ready to sacrifice their lives." + +The intellect of the Malay race seems rather deficient. They are +incapable of anything beyond the simplest combinations of ideas, and +have little taste or energy for the acquirement of knowledge. Their +civilization, such as it is, does not seem to be indigenous, as it +is entirely confined to those nations who have been converted to the +Mahometan or Brahminical religions. + +I will now give an equally brief sketch of the other great race of the +Malay Archipelago, the Papuan. + +The typical Papuan race is in many respects the very opposite of the +Malay, and it has hitherto been very imperfectly described. The colour +of the body is a deep sooty-brown or black, sometimes approaching, but +never quite equalling, the jet-black of some negro races. It varies +in tint, however, more than that of the Malay, and is sometimes a +dusky-brown. The hair is very peculiar, being harsh, dry, and frizzly, +growing in little tufts or curls, which in youth are very short and +compact, but afterwards grow out to a considerable length, forming the +compact frizzled mop which is the Papuans' pride and glory. The face is +adorned with a beard of the same frizzly nature as the hair of the head. +The arms, legs, and breast are also more or less clothed with hair of a +similar nature. + +In stature the Papuan decidedly surpasses the Malay, and is perhaps +equal, or even superior, to the average of Europeans. The legs are long +and thin, and the hands and feet larger than in the Malays. The face is +somewhat elongated, the forehead flatfish, the brows very prominent; +the nose is large, rather arched and high, the base thick, the nostrils +broad, with the aperture hidden, owing to the tip of the nose being +elongated; the mouth is large, the lips thick and protuberant. The face +has thus an altogether more European aspect than in the Malay, owing +to the large nose; and the peculiar form of this organ, with the more +prominent brows and the character of the hair on the head, face, +and body, enable us at a glance to distinguish the two races. I have +observed that most of these characteristic features are as distinctly +visible in children of ten or twelve years old as in adults, and the +peculiar form of the nose is always shown in the figures which they +carve for ornaments to their houses, or as charms to wear round their +necks. + +The moral characteristics of the Papuan appear to me to separate him as +distinctly from the Malay as do his form and features. He is impulsive +and demonstrative in speech and action. His emotions and passions +express themselves in shouts and laughter, in yells and frantic +leapings. Women and children take their share in every discussion, and +seem little alarmed at the sight of strangers and Europeans. + +Of the intellect of this race it is very difficult to judge, but I +am inclined to rate it somewhat higher than that of the Malays, +notwithstanding the fact that the Papuans have never yet made any +advance towards civilization. It must be remembered, however, that for +centuries the Malays have been influenced by Hindoo, Chinese, and Arabic +immigration, whereas the Papuan race has only been subjected to the very +partial and local influence of Malay traders. The Papuan has much more +vital energy, which would certainly greatly assist his intellectual +development. Papuan slaves show no inferiority of intellect, compared +with Malays, but rather the contrary; and in the Moluccas they are +often promoted to places of considerable trust. The Papuan has a greater +feeling for art than the Malay. He decorates his canoe, his house, and +almost every domestic utensil with elaborate carving, a habit which is +rarely found among tribes of the Malay race. + +In the affections and moral sentiments, on the other hand, the Papuans +seem very deficient. In the treatment of their children they are often +violent and cruel; whereas the Malays are almost invariably kind and +gentle, hardly ever interfering at all with their children's pursuits +and amusements, and giving them perfect liberty at whatever age they +wish to claim it. But these very peaceful relations between parents +and children are no doubt, in a great measure, due to the listless and +apathetic character of the race, which never leads the younger members +into serious opposition to the elders; while the harsher discipline of +the Papuans may be chiefly due to that greater vigour and energy of +mind which always, sooner or later, leads to the rebellion of the +weaker against the stronger,--the people against their rulers, the slave +against his master, or the child against its parent. + +It appears, therefore, that, whether we consider their physical +conformation, their moral characteristics, or their intellectual +capacities, the Malay and Papuan races offer remarkable differences +and striking contrasts. The Malay is of short stature, brown-skinned, +straight-haired, beardless, and smooth-bodied. The Papuan is taller, is +black-skinned, frizzly-haired, bearded, and hairy-bodied. The former +is broad-faced, has a small nose, and flat eyebrows; the latter is +long-faced, has a large and prominent nose, and projecting eyebrows. The +Malay is bashful, cold, undemonstrative, and quiet; the Papuan is bold, +impetuous, excitable, and noisy. The former is grave and seldom laughs; +the latter is joyous and laughter-loving,--the one conceals his +emotions, the other displays them. + +Having thus described in some detail, the great physical, intellectual, +and moral differences between the Malays and Papuans, we have to +consider the inhabitants of the numerous islands which do not agree very +closely with either of these races. The islands of Obi, Batchian, and +the three southern peninsulas of Gilolo, possess no true indigenous +population; but the northern peninsula is inhabited by a native race, +the so-called Alfuros of Sahoe and Galela. These people are quite +distinct from the Malays, and almost equally so from the Papuans. They +are tall and well-made, with Papuan features, and curly hair; they are +bearded and hairy-limbed, but quite as light in colour as the Malays. +They are an industrious and enterprising race, cultivating rice and +vegetables, and indefatigable in their search after game, fish, tripang, +pearls, and tortoiseshell. + +In the great island of Ceram there is also an indigenous race very +similar to that of Northern Gilolo. Bourn seems to contain two distinct +races,--a shorter, round-faced people, with a Malay physiognomy, who may +probably have come from Celebes by way of the Sula islands; and a taller +bearded race, resembling that of Ceram. + +Far south of the Moluccas lies the island of Timor, inhabited by tribes +much nearer to the true Papuan than those of the Moluccas. + +The Timorese of the interior are dusky brown or blackish, with bushy +frizzled hair, and the long Papuan nose. They are of medium height, +and rather slender figures. The universal dress is a long cloth twisted +round the waist, the fringed ends of which hang below the knee. The +people are said to be great thieves, and the tribes are always at war +with each other, but they are not very courageous or bloodthirsty. The +custom of "tabu," called here "pomali," is very general, fruit trees, +houses, crop, and property of all kinds being protected from depredation +by this ceremony, the reverence for which is very great. A palm branch +stuck across an open door, showing that the house is tabooed, is a more +effectual guard against robbery than any amount of locks and bars. The +houses in Timor are different from those of most of the other islands; +they seem all roof, the thatch overhanging the low walls and reaching +the ground, except where it is cut away for an entrance. In some parts +of the west end of Timor, and on the little island of Semau, the houses +more resemble those of the Hottentots, being egg-shaped, very small, and +with a door only about three feet high. These are built on the ground, +while those of the eastern districts art, raised a few feet on posts. +In their excitable disposition, loud voices, and fearless demeanour, the +Timorese closely resemble the people of New Guinea. + +In the islands west of Timor, as far as Flores and Sandalwood Island, a +very similar race is found, which also extends eastward to Timor-laut, +where the true Papuan race begins to appear. The small islands of +Savu and Rotti, however, to the west of Timor, are very remarkable +in possessing a different and, in some respects, peculiar race. These +people are very handsome, with good features, resembling in many +characteristics the race produced by the mixture of the Hindoo or Arab +with the Malay. They are certainly distinct from the Timorese or Papuan +races, and must be classed in the western rather than the eastern +ethnological division of the Archipelago. + +The whole of the great island of New Guinea, the Ke and Aru Islands, +with Mysol, Salwatty, and Waigiou, are inhabited almost exclusively by +the typical Papuans. I found no trace of any other tribes inhabiting the +interior of New Guinea, but the coast people are in some places mixed +with the browner races of the Moluccas. The same Papuan race seems to +extend over the islands east of New Guinea as far as the Fijis. + +There remain to be noticed the black woolly-haired races of the +Philippines and the Malay peninsula, the former called "Negritos," and +the latter "Semangs." I have never seen these people myself, but from +the numerous accurate descriptions of them that have been published, +I have had no difficulty in satisfying myself that they have little +affinity or resemblance to the Papuans, with which they have been +hitherto associated. In most important characters they differ more from +the Papuan than they do from the Malay. They are dwarfs in stature, only +averaging four feet six inches to four feet eight inches high, or eight +inches less than the Malays; whereas the Papuans are decidedly taller +than the Malays. The nose is invariably represented as small, flattened, +or turned up at the apex, whereas the most universal character of the +Papuan race is to have the nose prominent and large, with the apex +produced downwards, as it is invariably represented in their own rude +idols. The hair of these dwarfish races agrees with that of the Papuans, +but so it does with that of the negroes of Africa. The Negritos and the +Semangs agree very closely in physical characteristics with each other +and with the Andaman Islanders, while they differ in a marked manner +from every Papuan race. + +A careful study of these varied races, comparing them with those of +Eastern Asia, the Pacific Islands, and Australia, has led me to adopt a +comparatively simple view as to their origin and affinities. + +If we draw a line (see Physical Map, Vol. 1. p. 14), commencing to +the east of the Philippine Islands, thence along the western coast of +Gilolo, through the island of Bouru, and curving round the west end of +Mores, then bending back by Sandalwood Island to take in Rotti, we +shall divide the Archipelago into two portions, the races of which have +strongly marked distinctive peculiarities. This line will separate the +Malayan and all the Asiatic races, from the Papuans and all that inhabit +the Pacific; and though along the line of junction intermigration and +commixture have taken place, yet the division is on the whole almost as +well defined and strongly contrasted, as is the corresponding zoological +division of the Archipelago, into an Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan +region. + +I must briefly explain the reasons that have led me to consider this +division of the Oceanic races to be a true and natural one. The Malayan +race, as a whole, undoubtedly very closely resembles the East Asian +populations, from Siam to Mandchouria. I was much struck with this, when +in the island of Bali I saw Chinese traders who had adopted the costume +of that country, and who could then hardly be distinguished from Malays; +and, on the other hand, I have seen natives of Java who, as far as +physiognomy was concerned, would pass very well for Chinese. Then, +again, we have the most typical of the Malayan tribes inhabiting a +portion of the Asiatic continent itself, together with those great +islands which, possessing the same species of large Mammalia with +the adjacent parts of the continent, have in all probability formed a +connected portion of Asia during the human period. The Negritos are, no +doubt, quite a distinct race from the Malay; but yet, as some of them +inhabit a portion of the continent, and others the Andaman Islands +in the Bay of Bengal, they must be considered to have had, in all +probability, an Asiatic rather than a Polynesian origin. + +Now, turning to the eastern parts of the Archipelago, I find, by +comparing my own observations with those of the most trustworthy +travellers and missionaries, that a race identical in all its chief +features with the Papuan, is found in all the islands as far east as the +Fijis; beyond this the brown Polynesian race, or some intermediate type, +is spread everywhere over the Pacific. The descriptions of these latter +often agree exactly with the characters of the brown indigenes of Gilolo +and Ceram. + +It is to be especially remarked that the brown and the black Polynesian +races closely resemble each other. Their features are almost identical, +so that portraits of a New Zealander or Otaheitan will often serve +accurately to represent a Papuan or Timorese, the darker colour and more +frizzly hair of the latter being the only differences. They are both +tall races. They agree in their love of art and the style of +their decorations. They are energetic, demonstrative, joyous, and +laughter-loving, and in all these particulars they differ widely from +the Malay. + +I believe, therefore, that the numerous intermediate forms that occur +among the countless islands of the Pacific, are not merely the result of +a mixture of these races, but are, to some extent, truly intermediate or +transitional; and that the brown and the black, the Papuan, the natives +of Gilolo and Ceram, the Fijian, the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands +and those of New Zealand, are all varying forms of one great Oceanic or +Polynesian race. + +It is, however, quite possible, and perhaps probable, that the brown +Polynesians were originally the produce of a mixture of Malays, or +some lighter coloured Mongol race with the dark Papuans; but if so, +the intermingling took place at such a remote epoch, and has been +so assisted by the continued influence of physical conditions and of +natural selection, leading to the preservation of a special type suited +to those conditions, that it has become a fixed and stable race with no +signs of mongrelism, and showing such a decided preponderance of Papuan +character, that it can best be classified as a modification of the +Papuan type. The occurrence of a decided Malay element in the Polynesian +languages, has evidently nothing to do with any such ancient physical +connexion. It is altogether a recent phenomenon, originating in the +roaming habits of the chief Malay tribes; and this is proved by the fact +that we find actual modern words of the Malay and Javanese languages in +use in Polynesia, so little disguised by peculiarities of pronunciation +as to be easily recognisable--not mere Malay roots only to be detected +by the elaborate researches of the philologist, as would certainly have +been the case had their introduction been as remote as the origin of +a very distinct race--a race as different from the Malay in mental and +moral, as it is in physical characters. + +As bearing upon this question it is important to point out the harmony +which exists, between the line of separation of the human races of the +Archipelago and that of the animal productions of the same country, +which I have already so fully explained and illustrated. The dividing +lines do not, it is true, exactly agree; but I think it is a remarkable +fact, and something more than a mere coincidence, that they should +traverse the same district and approach each other so closely as they +do. If, however, I am right in my supposition that the region where the +dividing line of the Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan regions of zoology +can now be drawn, was formerly occupied by a much wider sea than at +present, and if man existed on the earth at that period, we shall see +good reason why the races inhabiting the Asiatic and Pacific areas +should now meet and partially intermingle in the vicinity of that +dividing line. + +It has recently been maintained by Professor Huxley, that the Papuans +are more closely allied to the negroes of Africa than to any other race. +The resemblance both in physical and mental characteristics had often +struck myself, but the difficulties in the way of accepting it as +probable or possible, have hitherto prevented me front giving full +weight to those resemblances. Geographical, zoological, and ethnological +considerations render it almost certain, that if these two races ever +had a common origin, it could only have been at a period far more remote +than any which has yet been assigned to the antiquity of the human race. +And even if their lenity could be proved, it would in no way affect my +argument for the close affinity of the Papuan and Polynesian races, and +the radical distinctness of both from the Malay. + +Polynesia is pre-eminently an area of subsidence, and its great +widespread groups of coral-reefs mark out the position of former +continents and islands. The rich and varied, yet strangely isolated +productions of Australia and New Guinea, also indicate an extensive +continent where such specialized forms were developed. The races of +men now inhabiting these countries are, therefore, most probably the +descendants of the races which inhabited these continents and islands. +This is the most simple and natural supposition to make. And if we find +any signs of direct affinity between the inhabitants of any other part +of the world and those of Polynesia, it by no means follows that the +latter were derived from the former. For as, when a Pacific continent +existed, the whole geography of the earth's surface would probably be +very different from what it now is, the present continents may not then +have risen above the ocean, and, when they were formed at a subsequent +epoch, may have derived some of their inhabitants from the Polynesian +area itself. It is undoubtedly true that there are proofs of extensive +migrations among the Pacific islands, which have led to community of +language from the sandwich group to New Zealand; but there are no proofs +whatever of recent migration from any surrounding country to Polynesia, +since there is no people to be found elsewhere sufficiently resembling +the Polynesian race in their chief physical and mental characteristics. + +If the past history of these varied races is obscure and uncertain, +the future is no less so. The true Polynesians, inhabiting the farthest +isles of the Pacific, are no doubt doomed to an early extinction. +But the more numerous Malay race seems well adapted to survive as the +cultivator of the soil, even when his country and government have passed +into the hands of Europeans. If the tide of colonization should be +turned to New Guinea, there can be little doubt of the early extinction +of the Papuan race. A warlike and energetic people, who will not submit +to national slavery or to domestic servitude, must disappear before the +white man as surely as do the wolf and the tiger. + +I have now concluded my task. I have given, in more or less detail, +a sketch of my eight years' wanderings among the largest and the most +luxuriant islands which adorn our earth's surface. I have endeavoured to +convey my impressions of their scenery, their vegetation, their animal +productions, and their human inhabitants. I have dwelt at some length on +the varied and interesting problems they offer to the student of nature. +Before bidding my reader farewell, I wish to make a few observations +on a subject of yet higher interest and deeper importance, which the +contemplation of savage life has suggested, and on which I believe that +the civilized can learn something from the savage man. + +We most of us believe that we, the higher races have progressed and +are progressing. If so, there must be some state of perfection, some +ultimate goal, which we may never reach, but to which all true progress +must bring nearer. What is this ideally perfect social state towards +which mankind ever has been, and still is tending? Our best thinkers +maintain, that it is a state of individual freedom and self-government, +rendered possible by the equal development and just balance of the +intellectual, moral, and physical parts of our nature,--a state in which +we shall each be so perfectly fitted for a social existence, by knowing +what is right, and at the same time feeling an irresistible impulse to +do what we know to be right., that all laws and all punishments shall +be unnecessary. In such a state every man would have a sufficiently +well-balanced intellectual organization, to understand the moral law in +all its details, and would require no other motive but the free impulses +of his own nature to obey that law. + +Now it is very remarkable, that among people in a very low stage of +civilization, we find some approach to such a perfect social state. I +have lived with communities of savages in South America and in the East, +who have no laws or law courts but the public opinion of the village +freely expressed. Each man scrupulously respects the rights of his +fellow, and any infraction of those rights rarely or never takes place. +In such a community, all are nearly equal. There are cone of those wide +distinctions, of education and ignorance, wealth and poverty, master +and servant, which are the product of our civilization; there is none of +that wide-spread division of labour, which, while it increases +wealth, products also conflicting interests; there is not that severe +competition and struggle for existence, or for wealth, which the dense +population of civilized countries inevitably creates. All incitements to +great crimes are thus wanting, and petty ones are repressed, partly by +the influence of public opinion, but chiefly by that natural sense of +justice and of his neighbour's right, which seems to be, in some degree, +inherent in every race of man. + +Now, although we have progressed vastly beyond the savage state in +intellectual achievements, we have not advanced equally in morals. It +is true that among those classes who have no wants that cannot be easily +supplied, and among whom public opinion has great influence; the rights +of others are fully respected. It is true, also, that we have vastly +extended the sphere of those rights, and include within them all the +brotherhood of man. But it is not too much to say, that the mass of our +populations have not at all advanced beyond the savage code of morals, +and have in many cases sunk below it. A deficient morality is the +great blot of modern civilization, and the greatest hindrance to true +progress. + +During the last century, and especially in the last thirty years, our +intellectual and material advancement has been too quickly achieved for +us to reap the full benefit of it. Our mastery over the forces of mature +has led to a rapid growth of population, and a vast accumulation of +wealth; but these have brought with them such au amount of poverty and +crime, and have fostered the growth of so much sordid feeling and so +many fierce passions, that it may well be questioned, whether the mental +and moral status of our population has not on the average been lowered, +and whether the evil has not overbalanced the good. Compared with our +wondrous progress in physical science and its practical applications, +our system of government, of administering justice, of national +education, and our whole social and moral organization, remains in a +state of barbarism. [See note next page.] And if we continue to devote +our chief energies to the utilizing of our knowledge the laws of nature +with the view of still further extending our commerce and our wealth, +the evils which necessarily accompany these when too eagerly pursued, +may increase to such gigantic dimensions as to be beyond our power to +alleviate. + +We should now clearly recognise the fact, that the wealth and knowledge +and culture of the few do not constitute civilization, and do not of +themselves advance us towards the "perfect social state." Our vast +manufacturing system, our gigantic commerce, our crowded towns and +cities, support and continually renew a mass of human misery and +crime absolutely greater than has ever existed before. They create and +maintain in life-long labour an ever-increasing army, whose lot is the +more hard to bear, by contrast with the pleasures, the comforts, and the +luxury which they see everywhere around them, but which they can never +hope to enjoy; and who, in this respect, are worse off than the savage +in the midst of his tribe. + +This is not a result to boast of, or to be satisfied with; and, +until there is a more general recognition of this failure of our +civilization--resulting mainly from our neglect to train and develop +more thoroughly the sympathetic feelings and moral faculties of +our nature, and to allow them a larger share of influence in our +legislation, our commerce, and our whole social organization--we shall +never, as regards the whole community, attain to any real or important +superiority over the better class of savages. + +This is the lesson I have been taught by my observations of uncivilized +man. I now bid my readers--Farewell! + + +NOTE. + +THOSE who believe that our social condition approaches perfection, will +think the above word harsh and exaggerated, but it seems to me the only +word that can be truly applied to us. We are the richest country in the +world, and yet cue-twentieth of our population are parish paupers, and +one-thirtieth known criminals. Add to these, the criminals who escape +detection; and the poor who live mainly on private charity, (which, +according to Dr. Hawkesley, expends seven millions sterling annually +is London alone,) and we may be sure that more than ONE-TENTH of our +population are actually Paupers and Criminals. Both these classes we +keep idle or at unproductive labour, and each criminal costs us annually +in our prisons more than the wages of an honest agricultural labourer. +We allow over a hundred thousand persons known to have no means +of subsistence but by crime, to remain at large and prey upon the +community, and many thousand children to grow up before our eyes in +ignorance and vice, to supply trained criminals for the next generation. +This, in a country which boasts of its rapid increase in wealth, of its +enormous commerce and gigantic manufactures, of its mechanical skill +and scientific knowledge, of its high civilization and its pure +Christianity,--I can but term a state of social barbarism. We also boast +of our love of justice, and that the law protects rich and poor alike, +yet we retain money fines as a punishment, and make the very first +steps to obtain justice a matter of expense--in both cases a barbarous +injustice, or denial of justice to the poor. Again, our laws render it +possible, that, by mere neglect of a legal form, and contrary to his own +wish and intention, a man's property may all go to a stranger, and his +own children be left destitute. Such cases have happened through the +operation of the laws of inheritance of landed property; and that such +unnatural injustice is possible among us, shows that we are in a state +of social barbarism. One more example to justify my use of the term, and +I have done. We permit absolute possession of the soil of our country, +with no legal rights of existence on the soil, to the vast majority +who do not possess it. A great landholder may legally convert his whole +property into a forest or a hunting-ground, and expel every human being +who has hitherto lived upon it. In a thickly-populated country like +England, where every acre has its owner and its occupier, this is a +power of legally destroying his fellow-creatures; and that such a +power should exist, and be exercised by individuals, in however small a +degree, indicates that, as regards true social science, we are still in +a state of barbarism. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred Russell Wallace + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO *** + +***** This file should be named 2539-8.txt or 2539-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/3/2539/ + +Produced by Martin Adamson + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/2539-8.zip b/2539-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c76e16c --- /dev/null +++ b/2539-8.zip diff --git a/2539-h.zip b/2539-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9d173c --- /dev/null +++ b/2539-h.zip diff --git a/2539-h/2539-h.htm b/2539-h/2539-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c1164e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/2539-h/2539-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10642 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Malay Archipelago, Vol. II by Alfred R. Wallace + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +Project Gutenberg's The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred Russell Wallace + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Malay Archipelago + Volume II. (of II.) + +Author: Alfred Russell Wallace + +Release Date: December 1, 2008 [EBook #2539] +Last Updated: February 7, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO *** + + + + +Produced by Martin Adamson, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO + </h1> + <h2> + VOLUME II. (of II.) + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + by Alfred R. Wallace + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <table summary="" border="3" cellpadding="4"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <a + href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2530/2530-h/2530-h.htm">Previous + Volume</a> + </td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER XXI. </a> THE MOLUCCAS—TERNATE. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER XXII. </a> GILOLO. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> TERNATE + TO THE KAIOA ISLANDS AND BATCHIAN. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0004"> + CHAPTER XXIV. </a> BATCHIAN. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER XXV. </a> CERAM, GORAM, AND THE + MATABELLO ISLANDS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER XXVI. + </a> BOURU. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER + XXVII. </a> THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MOLUCCAS. <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER XXVIII. </a> MACASSAR TO THE + ARU ISLANDS IN A NATIVE PRAU. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0009"> + CHAPTER XXIX. </a> THE KE ISLANDS. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER XXX. </a> THE ARU ISLANDS—RESIDENCE + IN DOBBO <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XXXI. </a> THE + ARU ISLANDS.—JOURNEY AND RESIDENCE IN THE INTERIOR. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XXXII. </a> THE ARU ISLANDS.—SECOND + RESIDENCE AT DOBBO. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XXXIII. + </a> THE ARU ISLANDS—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ASPECTS OF + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XXXIV. </a> NEW + GUINEA.—DOREY. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XXXV. + </a> VOYAGE FROM CERAM TO WAIGIOU. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XXXVI. </a> WAIGIOU. <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XXXVII. </a> VOYAGE FROM + WAIGIOU TO TERNATE. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XXXVIII. + </a> THE BIRDS OF PARADISE. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XXXIX. </a> THE NATURAL HISTORY + OF THE PAPUAN ISLANDS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XL. + </a> THE RACES OF MAN IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. <br /><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. THE MOLUCCAS—TERNATE. + </h2> + <p> + ON the morning of the 8th of January, 1858, I arrived at Ternate, the + fourth of a row of fine conical volcanic islands which shirt the west + coast of the large and almost unknown island of Gilolo. The largest and + most perfectly conical mountain is Tidore, which is over four thousand + Feet high—Ternate being very nearly the same height, but with a more + rounded and irregular summit. The town of Ternate is concealed from view + till we enter between the two islands, when it is discovered stretching + along the shore at the very base of the mountain. Its situation is fine, + and there are grand views on every side. Close opposite is the rugged + promontory and beautiful volcanic cone of Tidore; to the east is the long + mountainous coast of Gilolo, terminated towards the north by a group of + three lofty volcanic peaks, while immediately behind the town rises the + huge mountain, sloping easily at first and covered with thick groves of + fruit trees, but soon becoming steeper, and furrowed with deep gullies. + Almost to the summit, whence issue perpetually faint wreaths of smoke, it + is clothed with vegetation, and looks calm and beautiful, although beneath + are hidden fires which occasionally burst forth in lava-streams, but more + frequently make their existence known by the earthquakes which have many + times devastated the town. + </p> + <p> + I brought letters of introduction to Mr. Duivenboden, a native of Ternate, + of an ancient Dutch family, but who was educated in England, and speaks + our language perfectly. He was a very rich man, owned half the town, + possessed many ships, and above a hundred slaves. He was moreover, well + educated, and fond of literature and science—a phenomenon in these + regions. He was generally known as the king of Ternate, from his large + property and great influence with the native Rajahs and their subjects. + Through his assistance I obtained a house; rather ruinous, but well + adapted to my purpose, being close to the town, yet with a free outlet to + the country and the mountain. A few needful repairs were soon made, some + bamboo furniture and other necessaries obtained, and after a visit to the + Resident and Police Magistrate I found myself an inhabitant of the + earthquake-tortured island of Ternate, and able to look about me and lay + down the plan of my campaign for the ensuing year. I retained this house + for three years, as I found it very convenient to have a place to return + to after my voyages to the various islands of the Moluccas and New Guinea, + where I could pack my collections, recruit my health, and make + preparations for future journeys. To avoid repetitions, I will in this + chapter combine what notes I have about Ternate. + </p> + <p> + A description of my house (the plan of which is here shown) will enable + the reader to understand a very common mode of building in these islands. + There is of course only one floor. The walls are of stone up to three feet + high; on this are strong squared posts supporting the roof, everywhere + except in the verandah filled in with the leaf-stems of the sago-palm, + fitted neatly in wooden owing. The floor is of stucco, and the ceilings + are like the walls. The house is forty feet square, consists of four + rooms, a hall, and two verandahs, and is surrounded by a wilderness of + fruit trees. A deep well supplied me with pure cold water, a great luxury + in this climate. Five minutes' walk down the road brought me to the market + and the beach, while in the opposite direction there were no more European + houses between me and the mountain. In this house I spent many happy days. + Returning to it after a three or four months' absence in some uncivilized + region, I enjoyed the unwonted luxuries of milk and fresh bread, and + regular supplies of fish and eggs, meat and vegetables, which were often + sorely needed to restore my health and energy. I had ample space and + convenience or unpacking, sorting, and arranging my treasures, and I had + delightful walks in the suburbs of the town, or up the lower slopes of the + mountain, when I desired a little exercise, or had time for collecting. + </p> + <p> + The lower part of the mountain, behind the town of Ternate, is almost + entirely covered with a forest of fruit trees, and during the season + hundreds of men and women, boys and girls, go up every day to bring down + the ripe fruit. Durians and Mangoes, two of the very finest tropical + fruits, are in greater abundance at Ternate than I have ever seen them, + and some of the latter are of a quality not inferior to any in the world. + Lansats and Mangustans are also abundant, but these do not ripen till a + little later. Above the fruit trees there is a belt of clearings and + cultivated grounds, which creep up the mountain to a height of between two + and three thousand feet, above which is virgin forest, reaching nearly to + the summit, which on the side next the town is covered with a high reedy + grass. On the further side it is more elevated, of a bare and desolate + aspect, with a slight depression marking the position of the crater. From + this part descends a black scoriaceous tract; very rugged, and covered + with a scanty vegetation of scattered bushes as far down as the sea. This + is the lava of the great eruption near a century ago, and is called by the + natives "batu-angas"(burnt rock). + </p> + <p> + Just below my house is the fort, built by the Portuguese, below which is + an open space to the peach, and beyond this the native town extends for + about a mile to the north-east. About the centre of it is the palace of + the Sultan, now a large untidy, half-ruinous building of stone. This chief + is pensioned by the Dutch Government, but retains the sovereignty over the + native population of the island, and of the northern part of Gilolo. The + sultans of Ternate and Tidore were once celebrated through the East for + their power and regal magnificence. When Drake visited Ternate in 1579, + the Portuguese had been driven out of the island, although they still had + a settlement at Tidore. He gives a glowing account of the Sultan: "The + King had a very rich canopy with embossings of gold borne over him, and + was guarded with twelve lances. From the waist to the ground was all cloth + of gold, and that very rich; in the attire of his head were finely + wreathed in, diverse rings of plaited gold, of an inch or more in breadth, + which made a fair and princely show, somewhat resembling a crown in form; + about his neck he had a chain of perfect gold, the links very great and + one fold double; on his left hand was a diamond, an emerald, a ruby, and a + turky; on his right hand in one ring a big and perfect turky, and in + another ring many diamonds of a smaller size." + </p> + <p> + All this glitter of barbaric gold was the produce of the spice trade, of + which the Sultans kept the monopoly, and by which they became wealthy. + Ternate, with the small islands in a line south of it, as far as Batchian, + constitute the ancient Moluccas, the native country of the clove, as well + as the only part in which it was cultivated. Nutmegs and mace were + procured from the natives of New Guinea and the adjacent islands, where + they grew wild; and the profits on spice cargoes were so enormous, that + the European traders were glad to give gold and jewels, and the finest + manufactures of Europe or of India, in exchange. When the Dutch + established their influence in these seas, and relieved the native princes + from their Portuguese oppressors, they saw that the easiest way to repay + themselves would be to get this spice trade into their own hands. For this + purpose they adopted the wise principle of concentrating the culture of + these valuable products in those spots only of which they could have + complete control. To do this effectually it was necessary to abolish the + culture and trade in all other places, which they succeeded in doing by + treaty with the native rulers. These agreed to have all the spice trees in + their possessions destroyed. They gave up large though fluctuating + revenues, but they gained in return a fixed subsidy, freedom from the + constant attacks and harsh oppressions of the Portuguese, and a + continuance of their regal power and exclusive authority over their own + subjects, which is maintained in all the islands except Ternate to this + day. + </p> + <p> + It is no doubt supposed by most Englishmen, who have been accustomed to + look upon this act of the Dutch with vague horror, as something utterly + unprincipled and barbarous, that the native population suffered grievously + by this destruction of such valuable property. But it is certain that this + was not the case. The Sultans kept this lucrative trade entirely in their + own hands as a rigid monopoly, and they would take care not to give, their + subjects more than would amount to their usual wages, while: they would + surely exact as large a quantity of spice as they could possibly obtain. + Drake and other early voyagers always seem to have purchased their + spice-cargoes from the Sultans and Rajahs, and not from the cultivators. + Now the absorption of so much labour in the cultivation of this one + product must necessarily have raised the price of food and other + necessaries; and when it was abolished, more rice would be grown, more + sago made, more fish caught, and more tortoise-shell, rattan, gum-dammer, + and other valuable products of the seas and the forests would be obtained. + I believe, therefore, that this abolition of the spice trade in the + Moluccas was actually beneficial to the inhabitants, and that it was an + act both wise in itself and morally and politically justifiable. + </p> + <p> + In the selection of the places in which to carry on the cultivation, the + Dutch were not altogether fortunate or wise. Banda was chosen for nutmegs, + and was eminently successful, since it continues to this day to produce a + large supply of this spice, and to yield a considerable revenue. Amboyna + was fixed upon for establishing the clove cultivation; but the soil and + climate, although apparently very similar to that of its native islands, + is not favourable, and for some years the Government have actually been + paying to the cultivators a higher rate than they could purchase cloves + elsewhere, owing to a great fall in the price since the rate of payment + was fixed for a term of years by the Dutch Government, and which rate is + still most honourably paid. + </p> + <p> + In walking about the suburbs of Ternate, we find everywhere the ruins of + massive stone and brick buildings, gateways and arches, showing at once + the superior wealth of the ancient town and the destructive effects of + earthquakes. It was during my second stay in the town, after my return + from New Guinea, that I first felt an earthquake. It was a very slight + one, scarcely more than has been felt in this country, but occurring in a + place that lad been many times destroyed by them it was rather more + exciting. I had just awoke at gun-fire (5 A.M.), when suddenly the thatch + began to rustle and shake as if an army of cats were galloping over it, + and immediately afterwards my bed shook too, so that for an instant I + imagined myself back in New Guinea, in my fragile house, which shook when + an old cock went to roost on the ridge; but remembering that I was now on + a solid earthen floor, I said to myself, "Why, it's an earthquake," and + lay still in the pleasing expectation of another shock; but none came, and + this was the only earthquake I ever felt in Ternate. + </p> + <p> + The last great one was in February 1840, when almost every house in the + place was destroyed. It began about midnight on the Chinese New Year's + festival, at which time every one stays up nearly all night feasting at + the Chinamen's houses and seeing the processions. This prevented any lives + being lost, as every one ran out of doors at the first shock, which was + not very severe. The second, a few minutes afterwards, threw down a great + many houses, and others, which continued all night and part of the next + day, completed the devastation. The line of disturbance was very narrow, + so that the native town a mile to the east scarcely suffered at all. The + wave passed from north to south, through the islands of Tidore and Makian, + and terminated in Batchian, where it was not felt till four the following + afternoon, thus taking no less than sixteen hours to travel a hundred + miles, or about six miles an hour. It is singular that on this occasion + there was no rushing up of the tide, or other commotion of the sea, as is + usually the case during great earthquakes. + </p> + <p> + The people of Ternate are of three well-marked races the Ternate Malays, + the Orang Sirani, and the Dutch. The first are an intrusive Malay race + somewhat allied to the Macassar people, who settled in the country at a + very early epoch, drove out the indigenes, who were no doubt the same as + those of the adjacent mainland of Gilolo, and established a monarchy. They + perhaps obtained many of their wives from the natives, which will account + for the extraordinary language they speak—in some respects closely + allied to that of the natives of Gilolo, while it contains much that + points to a Malayan origin. To most of these people the Malay language is + quite unintelligible, although such as are engaged in trade are obliged to + acquire it. "Orang Sirani," or Nazarenes, is the name given by the Malays + to the Christian descendants of the Portuguese, who resemble those of + Amboyna, and, like them, speak only Malay. There are also a number of + Chinese merchants, many of them natives of the place, a few Arabs, and a + number of half-breeds between all these races and native women. Besides + these there are some Papuan slaves, and a few natives of other islands + settled here, making up a motley and very puzzling population, till + inquiry and observation have shown the distinct origin of its component + parts. + </p> + <p> + Soon after my first arrival in Ternate I went to the island of Gilolo, + accompanied by two sons of Mr. Duivenboden, and by a young Chinaman, a + brother of my landlord, who lent us the boat and crew. These latter were + all slaves, mostly Papuans, and at starting I saw something of the + relation of master and slave in this part of the world. The crew had been + ordered to be ready at three in the morning, instead of which none + appeared till five, we having all been kept waiting in the dark and cold + for two hours. When at length they came they were scolded by their master, + but only in a bantering manner, and laughed and joked with him in reply. + Then, just as we were starting, one of the strongest men refused to go at + all, and his master had to beg and persuade him to go, and only succeeded + by assuring him that I would give him something; so with this promise, and + knowing that there would be plenty to eat and drink and little to do, the + black gentleman was induced to favour us with his company and assistance. + In three hours' rowing and sailing we reached our destination, Sedingole, + where there is a house belonging to the Sultan of Tidore, who sometimes + goes there hunting. It was a dirty ruinous shed, with no furniture but a + few bamboo bedsteads. On taking a walk into the country, I saw at once + that it was no place for me. For many miles extends a plain covered with + coarse high grass, thickly dotted here and there with trees, the forest + country only commencing at the hills a good way in the interior. Such a + place would produce few birds and no insects, and we therefore arranged to + stay only two days, and then go on to Dodinga, at the narrow central + isthmus of Gilolo, whence my friends would return to Ternate. We amused + ourselves shooting parrots, lories, and pigeons, and trying to shoot deer, + of which we saw plenty, but could not get one; and our crew went out + fishing with a net, so we did not want for provisions. When the time came + for us to continue our journey, a fresh difficulty presented itself, for + our gentlemen slaves refused in a body to go with us; saying very + determinedly that they would return to Ternate. So their masters were + obliged to submit, and I was left behind to get to Dodinga as I could. + Luckily I succeeded in hiring a small boat, which took me there the same + night, with my two men and my baggage. + </p> + <p> + Two or three years after this, and about the same length of time before I + left the East, the Dutch emancipated all their slaves, paying their owners + a small compensation. No ill results followed. Owing to the amicable + relations which had always existed between them and their masters, due no + doubt in part to the Government having long accorded them legal rights and + protection against cruelty and ill-usage, many continued in the same + service, and after a little temporary difficulty in some cases, almost all + returned to work either for their old or for new, masters. The Government + took the very proper step of placing every emancipated slave under the + surveillance of the police-magistrate. They were obliged to show that they + were working for a living, and had some honestly-acquired means of + existence. All who could not do so were placed upon public works at low + wages, and thus were kept from the temptation to peculation or other + crimes, which the excitement of newly-acquired freedom, and disinclination + to labour, might have led them into. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. GILOLO. + </h2> + <h3> + (MARCH AND SEPTEMBER 1858.) + </h3> + <p> + I MADE but few and comparatively short visits to this large and little + known island, but obtained a considerable knowledge of its natural history + by sending first my boy Ali, and then my assistant, Charles Allen, who + stayed two or three months each in the northern peninsula, and brought me + back large collections of birds and insects. In this chapter I propose to + give a sketch of the parts which I myself visited. My first stay was at + Dodinga, situated at the head of a deep-bay exactly opposite Ternate, and + a short distance up a little stream which penetrates a few miles inland. + The village is a small one, and is completely shut in by low hills. + </p> + <p> + As soon as I arrived, I applied to the head man of the village for a house + to live in, but all were occupied, and there was much difficulty in + finding one. In the meantime I unloaded my baggage on the beach and made + some tea, and afterwards discovered a small but which the owner was + willing to vacate if I would pay him five guilders for a month's rent. As + this was something less than the fee-simple value of the dwelling, I + agreed to give it him for the privilege of immediate occupation, only + stipulating that he was to make the roof water-tight. This he agreed to + do, and came every day to tally and look at me; and when I each time + insisted upon his immediately mending the roof according to contract, all + the answer I could get was, "Ea nanti," (Yes, wait a little.) However, + when I threatened to deduct a quarter guilder from the rent for every day + it was not done, and a guilder extra if any of my things were wetted, he + condescended to work for half an hour, which did all that was absolutely + necessary. + </p> + <p> + On the top of a bank, of about a hundred feet ascent from the water, + stands the very small but substantial fort erected by the Portuguese. Its + battlements and turrets have long since been overthrown by earthquakes, by + which its massive structure has also been rent; but it cannot well be + thrown down, being a solid mass of stonework, forming a platform about ten + feet high, and perhaps forty feet square. It is approached by narrow steps + under an archway, and is now surmounted by a row of thatched hovels, in + which live the small garrison, consisting of, a Dutch corporal and four + Javanese soldiers, the sole representatives of the Netherlands Government + in the island. The village is occupied entirely by Ternate men. The true + indigenes of Gilolo, "Alfuros" as they are here called, live on the + eastern coast, or in the interior of the northern peninsula. The distance + across the isthmus at this place is only two miles, and there, is a good + path, along which rice and sago are brought from the eastern villages. The + whole isthmus is very rugged, though not high, being a succession of + little abrupt hills anal valleys, with angular masses of limestone rock + everywhere projecting, and often almost blocking up the pathway. Most of + it is virgin forest, very luxuriant and picturesque, and at this time + having abundance of large scarlet Ixoras in flower, which made it + exceptionally gay. I got some very nice insects here, though, owing to + illness most of the time, my collection was a small one, and my boy Ali + shot me a pair of one of the most beautiful birds of the East, Pitta + gigas, a lame ground-thrush, whose plumage of velvety black above is + relieved by a breast of pure white, shoulders of azure blue, and belly of + vivid crimson. It has very long and strong legs, and hops about with such + activity in the dense tangled forest, bristling with rocks, as to make it + very difficult to shoot. + </p> + <p> + In September 1858, after my return from New Guinea, I went to stay some + time at the village of Djilolo, situated in a bay on the northern + peninsula. Here I obtained a house through the kindness of the Resident of + Ternate, who sent orders to prepare one for me. The first walk into the + unexplored forests of a new locality is a moment of intense interest to + the naturalist, as it is almost sure to furnish him with something curious + or hitherto unknown. The first thing I saw here was a flock of small + parroquets, of which I shot a pair, and was pleased to find a most + beautiful little long-tailed bird, ornamented with green, red, and blue + colours, and quite new to me. It was a variety of the Charmosyna + placentis, one of the smallest and most elegant of the brush-tongued + lories. My hunters soon shot me several other fine birds, and I myself + found a specimen of the rare and beautiful day-flying moth, Cocytia + d'Urvillei. + </p> + <p> + The village of Djilolo was formerly the chief residence of the Sultans of + Ternate, till about eighty years ago, when at the request of the Dutch + they removed to their present abode. The place was then no doubt much more + populous, as is indicated by the wide extent of cleared land in the + neighbourhood, now covered with coarse high grass, very disagreeable to + walk through, and utterly barren to the naturalist. A few days' exploring + showed me that only some small patches of forest remained for miles wound, + and the result was a scarcity of insects and a very limited variety of + birds, which obliged me to change my locality. There was another village + called Sahoe, to which there was a road of about twelve miles overland, + and this had been recommended to me as a good place for birds, and as + possessing a large population both of Mahomotans and Alfuros, which latter + race I much wished to see. I set off one morning to examine this place + myself, expecting to pass through some extent of forest on my way. In this + however I was much disappointed, as the whole road lies through grass and + scrubby thickets, and it was only after reaching the village of Sahoe that + some high forest land was perceived stretching towards the mountains to + the north of it. About half-way we dad to pass a deep river on a bamboo + raft, which almost sunk beneath us. This stream was said to rise a long + way off to the northward. + </p> + <p> + Although Sahoe did not at all appear what I expected, I determined to give + it a trial, and a few days afterwards obtained a boat to carry my things + by sea while I walked overland. A large house on the beach belonging to + the Sultan was given me. It stood alone, and was quite open on every side, + so that little privacy could be had, but as I only intended to stay a + short time I made it do. Avery, few days dispelled all hopes I might have + entertained of making good collections in this place. Nothing was to be + found in every direction but interminable tracts of reedy grass, eight or + ten feet high, traversed by narrow baths, often almost impassable. Here + and there were clumps of fruit trees, patches of low wood, and abundance + of plantations and rice grounds, all of which are, in tropical regions, a + very desert for the entomologist. The virgin forest that I was in search + of, existed only on the summits and on the steep rocky sides of the + mountains a long way off, and in inaccessible situations. In the suburbs + of the village I found a fair number of bees and wasps, and some small but + interesting beetles. Two or three new birds were obtained by my hunters, + and by incessant inquiries and promises I succeeded in getting the natives + to bring me some land shells, among which was a very fine and handsome + one, Helix pyrostoma. I was, however, completely wasting my time here + compared with what I might be doing in a good locality, and after a week + returned to Ternate, quite disappointed with my first attempts at + collecting in Gilolo. + </p> + <p> + In the country round about Sahoe, and in the interior, there is a large + population of indigenes, numbers of whom came daily into the village, + bringing their produce for sale, while others were engaged as labourers by + the Chinese and Ternate traders. A careful examination convinced me that + these people are radically distinct from all the Malay races. Their + stature and their features, as well as their disposition and habits, are + almost the same as those of the Papuans; their hair is semi-Papuan-neither + straight, smooth, and glossy, like all true Malays', nor so frizzly and + woolly as the perfect Papuan type, but always crisp, waved, and rough, + such as often occurs among the true Papuans, but never among the Malays. + Their colour alone is often exactly that of the Malay, or even lighter. Of + course there has been intermixture, and there occur occasionally + individuals which it is difficult to classify; but in most cases the + large, somewhat aquiline nose, with elongated apex, the tall stature, the + waved hair, the bearded face, and hairy body, as well as the less reserved + manner and louder voice, unmistakeably proclaim the Papuan type. Here then + I had discovered the exact boundary lice between the Malay and Papuan + races, and at a spot where no other writer had expected it. I was very + much pleased at this determination, as it gave me a clue to one of the + most difficult problems in Ethnology, and enabled me in many other places + to separate the two races, and to unravel their intermixtures. + </p> + <p> + On my return from Waigiou in 1860, I stayed some days on the southern + extremity of Gilolo; but, beyond seeing something more of its structure + and general character, obtained very little additional information. It is + only in the northern peninsula that there are any indígenes, the whole of + the rest of the island, with Batchian and the other islands westward, + being exclusively inhabited by Malay tribes, allied to those of Ternate + and Tidore. This would seem to indicate that the Alfuros were a + comparatively recent immigration, and that they lead come from the north + or east, perhaps from some of the islands of the Pacific. It is otherwise + difficult to understand how so many fertile districts should possess no + true indigenes. + </p> + <p> + Gilolo, or Halmaheira as it is called by the Malays and Dutch, seems to + have been recently modified by upheaval and subsidence. In 1673, a + mountain is said to stave been upheaved at Gamokonora on the northern + peninsula. All the parts that I have seen have either been volcanic or + coralline, and along the coast there are fringing coral reefs very + dangerous to navigation. At the same time, the character of its natural + history proves it to be a rather ancient land, since it possesses a number + of animals peculiar to itself or common to the small islands around it, + but almost always distinct from those of New Guinea on the east, of Ceram + on the south, and of Celebes and the Sula islands on the west. + </p> + <p> + The island of Morty, close to the north-eastern extremity of Gilolo, was + visited by my assistant Charles Allen, as well as by Dr. Bernstein; and + the collections obtained there present some curious differences from those + of the main island. About fifty-six species of land-birds are known to + inhabit this island, and of these, a kingfisher (Tanysiptera Boris), a + honey-sucker (Tropidorhynchus fuscicapillus), and a large crow-like + starling (Lycocorax morotensis), are quite distinct from allied species + found in Gilolo. The island is coralline and sandy, and we must therefore + believe it to have been separated from Gilolo at a somewhat remote epoch; + while we learn from its natural history that an arm of the sea twenty-five + miles wide serves to limit the range even of birds of considerable powers + of flight. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. TERNATE TO THE KAIOA ISLANDS AND BATCHIAN. + </h2> + <h3> + (OCTOBER 1858.) + </h3> + <p> + ON returning to Ternate from Sahoe, I at once began making preparations + for a journey to Batchian, an island which I had been constantly + recommended to visit since I had arrived in this part of the Moluccas. + After all was ready I found that I should have to hire a boat, as no + opportunity of obtaining a passage presented itself. I accordingly went + into the native town, and could only find two boats for hire, one much + larger than I required, and the other far smaller than I wished. I chose + the smaller one, chiefly because it would not cost me one-third as much as + the larger one, and also because in a coasting voyage a small vessel can + be more easily managed, and more readily got into a place of safety during + violent gales, than a large one. I took with me my Bornean lad Ali, who + was now very useful to me; Lahagi, a native of Ternate, a very good steady + man, and a fair shooter, who had been with me to New Guinea; Lahi, a + native of Gilolo, who could speak Malay, as woodcutter and general + assistant; and Garo, a boy who was to act as cook. As the boat was so + small that we had hardly room to stow ourselves away when all my stores + were on board, I only took one other man named Latchi, as pilot. He was a + Papuan slave, a tall, strong black fellow, but very civil and careful. The + boat I had hired from a Chinaman named Lau Keng Tong, for five guilders a + month. + </p> + <p> + We started on the morning of October 9th, but had not got a hundred yards + from land, when a strong head wind sprung up, against which we could not + row, so we crept along shore to below the town, and waited till the turn + of the tide should enable us to cross over to the coast of Tidore. About + three in the afternoon we got off, and found that our boat sailed well, + and would keep pretty close to the wind. We got on a good way before the + wind fell and we had to take to our oars again. We landed on a nice sandy + beach to cook our suppers, just as the sun set behind the rugged volcanic + hills, to the south of the great cone of Tidore, and soon after beheld the + planet Venus shining in the twilight with the brilliancy of a new moon, + and casting a very distinct shadow. We left again a little before seven, + and as we got out from the shadow of the mountain I observed a bright + light over one part of the edge, and soon after, what seemed a fire of + remarkable whiteness on the very summit of the hill. I called the + attention of my men to it, and they too thought it merely a fire; but a + few minutes afterwards, as we got farther off shore, the light rose clear + up above the ridge of the hill, and some faint clouds clearing away from + it, discovered the magnificent comet which was at the same time, + astonishing all Europe. The nucleus presented to the naked eye a distinct + disc of brilliant white light, from which the tail rose at an angle of + about 30° or 35° with the horizon, curving slightly downwards, and + terminating in a broad brush of faint light, the curvature of which + diminished till it was nearly straight at the end. The portion of the tail + next the comet appeared three or four tunes as bright as the most luminous + portion of the milky way, and what struck me as a singular feature was + that its upper margin, from the nucleus to very near the extremity, was + clearly and almost sharply defined, while the lower side gradually shaded + off into obscurity. Directly it rose above the ridge of the hill, I said + to my men, "See, it's not a fire, it's a bintang ber-ekor" ("tailed-star," + the Malay idiom for a comet). "So it is," said they; and all declared that + they had often heard tell of such, but had never seen one till now. I had + no telescope with me, nor any instrument at hand, but I estimated the + length of the tail at about 20°, and the width, towards the extremity, + about 4° or 5°. + </p> + <p> + The whole of the next day we were obliged to stop near the village of + Tidore, owing to a strong wind right in our teeth. The country was all + cultivated, and I in vain searched for any insects worth capturing. One of + my men went out to shoot, but returned home without a single bird. At + sunset, the wind having dropped, we quitted Tidore, and reached the next + island, March, where we stayed till morning. The comet was again visible, + but not nearly so brilliant, being partly obscured by clouds; and dimmed + by the light of the new moon. We then rowed across to the island of Motir, + which is so surrounded with coral-reefs that it is dangerous to approach. + These are perfectly flat, and are only covered at high water, ending in + craggy vertical walls of coral in very deep water. When there is a little + wind, it is dangerous to come near these rocks; but luckily it was quite + smooth, so we moored to their edge, while the men crawled over the reef to + the land, to make; a fire and cook our dinner-the boat having no + accommodation for more than heating water for my morning and evening + coffee. We then rowed along the edge of the reef to the end of the island, + and were glad to get a nice westerly breeze, which carried us over the + strait to the island of Makian, where we arrived about 8 P.M, The sky was + quite clear, and though the moon shone brightly, the comet appeared with + quite as much splendour as when we first saw it. + </p> + <p> + The coasts of these small islands are very different according to their + geological formation. The volcanoes, active or extinct, have steep black + beaches of volcanic sand, or are fringed with rugged masses of lava and + basalt. Coral is generally absent, occurring only in small patches in + quiet bays, and rarely or never forming reefs. Ternate, Tidore, and Makian + belong to this class. Islands of volcanic origin, not themselves + volcanoes, but which have been probably recently upraised, are generally + more or less completely surrounded by fringing reefs of coral, and have + beaches of shining white coral sand. Their coasts present volcanic + conglomerates, basalt, and in some places a foundation of stratified + rocks, with patches of upraised coral. Mareh and Motir are of this + character, the outline of the latter giving it the appearance of having + been a true volcano, and it is said by Forrest to have thrown out stones + in 1778. The next day (Oct. 12th), we coasted along the island of Makian, + which consists of a single grand volcano. It was now quiescent, but about + two centuries ago (in 1646) there was a terrible eruption, which blew up + the whole top of the mountain, leaving the truncated jagged summit and + vast gloomy crater valley which at this time distinguished it. It was said + to have been as lofty as Tidore before this catastrophe. [Soon after I' + left the Archipelago, on the 29th of December, 1862, another eruption of + this mountain suddenly took place, which caused great devastation in the + island. All the villages and crops were destroyed, and numbers of the + inhabitants killed. The sand and ashes fell so thick that the crops were + partially destroyed fifty miles off, at Ternate, where it was so dark the + following day that lamps had to be lighted at noon. For the position of + this and the adjacent islands, see the map in Chapter XXXVII.] + </p> + <p> + I stayed some time at a place where I saw a new clearing on a very steep + part of the mountain, and obtained a few interesting insects. In the + evening we went on to the extreme southern point, to be ready to pass + across the fifteen-mile strait to the island of Kaiķa. At five the next + morning we started, but the wind, which had hitherto been westerly, now + got to the south and southwest, and we had to row almost all the way with + a burning sun overhead. As we approached land a fine breeze sprang up, and + we went along at a great pace; yet after an hour we were no nearer, and + found we were in a violent current carrying us out to sea. At length we + overcame it, and got on shore just as the sun set, having been exactly + thirteen hours coming fifteen miles. We landed on a beach of hard + coralline rock, with rugged cliffs of the same, resembling those of the Ke + Islands (Chap. XXIX.) It was accompanied by a brilliancy and luxuriance of + the vegetation, very like what I had observed at those islands, which so + much pleased me that I resolved to stay a few days at the chief village, + and see if their animal productions were correspondingly interesting. + While searching for a secure anchorage for the night we again saw the + comet, still apparently as brilliant as at first, but the tail had now + risen to a higher angle. + </p> + <p> + October 14th.—All this day we coasted along the Kaiķa Islands, which + have much the appearance and outline of Ke on a small scale, with the + addition of flat swampy tracts along shore, and outlying coral reefs. + Contrary winds and currents had prevented our taking the proper course to + the west of them, and we had to go by a circuitous route round the + southern extremity of one island, often having to go far out to sea on + account of coral reefs. On trying to pass a channel through one of these + reefs we were grounded, and all had to get out into the water, which in + this shallow strait had been so heated by the sun as to be disagreeably + warm, and drag our vessel a considerable distance among weeds and sponges, + corals and prickly corallines. It was late at night when we reached the + little village harbour, and we were all pretty well knocked up by hard + work, and having had nothing but very brackish water to drink all day-the + best we could find at our last stopping-place. There was a house close to + the shore, built for the use of the Resident of Ternate when he made his + official visits, but now occupied by several native travelling merchants, + among whom I found a place to sleep. + </p> + <p> + The next morning early I went to the village to find the "Kapala," or head + man. I informed him that I wanted to stay a few days in the house at the + landing, and begged him to have it made ready for me. He was very civil, + and came down at once to get it cleared, when we found that the traders + had already left, on hearing that I required it. There were no doors to + it, so I obtained the loan of a couple of hurdles to keep out dogs and + other animals. The land here was evidently sinking rapidly, as shown by + the number of trees standing in salt water dead and dying. After breakfast + I started for a walk to the forest-covered hill above the village, with a + couple of boys as guides. It was exceedingly hot and dry, no rain having + fallen for two months. When we reached an elevation of about two hundred + feet, the coralline rock which fringes the shore was succeeded by a hard + crystalline rock, a kind of metamorphic sandstone. This would indicate + flat there had been a recent elevation of more than two hundred feet, + which had still more recently clanged into a movement of subsidence. The + hill was very rugged, but among dry sticks and fallen trees I found some + good insects, mostly of forms and species I was already acquainted with + from Ternate and Gilolo. Finding no good paths I returned, and explored + the lower ground eastward of the village, passing through a long range of + plantain and tobacco grounds, encumbered with felled and burnt logs, on + which I found quantities of beetles of the family Buprestidae of six + different species, one of which was new to me. I then reached a path in + the swampy forest where I hoped to find some butterflies, but was + disappointed. Being now pretty well exhausted by the intense heat, I + thought it wise to return and reserve further exploration for the next + day. + </p> + <p> + When I sat down in the afternoon to arrange my insects, the louse was + surrounded by men, women, and children, lost in amazement at my + unaccountable proceedings; and when, after pinning out the specimens, I + proceeded to write the name of the place on small circular tickets, and + attach one to each, even the old Kapala, the Mahometan priest, and some + Malay traders could not repress signs of astonishment. If they had known a + little more about the ways and opinions of white men, they would probably + have looked upon me as a fool or a madman, but in their ignorance they + accepted my operations as worthy of all respect, although utterly beyond + their comprehension. + </p> + <p> + The next day (October 16th) I went beyond the swamp, and found a place + where a new clearing was being made in the virgin forest. It was a long + and hot walk, and the search among the fallen trunks and branches was very + fatiguing, but I was rewarded by obtaining about seventy distinct species + of beetles, of which at least a dozen were new to me, and many others rare + and interesting. I have never in my life seen beetles so abundant as they + were on this spot. Some dozen species of good-sized golden Buprestidae, + green rose-chafers (Lomaptera), and long-horned weevils (Anthribidae), + were so abundant that they rose up in swarms as I walked along, filling + the air with a loud buzzing hum. Along with these, several fine Longicorns + were almost equally common, forming such au assemblage as for once to + realize that idea of tropical luxuriance which one obtains by looking over + the drawers of a well-filled cabinet. On the under sides of the trunks + clung numbers of smaller or more sluggish Longicorns, while on the + branches at the edge of the clearing others could be detected sitting with + outstretched antenna ready to take flight at the least alarm. It was a + glorious spot, and one which will always live in my memory as exhibiting + the insect-life of the tropics in unexampled luxuriance. For the three + following days I continued to visit this locality, adding each time many + new species to my collection-the following notes of which may be + interesting to entomologists. October 15th, 33 species of beetles; 16th, + 70 species; 17th, 47 species; 18th, 40 species; 19th, 56 species—in + all about a hundred species, of which forty were new to me. There were + forty-four species of Longicorns among them, and on the last day I took + twenty-eight species of Longicorns, of which five were new to me. + </p> + <p> + My boys were less fortunate in shooting. The only birds at all common were + the great red parrot (Eclectus grandis), found in most of the Moluccas, a + crow, and a Megapodius, or mound-maker. A few of the pretty racquet-tailed + kingfishers were also obtained, but in very poor plumage. They proved, + however, to be of a different species from those found in the other + islands, and come nearest to the bird originally described by Linnaeus + under the name of Alcedo dea, and which came from Ternate. This would + indicate that the small chain of islands parallel to Gilolo have a few + peculiar species in common, a fact which certainly occurs in insects. + </p> + <p> + The people of Kaioa interested me much. They are evidently a mixed race, + having Malay and Papuan affinities, and are allied to the peoples of + Ternate and of Gilolo. They possess a peculiar language, somewhat + resembling those of the surrounding islands, but quite distinct. They are + now Mahometans, and are subject to Ternate, The only fruits seen here were + papaws and pine-apples, the rocky soil and dry climate being unfavourable. + Rice, maize, and plantains flourish well, except that they suffer from + occasional dry seasons like the present one. There is a little cotton + grown, from which the women weave sarongs (Malay petticoats). There is + only one well of good water on the islands, situated close to the + landing-place, to which all the inhabitants come for drinking water. The + men are good boat-builders, and they make a regular trade of it and seem + to be very well off. + </p> + <p> + After five days at Kaiķa we continued our journey, and soon got among the + narrow straits and islands which lead down to the town of Batchian. In the + evening we stayed at a settlement of Galela men. These are natives of a + district in the extreme north of Gilolo, and are great wanderers over this + part of the Archipelago. They build large and roomy praus with outriggers, + and settle on any coast or island they take a fancy for. They hunt deer + and wild pig, drying the meat; they catch turtle and tripang; they cut + down the forest and plant rice or maize, and are altogether remarkably + energetic and industrious. They are very line people, of light complexion, + tall, and with Papuan features, coming nearer to the drawings and + descriptions of the true Polynesians of Tahiti and Owyhee than any I have + seen. + </p> + <p> + During this voyage I had several times had an opportunity of seeing my men + get fire by friction. A sharp-edged piece of bamboo is rubbed across the + convex surface of another piece, on which a small notch is first cut. The + rubbing is slow at first and gradually quicker, till it becomes very + rapid, and the fine powder rubbed off ignites and falls through the hole + which the rubbing has cut in the bamboo. This is done with great quickness + and certainty. The Ternate, people use bamboo in another way. They strike + its flinty surface with a bit of broken china, and produce a spark, which + they catch in some kind of tinder. + </p> + <p> + On the evening of October 21st we reached our destination, having been + twelve days on the voyage. It had been tine weather all the time, and, + although very hot, I had enjoyed myself exceedingly, and had besides + obtained some experience in boat work among islands and coral reefs, which + enabled me afterwards to undertake much longer voyages of the same kind. + The village or town of Batchian is situated at the head of a wide and deep + bay, where a low isthmus connects the northern and southern mountainous + parts of the island. To the south is a fine range of mountains, and I had + noticed at several of our landing-places that the geological formation of + the island was very different from those around it. Whenever rock was + visible it was either sandstone in thin layers, dipping south, or a pebbly + conglomerate. Sometimes there was a little coralline limestone, but no + volcanic rocks. The forest had a dense luxuriance and loftiness seldom + found on the dry and porous lavas and raised coral reefs of Ternate and + Gilolo; and hoping for a corresponding richness in the birds and insects, + it was with much satisfaction and with considerable expectation that I + began my explorations in the hitherto unknown island of Batchian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. BATCHIAN. + </h2> + <h3> + (OCTOBER 1858 To APRIL 1859.) + </h3> + <p> + I LANDED opposite the house kept for the use of the Resident of Ternate, + and was met by a respectable middle-aged Malay, who told me he was + Secretary to the Sultan, and would receive the official letter with which + I had been provided. On giving it him, he at once informed me I might have + the use of the official residence which was empty. I soon got my things on + shore, but on looking about me found that the house would never do to stay + long in. There was no water except at a considerable distance, and one of + my men would be almost entirely occupied getting water and firewood, and I + should myself have to walk all through the village every day to the + forest, and live almost in public, a thing I much dislike. The rooms were + all boarded, and had ceilings, which are a great nuisance, as there are no + means of hanging anything up except by driving nails, and not half the + conveniences of a native bamboo and thatch cottage. I accordingly inquired + for a house outside of the village on the road to the coal mines, and was + informed by the Secretary that there was a small one belonging to the + Sultan, and that he would go with me early next morning to see it. + </p> + <p> + We had to pass one large river, by a rude but substantial bridge, and to + wade through another fine pebbly stream of clear water, just beyond which + the little but was situated. It was very small, not raised on posts, but + with the earth for a floor, and was built almost entirely of the + leaf-stems of the sago-palm, called here "gaba-gaba." Across the river + behind rose a forest-clad bank, and a good road close in front of the + horse led through cultivated grounds to the forest about half a mile on, + and thence to the coal mines tour miles further. These advantages at once + decided me, and I told the Secretary I would be very glad to occupy the + house. I therefore sent my two men immediately to buy "ataps" (palm-leaf + thatch) to repair the roof, and the next day, with the assistance of eight + of the Sultan's men, got all my stores and furniture carried up and pretty + comfortably arranged. A rough bamboo bedstead was soon constructed, and a + table made of boards which I had brought with me, fixed under the window. + Two bamboo chairs, an easy cane chair, and hanging shelves suspended with + insulating oil cups, so as to be safe from ants, completed my furnishing + arrangements. + </p> + <p> + In the afternoon succeeding my arrival, the Secretary accompanied me to + visit the Sultan. We were kept waiting a few minutes in an outer + gate-house, and then ushered to the door of a rude, half-fortified + whitewashed house. A small table and three chairs were placed in a large + outer corridor, and an old dirty-faced man with grey hair and a grimy + beard, dressed in a speckled blue cotton jacket and loose red trousers, + came forward, shook hands, and asked me to be coated. After a quarter of + an hour's conversation on my pursuits, in which his Majesty seemed to take + great interest, tea and cakes-of rather better quality than usual on such + occasions-were brought in. I thanked him for the house, and offered to + show him my collections, which he promised to come and look at. He then + asked me to teach him to take views-to make maps-to get him a small gun + from England, and a milch-goat from Bengal; all of which requests I evaded + as skilfully as I was able, and we parted very good friends. He seemed a + sensible old man, and lamented the small population of the island, which + he assured me was rich in many valuable minerals, including gold; but + there were not people enough to look after them and work them. I described + to him the great rush of population on the discovery of the Australian + gold mines, and the huge nuggets found there, with which he was much + interested, and exclaimed, "Oh? if we had but people like that, my country + would be quite as rich." + </p> + <p> + The morning after I had got into my new house, I sent my boys out to + shoot, and went myself to explore the road to the coal mines. In less than + half a mile it entered the virgin forest, at a place where some + magnificent trees formed a kind of natural avenue. The first part was flat + and swampy, but it soon rose a little, and ran alongside the fine stream + which passed behind my house, and which here rushed and gurgled over a + rocky or pebbly bed, sometimes leaving wide sandbanks on its margins, and + at other places flowing between high banks crowned with a varied and + magnificent forest vegetation. After about two miles, the valley narrowed, + and the road was carried along the steep hill-side which rose abruptly + from the water's edge. In some places the rock had been cut away, but its + surface was already covered with elegant ferns and creepers. Gigantic + tree-ferns were abundant, and the whole forest had an air of luxuriance + and rich variety which it never attains in the dry volcanic soil to which + I had been lately accustomed. A little further the road passed to the + other side of the valley by a bridge across the stream at a place where a + great mass of rock in the middle offered an excellent support for it, and + two miles more of most picturesque and interesting road brought me to the + mining establishment. + </p> + <p> + This is situated in a large open space, at a spot where two tributaries + fall into the main stream. Several forest-paths and new clearings offered + fine collecting grounds, and I captured some new and interesting insects; + but as it was getting late I had to reserve a more thorough exploration + for future occasions. Coal had been discovered here some years before, and + the road was made in order to bring down a sufficient quantity for a fair + trial on the Dutch steamers. The quality, however, was not thought + sufficiently good, and the mines were abandoned. Quite recently, works had + been commenced in another spot, in Hopes of finding a better vein. There + ware about eighty men employed, chiefly convicts; but this was far too + small a number for mining operations in such a country, where the mere + keeping a few miles of road in repair requires the constant work of + several men. If coal of sufficiently good quality should be found, a + tramroad would be made, and would be very easily worked, owing to the + regular descent of the valley. + </p> + <p> + Just as I got home I overtook Ali returning from shooting with some birch + hanging from his belt. He seemed much pleased, and said, "Look here, sir, + what a curious bird," holding out what at first completely puzzled me. I + saw a bird with a mass of splendid green feathers on its breast, elongated + into two glittering tufts; but, what I could not understand was a pair of + long white feathers, which stuck straight out from each shoulder. Ali + assured me that the bird stuck them out this way itself, when fluttering + its wings, and that they had remained so without his touching them. I now + saw that I had got a great prize, no less than a completely new form of + the Bird of Paradise, differing most remarkably from every other known + bird. The general plumage is very sober, being a pure ashy olive, with a + purplish tinge on the back; the crown of the head is beautifully glossed + with pale metallic violet, and the feathers of the front extend as much + over the beak as inmost of the family. The neck and breast are scaled with + fine metallic green, and the feathers on the lower part are elongated on + each side, so as to form a two-pointed gorget, which can be folded beneath + the wings, or partially erected and spread out in the same way as the side + plumes of most of the birds of paradise. The four long white plumes which + give the bird its altogether unique character, spring from little + tubercles close to the upper edge of the shoulder or bend of the wing; + they are narrow, gentle curved, and equally webbed on both sides, of a + pure creamy white colour. They are about six inches long, equalling the + wing, and can be raised at right angles to it, or laid along the body at + the pleasure of the bird. The bill is horn colour, the legs yellow, and + the iris pale olive. This striking novelty has been named by Mr. G. R. + Gray of the British Museum, Semioptera Wallacei, or "Wallace's Standard + wing." + </p> + <p> + A few days later I obtained an exceedingly beautiful new butterfly, allied + to the fine blue Papilio Ulysses, but differing from it in the colour + being of a more intense tint, and in having a row of blue stripes around + the margin of the lower wings. This good beginning was, however, rather + deceptive, and I soon found that insects, and especially butterflies, were + somewhat scarce, and birds in tar less variety than I had anticipated. + Several of the fine Moluccan species were however obtained. The handsome + red lory with green wings and a yellow spot in the back (Lorius garrulus), + was not uncommon. When the Jambu, or rose apple (Eugenic sp.), was in + flower in the village, flocks of the little lorikeet (Charmosyna + placentis), already met with in Gilolo, came to feed upon the nectar, and + I obtained as many specimens as I desired. Another beautiful bird of the + parrot tribe was the Geoffroyus cyanicollis, a green parrot with a red + bill and head, which colour shaded on the crown into azure blue, and + thence into verditer blue and the green of the back. Two large and + handsome fruit pigeons, with metallic green, ashy, and rufous plumage, + were not uncommon; and I was rewarded by finding a splendid deep blue + roller (Eurystomus azureus); a lovely golden-capped sunbird (Nectarinea + auriceps), and a fine racquet-tailed kingfisher (Tanysiptera isis), all of + which were entirely new to ornithologists. Of insects I obtained a + considerable number of interesting beetles, including many fine + longicorns, among which was the largest and handsomest species of the + genus Glenea yet discovered. Among butterflies the beautiful little Danis + sebae was abundant, making the forests gay with its delicate wings of + white and the richest metallic blue; while showy Papilios, and pretty + Pieridae, and dark, rich Euphaeas, many of them new, furnished a constant + source of interest and pleasing occupation. + </p> + <p> + The island of Batchian possesses no really indigenous inhabitants, the + interior being altogether uninhabited; and there are only a few small + villages on various parts of the coast; yet I found here four distinct + races, which would wofully mislead an ethnological traveller unable to + obtain information as to their origin, first there are the Batchian + Malays, probably the earliest colonists, differing very little from those + of Ternate. Their language, however, seems to have more of the Papuan + element, with a mixture of pure Malay, showing that the settlement is one + of stragglers of various races, although now sufficiently homogeneous. + Then there are the "Orang Sirani," as at Ternate and Amboyna. Many of + these have the Portuguese physiognomy strikingly preserved, but combined + with a skin generally darker than the Malays. Some national customs are + retained, and the Malay, which is their only language, contains a large + number of Portuguese words and idioms. The third race consists of the + Galela men from the north of Gilolo, a singular people, whom I have + already described; and the fourth is a colony from Tomķre, in the eastern + peninsula of Celebes. These people were brought here at their own request + a few years ago, to avoid extermination by another tribe. They have a very + light complexion, open Tartar physiognomy, low stature, and a language of + the Bugis type. They are an industrious agricultural people, and supply + the town with vegetables. They make a good deal of bark cloth, similar to + the tapa of the Polynesians, by cutting down the proper trees and taping + off large cylinders of bark, which is beaten with mallets till it + separates from the wood. It is then soaked, and so continuously and + regularly beaten out that it becomes as thin and as tough as parchment. In + this foam it is much used for wrappers for clothes; and they also make + jackets of it, sewn neatly together and stained with the juice of another + kind of bark, which gives it a dark red colour and renders it nearly + waterproof. + </p> + <p> + Here are four very distinct kinds of people who may all be seen any day in + and about the town of Batchian. Now if we suppose a traveller ignorant of + Malay, picking up a word or two here and there of the "Batchian language," + and noting down the "physical and moral peculiarities, manners, and + customs of the Batchian people"—(for there are travellers who do all + this in four-and-twenty hours)—what an accurate and instructive + chapter we should have' what transitions would be pointed out, what + theories of the origin of races would be developed while the next + traveller might flatly contradict every statement and arrive at exactly + opposite conclusions. + </p> + <p> + Soon after I arrived here the Dutch Government introduced a new copper + coinage of cents instead of doits (the 100th instead of the 120th part of + a guilder), and all the old coins were ordered to be sent to Ternate to be + changed. I sent a bag containing 6,000 doits, and duly received the new + money by return of the boat. Then Ali went to bring it, however, the + captain required a written order; so I waited to send again the next day, + and it was lucky I did so, for that night my house was entered, all my + boxes carried out and ransacked, and the various articles left on the road + about twenty yards off, where we found them at five in the morning, when, + on getting up and finding the house empty, we rushed out to discover + tracks of the thieves. Not being able to find the copper money which they + thought I had just received, they decamped, taking nothing but a few yards + of cotton cloth and a black coat and trousers, which latter were picked up + a few days afterwards hidden in the grass. There was no doubt whatever who + were the thieves. Convicts are employed to guard the Government stores + when the boat arrives from Ternate. Two of them watch all night, and often + take the opportunity to roam about and commit robberies. + </p> + <p> + The next day I received my money, and secured it well in a strong box + fastened under my bed. I took out five or six hundred cents for daily + expenses, and put them in a small japanned box, which always stood upon my + table. In the afternoon I went for a short walk, and on my return this box + and my keys, which I had carelessly left on the table, were gone. Two of + my boys were in the house, but had heard nothing. I immediately gave + information of the two robberies to the Director at the mines and to the + Commandant at the fort, and got for answer, that if I caught the thief in + the act I might shoot him. By inquiry in the village, we afterwards found + that one of the convicts who was on duty at the Government rice-store in + the village had quitted his guard, was seen to pass over the bridge + towards my house, was seen again within two hundred yards of my house, and + on returning over the bridge into the village carried something under his + arm, carefully covered with his sarong. My box was stolen between the + hours he was seen going and returning, and it was so small as to be easily + carried in the way described. This seemed pretty clear circumstantial + evidence. I accused the man and brought the witnesses to the Commandant. + The man was examined, and confessed having gone to the river close to my + house to bathe; but said he had gone no farther, having climbed up a + cocoa-nut tree and brought home two nuts, which he had covered over, <i>because + he was ashamed to be seen carrying them!</i> This explanation was thought + satisfactory, and he was acquitted. I lost my cash and my box, a seal I + much valued, with other small articles, and all my keys-the severest loss + by far. Luckily my large cash-box was left locked, but so were others + which I required to open immediately. There was, however, a very clever + blacksmith employed to do ironwork for the mines, and he picked my locks + for me when I required them, and in a few days made me new keys, which I + used all the time I was abroad. + </p> + <p> + Towards the end of November the wet season set in, and we had daily and + almost incessant rains, with only about one or two hours' sunshine in the + morning. The flat parts of the forest became flooded, the roads filled + with mud, and insects and birds were scarcer than ever. On December Lath, + in the afternoon, we had a sharp earthquake shock, which made the house + and furniture shale and rattle for five minutes, and the trees and shrubs + wave as if a gust of wind had passed over them. About the middle of + December I removed to the village, in order more easily to explore the + district to the west of it, and to be near the sea when I wished to return + to Ternate. I obtained the use of a good-sized house in the Campong Sirani + (or Christian village), and at Christmas and the New Year had to endure + the incessant gun-firing, drum-beating, and fiddling of the inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + These people are very fond of music and dancing, and it would astonish a + European to visit one of their assemblies. We enter a gloomy palm-leaf + hut, in which two or three very dim lamps barely render darkness visible. + The floor is of black sandy earth, the roof hid in a smoky impenetrable + blackness; two or three benches stand against the walls, and the orchestra + consists of a fiddle, a fife, a drum, and a triangle. There is plenty of + company, consisting of young men and women, all very neatly dressed in + white and black—a true Portuguese habit. Quadrilles, waltzes, + polkas, and mazurkas are danced with great vigour and much skill. The + refreshments are muddy coffee and a few sweetmeats. Dancing is kept up for + hours, and all is conducted with much decorum and propriety. A party of + this kind meets about once a week, the principal inhabitants taking it by + turns, and all who please come in without much ceremony. + </p> + <p> + It is astonishing how little these people have altered in three hundred + years, although in that time they have changed their language and lost all + knowledge of their own nationality. They are still in manners and + appearance almost pure Portuguese, very similar to those with whom I had + become acquainted on the banks of the Amazon. They live very poorly as + regards their house and furniture, but preserve a semi-European dress, and + have almost all full suits of black for Sundays. They are nominally + Protestants, but Sunday evening is their grand day for music and dancing. + The men are often good hunters; and two or three times a week, deer or + wild pigs are brought to the village, which, with fish and fowls, enables + them to live well. They are almost the only people in the Archipelago who + eat the great fruit-eating bats called by us "flying foxes." These ugly + creatures are considered a great delicacy, and are much sought after. At + about the beginning of the year they come in large flocks to eat fruit, + and congregate during the day on some small islands in the bay, hanging by + thousands on the trees, especially on dead ones. They can then be easily + caught or knocked down with sticks, and are brought home by basketsfull. + They require to be carefully prepared, as the skin and fur has a rank end + powerful foxy odour; but they are generally cooked with abundance of + spices and condiments, and are really very good eating, something like + hare. The Orang Sirani are good cooks, having a much greater variety of + savoury dishes than the Malays. Here, they live chiefly on sago as bread, + with a little rice occasionally, and abundance of vegetables and fruit. + </p> + <p> + It is a curious fact that everywhere in the Past where the Portuguese have + mixed with the native races they leave become darker in colour than either + of the parent stocks. This is the case almost always with these "Orang + Sirani" in the Moluccas, and with the Portuguese of Malacca. The reverse + is the case in South America, where the mixture of the Portuguese or + Brazilian with the Indian produces the "Mameluco," who is not unfrequently + lighter than either parent, and always lighter than the Indian. The women + at Batchian, although generally fairer than the men, are coarse in + features, and very far inferior in beauty to the mixed Dutch-Malay girls, + or even to many pure Malays. + </p> + <p> + The part of the village in which I resided was a grove of cocoa-nut trees, + and at night, when the dead leaves were sometimes collected together and + burnt, the effect was most magnificent—the tall stems, the fine + crowns of foliage, and the immense fruit-clusters, being brilliantly + illuminated against a dark sky, and appearing like a fairy palace + supported on a hundred columns, and groined over with leafy arches. The + cocoa-nut tree, when well grown, is certainly the prince of palms both for + beauty and utility. + </p> + <p> + During my very first walk into the forest at Batchian, I had seen sitting + on a leaf out of reach, an immense butterfly of a dark colour marked with + white and yellow spots. I could not capture it as it flew away high up + into the forest, but I at once saw that it was a female of a new species + of Ornithoptera or "bird-winged butterfly," the pride of the Eastern + tropics. I was very anxious to get it and to find the male, which in this + genus is always of extreme beauty. During the two succeeding months I only + saw it once again, and shortly afterwards I saw the male flying high in + the air at the mining village. I had begun to despair of ever getting a + specimen, as it seemed so rare and wild; till one day, about the beginning + of January, I found a beautiful shrub with large white leafy bracts and + yellow flowers, a species of Mussaenda, and saw one of these noble insects + hovering over it, but it was too quick for me, and flew away. The next + clay I went again to the same shrub and succeeded in catching a female, + and the day after a fine male. I found it to be as I had expected, a + perfectly new and most magnificent species, and one of the most gorgeously + coloured butterflies in the world. Fine specimens of the male are more + than seven inches across the wings, which are velvety black and fiery + orange, the latter colour replacing the green of the allied species. The + beauty and brilliancy of this insect are indescribable, and none but a + naturalist can understand the intense excitement I experienced when I at + length captured it. On taking it out of my net and opening the glorious + wings, my heart began to beat violently, the blood rushed to my head, and + I felt much more like fainting than I have done when in apprehension of + immediate death. I had a headache the rest of the day, so great was the + excitement produced by what will appear to most people a very inadequate + cause. + </p> + <p> + I had decided to return to Ternate in a week or two more, but this grand + capture determined me to stay on till I obtained a good series of the new + butterfly, which I have since named Ornithoptera croesus. The Mussaenda + bush was an admirable place, which I could visit every day on my way to + the forest; and as it was situated in a dense thicket of shrubs and + creepers, I set my man Lahi to clear a space all round it, so that I could + easily get at any insect that might visit it. Afterwards, finding that it + was often necessary to wait some time there, I had a little seat put up + under a tree by the side of it, where I came every day to eat my lunch, + and thus had half an hour's watching about noon, besides a chance as I + passed it in the morning. In this way I obtained on an average one + specimen a day for a long time, but more than half of these were females, + and more than half the remainder worn or broken specimens, so that I + should not have obtained many perfect males had I not found another + station for them. + </p> + <p> + As soon as I had seen them come to flowers, I sent my man Lahi with a net + on purpose to search for them, as they had also been seen at some + flowering trees on the beach, and I promised him half a day's wages extra + for every good specimen he could catch. After a day or two he brought me + two very fair specimens, and told me he had caught them in the bed of a + large rocky stream that descends from the mountains to the sea abort a + mile below the village. They flew down this river, settling occasionally + on stones and rocks in the water, and he was obliged to wade up it or jump + from rock to rock to get at them. I went with him one day, but found that + the stream was far too rapid and the stones too slippery for me to do + anything, so I left it entirely to him, and all the rest of the time we + stayed in Batchian he used to be out all day, generally bringing me one, + and on good days two or three specimens. I was thus able to bring away + with me more than a hundred of both sexes, including perhaps twenty very + fine males, though not more than five or six that were absolutely perfect. + </p> + <p> + My daily walk now led me, first about half a mile along the sandy beach, + then through a sago swamp over a causeway of very shaky poles to the + village of the Tomore people. Beyond this was the forest with patches of + new clearing, shady paths, and a considerable quantity of felled timber. I + found this a very fair collecting ground, especially for beetles. The + fallen trunks in the clearings abounded with golden Buprestidae and + curious Brenthidae, and longicorns, while in the forest I found abundance + of the smaller Curculionidae, many longicorns, and some fine green + Carabidae. + </p> + <p> + Butterflies were not abundant, but I obtained a few more of the fine blue + Papilio, and a number of beautiful little Lycaenidae, as well as a single + specimen of the very rare Papilio Wallacei, of which I had taken the + hitherto unique specimen in the Aru Islands. + </p> + <p> + The most interesting birds I obtained here, were the beautiful blue + kingfisher, Todiramphus diops; the fine green and purple doves, Ptilonopus + superbus and P. iogaster, and several new birds of small size. My shooters + still brought me in specimens of the Semioptera Wallacei, and I was + greatly excited by the positive statements of several of the native + hunters that another species of this bird existed, much handsomer and more + remarkable. They declared that the plumage was glossy black, with metallic + green breast as in my species, but that the white shoulder plumes were + twice as long, and hung down far below the body of the bird. They declared + that when hunting pigs or deer far in the forest they occasionally saw + this bird, but that it was rare. I immediately offered twelve guilders (a + pound) for a specimen; but all in vain, and I am to this day uncertain + whether such a bird exists. Since I left, the German naturalist, Dr. + Bernstein, stayed many months in the island with a large staff of hunters + collecting for the Leyden Museum; and as he was not more successful than + myself, we must consider either that the bird is very rare, or is + altogether a myth. + </p> + <p> + Batchian is remarkable as being the most eastern point on the globe + inhabited by any of the Quadrumana. A large black baboon-monkey + (Cynopithecus nigrescens) is abundant in some parts of the forest. This + animal has bare red callosities, and a rudimentary tail about an inch long—a + mere fleshy tubercle, which may be very easily overlooked. It is the same + species that is found all over the forests of Celebes, and as none of the + other Mammalia of that island extend into Batchian I am inclined to + suppose that this species has been accidentally introduced by the roaming + Malays, who often carry about with them tame monkeys and other animals. + This is rendered more probable by the fact that the animal is not found in + Gilolo, which is only separated from Batchian by a very narrow strait. The + introduction may have been very recent, as in a fertile and unoccupied + island such an animal would multiply rapidly. The only other mammals + obtained were an Eastern opossum, which Dr. Gray has described as Cuscus + ornatus; the little flying opossum, Belideus ariel; a Civet cat, Viverra + zebetha; and nice species of bats, most of the smaller ones being caught + in the dusk with my butterfly net as they flew about before the house. + </p> + <p> + After much delay, owing to bad weather and the illness of one of my men, I + determined to visit Kasserota (formerly the chief village), situated up a + small stream, on an island close to the north coast of Batchian; where I + was told that many rare birds were found. After my boat was loaded and + everything ready, three days of heavy squalls prevented our starting, and + it was not till the 21st of March that we got away. Early next morning we + entered the little river, and in about an hour we reached the Sultan's + house, which I had obtained permission to use. It was situated on the bank + of the river, and surrounded by a forest of fruit trees, among which were + some of the very loftiest and most graceful cocoa-nut palms I have ever + seen. It rained nearly all that day, and I could do little but unload and + unpack. Towards the afternoon it cleared up, and I attempted to explore in + various directions, but found to my disgust that the only path was a + perfect mud swamp, along which it was almost impossible to walk, and the + surrounding forest so damp and dark as to promise little in the way of + insects. I found too on inquiry that the people here made no clearings, + living entirely on sago, fruit, fish, and game; and the path only led to a + steep rocky mountain equally impracticable and unproductive. The next day + I sent my men to this hill, hoping it might produce some good birds; but + they returned with only two common species, and I myself had been able to + get nothing; every little track I had attempted to follow leading to a + dense sago swamp. I saw that I should waste time by staying here, and + determined to leave the following day. + </p> + <p> + This is one of those spots so hard for the European naturalist to + conceive, where with all the riches of a tropical vegetation, and partly + perhaps from the very luxuriance of that vegetation, insects are as scarce + as in the most barren parts of Europe, and hardly more conspicuous. In + temperate climates there is a tolerable uniformity in the distribution of + insects over those parts of a country in which there is a similarity in + the vegetation, any deficiency being easily accounted for by the absence + of wood or uniformity of surface. The traveller hastily passing through + such a country can at once pick out a collecting ground which will afford + him a fair notion of its entomology. Here the case is different. There are + certain requisites of a good collecting ground which can only be + ascertained to exist by some days' search in the vicinity of each village. + In some places there is no virgin forest, as at Djilolo and Sahoe; in + others there are no open pathways or clearings, as here. At Batchian there + are only two tolerable collecting places,—the road to the coal + mines, and the new clearings made by the Tomķre people, the latter being + by far the most productive. I believe the fact to be that insects are + pretty uniformly distributed over these countries (where the forests have + not been cleared away), and are so scarce in any one spot that searching + for them is almost useless. If the forest is all cleared away, almost all + the insects disappear with it; but when small clearings and paths are + made, the fallen trees in various stages of drying and decay, the rotting + leaves, the loosening bark and the fungoid growths upon it, together with + the flowers that appear in much greater abundance where the light is + admitted, are so many attractions to the insects for miles around, and + cause a wonderful accumulation of species and individuals. When the + entomologist can discover such a spot, he does more in a mouth than he + could possibly do by a year's search in the depths of the undisturbed + forest. + </p> + <p> + The next morning we left early, and reached the mouth of the little river + in about au hour. It flows through a perfectly flat alluvial plain, but + there are hills which approach it near the mouth. Towards the lower part, + in a swamp where the salt-water must enter at high tides, were a number of + elegant tree-ferns from eight to fifteen feet high. These are generally + considered to be mountain plants, and rarely to occur on the equator at an + elevation of less than one or two thousand feet. In Borneo, in the Aru + Islands, and on the banks of the Amazon, I have observed them at the level + of the sea, and think it probable that the altitude supposed to be + requisite for them may have been deduced from facts observed in countries + where the plains and lowlands are largely cultivated, and most of the + indigenous vegetation destroyed. Such is the case in most parts of Java, + India, Jamaica, and Brazil, where the vegetation of the tropics has been + most fully explored. + </p> + <p> + Coming out to sea we turned northwards, and in about two hours' sail + reached a few huts, called Langundi, where some Galela men had established + themselves as collectors of gum-dammar, with which they made torches for + the supply of the Ternate market. About a hundred yards back rises a + rather steep hill, and a short walk having shown me that there was a + tolerable path up it, I determined to stay here for a few days. Opposite + us, and all along this coast of Batchian, stretches a row of fine islands + completely uninhabited. Whenever I asked the reason why no one goes to + live in them, the answer always was, "For fear of the Magindano pirates." + Every year these scourges of the Archipelago wander in one direction or + another, making their rendezvous on some uninhabited island, and carrying + devastation to all the small settlements around; robbing, destroying, + killing, or taking captive all they nee with. Their long well-manned praus + escape from the pursuit of any sailing vessel by pulling away right in the + wind's eye, and the warning smoke of a steamer generally enables them to + hide in some shallow bay, or narrow river, or forest-covered inlet, till + the danger is passed. The only effectual way to put a stop to their + depredations would be to attack them in their strongholds and villages, + and compel them to give up piracy, and submit to strict surveillance. Sir + James Brooke did this with the pirates of the north-west coast of Borneo, + and deserves the thanks of the whole population of the Archipelago for + having rid them of half their enemies. + </p> + <p> + All along the beach here, and in the adjacent strip of sandy lowland, is a + remarkable display of Pandanaceae or Screw-pines. Some are like huge + branching candelabra, forty or fifty feet high, and bearing at the end of + each branch a tuft of immense sword-shaped leaves, six or eight inches + wide, and as many feet long. Others have a single unbranched stem, six or + seven feet high, the upper part clothed with the spirally arranged leaves, + and bearing a single terminal fruit ac large as a swan's egg. Others of + intermediate size have irregular clusters of rough red fruits, and all + have more or less spiny-edged leaves and ringed stems. The young plants of + the larger species have smooth glossy thick leaves, sometimes ten feet + long and eight inches wide, which are used all over the Moluccas and New + Guinea, to make "cocoyas" or sleeping mats, which are often very prettily + ornamented with coloured patterns. Higher up on the bill is a forest of + immense trees, among which those producing the resin called dammar + (Dammara sp.) are abundant. The inhabitants of several small villages in + Batchian are entirely engaged in searching for this product, and making it + into torches by pounding it and filling it into tubes of palm leaves about + a yard long, which are the only lights used by many of the natives. + Sometimes the dammar accumulates in large masses of ten or twenty pounds + weight, either attached to the trunk, or found buried in the ground at the + foot of the trees. The most extraordinary trees of the forest are, + however, a kind of fig, the aerial roots of which form a pyramid near a + hundred feet high, terminating just where the tree branches out above, so + that there is no real trunk. This pyramid or cone is formed of roots of + every size, mostly descending in straight lines, but more or less + obliquely-and so crossing each other, and connected by cross branches, + which grow from one to another; as to form a dense and complicated + network, to which nothing but a photograph could do justice (see + illustration at Vol. I. page 130). The Kanary is also abundant in this + forest, the nut of which has a very agreeable flavour, and produces an + excellent oil. The fleshy outer covering of the nut is the favourite food + of the great green pigeons of these islands (Carpophaga, perspicillata), + and their hoarse copings and heavy flutterings among the branches can be + almost continually heard. + </p> + <p> + After ten days at Langundi, finding it impossible to get the bird I was + particularly in search of (the Nicobar pigeon, or a new species allied to + it), and finding no new birds, and very few insects, I left early on the + morning of April 1st, and in the evening entered a river on the main + island of Batchian (Langundi, like Kasserota, being on a distinct island), + where some Malays and Galela men have a small village, and have made + extensive rice-fields and plantain grounds. Here we found a good house + near the river bank, where the water was fresh and clear, and the owner, a + respectable Batchian Malay, offered me sleeping room and the use of the + verandah if I liked to stay. Seeing forest all round within a short + distance, I accepted his offer, and the next morning before breakfast + walked out to explore, and on the skirts of the forest captured a few + interesting insects. + </p> + <p> + Afterwards, I found a path which led for a mile or more through a very + fine forest, richer in palms than any I had seen in the Moluccas. One of + these especially attracted my attention from its elegance. The stein was + not thicker than my wrist, yet it was very lofty, and bore clusters of + bright red fruit. It was apparently a species of Areca. Another of immense + height closely resembled in appearance the Euterpes of South America. Here + also grew the fan-leafed palm, whose small, nearly entire leaves are used + to make the dammar torches, and to form the water-buckets in universal + use. During this walk I saw near a dozen species of palms, as well as two + or three Pandani different from those of Langundi. There were also some + very fine climbing ferns and true wild Plantains (Musa), bearing an edible + fruit not so large as one's thumb, and consisting of a mass of seeds just + covered with pulp and skin. The people assured me they had tried the + experiment of sowing and cultivating this species, but could not improve + it. They probably did not grow it in sufficient quantity, and did not + persevere sufficiently long. + </p> + <p> + Batchian is an island that would perhaps repay the researches of a + botanist better than any other in the whole Archipelago. It contains a + great variety of surface and of soil, abundance of large and small + streams, many of which are navigable for some distance, and there being no + savage inhabitants, every part of it can be visited with perfect safety. + It possesses gold, copper, and coal, hot springs and geysers, sedimentary + and volcanic rocks and coralline limestone, alluvial plains, abrupt hills + and lofty mountains, a moist climate, and a grand and luxuriant forest + vegetation. + </p> + <p> + The few days I stayed here produced me several new insects, but scarcely + any birds. Butterflies and birds are in fact remarkably scarce in these + forests. One may walk a whole day and not see more than two or three + species of either. In everything but beetles, these eastern islands are + very deficient compared with the western (Java, Borneo, &c.), and much + more so if compared with the forests of South America, where twenty or + thirty species of butterflies may be caught every day, and on very good + days a hundred, a number we can hardly reach here in months of unremitting + search. In birds there is the same difference. In most parts of tropical + America we may always find some species of woodpecker tanager, bush + shrike, chatterer, trogon, toucan, cuckoo, and tyrant-flycatcher; and a + few days' active search will produce more variety than can be here met + with in as many months. Yet, along with this poverty of individuals and of + species, there are in almost every class and order, some one, or two + species of such extreme beauty or singularity, as to vie with, or even + surpass, anything that even South America can produce. + </p> + <p> + One afternoon when I was arranging my insects, and surrounded by a crowd + of wondering spectators, I showed one of them how to look at a small + insect with a hand-lens, which caused such evident wonder that all the + rest wanted to see it too. I therefore fixed the glass firmly to a piece + of soft wood at the proper focus, and put under it a little spiny beetle + of the genus Hispa, and then passed it round for examination. The + excitement was immense. Some declared it was a yard long; others were + frightened, and instantly dropped it, and all were as much astonished, and + made as much shouting and gesticulation, as children at a pantomime, or at + a Christmas exhibition of the oxyhydrogen microscope. And all this + excitement was produced by a little pocket lens, an inch and a half focus, + and therefore magnifying only four or five times, but which to their + unaccustomed eyes appeared to enlarge a hundred fold. + </p> + <p> + On the last day of my stay here, one of my hunters succeeded in finding + and shooting the beautiful Nicobar pigeon, of which I had been so long in + search. None of the residents had ever seen it, which shows that it is + rare and slay. My specimen was a female in beautiful condition, and the + glassy coppery and green of its plumage, the snow-white tail and beautiful + pendent feathers of the neck, were greatly admired. I subsequently + obtained a specimen in New Guinea; and once saw it in the Kaiķa islands. + It is found also in some small islands near Macassar, in others near + Borneo; and in the Nicobar islands, whence it receives its name. It is a + ground feeder, only going upon trees to roost, and is a very heavy fleshy + bird. This may account far the fact of its being found chiefly on very + small islands, while in the western half of the Archipelago, it seems + entirely absent from the larger ones. Being a ground feeder it is subject + to the attacks of carnivorous quadrupeds, which are not found in the very + small islands. Its wide distribution over the whole length of the + Archipelago; from extreme west to east, is however very extraordinary, + since, with the exception of a few of the birds of prey, not a single land + bird has so wide a range. Ground-feeding birds are generally deficient in + power of extended flight, and this species is so bulky and heavy that it + appears at first sight quite unable to fly a mile. A closer examination + shows, however, that its wings are remarkably large, perhaps in proportion + to its size larger than those of any other pigeon, and its pectoral + muscles are immense. A fact communicated to me by the son of my friend Mr. + Duivenboden of Ternate, would show that, in accordance with these + peculiarities of structure, it possesses the power of flying long + distances. Mr. D. established an oil factory on a small coral island, a + hundred miles north of New Guinea, with no intervening land. After the + island had been settled a year, and traversed in every direction, his son + paid it a visit; and just as the schooner was coming to an anchor, a bird + was seen flying from seaward which fell into the water exhausted before it + could reach the shore. A boat was sent to pick it up, and it was found to + be a Nicobar pigeon, which must have come from New Guinea, and flown a + hundred miles, since no such bird previously inhabited the island. + </p> + <p> + This is certainly a very curious case of adaptation to an unusual and + exceptional necessity. The bird does not ordinarily require great powers + of flight, since it lives in the forest, feeds on fallen fruits, and + roosts in low trees like other ground pigeons. The majority of the + individuals, therefore, can never make full use of their enormously + powerful wings, till the exceptional case occurs of an individual being + blown out to sea, or driven to emigrate by the incursion of some + carnivorous animal, or the pressure of scarcity of food. A modification + exactly opposite to that which produced the wingless birds (the Apteryx, + Cassowary, and Dodo), appears to have here taken place; and it is curious + that in both cases an insular habitat should have been the moving cause. + The explanation is probably the same as that applied by Mr. Darwin to the + case of the Madeira beetles, many of which are wingless, while some of the + winged ones have the wings better developed than the same species on the + continent. It was advantageous to these insects either never to fly at + all, and thus not run the risk of being blown out to sea, or to fly so + well as to be able either to return to land, or to migrate safely to the + continent. Pad flying was worse than not flying at all. So, while in such + islands as New Zealand and Mauritius far from all land, it was safer for a + ground-feeding bird not to fly at all, and the short-winged individuals + continually surviving, prepared the way for a wingless group of birds; in + a vast Archipelago thickly strewn with islands and islets it was + advantageous to be able occasionally to migrate, and thus the long and + strong-winged varieties maintained their existence longest, and ultimately + supplanted all others, and spread the race over the whole Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + Besides this pigeon, the only new bird I obtained during the trip was a + rare goat-sucker (Batrachostomus crinifrons), the only species of the + genus yet found in the Moluccas. Among my insects the best were the rare + Pieris arum, of a rich chrome yellow colour, with a black border and + remarkable white antenna—perhaps the very finest butterfly of the + genus; and a large black wasp-like insect, with immense jaws like a + stag-beetle, which has been named Megachile Pluto by Mr. B. Smith. I + collected about a hundred species of beetles quite new to me, but mostly + very minute, and also many rare and handsome ones which I had already + found in Batchian. On the whole I was tolerably satisfied with my + seventeen days' excursion, which was a very agreeable one, and enabled me + to sea a good deal of the island. I had hired a roomy boat, and brought + with me a small table and my rattan chair. These were great comforts, as, + wherever there was a roof, I could immediately instal myself, and work and + eat at ease. When I could not find accommodation on shore I slept in the + boat, which was always drawn up on the beach if we stayed for a few days + at one spot. + </p> + <p> + On my return to Batchian I packed up my collections, and prepared for my + return to Ternate. When I first came I had sent back my boat by the pilot, + with two or three other men who had been glad of the opportunity. I now + took advantage of a Government boat which had just arrived with rice for + the troops, and obtained permission to return in her, and accordingly + started on the 13th of April, having resided only a week short of six + months on the island of Batchian. The boat was one of the kind called + "Kora-kora," quite open, very low, and about four tons burthen. It had + outriggers of bamboo about five feet off each side, which supported a + bamboo platform extending the whole length of the vessel. On the extreme + outside of this sit the twenty rowers, while within was a convenient + passage fore and aft. The middle portion of the boat was covered with a + thatch-house, in which baggage and passengers are stowed; the gunwale was + not more than a foot above water, and from the great top and side weight, + and general clumsiness, these boats are dangerous in heavy weather, and + are not unfrequently lost. A triangle mast and mat sail carried us on when + the wind was favourable,—which (as usual) it never was, although, + according to the monsoon, it ought to have been. Our water, carried in + bamboos, would only last two days, and as the voyage occupied seven, we + had to touch at a great many places. The captain was not very energetic, + and the men rowed as little as they pleased, or we might have reached + Ternate in three days, having had fine weather and little wind all the + way. + </p> + <p> + There were several passengers besides myself: three or four Javanese + soldiers, two convicts whose time had expired (one, curiously enough, + being the man who had stolen my cash-box and keys), the schoolmaster's + wife and a servant going on a visit to Ternate, and a Chinese trader going + to buy goods. We had to sleep all together in the cabin, packed pretty + close; but they very civilly allowed me plenty of room for my mattrass, + and we got on very well together. There was a little cookhouse in the + bows, where we could boil our rice and make our coffee, every one of + course bringing his own provisions, and arranging his meal-times as he + found most convenient. The passage would have been agreeable enough but + for the dreadful "tom-toms," or wooden drums, which are beaten incessantly + while the men are rowing. Two men were engaged constantly at them, making + a fearful din the whole voyage. The rowers are men sent by the Sultan of + Ternate. They get about threepence a day, and find their own provisions. + Each man had a strong wooden "betel" box, on which he generally sat, a + sleeping-mat, and a change of clothes—rowing naked, with only a + sarong or a waistcloth. They sleep in their places, covered with their + mat, which keeps out the rain pretty well. They chew betel or smoke + cigarettes incessantly; eat dry sago and a little salt fish; seldom sing + while rowing, except when excited and wanting to reach a stopping-place, + and do not talk a great deal. They are mostly Malays, with a sprinkling of + Alfuros from Gilolo, and Papuans from Guebe or Waigiou. + </p> + <p> + One afternoon we stayed at Makian; many of the men went on shore, and a + great deal of plantains, bananas, and other fruits were brought on board. + We then went on a little way, and in the evening anchored again. When + going to bed for the night, I put out my candle, there being still a + glimmering lamp burning, and, missing my handkerchief, thought I saw it on + a box which formed one side of my bed, and put out my hand to take it. I + quickly drew back on feeling something cool and very smooth, which moved + as I touched it. "Bring the light, quick," I cried; "here's a snake." And + there he was, sure enough, nicely coiled up, with his head just raised to + inquire who had disturbed him. It was mow necessary to catch or kill him + neatly, or he would escape among the piles of miscellaneous luggage, and + we should hardly sleep comfortably. One of the ex-convicts volunteered to + catch him with his hand wrapped up in a cloth, but from the way he went + about it I saw he was nervous and would let the thing go, so I would mot + allow him to make the attempt. I them got a chopping-knife, and carefully + moving my insect nets, which hung just over the snake and prevented me + getting a free blow, I cut him quietly across the back, holding him down + while my boy with another knife crushed his head. On examination, I found + he had large poison fangs, and it is a wonder he did not bite me when I + first touched him. + </p> + <p> + Thinking it very unlikely that two snakes had got on board at the same + time, I turned in and went to sleep; but having all the time a vague + dreamy idea that I might put my hand on another one, I lay wonderfully + still, not turning over once all night, quite the reverse of my usual + habits. The next day we reached Ternate, and I ensconced myself in my + comfortable house, to examine all my treasures, and pack them securely for + the voyage home. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV. CERAM, GORAM, AND THE MATABELLO ISLANDS. + </h2> + <h3> + (OCTOBER 1859 To JUNE 1860.) + </h3> + <p> + I LEFT Amboyna for my first visit to Ceram at three o'clock in the morning + of October 29th, after having been delayed several days by the boat's + crew, who could not be got together. Captain Van der Beck, who gave me a + passage in his boat, had been running after them all day, and at midnight + we had to search for two of my men who had disappeared at the last moment. + One we found at supper in his own house, and rather tipsy with his parting + libations of arrack, but the other was gone across the bay, and we were + obliged to leave without him. We stayed some hours at two villages near + the east end of Amboyna, at one of which we had to discharge some wood for + the missionaries' house, and on the third afternoon reached Captain Van + der Beck's plantation, situated at Hatosua, in that part of Ceram opposite + to the island of Amboyna. This was a clearing in flat and rather swampy + forest, about twenty acres in extent, and mostly planted with cacao and + tobacco. Besides a small cottage occupied by the workmen, there was a + large shed for tobacco drying, a corner of which was offered me; and + thinking from the look of the place that I should find good collecting + ground here, I fitted up temporary tables, benches, and beds, and made all + preparations for some weeks' stay. A few days, however, served to show + that I should be disappointed. Beetles were tolerably abundant, and I + obtained plenty of fine long-horned Anthribidae and pretty Longicorns, but + they were mostly the same species as I had found during my first short + visit to Amboyna. There were very few paths in the forest; which seemed + poor in birds and butterflies, and day after day my men brought me nothing + worth notice. I was therefore soon obliged to think about changing my + locality, as I could evidently obtain no proper notion of the productions + of the almost entirely unexplored island of Ceram by staying in this + place. + </p> + <p> + I rather regretted leaving, because my host was one of the most remarkable + men and most entertaining companions I had ever met with. He was a + Fleeting by birth, and, like so many of his countrymen, had a wonderful + talent for languages. When quite a youth he had accompanied a Government + official who was sent to report on the trade and commerce of the + Mediterranean, and had acquired the colloquial language of every place + they stayed a few weeks at. He had afterwards made voyages to St. + Petersburg, and to other parts of Europe, including a few weeks in London, + and had then come out to the past, where he had been for some years + trading and speculating in the various islands. He now spoke Dutch, + French, Malay, and Javanese, all equally well; English with a very slight + accent, but with perfect fluency, axed a most complete knowledge of idiom, + in which I often tried to puzzle him in vain. German and Italian were also + quite familiar to him, and his acquaintance with European languages + included Modern Greek, Turkish, Russian, and colloquial Hebrew and Latin. + As a test of his power, I may mention that he had made a voyage to the + out-of-the-way island of Salibaboo, and had stayed there trading a few + weeks. As I was collecting vocabularies, he told me he thought he could + remember some words, and dictated considerable number. Some time after I + met with a short list of words taken down in those islands, and in every + case they agreed with those he had given me. He used to sing a Hebrew + drinking-song, which he had learned from some Jews with whom he had once + travelled, and astonished by joining in their conversation, and had a + never-ending fund of tale and anecdote about the people he had met and the + places he had visited. + </p> + <p> + In most of the villages of this part of Ceram are schools and native + schoolmasters, and the inhabitants have been long converted to + Christianity. In the larger villages there are European missionaries; but + there is little or no external difference between the Christian and Alfuro + villages, nor, as far as I have seen, in their inhabitants. The people + seem more decidedly Papuan than those of Gilolo. They are darker in + colour, and a number of them have the frizzly Papuan hair; their features + also are harsh and prominent, and the women in particular are far less + engaging than those of the Malay race. Captain Van der Beck was never + tired of abusing the inhabitants of these Christian villages as thieves, + liars, and drunkards, besides being incorrigibly lazy. In the city of + Amboyna my friends Doctors Mohnike and Doleschall, as well as most of the + European residents and traders, made exactly the same complaint, and would + rather have Mahometans for servants, even if convicts, than any of the + native Christians. One great cause of this is the fact, that with the + Mahometans temperance is a part of their religion, and has become so much + a habit that practically the rule is never transgressed. One fertile + source of want, and one great incentive to idleness and crime, is thus + present with the one class, but absent in the other; but besides this the + Christians look upon themselves as nearly the equals of the Europeans, who + profess the same religion, and as far superior to the followers of Islam, + and are therefore prone to despise work, and to endeavour to live by + trade, or by cultivating their own land. It need hardly be said that with + people in this low state of civilization religion is almost wholly + ceremonial, and that neither are the doctrines of Christianity + comprehended, nor its moral precepts obeyed. At the same time, as far as + my own experience goes, I have found the better class of "Orang Sirani" as + civil, obliging, and industrious as the Malays, and only inferior to them + from their tendency to get intoxicated. + </p> + <p> + Having written to the Assistant Resident of Saparua (who has jurisdiction + over the opposite part of the coast of Ceram) for a boat to pursue my + journey, I received one rather larger than necessary with a crew of twenty + men. I therefore bade adieu to my kind friend Captain Van der Beck, and + left on the evening after its arrival for the village of Elpiputi, which + we reached in two days. I had intended to stay here, but not liking the + appearance of the place, which seemed to have no virgin forest near it, I + determined to proceed about twelve miles further up the bay of Amahay, to + a village recently formed, and inhabited by indigenes from the interior, + and where some extensive cacao plantations were being made by some + gentlemen of Amboyna. I reached the place (called Awaiya) the same + afternoon, and with the assistance of Mr. Peters (the manager of the + plantations) and the native chief, obtained a small house, got all my + things on shore, and paid and discharged my twenty boatmen, two of whom + had almost driven me to distraction by beating tom-toms the whole voyage. + </p> + <p> + I found the people here very nearly in a state of nature, and going almost + naked. The men wear their frizzly hair gathered into a flat circular knot + over the left temple, which has a very knowing look, and in their ears + cylinders of wood as thick as one's finger, and coloured red at the ends. + Armlets and anklets of woven grass or of silver, with necklaces of beads + or of small fruits, complete their attire. The women wear similar + ornaments, but have their hair loose. All are tall, with a dark brown + skin, and well marked Papuan physiognomy. There is an Amboyna schoolmaster + in the village, and a good number of children attend school every morning. + Such of the inhabitants as have become Christians may be known by their + wearing their hair loose, and adopting to some extent the native Christian + dress-trousers and a loose shirt. Very few speak Malay, all these coast + villages having been recently formed by inducing natives to leave the + inaccessible interior. In all the central part of Ceram there new remains + only one populous village in the mountains. Towards the east and the + extreme west are a few others, with which exceptions all the inhabitants + of Ceram are collected on the coast. In the northern and eastern districts + they are mostly Mahometans, while on the southwest coast, nearest Amboyna, + they are nominal Christians. In all this part of the Archipelago the Dutch + make very praiseworthy efforts to improve the condition of the aborigines + by establishing schoolmasters in every village (who are mostly natives of + Amboyna or Saparua, who have; been instructed by the resident + missionaries), and by employing native vaccinators to prevent the ravages + of smallpox. They also encourage the settlement of Europeans, and the + formation of new plantations of cacao and coffee, one of the best means of + raising the condition of the natives, who thus obtain work at fair wages, + and have the opportunity of acquiring something of European tastes and + habits. + </p> + <p> + My collections here did not progress much better than at my former + station, except that butterflies were a little more plentiful, and some + very fine species were to be found in the morning on the sea-beach, + sitting so quietly on the wet sand that they could be caught with the + fingers. In this way I had many fine specimens of Papilios brought me by + the children. Beetles, however, were scarce, and birds still more so, and + I began to think that the handsome species which I had so often heard were + found in Ceram must be entirely confined to the eastern extremity of the + island. + </p> + <p> + A few miles further worth, at the head of the Bay of Amahay, is situated + the village of Makariki, from whence there is a native path quite across + the island to the north coast. My friend Mr. Rosenberg, whose acquaintance + I had made at New Guinea, and who was now the Government superintendent of + all this part of Ceram, returned from Wahai, on the north coast, after I + had been three weeks at Awaiya, and showed me some fine butterflies he had + obtained on the mountain streams in the interior. He indicated a spot + about the centre of the island where he thought I might advantageously + stay a few days. I accordingly visited Makariki with him the next day, and + he instructed the chief of the village to furnish me with men to carry my + baggage, and accompany me on my excursion. As the people of the village + wanted to be at home on Christmas-day, it was necessary to start as soon + as possible; so we agreed that the men should be ready in two days, and I + returned to make my arrangements. + </p> + <p> + I put up the smallest quantity of baggage possible for a six days' trip, + and on the morning of December 18th we left Makariki, with six men + carrying my baggage and their own provisions, and a lad from Awaiya, who + was accustomed to catch butterflies for me. My two Amboyna hunters I left + behind to shoot and skin what birds they could while I was away. Quitting + the village, we first walked briskly for an hour through a dense tangled + undergrowth, dripping wet from a storm of the previous night, and full of + mud holes. After crossing several small streams we reached one of the + largest rivers in Ceram, called Ruatan, which it was necessary to cross. + It was both deep and rapid. The baggage was first taken over, parcel by + parcel, on the men's heads, the water reaching nearly up to their armpits, + and then two men returned to assist me. The water was above my waist, and + so strong that I should certainly have been carried off my feet had I + attempted to cross alone; and it was a matter of astonishment to me how + the men could give me any assistance, since I found the greatest + difficulty in getting my foot down again when I had once moved it off the + bottom. The greater strength and grasping power of their feet, from going + always barefoot, no doubt gave them a surer footing in the rapid water. + </p> + <p> + After well wringing out our wet clothes and putting them on, we again + proceeded along a similar narrow forest track as before, choked with + rotten leaves and dead trees, and in the more open parts overgrown with + tangled vegetation. Another hour brought us to a smaller stream flowing in + a wide gravelly bed, up which our road lay. Here w e stayed half an hour + to breakfast, and then went on, continually crossing the stream, or + walking on its stony and gravelly banks, till about noon, when it became + rocky and enclosed by low hills. A little further we entered a regular + mountain-gorge, and had to clamber over rocks, and every moment cross and + recross the water, or take short cuts through the forest. This was + fatiguing work; and about three in the afternoon, the sky being overcast, + and thunder in the mountains indicating an approaching storm, we had to + loon out for a camping place, and soon after reached one of Mr. + Rosenberg's old ones. The skeleton of his little sleeping-hut remained, + and my men cut leaves and made a hasty roof just as the rain commenced. + The baggage was covered over with leaves, and the men sheltered themselves + as they could till the storm was over, by which time a flood came down the + river, which effectually stopped our further march, even had we wished to + proceed. We then lighted fires; I made some coffee, and my men roasted + their fish and plantains, and as soon as it was dark, we made ourselves + comfortable for the night. + </p> + <p> + Starting at six the next morning, we had three hours of the same kind of + walking, during which we crossed the river at least thirty or forty times, + the water being generally knee-deep. This brought us to a place where the + road left the stream, and here we stopped to breakfast. We then had a long + walk over the mountain, by a tolerable path, which reached an elevation of + about fifteen hundred feet above the sea. Here I noticed one of the + smallest and most elegant tree ferns I had ever seen, the stem being + scarcely thicker than my thumb, yet reaching a height of fifteen or twenty + feet. I also caught a new butterfly of the genus Pieris, and a magnificent + female specimen of Papilio gambrisius, of which I had hitherto only found + the males, which are smaller and very different in colour. Descending the + other side of the ridge, by a very steep path, we reached another river at + a spot which is about the centre of the island, and which was to be our + resting place for two or three days. In a couple of hour my men had built + a little sleeping-shed for me, about eight feet by four, with a bench of + split poles, they themselves occupying two or three smaller ones, which + had been put up by former passengers. + </p> + <p> + The river here was about twenty yards wide, running over a pebbly and + sometimes a rocky bed, and bordered by steep hills with occasionally flat + swampy spots between their base and the stream. The whole country was one + dense, Unbroken, and very damp and gloomy virgin forest. Just at our + resting-place there was a little bush-covered island in the middle of the + channel, so that the opening in the forest made by the river was wider + than usual, and allowed a few gleams of sunshine to penetrate. Here there + were several handsome butterflies flying about, the finest of which, + however, escaped me, and I never saw it again during my stay. In the two + days and a half which we remained here, I wandered almost all day up and + down the stream, searching after butterflies, of which I got, in all, + fifty or sixty specimens, with several species quite new to me. There were + many others which I saw only once, and did not capture, causing me to + regret that there was no village in these interior valleys where I could + stay a month. In the early part of each morning I went out with my gun in + search of birds, and two of my men were out almost all day after deer; but + we were all equally unsuccessful, getting absolutely nothing the whole + time we were in the forest. The only good bird seen was the fine Amboyna + lory, but these were always too high to shoot; besides this, the great + Moluccan hornbill, which I did not want, was almost the only bird met + with. I saw not a single ground-thrush, or kingfisher, or pigeon; and, in + fact, have never been in a forest so utterly desert of animal life as this + appeared to be. Even in all other groups of insects, except butterflies, + there was the same poverty. I bad hoped to find some rare tiger beetles, + as I had done in similar situations in Celebes; but, though I searched + closely in forest, river-bed, and mountain-brook, I could find nothing but + the two common Amboyna species. Other beetles there were absolutely none. + </p> + <p> + The constant walking in water, and over rocks and pebbles, quite destroyed + the two pair of shoes I brought with me, so that, on my return, they + actually fell to pieces, and the last day I had to walk in my stockings + very painfully, and reached home quite lame. On our way back from + Makariki, as on our way there, we had storm and rain at sea, and we + arrived at Awaiya late in the evening, with all our baggage drenched, and + ourselves thoroughly uncomfortable. All the time I had been in Ceram I had + suffered much from the irritating bites of an invisible acarus, which is + worse than mosquitoes, ants, and every other pest, because it is + impossible to guard against them. This last journey in the forest left me + covered from head to foot with inflamed lumps, which, after my return to + Amboyna, produced a serious disease, confining me to the house for nearly + two months, a not very pleasant memento of my first visit to Ceram, which + terminated with the year 1859. + </p> + <p> + It was not till the 24th of February, 1860, that I started again, + intending to pass from village to village along the coast, staying where I + found a suitable locality. I had a letter from the Governor of the + Moluccas, requesting all the chiefs to supply me with boats and men to + carry me on my journey. The first boat took me in two days to Amahay, on + the opposite side of the bay to Awaiya. The chief here, wonderful to + relate, did not make any excuses for delay, but immediately ordered out + the boat which was to carry me on, put my baggage on hoard, set up mast + and sails after dark, and had the men ready that nigh; so that we were + actually on our way at five the next morning,—a display of energy + and activity I scarcely ever saw before in a native chief on such an + occasion. We touched at Cepa, and stayed for the night at Tamilan, the + first two Mahometan villages on the south coast of Ceram. The next day, + about noon, we reached Hoya, which was as Far as my present boat and crew + were going to take me. The anchorage is about a mile east of the village, + which is faced by coral reefs, and we had to wait for the evening tide to + move up and unload the boat into the strange rotten wooden pavilion kept + for visitors. + </p> + <p> + There was no boat here large enough to take my baggage; and although two + would have done very well, the Rajah insisted upon sending four. The + reason of this I found was, that there were four small villages under his + rule, and by sending a boat from each he would avoid the difficult task of + choosing two and letting off the others. I was told that at the next + village of Teluti there were plenty of Alfuros, and that I could get + abundance of Tories and other birds. The Rajah declared that black and + yellow Tories and black cockatoos were found there; but I am inclined to + think he knew very well he was telling me lies, and that it was only a + scheme to satisfy me with his plan of taking me to that village, instead + of a day's journey further on, as I desired. Here, as at most of the + villages, I was asked for spirits, the people being mere nominal + Mahometans, who confine their religion almost entirely to a disgust at + pork, and a few other forbidden articles of food. The next morning, after + much trouble, we got our cargoes loaded, and had a delightful row across + the deep bay of Teluti, with a view of the grand central mountain-range of + Ceram. Our four boats were rowed by sixty men, with flags flying and + tom-toms beating, as well as very vigorous shouting and singing to keep up + their spirits. The sea way smooth, the morning bright, and the whole scene + very exhilarating. On landing, the Orang-kaya and several of the chief + men, in gorgeous silk jackets, were waiting to receive us, and conducted + me to a house prepared for my reception, where I determined to stay a few + days, and see if the country round produced anything new. + </p> + <p> + My first inquiries were about the lories, but I could get very little + satisfactory information. The only kinds known were the ring-necked lory + and the common red and green lorikeet, both common at Amboyna. Black + Tories and cockatoos were quite unknown. The Alfuros resided in the + mountains five or six days' journey away, and there were only one or two + live birds to be found in the village, and these were worthless. My + hunters could get nothing but a few common birds; and notwithstanding fine + mountains, luxuriant forests, and a locality a hundred miles eastward, I + could find no new insects, and extremely few even of the common species of + Amboyna and West Ceram. It was evidently no use stopping at such a place, + and I was determined to move on as soon as possible. + </p> + <p> + The village of Teluti is populous, but straggling and very dirty. Sago + trees here cover the mountain side, instead of growing as usual in low + swamps; but a closer examination shows that they grow in swampy patches, + which have formed among the loose rocks that cover the ground, and which + are kept constantly full of moisture by the rains, and by the abundance of + rills which trickle down among them. This sago forms almost the whole + subsistence of the inhabitants, who appear to cultivate nothing but a few + small patches of maize and sweet potatoes. Hence, as before explained, the + scarcity of insects. The Orang-kaya has fine clothes, handsome lamps, and + other expensive European goods, yet lives every day on sago and fish as + miserably as the rest. + </p> + <p> + After three days in this barren place I left on the morning of March 6th, + in two boats of the same size as those which had brought me to Teluti. + With some difficulty I had obtained permission to take these boats on to + Tobo, where I intended to stay a while, and therefore got on pretty + quickly, changing men at the village of Laiemu, and arriving in a heavy + rain at Ahtiago. As there was a good deal of surf here, and likely to be + more if the wind blew hard during the night, our boats were pulled up on + the beach; and after supping at the Orang-kaya's house, and writing down a + vocabulary of the language of the Alfuros, who live in the mountains + inland, I returned to sleep in the boat. Next morning we proceeded, + changing men at Warenama, and again at Hatometen, at both of which places + there was much surf and no harbour, so that the men had to go on shore and + come on board by swimming. Arriving in the evening of March 7th at + Batuassa, the first village belonging to the Rajah of Tobo, and under the + government of Banda, the surf was very heavy, owing to a strong westward + swell. We therefore rounded the rocky point on which the village was + situated, but found it very little better on the other side. We were + obliged, however, to go on shore here; and waiting till the people on the + beach had made preparations, by placing a row of logs from the water's + edge on which to pull up our boats, we rowed as quickly as we could + straight on to them, after watching till the heaviest surfs had passed. + The moment we touched ground our men all jumped out, and, assisted by + those on shore, attempted to haul up the boat high and dry, but not having + sufficient hands, the surf repeatedly broke into the stern. The steepness + of the beach, however, prevented any damage being done, and the other boat + having both crews to haul at it, was got up without difficulty. + </p> + <p> + The next morning, the water being low, the breakers were at some distance + from shore, and we had to watch for a smooth moment after bringing the + boats to the water's edge, and so got safely out to sea. At the two next + villages, Tobo and Ossong, we also took in fresh men, who came swimming + through the surf; and at the latter place the Rajah came on board and + accompanied me to Kissalaut, where he has a house which he lent me during + my stay. Here again was a heavy surf, and it was with great difficulty we + got the boats safely hauled up. At Amboyna I had been promised at this + season a calm sea and the wind off shore, but in this case, as in every + other, I had been unable to obtain any reliable information as to the + winds and seasons of places distant two or three days' journey. It + appears, however, that owing to the general direction of the island of + Ceram (E.S.E. and W.N.W.), there is a heavy surf and scarcely any shelter + on the south coast during the west monsoon, when alone a journey to the + eastward can be safely made; while during the east monsoon, when I + proposed to return along the north coast to Wahai, I should probably find + that equally exposed and dangerous. But although the general direction of + the west monsoon in the Banda sea causes a heavy swell, with bad surf on + the coast, yet we had little advantage of the wind; for, owing I suppose + to the numerous bays and headlands, we had contrary south-east or even due + east winds all the way, and had to make almost the whole distance from + Amboyna by force of rowing. We had therefore all the disadvantages, and + none of the advantages, of this west monsoon, which I was told would + insure me a quick and pleasant journey. + </p> + <p> + I was delayed at Kissa-laut just four weeks, although after the first + three days I saw that it would be quite useless for me to stay, and begged + the Rajah to give me a prau and men to carry me on to Goram. But instead + of getting one close at hand, he insisted on sending several miles off; + and when after many delays it at length arrived, it was altogether + unsuitable and too small to carry my baggage. Another was then ordered to + be brought immediately, and was promised in three days, but doable that + time elapsed and none appeared, and we were obliged at length to get one + at the adjoining village, where it might have been so much more easily + obtained at first. Then came caulking and covering over, and quarrels + between the owner and the Rajah's men, which occupied more than another + ten days, during all which time I was getting absolutely nothing, finding + this part of Ceram a perfect desert in zoology, although a most beautiful + country, and with a very luxuriant vegetation. It was a complete puzzle, + which to this day I have not been able to understand; the only thing I + obtained worth notice during my month's stay here being a few good land + shells. + </p> + <p> + At length, on April 4th, we succeeded in getting away in our little boat + of about four tons burthen, in which my numerous boxes were with + difficulty packed so as to leave sleeping and cooling room. The craft + could not boast an ounce of iron or a foot of rope in any part of its + construction, nor a morsel of pitch or paint in its decoration. The planks + were fastened together in the usual ingenious way with pegs and rattans. + The mast was a bamboo triangle, requiring no shrouds, and carrying a long + mat sail; two rudders were hung on the quarters by rattans, the anchor was + of wood, and a long and thick rattan; served as a cable. Our crew + consisted of four men, whose pole accommodation was about three feet by + four in the bows and stern, with the sloping thatch roof to stretch + themselves upon for a change. We had nearly a hundred miles to go, fully + exposed to the swell of the Banda sea, which is sometimes very + considerable; but we luckily had it calm and smooth, so that we made the + voyage in comparative comfort. + </p> + <p> + On the second day we passed the eastern extremity of Ceram, formed of a + group of hummocky limestone hills; and, sailing by the islands of Kwammer + and Keffing, both thickly inhabited, came in sight of the little town of + Kilwaru, which appears to rise out of the sea like a rustic Venice. This + place has really a most extraordinary appearance, as not a particle of + land or vegetation can be seen, but a long way out at sea a large village + seems to float upon the water. There is of course a small island of + several acres in extent; but the houses are built so closely all round it + upon piles in the water, that it is completely hidden. It is a place of + great traffic, being the emporium for much of the produce of these Eastern + seas, and is the residence of many Bugis and Ceramese traders, and appears + to have been chosen on account of its being close to the only deep channel + between the extensive shoals of Ceram-laut and those bordering the east + end of Ceram. We now had contrary east winds, and were obliged to pole + over the shallow coral reefs of Ceram-laut for nearly thirty miles. The + only danger of our voyage was just at its termination, for as we were + rowing towards Manowolko, the largest of the Goram group, we were carried + out so rapidly by a strong westerly current, that I was almost certain at + one time we should pass clear of the island; in which case our situation + would have been both disagreeable and dangerous, as, with the east wind + which had just set in, we might have been unable to return for many days, + and we had not a day's water on board. At the critical moment I served out + some strong spirits to my men, which put fresh vigour into their arms, and + carried us out of the influence of the current before it was too late. + </p> + <p> + MANOWOLKO, GORAM GROUP. + </p> + <p> + On arriving at Manowolko, we found the Rajah was at the opposite island of + Goram; but he was immediately sent for, and in the meantime a large shed + was given for our accommodation. At night the Rajah came, and the next day + I had a visit from him, and found, as I expected, that I had already made + his acquaintance three years before at Aru. He was very friendly, and we + had a long talk; but when I begged for a boat and men to take me on to Ke, + he made a host of difficulties. There were no praus, as all had gone to Ke + or Aim; and even if one were found, there were no men, as it was the + season when all were away trading. But he promised to see about it, and I + was obliged to wait. For the next two or three days there was more talking + and more difficulties were raised, and I had time to make an examination + of the island and the people. + </p> + <p> + Manowolko is about fifteen miles long, and is a mere; upraised coral-reef. + Two or three hundred yards inland rise cliffs of coral rock, in many parts + perpendicular, and one or two hundred feet high; and this, I was informed, + is characteristic of the whole island, in which there is no other kind of + rock, and no stream of water. A few cracks and chasms furnish paths to the + top of these cliffs, where there is an open undulating country, in which + the chief vegetable grounds of the inhabitants are situated. + </p> + <p> + The people here—at least the chief men—were of a much purer + Malay race than the Mahometans of the mainland of Ceram, which is perhaps + due to there having been no indigenes on these small islands when the + first settlers arrived. In Ceram, the Alfuros of Papuan race are the + predominant type, the Malay physiognomy being seldom well marked; whereas + here the reverse is the case, and a slight infusion of Papuan on a mixture + of Malay and Bugis has produced a very good-looking set of people. The + lower class of the population consist almost entirely of the indigenes of + the adjacent island. They are a fine race, with strongly-marked Papuan + features, frizzly hair, and brown complexions. The Goram language is + spoken also at the east end of Ceram, and in the adjacent islands. It has + a general resemblance to the languages of Ceram, but possesses a peculiar + element which I have not met with in other languages of the Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + After great delay, considering the importance of every day at this time of + year, a miserable boat and five men were found, and with some difficulty I + stowed away in it such baggage as it was absolutely necessary for me to + take, leaving scarcely sitting or sleeping room. The sailing qualities of + the boat were highly vaunted, and I was assured that at this season a + small one was much more likely to succeed in making the journey. We first + coasted along the island, reaching its eastern extremity the following + morning (April 11th), and found a strong W. S.W. wind blowing, which just + allowed us to lay across to the Matabello Islands, a distance little short + of twenty miles. I did not much like the look of the heavy sky and rather + rough sea, and my men were very unwilling to make the attempt; but as we + could scarcely hope for a better chance, I insisted upon trying. The + pitching and jerking of our little boat, soon reduced me to a state of + miserable helplessness, and I lay down, resigned to whatever might happen. + After three or four hours, I was told we were nearly over; but when I got + up, two hours later, just as the sun was setting, I found we were still a + good distance from the point, owing to a strong current which had been for + some time against us. Night closed in, and the wind drew more ahead, so we + had to take in sail. Then came a calm, and we rowed and sailed as occasion + offered; and it was four in the morning when we reached the village of + Kisslwoi, not having made more than three miles in the last twelve hours. + </p> + <p> + MATABELLO ISLANDS. + </p> + <p> + At daylight I found we were; in a beautiful little harbour, formed by a + coral reef about two hundred yards from shore, and perfectly secure in + every wind. Having eaten nothing since the previous morning, we cooked our + breakfast comfortably on shore, and left about noon, coasting along the + two islands of this group, which lie in the same line, and are separated + by a narrow channel. Both seem entirely formed of raised coral rock; but + them has been a subsequent subsidence, as shaven by the barrier reef which + extends all along them at varying distances from the shore, This reef is + sometimes only marked by a. line of breakers when there is a little swell + on the sea; in other places there is a ridge of dead coral above the + water, which is here and there high enough to support a few low bushes. + This was the first example I had met with of a true barrier reef due to + subsidence, as has been so clearly shown by Mr. Darwin. In a sheltered + archipelago they will seldom be distinguishable, from the absence of those + huge rolling waves and breakers which in the wide ocean throw up a barrier + of broken coral far above the usual high-water mark, while here they + rarely rise to the surface. + </p> + <p> + On reaching the end of the southern island, called Uta, we were kept + waiting two days for a wind that would enable us to pass over to the next + island, Teor, and I began to despair of ever reaching Ke, and determined + on returning. We left with a south wind, which suddenly changed to + north-east, and induced me to turn again southward in the hopes that this + was the commencement of a few days' favourable weather. We sailed on very + well in the direction of Teor for about an hour, after which the wind + shifted to WSW., and we were driven much out of our course, and at + nightfall found ourselves in the open sea, and full ten miles to leeward + of our destination. My men were now all very much frightened, for if we + went on we might be a. week at sea in our little open boat, laden almost + to the water's edge; or we might drift on to the coast of New Guinea, in + which case we should most likely all be murdered. I could not deny these + probabilities, and although I showed them that we could not get back to + our starting-point with the wind as it was, they insisted upon returning. + We accordingly put about, and found that we could lay no nearer to Uta + than to Teor; however, by great good luck, about ten o'clock we hit upon a + little coral island, and lay under its lee till morning, when a favourable + change of wind brought us back to Uta, and by evening (April 18th) we + reached our first anchorage in Matabello, where I resolved to stay a few + days, and then return to Goram. It way with much regret that I gave up my + trip to Ke and the intervening islands, which I had looked forward to as + likely to make up for my disappointment in Ceram, since my short visit on + my voyage to Aru had produced me so many rare and beautiful insects. + </p> + <p> + The natives of Matabello are almost entirely occupied in making cocoanut + oil, which they sell to the Bugis and Goram traders, who carry it to Banda + and Amboyna. The rugged coral rock seems very favourable to the growth of + the cocoa-nut palm, which abounds over the whole island to the very + highest points, and produces fruit all the year round. Along with it are + great numbers of the areca or betel-nut palm, the nuts of which are + sliced, dried, and ground into a paste, which is much used by the + betel-chewing Malays and Papuans. All the little children here even such + as can just run alone, carried between their lips a mass of the + nasty-looking red paste, which is even more disgusting than to see them at + the same age smoking cigars, which is very common even before they are + weaned. Cocoa-nuts, sweet potatoes, an occasional sago cake, and the + refuse nut after the oil has been extracted by boiling, form the chief + sustenance of these people; and the effect of this poor and unwholesome + diet is seen in the frequency of eruptions and scurfy skin diseases, and + the numerous sores that disfigure the faces of the children. + </p> + <p> + The villages are situated on high and rugged coral peaks, only accessible + by steep narrow paths, with ladders and bridges over yawning chasms. They + are filthy with rotten husks and oil refuse, and the huts are dark, + greasy, and dirty in the extreme. The people are wretched ugly dirty + savages, clothed in unchanged rags, and living in the most miserable + manner, and as every drop of fresh water has to be brought up from the + beach, washing is never thought of; yet they are actually wealthy, and + have the means of purchasing all the necessaries and luxuries of life. + Fowls are abundant, and eggs were given me whenever I visited the + villages, but these are never eaten, being looked upon as pets or as + merchandise. Almost all of the women wear massive gold earrings, and in + every village there are dozens of small bronze cannon lying about on the + ground, although they have cost on the average perhaps Ŗ10 a piece. The + chief men of each village came to visit me, clothed in robes of silk and + flowered satin, though their houses and their daily fare are no better + than those of the ether inhabitants. What a contrast between these people + and such savages as the best tribes of bill. Dyaks in Borneo, or the + Indians of the Uaupes in South America, living on the banks of clear + streams, clean in their persons and their houses, with abundance of + wholesome food, and exhibiting its effect in healthy shins and beauty of + form and feature! There is in fact almost as much difference: between the + various races of savage as of civilized peoples, and we may safely affirm + that the better specimens of the former are much superior to the lower + examples of the latter class. + </p> + <p> + One of the few luxuries of Matabello is the palm wine; which is the + fermented sap from the flower stains of the cocoa-net. It is really a very + mice drink, more like cyder than beer, though quite as intoxicating as the + latter. Young cocoa-nuts are also very abundant, so that anywhere in the + island it is only necessary to go a few yards to find a delicious beverage + by climbing up a tree for it. It is the water of the young fruit that is + drunk, before the pulp has hardened; it is then more abundant, clear, and + refreshing, and the thin coating of gelatinous pulp is thought a treat + luxury. The water of full-brown cocoa-nuts is always thrown away as + undrinkable, although it is delicious in comparison with that of the old + dry nuts which alone we obtain in this country. The cocoa-nut pulp I did + not like at first; but fruits are so scarce, except at particular seasons, + that one soon learns to appreciate anything of a fruity nature. + </p> + <p> + Many persons in Europe are under the impression that fruits of delicious + flavour abound in the tropical forests, and they will no doubt be + surprised to learn that the truly wild fruits of this brand and luxuriant + archipelago, the vegetation of which will vie with that of any part of the + world, are in almost every island inferior in abundance and duality to + those of Britain. Wild strawberries and raspberries are found in some + places, but they are such poor tasteless things as to be hardly worth + eating, and there is nothing to compare with our blackberries and + whortleberries. The kanary-nut may be considered equal to a hazel-nut, but + I have met with nothing else superior to our crabs, oar haws, beech-nuts, + wild plums, and acorns; fruits which would be highly esteemed by the + natives of these islands, and would form an important part of their + sustenance. All the fine tropical fruits are as much cultivated + productions as our apples, peaches, and plums, and their wild prototypes, + when found, are generally either tasteless or uneatable. + </p> + <p> + The people of Matabello, like those of most of the Mahometan villages of + East Ceram and Goram, amused me much by their strange ideas concerning the + Russian war. They believe that the Russians were not only most thoroughly + beaten by the Turks, but were absolutely conquered, and all converted to + Islamism! And they can hardly be convinced that such is not the case, and + that had it not been for the assistance of France and England, the poor + Sultan world have fared ill. Another of their motions is, that the Turks + are the largest and strongest people in the world—in fact a race of + giants; that they eat enormous quantities of meat, and are a most + ferocious and irresistible nation. Whence such strangely incorrect + opinions could have arisen it is difficult to understand, unless they are + derived from Arab priests, or hadjis returned from Mecca, who may have + heard of the ancient prowess of the Turkish armies when they made all + Europe tremble, and suppose that their character and warlike capacity must + be the same at the present time. + </p> + <p> + GORAM + </p> + <p> + A steady south-east wind having set in, we returned to Manowolko on the + 25th of April, and the day after crossed over to Ondor, the chief village + of Goram. + </p> + <p> + Around this island extends, with few interruptions, an encircling coral + reef about a quarter of a mile from the shore, visible as a stripe of pale + green water, but only at very lowest ebb-tides showing any rock above the + surface. There are several deep entrances through this reef, and inside it + there is hood anchorage in all weathers. The land rises gradually to a + moderate height, and numerous small streams descend on all sides. The mere + existence of these streams would prove that the island was not entirely + coralline, as in that case all the water would sink through the porous + rock as it does at Manowolko and Matabello; but we have more positive + proof in the pebbles and stones of their beds, which exhibit a variety of + stratified crystalline rocks. About a hundred yards from the beach rises a + wall of coral rock, ten or twenty feet high, above which is an undulating + surface of rugged coral, which slopes downward towards the interior, and + then after a slight ascent is bounded by a second wall of coral. Similar + walls occur higher up, and coral is found on the highest part of the + island. + </p> + <p> + This peculiar structure teaches us that before the coral was formed land + existed in this spot; that this land sunk gradually beneath the waters, + but with intervals of rest, during which encircling reef's were formed + around it at different elevations; that it then rose to above its present + elevation, and is now again sinking. We infer this, because encircling + reefs are a proof of subsidence; and if the island were again elevated + about a hundred feet, what is now the reef and the shallow sea within it + would form a wall of coral rock, and an undulating coralline plain, + exactly similar to those that still exist at various altitudes up to the + summit of the island. We learn also that these changes have taken place at + a comparatively recent epoch, for the surface of the coral has scarcely + suffered from the action of the weather, and hundreds of sea-shells, + exactly resembling those still found upon the beach, and many of them + retaining their gloss and even their colour, are scattered over the + surface of the island to near its summit. + </p> + <p> + Whether the Goram group formed originally part of New Guinea or of Ceram + it is scarcely possible to determine, and its productions will throw + little light upon the question, if, as I suppose, the islands have been + entirely submerged within the epoch of existing species of animals, as in + that case it must owe its present fauna and flora to recent immigration + from surrounding lands; and with this view its poverty in species very + well agrees. It possesses much in common with East Ceram, but at the same + time has a good deal of resemblance to the Ke Islands and Banda. The fine + pigeon, Carpophaga concinna, inhabits Ke, Banda, Il-Iatabello, and Goram, + and is replaced by a distinct species, C. neglecta, in Ceram. The insects + of these four islands have also a common facies—facts which seem to + indicate that some more extensive land has recently disappeared from the + area they now occupy, and has supplied them with a few of its peculiar + productions. + </p> + <p> + The Goram people (among whom I stayed a month) are a race of traders. + Every year they visit the Tenimber, Ke, and Aru Islands, the whole + north-west coast of New Guinea from Oetanata to Salwatty, and the island + of Waigiou and Mysol. They also extend their voyages to Tidore and + Ternate, as well as to Banda and Amboyna, Their praus are all made by that + wonderful race of boatbuilders, the Ke islanders, who annually turn out + some hundreds of boats, large and small, which can hardly be surpassed for + beauty of form and goodness of workmanship, They trade chiefly in tripang, + the medicinal mussoi bark, wild nutmegs, and tortoiseshell, which they + sell to the Bugis traders at Ceram-laut or Aru, few of them caring to take + their products to any other market. In other respects they are a lazy + race, living very poorly, and much given to opium smoking. The only native + manufactures are sail-matting, coarse cotton cloth, and pandanus-leaf + boxes, prettily stained and ornamented with shell-work. + </p> + <p> + In the island of Goram, only eight or ten miles long, there are about a + dozen Rajahs, scarcely better off than the rest of the inhabitants, and + exercising a mere nominal sway, except when any order is received from the + Dutch Government, when, being backed by a higher power, they show a little + more strict authority. My friend the Rajah of Ammer (commonly called Rajah + of Goram) told me that a few years ago, before the Dutch had interfered in + the affairs of the island, the trade was not carried on so peaceably as at + present, rival praus often fighting when on the way to the same locality, + or trafficking in the same village. Now such a thing is never thought + of-one of the good effects of the superintendence of a civilized + government. Disputes between villages are still, however, sometimes + settled by fighting, and I one day saw about fifty men, carrying long guns + and heavy cartridge-belts, march through the village. They had come from + the other side of the island on some question of trespass or boundary, and + were prepared for war if peaceable negotiations should fail. + </p> + <p> + While at Manowolko I had purchased for 100 florins (Ŗ9.) a small prau, + which was brought over the next day, as I was informed it was more easy to + have the necessary alterations made in Goram, where several Ke workmen + were settled. + </p> + <p> + As soon as we began getting my prau ready I was obliged to give up + collecting, as I found that unless I was constantly on the spot myself + very little work would be clone. As I proposed making some long voyages in + this boat, I determined to fit it up conveniently, and was obliged to do + all the inside work myself, assisted by my two Amboynese boys. I had + plenty of visitors, surprised to see a white man at work, and much + astonished at the novel arrangements I was making in one of their native + vessels. Luckily I had a few tools of my own, including a small saw and + some chisels, and these were now severely tried, cutting and fitting heavy + iron-wood planks for the flooring and the posts that support the + triangular mast. Being of the best London make, they stood the work well, + and without them it would have been impossible for me to have finished my + boat with half the neatness, or in double the time. I had a Ke workman to + put in new ribs, for which I bought nails of a Bugis trader, at 8d. a + pound. My gimlets were, however, too small; and having no augers we were + obliged to bore all the holes with hot irons, a most tedious and + unsatisfactory operation. + </p> + <p> + Five men had engaged to work at the prau till finished, and then go with + me to Mysol, Waigiou, and Ternate. Their ideas of work were, however, very + different from mine, and I had immense difficulty with them; seldom more + than two or three coming together, and a hundred excuses being given for + working only half a day when they did come. Yet they were constantly + begging advances of money, saying they had nothing to eat. When I gave it + them they were sure to stay away the next day, and when I refused any + further advances some of them declined working any more. As the boat + approached completion my difficulties with the men increased. The uncle of + one had commenced a war, or sort of faction fight, and wanted his + assistance; another's wife was ill, and would not let him come; a third + had fever and ague, and pains in his head and back; and a fourth had an + inexorable creditor who would not let him go out of his sight. They had + all received a month's wages in advance; and though the amount was not + large, it was necessary to make them pay it back, or I should get any men + at all. I therefore sent the village constable after two, and kept them in + custody a day, when they returned about three-fourths of what they owed + me. The sick man also paid, and the steersman found a substitute who was + willing to take his debt, and receive only the balance of his wages. + </p> + <p> + About this time we had a striking proof of the dangers of New Guinea + trading. Six men arrived at the village in a small boat almost starved, + having escaped out of two praus, the remainder of whose crews (fourteen in + number) had been murdered by the natives of New Guinea. The praus had left + this village a few months before, and among the murdered men were the + Rajah's son, and the relation or slaves of many of the inhabitants. The + cry of lamentation that arose when the news arrived was most distressing. + A score of women, who had lost husbands, brothers, sons, or more distant + relatives, set up at once the most dismal shrieks and groans and wailings, + which continued at intervals till late at night; and as the chief houses + in the village were crowded together round that which I occupied, our + situation was anything but agreeable. + </p> + <p> + It seems that the village where the attack took place (nearly opposite the + small island of Lakahia) is known to be dangerous, and the vessels had + only gone there a few days before to buy some tripang. The crew were + living on shore, the praus being in a small river close by, and they were + attacked and murdered in the day-time while bargaining with the Papuans. + The six men who survived were on board the praus, and escaped by at once + setting into the small boat and rowing out to sea. + </p> + <p> + This south-west part of New Guinea, known to the native traders as "Papua + Kowiyee" and "Papua Onen," is inhabited by the most treacherous and + bloodthirsty tribes. It is in these districts that the commanders and + portions of the crews of many of the early discovery ships were murdered, + and scarcely a year now passes but some lives are lost. The Goram and + Ceram traders are themselves generally inoffensive; they are well + acquainted with the character of these natives, and are not likely to + provoke an attack by any insults or open attempt at robbery or imposition. + They are accustomed to visit the same places every year, and the natives + can have no fear of them, as may be alleged in excuse for their attacks on + Europeans. In other extensive districts inhabited by the same Papuan + races, such as Mysol, Salwatty, Waigiou, and some parts of the adjacent + coast, the people have taken the first step in civilization, owing + probably to the settlement of traders of mixed breed among them, and for + many years no such attacks have taken place. On the south-west coast, and + in the large island of Jobie, however, the natives are in a very barbarous + condition, and tale every opportunity of robbery and murder,—a habit + which is confirmed by the impunity they experience, owing to the vast + extent of wild mountain and forest country forbidding all pursuit or + attempt at punishment. In the very same village, four years before, more + than fifty Goram men were murdered; and as these savages obtain an immense + booty in the praus and all their appurtenances, it is to be feared that + such attacks will continue to be made at intervals as long as traders + visit the same spots and attempt no retaliation. Punishment could only be + inflicted on these people by very arbitrary measures, such as by obtaining + possession of some of the chiefs by stratagem, and rendering them + responsible for the capture of the murderers at the peril of their own + heads. But anything of this kind would be done contrary to the system + adopted by the Dutch Government in its dealings with natives. + </p> + <p> + GORAM TO WAHAI IN CERAM. + </p> + <p> + When my boat was at length launched and loaded, I got my men together, and + actually set sail the next day (May 27th), much to the astonishment of the + Goram people, to whom such punctuality was a novelty. I had a crew of + three men and a boy, besides my two Amboyna lads; which was sufficient for + sailing, though rather too few if obliged to row much. The next day was + very wet, with squalls, calms, and contrary winds, and with some + difficulty we reached Kilwaru, the metropolis of the Bugis traders in the + far East. As I wanted to make some purchases, I stayed here two days, and + sent two of my boxes of specimens by a Macassar prau to be forwarded to + Ternate, thus relieving myself of a considerable incumbrance. I bought + knives, basins, and handkerchiefs for barter, which with the choppers, + cloth, and beads I had brought with me, made a pretty good assortment. I + also bought two tower muskets to satisfy my crew, who insisted on the + necessity of being armed against attacks of pirates; and with spices and a + few articles of food for the voyage nearly my last doit was expended. + </p> + <p> + The little island of Kilwaru is a mere sandbank, just large enough to + contain a small village, and situated between the islands of Ceram-laut, + and Kissa—straits about a third of a mile wide separating it from + each of them. It is surrounded by coral reefs, and offers good anchorage + in both monsoons. Though not more than fifty yards across, and not + elevated more than three or four feet above the highest tides, it has + wells of excellent drinking water—a singular phenomenon, which would + seem to imply deep-seated subterranean channels connecting it with other + islands. These advantages, with its situation in the centre of the Papuan + trading district, lead to its being so much frequented by the Bugis + traders. Here the Goram men bring the produce of their little voyages, + which they exchange for cloth, sago cakes, and opium; and the inhabitants + of all the surrounding islands visit it with the game object. It is the + rendezvous of the praus trading to various parts of New Guinea, which here + assort and dry their cargoes, and refit for the voyage home. Tripang and + mussoi bark are the most bulky articles of produce brought here, with wild + nutmegs, tortoiseshell, pearls, and birds of Paradise; in smaller + quantities. The villagers of the mainland of Ceram bring their sago, which + is thus distributed to the islands farther east, while rice from Bali and + Macassar can also be purchased at a moderate price. The Goram men come + here for their supplies of opium, both for their own consumption and for + barter in Mysol and Waigiou, where they have introduced it, and where the + chiefs and wealthy men are passionately fond of it. Schooners from Bali + come to buy Papuan slaves, while the sea-wandering Bugis arrive from + distant Singapore in their lumbering praus, bringing thence the produce of + the Chinamen's workshops and Kling's bazaar, as well as of the looms of + Lancashire and Massachusetts. + </p> + <p> + One of the Bugis traders who had arrived a few days before from Mysol, + brought me news of my assistant Charles Allen, with whom he was well + acquainted, and who, he assured me; was making large collections of birds + and insects, although he had not obtained any birds of Paradise; Silinta, + where he was staying, not being a good place for them. This was on the + whole satisfactory, and I was anxious to reach him as soon as possible. + </p> + <p> + Leaving Kilwaru early in the morning of June 1st, with a strong east wind + we doubled the point of Ceram about noon, the heavy sea causing my prau to + roll abort a good deal, to the damage of our crockery. As bad weather + seemed coming on, we got inside the reefs and anchored opposite the + village of Warns-warns to wait for a change. + </p> + <p> + The night was very squally, and though in a good harbour we rolled and + jerked uneasily; but in the morning I had greater cause for uneasiness in + the discovery that our entire Goram crew had decamped, taking with them + all they possessed and a little more, and leaving us without any small + boat in which to land. I immediately told my Amboyna men to load and fire + the muskets as a signal of distress, which was soon answered by the + village chief sending off a boat, which took me on shore. I requested that + messengers should be immediately sent to the neighbouring villages in + quest of the fugitives, which was promptly done. My prau was brought into + a small creek, where it could securely rest in the mud at low water, and + part of a house was given me in which T could stay for a while. I now + found my progress again suddenly checked, just when I thought I had + overcome my chief difficulties. As I had treated my men with the greatest + kindness, and had given them almost everything they had asked for, I can + impute their running away only to their being totally unaccustomed to the + restraint of a European master, and to some undefined dread of my ultimate + intentions regarding them. The oldest man was an opium smoker, and a + reputed thief, but I had been obliged to take him at the last moment as a + substitute for another. I feel sure it was he who induced the others to + run away, and as they knew the country well, and had several hours' start + of us, there was little chance of catching them. + </p> + <p> + We were here in the great sago district of East Ceram which supplies most + of the surrounding islands with their daily bread, and during our week's + delay I had an opportunity of seeing the whole process of making it, and + obtaining some interesting statistics. The sago tree is a palm, thicker + and larger than the cocoa-nut tree, although rarely so tall, and having + immense pinnate spiny leaves, which completely cover the trunk till it is + many years old. It has a creeping root-stem like the Nipa palm, and when + about ten or fifteen years of age sends up an immense terminal spike of + flowers, after which the tree dies. It grows in swamps, or in swampy + hollows on the rocky slopes of hills, where it seems to thrive equally + well as when exposed to the influx of salt or brackish water. The midribs + of the immense leaves form one of the most useful articles in these lands, + supplying the place of bamboo, to which for many purposes they are + superior. They are twelve or fifteen feet long, and, when very fine, as + thick in the lower part as a man's leg. They are very light, consisting + entirely of a firm pith covered with a hard thin rind or bark. Entire + houses are built of these; they form admirable roofing-poles for thatch; + split and well-supported, they do for flooring; and when chosen of equal + size, and pegged together side by side to fill up the panels of framed + wooden horses, they have a very neat appearance, and make better walls and + partitions than boards, as they do not shrink, require no paint or + varnish, and are not a quarter the expense. When carefully split and + shaved smooth they are formed into light boards with pegs of the bark + itself, and are the foundation of the leaf-covered boxes of Goram. All the + insect-boxes I used in the Moluccas were thus made at Amboyna, and when + covered with stout paper inside and out, are strong, light, and secure the + insect-pins remarkably well. The leaflet of the sago folded and tied side + by side on the smaller midribs form the "atap" or thatch in universal use, + while the product of the trunk is the staple food of some= hundred + thousands of men. + </p> + <p> + When sago is to be made, a full-grown tree is selected just before it is + going to flower. It is cut down close to the ground, the leaves and + leafstalks cleared away, and a broad strip of the bark taken off the upper + side of the trunk. This exposes the pithy matter, which is of a rusty + colour near the bottom of the tree, but higher up pure white, about as + hard as a dry apple, but with woody fibre running through it about a + quarter of an inch apart. This pith is cut or broken down into a coarse + powder by means of a tool constructed for the purpose—a club of hard + and heavy wood, having a piece of sharp quartz rock firmly imbedded into + its blunt end, and projecting about half an inch. By successive blows of + this, narrow strips of the pith are cut away, and fall down into the + cylinder formed by the bark. Proceeding steadily on, the whole trunk is + cleared out, leaving a skin not more than half an inch in thickness. This + material is carried away (in baskets made of the sheathing bases of the + leaves) to the nearest water, where a washing-machine is put up, which is + composed almost entirely of the saga tree itself. The large sheathing + bases of the leaves form the troughs, and the fibrous covering from the + leaf-stalks of the young cocoa-nut the strainer. Water is poured on the + mass of pith, which is kneaded and pressed against the strainer till the + starch is all dissolved and has passed through, when the fibrous refuse is + thrown away, and a fresh basketful put in its place. The water charged + with sago starch passes on to a trough, with a depression in the centre, + where the sediment is deposited, the surplus water trickling off by a + shallow outlet. When the trough is nearly full, the mass of starch, which + has a slight reddish tinge, is made into cylinders of about thirty pounds' + weight, and neatly covered with sago leaves, and in this state is sold as + raw sago. + </p> + <p> + Boiled with water this forms a thick glutinous mass, with a rather + astringent taste, and is eaten with salt, limes, and chilies. Sago-bread + is made in large quantities, by baking it into cakes in a small clay oven + containing six or eight slits side by side, each about three-quarters of + an inch wide, and six or eight inches square. The raw sago is broken up, + dried in the sun, powdered, and finely sifted. The oven is heated over a + clear fire of embers, and is lightly filled with the sago-powder. The + openings are then covered with a flat piece of sago bark, and in about + five minutes the cakes are turned out sufficiently baked. The hot cakes + are very nice with butter, and when made with the addition of a little + sugar and grated cocoa-nut are quite a delicacy. They are soft, and + something like corn-flour cakes, but leave a slight characteristic flavour + which is lost in the refined sago we use in this country. When not wanted + for immediate use, they are dried for several days in the sun, and tied up + in bundles of twenty. They will then keep for years; they are very hard, + and very rough and dry, but the people are used to them from infancy, and + little children may be seen gnawing at them as contentedly as ours with + their bread-and-butter. If dipped in water and then toasted, they become + almost as good as when fresh baked; and thus treated they were my daily + substitute for bread with my coffee. Soaked and boiled they make a very + good pudding or vegetable, and served well to economize our rice, which is + sometimes difficult to get so far east. + </p> + <p> + It is truly an extraordinary sight to witness a whole tree-trunk, perhaps + twenty feet long and four or five in circumference, converted into food + with so little labour and preparation. A good-sized tree will produce + thirty tomans or bundles of thirty pounds each, and each toman will make + sixty cakes of three to the pound. Two of these cakes are as much as a man + can eat at one meal, and five are considered a full day's allowance; so + that, reckoning a tree to produce 1,800 cakes, weighing 600 pounds, it + will supply a man with food for a whole year. The labour to produce this + is very moderate. Two men will finish a tree in five days, and two women + will bake the whole into cakes in five days more; but the raw sago will + keep very well, and can be baked as wanted, so that we may estimate that + in ten days a man may produce food for the whole year. This is on the + supposition that he possesses sago trees of his own, for they are now all + private property. If he does not, he has to pay about seven and sixpence + for one; and as labour here is five pence a day, the total cost of a + year's food for one man is about twelve shillings. The effect of this + cheapness of food is decidedly prejudicial, for the inhabitants of the + sago countries are never so well off as those where rice is cultivated. + Many of the people here have neither vegetables nor fruit, but live almost + entirely on sago and a little fish. Having few occupations at home, they + wander about on petty trading or fishing expeditions to the neighbouring + islands; and as far as the comforts of life are concerned, are much + inferior to the wild hill-Dyaks of Borneo, or to many of the more + barbarous tribes of the Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + The country round Warus-warus is low and swampy, and owing to the absence + of cultivation there were scarcely any paths leading into the forest. I + was therefore unable to collect much during my enforced stay, and found no + rare birds or insects to improve my opinion of Ceram as a collecting + ground. Finding it quite impossible to get men here to accompany me on the + whole voyage, I was obliged to be content with a crew to take me as far as + Wahai, on the middle of the north coast of Ceram, and the chief Dutch + station in the island. The journey took us five days, owing to calms and + light winds, and no incident of any interest occurred on it, nor did I + obtain at our stopping places a single addition to my collections worth + naming. At Wahai, which I reached on the 15th of June, I was hospitably + received by the Commandant and my old friend Herr Rosenberg, who was now + on an official visit here. He lent me some money to pay my men, and I was + lucky enough to obtain three others willing to make the voyage with me to + Ternate, and one more who was to return from Mysol. One of my Amboyna + lads, however, left me, so that I was still rather short of hands. + </p> + <p> + I found here a letter from Charles Allen, who was at Silinta in Mysol, + anxiously expecting me, as he was out of rice and other necessaries, and + was short of insect-pins. He was also ill, and if I did not soon come + would return to Wahai. + </p> + <p> + As my voyage from this place to Waigiou was among islands inhabited by the + Papuan race, and was an eventful and disastrous one, I will narrate its + chief incidents in a separate chapter in that division of my work devoted + to the Papuan Islands. I now have to pass over a year spent in Waigiou and + Timor, in order to describe my visit to the island of Bouru, which + concluded my explorations of the Moluccas. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI. BOURU. + </h2> + <h3> + MAY AND JUNE 1861. + </h3> + <p> + I HAD long wished to visit the large island of Bouru, which lies due west + of Ceram, and of which scarcely anything appeared to be known to + naturalists, except that it contained a babirusa very like that of + Celebes. I therefore made arrangements for staying there two months after + leaving Timor Delli in 1861. This I could conveniently do by means of the + Dutch mail-steamers, which make a monthly round of the Moluccas. + </p> + <p> + We arrived at the harbour of Cajeli on the 4th of May; a gun was fired, + the Commandant of the fort came alongside in a native boat to receive the + post-packet, and took me and my baggage on shore, the steamer going off + again without coming to an anchor. We went to the horse of the Opzeiner, + or overseer, a native of Amboyna—Bouru being too poor a place to + deserve even an Assistant Resident; yet the appearance of the village was + very far superior to that of Delli, which possesses "His Excellency the + Governor," and the little fort, in perfect order, surrounded by neat + brass-plots and straight walks, although manned by only a dozen Javanese + soldiers with an Adjutant for commander, was a very Sebastopol in + comparison with the miserable mud enclosure at Delli, with its numerous + staff of Lieutenants, Captain, and Major. Yet this, as well as most of the + forts in the Moluccas, was originally built by the Portuguese themselves. + Oh! Lusitania, how art thou fallen! + </p> + <p> + While the Opzeiner was reading his letters, I took a walk round the + village with a guide in search of a horse. The whole place was dreadfully + damp and muddy, being built in a swamp with not a spot of ground raised a + foot above it, and surrounded by swamps on every side. The houses were + mostly well built, of wooden framework filled in with gaba-gaba + (leaf-stems of the sago-palm), but as they had no whitewash, and the + floors were of bare black earth like the roads, and generally on the same + level, they were extremely damp and gloomy. At length I found one with the + floor raised about a foot, and succeeded in making a bargain with the + owner to turn out immediately, so that by night I had installed myself + comfortably. The chairs and tables were left for me; and as the whole of + the remaining furniture in the house consisted of a little crockery and a + few clothes-boxes, it was not much trouble for the owners to move into the + house of some relatives, and thus obtain a few silver rupees very easily. + Every foot of ground between the homes throughout the village is crammed + with fruit trees, so that the sun and air have no chance of penetrating. + This must be very cool and pleasant in the dry season, but makes it damp + and unhealthy at other times of the year. Unfortunately I had come two + months too soon, for the rains were not yet over, and mud and water were + the prominent features of the country. + </p> + <p> + About a mile behind and to the east of the village the hills commence, but + they are very barren, being covered with scanty coarse grass and scattered + trees of the Melaleuca cajuputi, from the leaves of which the celebrated + cajeput oil is made. Such districts are absolutely destitute of interest + for the zoologist. A few miles further on rose higher mountains, + apparently well covered with forest, but they were entirely uninhabited + and trackless, and practically inaccessible to a traveller with limited + time and means. It became evident, therefore, that I must leave Cajeli for + some better collecting ground, and finding a man who was going a few miles + eastward to a village on the coast where he said there were hills and + forest, I sent my boy Ali with him to explore and report on the + capabilities of the district. At the same time I arranged to go myself on + a little excursion up a river which flows into the bay about five miles + north of the town, to a village of the Alfuros, or indigenes, where I + thought I might perhaps find a good collecting ground. + </p> + <p> + The Rajah of Cajeli, a good-tempered old man, offered to accompany me, as + the village was under his government; and we started one morning early, in + a long narrow boat with eight rowers. In about two hours we entered the + river, and commenced our inland journey against a very powerful current. + The stream was about a hundred yards wide, and was generally bordered with + high grass, and occasionally bushes and palm-trees. The country round was + flat and more or less swampy, with scattered trees and shrubs. At every + bend we crossed the river to avoid the strength of the current, and + arrived at our landing-place about four o'clock in a torrent of rain. Here + we waited for an hour, crouching under a leaky mat till the Alfuros + arrived who had been sent for from the village to carry my baggage, when + we set off along a path of whose extreme muddiness I had been warned + before starting. + </p> + <p> + I turned up my trousers as high as possible, grasped a stoat stick to + prevent awkward falls, and then boldly plunged into the first mud-hole, + which was immediately succeeded by another and another. The marl or mud + and water was knee-deep with little intervals of firmer ground between, + making progression exceedingly difficult. The path was bordered with high + rigid grass, brewing in dense clumps separated by water, so that nothing + was to be gained by leaving the beaten track, and we were obliged to go + floundering on, never knowing where our feet would rest, as the mud was + now a few inches, now two feet deep, and the bottom very uneven, so that + the foot slid down to the lowest part, and made it difficult to keep one's + balance. One step would be upon a concealed stick or log, almost + dislocating the ankle, while the next would plunge into soft mud above the + knee. It rained all the way, and the long grass, six feet high, met over + the path; so that we could not see a step of the way ahead, and received a + double drenching. Before we got to the village it was dark, and we had to + cross over a small but deep and swollen stream by a narrow log of wood, + which was more than a foot under water. There was a slender shaking stick + for a handrail, and it was nervous work feeling in the dark in the rushing + water for a safe place on which to place the advanced foot. After au hour + of this most disagreeable and fatiguing walk we reached the village, + followed by the men with our guns, ammunition, boxes, and bedding all more + or less soaked. We consoled ourselves with some hot tea and cold fowl, and + went early to bed. + </p> + <p> + The next morning was clear and fine, and I set out soon after sunrise to + explore the neighbourhood. The village had evidently been newly formed, + and consisted of a single straight street of very miserable huts totally + deficient in every comfort, and as bare and cheerless inside as out. It + was situated on a little elevated patch of coarse gravelly soil, covered + with the usual high rigid grass, which came up close to the backs of the + houses. At a short distance in several directions were patches of forest, + but all on low and swampy ground. I made one attempt along the only path I + could find, but soon came upon a deep mud-hole, and found that I must walk + barefoot if at all; so I returned and deferred further exploration till + after breakfast. I then went on into the jungle and found patches of + sago-palms and a low forest vegetation, but the paths were everywhere full + of mud-holes, and intersected by muddy streams and tracts of swamp, so + that walking was not pleasurable, and too much attention to one's steps + was not favourable to insect catching, which requires above everything + freedom of motion. I shot a few birds, and caught a few butterflies, but + all were the same as I had already obtained about Cajeli. + </p> + <p> + On my return to the village I was told that the same kind of ground + extended for many miles in every direction, and I at once decided that + Wayapo was not a suitable place to stay at. The next morning early we + waded back again through the mud and long wet grass to our boat, and by + mid-day reached Cajeli, where I waited Ali's return to decide on my future + movements. He came the following day, and gave a very bad account of + Pelah, where he had been. There was a little brush and trees along the + beach, and hills inland covered with high grass and cajuputi trees—my + dread and abhorrence. On inquiring who could give me trustworthy + information, I was referred to the Lieutenant of the Burghers, who had + travelled all round the island, and was a very intelligent fellow. I asked + him to tell me if he knew of any part of Bouru where there was no + "kusu-kusu," as the coarse grass of the country is called. He assured me + that a good deal of the south coast was forest land, while along the north + was almost entirely swamp and grassy hills. After minute inquiries, I + found that the forest country commenced at a place called Waypoti, only a + few miles beyond Pelah, but that, as the coast beyond that place was + exposed to the east monsoon and dangerous for praus, it was necessary to + walk. I immediately went to the Opzeiner, and he called the Rajah. We had + a consultation, and arranged for a boat to take me the next evening but + one, to Pelah, whence I was to proceed on foot, the Orang-kaya going the + day before to call the Alfuros to carry my baggage. + </p> + <p> + The journey was made as arranged, and on May 19th we arrived at Waypoti, + having walked about ten miles along the beach, and through stony forest + bordering the sea, with occasional plunges of a mile or two into the + interior. We found no village, but scattered houses and plantations, with + hilly country pretty well covered with forest, and looking rather + promising. A low hut with a very rotten roof, showing the sky through in + several places, was the only one I could obtain. Luckily it did not rain + that night, and the next day we pulled down some of the walls to repair + the roof, which was of immediate importance, especially over our beds and + table. + </p> + <p> + About half a mile from the house was a fine mountain stream, running + swiftly over a bed of rocks and pebbles, and beyond this was a hill + covered with fine forest. By carefully picking my way I could wade across + this river without getting much above my knees, although I would sometimes + slip off a rock and go into a hole up to my waist, and about twice a week + I went across it in order to explore the forest. Unfortunately there were + no paths here of any extent, and it did not prove very productive either + in insects or birds. To add to my difficulties I had stupidly left my only + pair of strong hoots on board the steamer, and my others were by this time + all dropping to pieces, so that I was obliged to walk about barefooted, + and in constant fear of hurting my feet, and causing a wound which might + lay me up for weeks, as had happened in Borneo, Are, and Dorey. Although + there were numerous plantations of maize and plantains, there were no new + clearings; and as without these it is almost impossible to find many of + the best kinds of insects, I determined to make one myself, and with much + difficulty engaged two men to clear a patch of forest, from which I hoped + to obtain many fine beetles before I left. + </p> + <p> + During the whole of my stay, however, insects never became plentiful. My + clearing produced me a few fine, longicorns and Buprestidae, different + from any I had before seen, together with several of the Amboyna species, + but by no means so numerous or, so beautiful as I had found in that small + island. For example, I collected only 210 different kinds of beetles + during my two months' stay at Bourn, while in three weeks at Amboyna, in + 1857, I found more than 300 species: One of the finest insects found at + Bouru was a large Cerambyx, of a deep shining chestnut colour, and with + very long antennae. It varied greatly in size, the largest specimens being + three inches long, while the smallest were only an inch, the antenna + varying from one and a half to five inches. + </p> + <p> + One day my boy Ali came home with a story of a big snake. He was walking + through some high grass, and stepped on something which he took for a + small fallen tree, but it felt cold and yielding to his feet, and far to + the right and left there was a waving and rustling of the herbage. He + jumped back in affright and prepared to shoot, but could not get a good + vies of the creature, and it passed away, he said, like a tree being + dragged along through the grass. As he lead several times already shot + large snakes, which he declared were all as nothing compared with this, I + am inclined to believe it must really have been a monster. Such creatures + are rather plentiful here, for a man living close by showed me on his + thigh the marks where he had been seized by one close to his house. It was + big enough to take the man's thigh in its mouth, and he would probably + have been killed and devoured by it had not his cries brought out his + neighbours, who destroyed it with their choppers. As far as I could make + out it was about twenty feet long, but Ali's was probably much larger. + </p> + <p> + It sometimes amuses me to observe how, a few days after I have taken + possession of it, a native hut seems quite a comfortable home. My house at + Waypoti was a bare shed, with a large bamboo platform at one side. At one + end of this platform, which was elevated about three feet, I fixed up my + mosquito curtain, and partly enclosed it with a large Scotch plaid, making + a comfortable little sleeping apartment. I put up a rude table on legs + buried in the earthen floor, and had my comfortable rattan-chair for a + seat. A line across one corner carried my daily-washed cotton clothing, + and on a bamboo shelf was arranged my small stock of crockery and + hardware: Boxes were ranged against the thatch walls, and hanging shelves, + to preserve my collections from ants while drying, were suspended both + without and within the house. On my table lay books, penknives, scissors, + pliers, and pins, with insect and bird labels, all of which were unsolved + mysteries to the native mind. + </p> + <p> + Most of the people here had never seen a pin, and the better informed took + a pride in teaching their more ignorant companions the peculiarities and + uses of that strange European production—a needle with a head, but + no eye! Even paper, which we throw away hourly as rubbish, was to them a + curiosity; and I often saw them picking up little scraps which had been + swept out of the house, and carefully putting them away in their + betel-pouch. Then when I took my morning coffee and evening tea, how many + were the strange things displayed to them! Teapot, teacups, teaspoons, + were all more or less curious in their eyes; tea, sugar, biscuit, and + butter, were articles of human consumption seen by many of them for the + first time. One asks if that whitish powder is "gula passir" (sand-sugar), + so called to distinguish it from the coarse lump palm-sugar or molasses of + native manufacture; and the biscuit is considered a sort of European + sago-cake, which the inhabitants of those remote regions are obliged to + use in the absence of the genuine article. My pursuit, were of course + utterly beyond their comprehension. They continually asked me what white + people did with the birds and insects I tools so much care to preserve. If + I only kept what was beautiful, they might perhaps comprehend it; but to + see ants and files and small ugly insects put away so carefully was a + great puzzle to them, and they were convinced that there must be some + medical or magical use for them which I kept a profound secret. These + people were in fact as completely unacquainted with civilized life as the + Indians of the Rocky Mountains, or the savages of Central Africa—yet + a steamship, that highest triumph of human ingenuity, with its little + floating epitome of European civilization, touches monthly at Cajeli, + twenty miles off; while at Amboyna, only sixty miles distant, a European + population and government have been established for more than three + hundred years. + </p> + <p> + Having seen a good many of the natives of Bouru from different villages, + and from distant parts of the island, I feel convinced that they consist + of two distinct races now partially amalgamated. The larger portion are + Malays of the Celebes type, often exactly similar to the Tomķre people of + East Celebes, whom I found settled in Batchian; while others altogether + resemble the Alfuros of Ceram. + </p> + <p> + The influx of two races can easily be accounted for. The Sula Islands, + which are closely connected with East Celebes, approach to within forty + miles of the north coast of Bouru, while the island of Manipa offers an + easy point of departure for the people of Ceram. I was confirmed in this + view by finding that the languages of Bouru possessed distinct + resemblances to that of Sula, as well as to those of Ceram. + </p> + <p> + Soon after we had arrived at Waypoti, Ali had seen a beautiful little bird + of the genus Pitta, which I was very anxious to obtain, as in almost every + island the species are different, and none were yet known from Bourn. He + and my other hunter continued to see it two or three times a week, and to + hear its peculiar note much oftener, but could never get a specimen, owing + to its always frequenting the most dense thorny thickets, where only hasty + glimpses of it could be obtained, and at so short a distance that it would + be difficult to avoid blowing the bird to pieces. Ali was very much + annoyed that he could not get a specimen of this bird, in going after + which he had already severely, wounded his feet with thorns; and when we + had only two days more to stay, he went of his own accord one evening to + sleep at a little but in the forest some miles off, in order to have a + last try for it at daybreak, when many birds come out to feed, and are + very intent on their morning meal. The next evening he brought me home two + specimens, one with the head blown completely off, and otherwise too much + injured to preserve, the other in very good order, and which I at once saw + to be a new species, very like the Pitta celebensis, but ornamented with a + square patch of bright red on the nape of the neck. + </p> + <p> + The next day after securing this prize we returned to Cajeli, and packing + up my collections left Bouru by the steamer. During our two days' stay at + Ternate, I took on board what baggage I had left there, and bade adieu to + all my friends. We then crossed over to Menado, on our way to Macassar and + Java, and I finally quitted the Moluccas, among whose luxuriant and + beautiful islands I had wandered for more than three years. + </p> + <p> + My collections in Bouru, though not extensive, were of considerable + interest; for out of sixty-six species of birds which I collected there, + no less than seventeen were new, or had not been previously found in any + island of the Moluccas. Among these were two kingfishers, Tanysiptera acis + and Ceyx Cajeli; a beautiful sunbird, Nectarines proserpina; a handsome + little black and white flycatcher, Monarcha loricata, whose swelling + throat was beautifully scaled with metallic blue; and several of less + interest. I also obtained a skull of the babirusa, one specimen of which + was killed by native hunters during my residence at Cajeli. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MOLUCCAS. + </h2> + <p> + THE Moluccas consist of three large islands, Gilolo, Ceram, and Bouru, the + two former being each about two hundred miles long; and a great number of + smaller isles and islets, the most important of which are Batchian, Morty, + Obi, Ke, Timor-Laut, and Amboyna; and among the smaller ones, Ternate, + Tidore, Kaiķa, and Banda. They occupy a space of ten degrees of latitude + by eight of longitude, and they are connected by groups of small islets to + New Guinea on the east, the Philippines on the north, Celebes on the west, + and Timor on the south. It will be as well to bear in mind these main + features of extent and geographical position, while we survey their animal + productions and discuss their relations to the countries which surround + them on every side in almost equal proximity. + </p> + <p> + We will first consider the Mammalia or warm-blooded quadrupeds, which + present us with some singular anomalies. The land mammals are exceedingly + few in number, only ten being yet known from the entire group. The bats or + aerial mammals, on the other hand, are numerous—not less than + twenty-five species being already known. But even this exceeding poverty + of terrestrial mammals does not at all represent the real poverty of the + Moluccas in this class of animals; for, as we shall soon see, there is + good reason to believe that several of the species have been introduced by + man, either purposely or by accident. + </p> + <p> + The only quadrumanous animal in the group is the curious baboon-monkey, + Cynopithecus nigrescens, already described as being one of the + characteristic animals of Celebes. This is found only in the island of + Batchian; and it seems so much out of place there as it is difficult to + imagine how it could have reached the island by any natural means of + dispersal, and yet not have passed by the same means over the narrow + strait to Gilolo—that it seems more likely to have originated from + some individuals which had escaped from confinement, these and similar + animals being often kept as pets by the Malays, and carried about in their + praus. + </p> + <p> + Of all the carnivorous animals of the Archipelago the only one found in + the Moluccas is the Viverra tangalunga, which inhabits both Batchian and + Bouru, and probably come of the other islands. I am inclined to think that + this also may have been introduced accidentally, for it is often made + captive by the Malays, who procure civet from it, and it is an animal very + restless and untameable, and therefore likely to escape. This view is + rendered still more probable by what Antonio de Morga tells us was the + custom in the Philippines in 1602. He says that "the natives of Mindanao + carry about civet-cats in cages, and sell them in the islands; and they + take the civet from them, and let them go again." The same species is + common in the Philippines and in all the large islands of the Indo-Malay + region. + </p> + <p> + The only Moluccan ruminant is a deer, which was once supposed to be a + distinct species, but is now generally considered to be a slight variety + of the Rusa hippelaphus of Java. Deer are often tamed and petted, and + their flesh is so much esteemed by all Malays, that it is very natural + they should endeavour to introduce them into the remote islands in which + they settled, and whose luxuriant forests seem so well adapted for their + subsistence. + </p> + <p> + The strange babirusa of Celebes is also found in Bouru; but in no other + Moluccan island, and it is somewhat difficult to imagine how it got there. + It is true that there is some approximation between the birds of the Sula + Islands (where the babirusa is also found) and those of Bouru, which seems + to indicate that these islands have recently been closer together, or that + some intervening land has disappeared. At this time the babirusa may have + entered Bouru, since it probably swims as well as its allies the pigs. + These are spread all over the Archipelago, even to several of the smaller + islands, and in many cases the species are peculiar. It is evident, + therefore, that they have some natural means of dispersal. There is a + popular idea that pigs cannot swim, but Sir Charles Lyell has shown that + this is a mistake. In his "Principles of Geology" (10th Edit. vol. ii p. + 355) he adduces evidence to show that pigs have swum many miles at sea, + and are able to swim with great ease and swiftness. I have myself seen a + wild pig swimming across the arm of the sea that separates Singapore from + the Peninsula of Malacca, and we thus have explained the curious fact, + that of all the large mammals of the Indian region, pigs alone extend + beyond the Moluccas and as far as New Guinea, although it is somewhat + curious that they have not found their way to Australia. + </p> + <p> + The little shrew, Sorex myosurus, which is common in Sumatra, Borneo, and + Java, is also found in the larger islands of the Moluccas, to which it may + have been accidentally conveyed in native praus. + </p> + <p> + This completes the list of the placental mammals which are so + characteristic of the Indian region; and we see that, with the single + exception of the pig, all may very probably have been introduced by man, + since all except the pig are of species identical with those now abounding + in the great Malay islands, or in Celebes. + </p> + <p> + The four remaining mammals are Marsupials, an order of the class Mammalia, + which is very characteristic of the Australian fauna; and these are + probably true natives of the Moluccas, since they are either of peculiar + species, or if found elsewhere are natives only of New Guinea or North + Australia. The first is the small flying opossum, Belideus ariel, a + beautiful little animal, exactly line a small flying squirrel in + appearance, but belonging to the marsupial order. The other three are + species of the curious genus Cuscus, which is peculiar to the + Austro-Malayan region. These are opossum-like animals, with a long + prehensile tail, of which the terminal half is generally bare. They have + small heads, large eyes, and a dense covering of woolly fur, which is + often pure white with irregular black spots or blotches, or sometimes ashy + brown with or without white spots. They live in trees, feeding upon the + leaves, of which they devour large quantities, they move about slowly, and + are difficult to kill, owing to the thickness of their fur, and their + tenacity of life. A heavy charge of shot will often lodge in the slain and + do them no harm, and even breaking the spine or piercing the brain will + not kill them for some hours. The natives everywhere eat their flesh, and + as their motions are so slow, easily catch them by climbing; so that it is + wonderful they have not been exterminated. It may be, however, that their + dense woolly fur protects them from birds of prey, and the islands they + live in are too thinly inhabited for man to be able to exterminate them. + The figure represents Cuscus ornatus, a new species discovered by me in + Batchian, and which also inhabits Ternate. It is peculiar to the Moluccas, + while the two other species which inhabit Ceram are found also in New + Guinea and Waigiou. + </p> + <p> + In place of the excessive poverty of mammals which characterises the + Moluccas, we have a very rich display of the feathered tribes. The number + of species of birds at present known from the various islands of the + Molluccan group is 265, but of these only 70 belong to the usually + abundant tribes of the waders and swimmers, indicating that these are very + imperfectly known. As they are also pre-eminently wanderers, and are thus + little fitted for illustrating the geographical distribution of life in a + limited area, we will here leave them out of consideration and confine our + attention only to the 195 land birds. + </p> + <p> + When we consider that all Europe, with its varied climate and vegetation, + with every mile of its surface explored, and with the immense extent of + temperate Asia and Africa, which serve as storehouses, from which it is + continually recruited, only supports 251 species of land birds as + residents or regular immigrants, we must look upon the numbers already + procured in the small and comparatively unknown islands of the Moluccas as + indicating a fauna of fully average richness in this department. But when + we come to examine the family groups which go to make up this number, we + find the most curious deficiencies in some, balanced by equally striking + redundancy in other. Thus if we compare the birds of the Moluccas with + those of India, as given in Mr. Jerdon's work, we find that the three + groups of the parrots, kingfishers, and pigeons, form nearly <i>one-third</i> + of the whole land-birds in the former, while they amount to only <i>one-twentieth</i> + in the latter country. On the other hand, such wide-spread groups as the + thrushes, warblers, and finches, which in India form nearly <i>one-third</i> + of all the land-birds, dwindle down in the Moluccas to <i>one-fourteenth.</i> + </p> + <p> + The reason of these peculiarities appears to be, that the Moluccan fauna + has been almost entirely derived from that of New Guinea, in which country + the same deficiency and the same luxuriance is to be observed. Out of the + seventy-eight genera in which the Moluccan land-birds may be classed, no + less than seventy are characteristic of Yew Guinea, while only six belong + specially to the Indo-Malay islands. But this close resemblance to New + Guinea genera does not extend to the species, for no less than 140 out of + the 195 land-birds are peculiar to the Moluccan islands, while 32 are + found also in New Guinea, and 15 in the Indo-Malay islands. These facts + teach us, that though the birds of this group have evidently been derived + mainly from New Guinea, yet the immigration has not been a recent one, + since there has been time for the greater portion of the species to have + become changed. We find, also, that many very characteristic New Guinea + forms lave not entered the Moluccas at all, while others found in Ceram + and Gilolo do not extend so far west as Bouru. Considering, further, the + absence of most of the New Guinea mammals from the Moluccas, we are led to + the conclusion that these islands are not fragments which have been + separated from New Guinea, but form a distinct insular region, which has + been upheaved independently at a rather remote epoch, and during all the + mutations it has undergone has been constantly receiving immigrants from + that great and productive island. The considerable length of time the + Moluccas have remained isolated is further indicated by the occurrence of + two peculiar genera of birds, Semioptera and Lycocorax, which are found + nowhere else. + </p> + <p> + We are able to divide this small archipelago into two well marked groups—that + of Ceram, including also Bouru. Amboyna, Banda, and Ke; and that of + Gilolo, including Morty, Batchian, Obi, Ternate, and other small islands. + These divisions have each a considerable number of peculiar species, no + less than fifty-five being found in the Ceram group only; and besides + this, most of the separate islands have some species peculiar to + themselves. Thus Morty island has a peculiar kingfisher, honeysucker, and + starling; Ternate has a ground-thrush (Pitta) and a flycatcher; Banda has + a pigeon, a shrike, and a Pitta; Ke has two flycatchers, a Zosterops, a + shrike, a king-crow and a cuckoo; and the remote Timor-Laut, which should + probably come into the Moluccan group, has a cockatoo and lory as its only + known birds, and both are of peculiar species. + </p> + <p> + The Moluccas are especially rich in the parrot tribe, no less than + twenty-two species, belonging to ten genera, inhabiting them. Among these + is the large red-crested cockatoo, so commonly seen alive in Europe, two + handsome red parrots of the genus Eclectus, and five of the beautiful + crimson lories, which are almost exclusively confined to these islands and + the New Guinea group. The pigeons are hardly less abundant or beautiful, + twenty-one species being known, including twelve of the beautiful green + fruit pigeons, the smaller kinds of which are ornamented with the most + brilliant patches of colour on the head and the under-surface. Next to + these come the kingfishers, including sixteen species, almost all of which + are beautiful, end many are among the most brilliantly-coloured birds that + exist. + </p> + <p> + One of the most curious groups of birds, the Megapodii, or mound-makers, + is very abundant in the Moluccas. They are gallinaceous birds, about the + size of a small fowl, and generally of a dark ashy or sooty colour, and + they have remarkably large and strong feet and long claws. They are allied + to the "Maleo" of Celebes, of which an account has already been given, but + they differ in habits, most of these birds frequenting the scrubby jungles + along the sea-shore, where the soil is sandy, and there is a considerable + quantity of debris, consisting of sticks, shells, seaweed, leaves, &c. + Of this rubbish the Megapodius forms immense mounds, often six or eight + feet high and twenty or thirty feet in diameter, which they are enabled to + do with comparative ease, by means of their large feet, with which they + can grasp and throw backwards a quantity of material. In the centre of + this mound, at a depth of two or three feet, the eggs are deposited, and + are hatched by the gentle heat produced by the fermentation of the + vegetable matter of the mound. When I first saw these mounds in the island + of Lombock, I could hardly believe that they were made by such small + birds, but I afterwards met with them frequently, and have once or twice + come upon the birds engaged in making them. They run a few steps + backwards, grasping a quantity of loose material in one foot, and throw it + a long way behind them. When once properly buried the eggs seem to be no + more cared for, the young birds working their way up through the heap of + rubbish, and running off at once into the forest. They come out of the egg + covered with thick downy feathers, and have no tail, although the wings + are full developed. + </p> + <p> + I was so fortunate as to discover a new species (Megapodius wallacei), + which inhibits Gilolo, Ternate, and Bouru. It is the handsomest bird of + the genus, being richly banded with reddish brown on the back and wings; + and it differs from the other species in its habits. It frequents the + forests of the interior, and comes down to the sea-beach to deposit its + eggs, but instead of making a mound, or scratching a hole to receive them, + it burrows into the sand to the depth of about three feet obliquely + downwards, and deposits its eggs at the bottom. It then loosely covers up + the mouth of the hole, and is said by the natives to obliterate and + disguise its own footmarks leading to and from the hole, by making many + other tracks and scratches in the neighbourhood. It lays its eggs only at + night, and at Bouru a bird was caught early one morning as it was coming + out of its hole, in which several eggs were found. All these birds seem to + be semi-nocturnal, for their loud wailing cries may be constantly heard + late into the night and long before daybreak in the morning. The eggs are + all of a rusty red colour, and very large for the size of the bird, being + generally three or three and a quarter inches long, by two or two and a + quarter wide. They are very good eating, and are much sought after by the + natives. + </p> + <p> + Another large and extraordinary bird is the Cassowary, which inhabits the + island of Ceram only. It is a stout and strong bird, standing five or six + feet high, and covered with long coarse black hair-like feathers. The head + is ornamented with a large horny calque or helmet, and the bare skin of + the neck is conspicuous with bright blue and red colours. The wings are + quite absent, and are replaced by a group of horny black spines like blunt + porcupine quills. + </p> + <p> + These birds wander about the vast mountainous forests that cover the + island of Ceram, feeding chiefly on fallen fruits, and on insects or + crustacea. The female lays from three to five large and beautifully + shagreened green eggs upon a bed of leaves, the male and female sitting + upon them alternately for about a month. This bird is the helmeted + cassowary (Casuarius galeatus) of naturalists, and was for a long time the + only species known. Others have since been discovered in New Guinea, New + Britain, and North Australia. + </p> + <p> + It was in the Moluccas that I first discovered undoubted cases of + "mimicry" among birds, and these are so curious that I must briefly + describe them. It will be as well, however, first to explain what is meant + by mimicry in natural history. At page 205 of the first volume of this + work, I have described a butterfly which, when at rest, so closely + resembles a dead leaf, that it thereby escape the attacks of its enemies. + This is termed a "protective resemblance." If however the butterfly, being + itself savoury morsel to birds, had closely resembled another butterfly + which was disagreeable to birds, and therefore never eaten by them, it + would be as well protected as if it resembled a leaf; and this is what has + been happily termed "mimicry" by Mr. Bates, who first discovered the + object of these curious external imitations of one insect by another + belonging to a distinct genus or family, and sometimes even to a distinct + order. The clear-winged moth which resemble wasps and hornets are the best + examples of "mimicry" in our own country. + </p> + <p> + For a long time all the known cases of exact resemblance of one creature + to quite a different one were confined to insects, and it was therefore + with great pleasure that I discovered in the island of Bouru two birds + which I constantly mistook for each other, and which yet belonged to two + distinct and somewhat distant families. One of these is a honeysucker + named Tropidorhynchus bouruensis, and the other a kind of oriole, which + has been called Mimeta bouruensis. The oriole resembles the honeysucker in + the following particulars: the upper and under surfaces of the two birds + are exactly of the same tints of dark and light brown; the Tropidorhynchus + has a large bare black patch round the eyes; this is copied in the Mimeta + by a patch of black feathers. The top of the head of the Tropidorhynchus + has a scaly appearance from the narrow scale-formed feathers, which are + imitated by the broader feathers of the Mimeta having a dusky line down + each. The Tropidorhynchus has a pale ruff formed of curious recurved + feathers on the nape (which has given the whole genus the name of Friar + birds); this is represented in the Mimeta by a pale band in the same + position. Lastly, the bill of the Tropidorhynchus is raised into a + protuberant keel at the base, and the Mimeta has the same character, + although it is not a common one in the genus. The result is, that on a + superficial examination the birds are identical, although they leave + important structural differences, and cannot be placed near each other in + any natural arrangement. + </p> + <p> + In the adjacent island of Ceram we find very distinct species of both + these genera, and, strange to say, these resemble each other quite as + closely as do those of Bouru The Tropidorhynchus subcornutus is of an + earthy brown colour, washed with ochreish yellow, with bare orbits, dusky: + cheeks, and the usual recurved nape-ruff: The Mimeta forsteni which + accompanies it, is absolutely identical in the tints of every part of the + body, and the details are copied just as minutely as in the former + species. + </p> + <p> + We have two kinds of evidence to tell us which bird in this case is the + model, and which the copy. The honeysuckers are coloured in a manner which + is very general in the whole family to which they belong, while the + orioles seem to have departed from the gay yellow tints so common among + their allies. We should therefore conclude that it is the latter who mimic + the former. If so, however, they must derive some advantage from the + imitation, and as they are certainly weak birds, with small feet and + claws, they may require it. Now the Tropidorhynchi are very strong and + active birds, having powerful grasping claws, and long, curved, sharp + beaks. They assemble together in groups and small flocks, and they haw a + very loud bawling note which can be heard at a great distance, and serves + to collect a number together in time of danger. They are very plentiful + and very pugnacious, frequently driving away crows and even hawks, which + perch on a tree where a few of them are assembled. It is very probable, + therefore, that the smaller birds of prey have learnt to respect these + birds and leave them alone, and it may thus be a great advantage for the + weaker and less courageous Mimetas to be mistaken for them. This being + case, the laws of Variation and Survival of the Fittest, will suffice to + explain how the resemblance has been brought about, without supposing any + voluntary action on the part of the birds themselves; and those who have + read Mr. Darwin's "Origin of Species" will have no difficulty in + comprehending the whole process. + </p> + <p> + The insects of the Moluccas are pre-eminently beautiful, even when + compared with the varied and beautiful productions of other parts of the + Archipelago. The grand bird-winged butterflies (Ornithoptera) here reach + their maximum of size and beauty, and many of the Papilios, Pieridae + Danaidae, and Nymphalidae are equally preeminent. There is, perhaps, no + island in the world so small as Amboyna where so many grand insects are to + be found. Here are three of the very finest Ornithopterae—priamus, + helena, and remiss; three of the handsomest and largest Papilios—ulysses, + deiphobus, and gambrisius; one of the handsomest Pieridae, Iphias + leucippe; the largest of the Danaidae, Hestia idea; and two unusually + large and handsome Nymphalidae—Diadema pandarus, and Charaxes + euryalus. Among its beetles are the extraordinary Euchirus longimanus, + whose enormous legs spread over a space of eight inches, and an unusual + number of large and handsome Longicorns, Anthribidae, and Buprestidae. + </p> + <p> + The beetles figured on the plate as characteristic of the Moluccas are: 1. + A small specimen of the Euchirus longimanus, or Long-armed Chafer, which + has been already mentioned in the account of my residence at Amboyna + (Chapter XX.). The female has the fore legs of moderate length. 2. A fine + weevil, (an undescribed species of Eupholus,) of rich blue and emerald + green colours, banded with black. It is a native of Ceram and Goram, and + is found on foliage. 3. A female of Xenocerus semiluctuosus, one of the + Anthribidae of delicate silky white and black colours. It is abundant on + fallen trunks and stumps in Ceram and Amboyna. 4. An undescribed species + of Xenocerus; a male, with very long and curious antenna, and elegant + black and white markings. It is found on fallen trunks in Batchian. 5. An + undescribed species of Arachnobas, a curious genus of weevils peculiar to + the Moluccas and New Guinea, and remarkable for their long legs, and their + habit of often sitting on leaves, and turning rapidly round the edge to + the under-surface when disturbed. It was found in Gilolo. All these + insects are represented of the natural size. + </p> + <p> + Like the birds, the insects of the Moluccas show a decided affinity with + those of New Guinea rather than with the productions of the great western + islands of the Archipelago, but the difference in form and structure + between the productions of the east and west is not nearly so marked here + as in birds. This is probably due to the more immediate dependence of + insects on climate and vegetation, and the greater facilities for their + distribution in the varied stages of egg, pupa, and perfect insect. This + has led to a general uniformity in the insect-life of the whole + Archipelago, in accordance with the general uniformity of its climate and + vegetation; while on the other hand the great susceptibility of the insect + organization to the action of external conditions has led to infinite + detailed modifications of form and colour, which have in many cases given + a considerable diversity to the productions of adjacent islands. + </p> + <p> + Owing to the great preponderance among the birds, of parrots, pigeons, + kingfishers, and sunbirds, almost all of gay or delicate colours, and many + adorned with the most gorgeous plumage, and to the numbers of very large + and showy butterflies which are almost everywhere to be met with, the + forests of the Moluccas offer to the naturalist a very striking example of + the luxuriance and beauty of animal life in the tropics. Yet the almost + entire absence of Mammalia, and of such wide-spread groups of birds as + woodpeckers, thrushes, jays, tits, and pheasants, must convince him that + he is in a part of the world which has, in reality but little in common + with the great Asiatic continent, although an unbroken chain of islands + seems to link them to it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII. MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS IN A NATIVE PRAU. + </h2> + <h3> + (DECEMBER, 1856.) + </h3> + <p> + IT was the beginning of December, and the rainy season at Macassar had + just set in. For nearly three months had beheld the sun rise daily above + the palm-groves, mount to the zenith, and descend like a globe of fire + into the ocean, unobscured for a single moment of his course. Now dark + leaden clouds had gathered over the whole heavens, and seemed to have + rendered him permanently invisible. The strong east winds, warm and dry + and dust-laden, which had hitherto blown as certainly as the sun had + risen, were now replaced by variable gusty breezes and heavy rains, often + continuous for three days and nights together; and the parched and + fissured rice stubbles which during the dry weather had extended in every + direction for miles around the town, were already so flooded as to be only + passable by boats, or by means of a labyrinth of paths on the top of the + narrow banks which divided the separate properties. + </p> + <p> + Five months of this kind of weather might be expected in Southern Celebes, + and I therefore determined to seek some more favourable climate for + collecting in during that period, and to return in the next dry season to + complete my exploration of the district. Fortunately for me I was in one + of the treat emporiums of the native trade of the archipelago. Rattans + from Borneo, sandal-wood and bees'-was from Flores and Timor, tripang from + the Gulf of Carpentaria, cajputi-oil from Bouru, wild nutmegs and + mussoi-bark from New Guinea, are all to be found in the stores of the + Chinese and Bugis merchants of Macassar, along with the rice and coffee + which are the chief products of the surrounding country. More important + than all these however is the trade to Aru, a group of islands situated on + the south-west coast of New Guinea, and of which almost the whole produce + comes to Macassar in native vessels. These islands are quite out of the + track of all European trade, and are inhabited only by black mop-headed + savages, who yet contribute to the luxurious tastes of the most civilized + races. Pearls, mother-of-pearl, and tortoiseshell find their way to + Europe, while edible birds' nests and "tripang" or sea-slug are obtained + by shiploads for the gastronomic enjoyment of the Chinese. + </p> + <p> + The trade to these islands has existed from very early times, and it is + from them that Birds of Paradise, of the two kinds known to Linnaeus were + first brought The native vessels can only make the voyage once a year, + owing to the monsoons. They leave Macassar in December or January at the + beginning of the west monsoon, and return in July or August with the full + strength of the east monsoon. Even by the Macassar people themselves, the + voyage to the Aru Islands is looked upon as a rather wild and romantic + expedition, fall of novel sights and strange adventures. He who has made + it is looked up to as an authority, and it remains with many the + unachieved ambition of their lives. I myself had hoped rather than + expected ever to reach this "Ultima Thule" of the East: and when I found + that I really could do so now, had I but courage to trust myself for a + thousand miles' voyage in a Bugis prau, and for six or seven months among + lawless traders and ferocious savages, I felt somewhat as I did when, a + schoolboy, I was for the first time allowed to travel outside the + stage-coach, to visit that scene of all that is strange and new and + wonderful to young imaginations-London! + </p> + <p> + By the help of some kind friends I was introduced to the owner of one of + the large praus which was to sail in a few days. He was a Javanese + half-caste, intelligent, mild, and gentlemanly in his manners, and had a + young and pretty Dutch wife, whom he was going to leave behind during his + absence. When we talked about passage money he would fix no sum, but + insisted on leaving it entirely to me to pay on my return exactly what I + liked. "And then," said he, "whether you give me one dollar or a hundred, + I shall be satisfied, and shall ask no more." + </p> + <p> + The remainder of my stay was fully occupied in laying in stores, engaging + servants, and making every other preparation for an absence of seven + months from even the outskirts of civilization. On the morning of December + 13th, when we went on board at daybreak, it was raining hard. We set sail + and it came on to blow. Our boat was lost astern, our sails damaged, and + the evening found us hack again in Macassar harbour. We remained there + four days longer, owing to its raining all the time, thus rendering it + impossible to dry and repair the huge mat sails. All these dreary days I + remained on board, and during the rare intervals when it didn't rain, made + myself acquainted with our outlandish craft, some of the peculiarities of + which I will now endeavour to describe. + </p> + <p> + It was a vessel of about seventy tons burthen, and shaped something like a + Chinese junk. The deck sloped considerably downward to the bows, which are + thus the lowest part of the ship. There were two large rudders, but + instead of being planed astern they were hung on the quarters from strong + cross beams, which projected out two or three feet on each side, and to + which extent the deck overhung the sides of the vessel amidships. The + rudders were not hinged but hung with slings of rattan, the friction of + which keeps them in any position in which they are placed, and thus + perhaps facilitates steering. The tillers were not on deck, but entered + the vessel through two square openings into a lower or half deck about + three feet high, in which sit the two steersmen. In the after part of the + vessel was a low poop, about three and a half feet high, which forms the + captain's cabin, its furniture consisting of boxes, mats, and pillows. In + front of the poop and mainmast was a little thatched house on deck, about + four feet high to the ridge; and one compartment of this, forming a cabin + six and a half feet long by five and a half wide, I had all to myself, and + it was the snuggest and most comfortable little place I ever enjoyed at + sea. It was entered by a low sliding door of thatch on one side, and had a + very small window on the other. The floor was of split bamboo, pleasantly + elastic, raised six inches above the deck, so as to be quite dry. It was + covered with fine cane mats, for the manufacture of which Macassar is + celebrated; against the further wall were arranged my guncase, + insect-boxes, clothes, and books; my mattress occupied the middle, and + next the door were my canteen, lamp, and little store of luxuries for the + voyage; while guns, revolver, and hunting knife hung conveniently from the + roof. During these four miserable days I was quite jolly in this little + snuggery more so than I should have been if confined the same time to the + gilded and uncomfortable saloon of a first-class steamer. Then, how + comparatively sweet was everything on board—no paint, no tar, no new + rope, (vilest of smells to the qualmish!) no grease, or oil, or varnish; + but instead of these, bamboo and rattan, and coir rope and palm thatch; + pure vegetable fibres, which smell pleasantly if they smell at all, and + recall quiet scenes in the green and shady forest. + </p> + <p> + Our ship had two masts, if masts they can be called c which were great + moveable triangles. If in an ordinary ship you replace the shrouds and + backstay by strong timbers, and take away the mast altogether, you have + the arrangement adopted on board a prau. Above my cabin, and resting on + cross-beams attached to the masts, was a wilderness of yards and spars, + mostly formed of bamboo. The mainyard, an immense affair nearly a hundred + feet long, was formed of many pieces of wood and bamboo bound together + with rattans in an ingenious manner. The sail carried by this was of an + oblong shape, and was hung out of the centre, so that when the short end + was hauled down on deck the long end mounted high in the air, making up + for the lowness of the mast itself. The foresail was of the same shape, + but smaller. Both these were of matting, and, with two jibs and a fore and + aft sail astern of cotton canvas, completed our rig. + </p> + <p> + The crew consisted of about thirty men, natives of Macassar and the + adjacent coasts and islands. They were mostly young, and were short, + broad-faced, good-humoured looking fellows. Their dress consisted + generally of a pair of trousers only, when at work, and a handkerchief + twisted round the head, to which in the evening they would add a thin + cotton jacket. Four of the elder men were "jurumudis," or steersmen, who + had to squat (two at a time) in the little steerage before described, + changing every six hours. Then there was an old man, the "juragan," or + captain, but who was really what we should call the first mate; he + occupied the other half of the little house on deck. There were about ten + respectable men, Chinese or Bugis, whom our owner used to call "his own + people." He treated them very well, shared his meals with them, and spoke + to them always with perfect politeness; yet they were most of them a kind + of slave debtors, bound over by the police magistrate to work for him at + mere nominal wages for a term of years till their debts were liquidated. + This is a Dutch institution in this part of the world, and seems to work + well. It is a great boon to traders, who can do nothing in these + thinly-populated regions without trusting goods to agents and petty + dealers, who frequently squander them away in gambling and debauchery. The + lower classes are almost all in a chronic state of debt. The merchant + trusts them again and again, till the amount is something serious, when he + brings them to court and has their services allotted to him for its + liquidation. The debtors seem to think this no disgrace, but rather enjoy + their freedom from responsibility, and the dignity of their position under + a wealthy and well-known merchant. They trade a little on their own + account, and both parties seem to get on very well together. The plan + seems a more sensible one than that which we adopt, of effectually + preventing a man from earning anything towards paying his debts by + shutting him up in a jail. + </p> + <p> + My own servants were three in number. Ali, the Malay boy whom I had picked + up in Borneo, was my head man. He had already been with me a year, could + turn his hand to anything, and was quite attentive and trustworthy. He was + a good shot, and fond of shooting, and I had taught him to skin birds very + well. The second, named Baderoon, was a Macassar lad; also a pretty good + boy, but a desperate gambler. Under pretence of buying a house for his + mother, and clothes, for himself, he had received four months' wages about + a week before we sailed, and in a day or two gambled away every dollar of + it. He had come on board with no clothes, no betel, or tobacco, or salt + fish, all which necessary articles I was obliged to send Ali to buy for + him. These two lads were about sixteen, I should suppose; the third was + younger, a sharp little rascal named Baso, who had been with me a month or + two, and had learnt to cook tolerably. He was to fulfil the important + office of cook and housekeeper, for I could not get any regular servants + to go to such a terribly remote country; one might as well ask a chef de + cuisine to go to Patagonia. + </p> + <p> + On the fifth day that I had spent on board (Dec. 15th) the rain ceased, + and final preparations were made for starting. Sails were dried and + furled, boats were constantly coming and going, and stores for the voyage, + fruit, vegetables, fish, and palm sugar, were taken on board. In the + afternoon two women arrived with a large party of friends and relations, + and at parting there was a general noserubbing (the Malay kiss), and some + tears shed. These were promising symptoms for our getting off the next + day; and accordingly, at three in the morning, the owner came on board, + the anchor was immediately weighed, and by four we set sail. Just as we + were fairly off and clear of the other praus, the old juragan repeated + some prayers, all around responding with "Allah il Allah," and a few + strokes on a gong as an accompaniment, concluding with all wishing each + other "Salaamat jalan," a safe and happy journey. We had a light breeze, a + calm sea, and a fine morning, a prosperous commencement of our voyage of + about a thousand miles to the far-famed Aru Islands. + </p> + <p> + The wind continued light and variable all day, with a calm in the evening + before the land breeze sprang up, were then passing the island of + "Tanakaki" (foot of the land), at the extreme south of this part of + Celebes. There are some dangerous rocks here, and as I was standing by the + bulwarks, I happened to spit over the side; one of the men begged I would + not do so just now, but spit on deck, as they were much afraid of this + place. Not quite comprehending, I made him repeat his request, when, + seeing he was in earnest, I said, "Very well, I suppose there are 'hantus' + (spirits) here." "Yes," said he, "and they don't like anything to be + thrown overboard; many a prau has been lost by doing it." Upon which I + promised to be very careful. At sunset the good Mahometans on board all + repeated a few words of prayer with a general chorus, reminding me of the + pleasing and impressive "Ave. Maria" of Catholic countries. + </p> + <p> + Dec. 20th.-At sunrise we were opposite the Bontyne mountain, said to be + one of the highest in Celebes. In the afternoon we passed the Salayer + Straits and had a little squall, which obliged us to lower our huge mast, + sails, and heavy yards. The rest of the evening we had a fine west wind, + which carried us on at near five knots an hour, as much as our lumbering + old tub can possibly go. + </p> + <p> + Dec. 21st.-A heavy swell from the south-west rolling us about most + uncomfortably. A steady wind was blowing however, and we got on very well. + </p> + <p> + Dec. 22d.-The swell had gone down. We passed Boutong, a large island, + high, woody, and populous, the native place of some of our crew. A small + prau returning from Bali to the island of Goram overtook us. The nakoda + (captain) was known to our owner. They had been two years away, but were + full of people, with several black Papuans on board. At 6 P.M. we passed + Wangiwangi, low but not flat, inhabited and subject to Boutong. We had now + fairly entered the Molucca Sea. After dark it was a beautiful sight to + look down on our rudders, from which rushed eddying streams of phosphoric + light gemmed with whirling sparks of fire. It resembled (more nearly than + anything else to which I can compare it) one of the large irregular + nebulous star-clusters seen through a good telescope, with the additional + attraction of ever-changing form and dancing motion. + </p> + <p> + Dec. 23d.-Fine red sunrise; the island we left last evening barely visible + behind us. The Goram prau about a mile south of us. They have no compass, + yet they have kept a very true course during the night. Our owner tells me + they do it by the swell of the sea, the direction of which they notice at + sunset, and sail by it during the night. In these seas they are never (in + fine weather) more than two days without seeing land. Of course adverse + winds or currents sometimes carry them away, but they soon fall in with + some island, and there are always some old sailors on board who know it, + and thence take a new course. Last night a shark about five feet long was + caught, and this morning it was cut up and cooked. In the afternoon they + got another, and I had a little fried, and found it firm and dry, but very + palatable. In the evening the sun set in a heavy bank of clouds, which, as + darkness came on, assumed a fearfully black appearance. According to + custom, when strong wind or rain is expected, our large sails-were furled, + and with their yards let down on deck, and a small square foresail alone + kept up. The great mat sails are most awkward things to manage in rough + weather. The yards which support them are seventy feet long, and of course + very heavy, and the only way to furl them being to roll up the sail on the + boom, it is a very dangerous thing to have them standing when overtaken by + a squall. Our crew; though numerous enough for a vessel of 700 instead of + one of 70 tons, have it very much their own way, and there seems to be + seldom more than a dozen at work at a time. When anything important is to + be done, however, all start up willingly enough, but then all think + themselves at liberty to give their opinion, and half a dozen voices are + heard giving orders, and there is such a shrieking and confusion that it + seems wonderful anything gets done at all. + </p> + <p> + Considering we have fifty men of several tribes and tongues onboard, wild, + half-savage looking fellows, and few of them feeling any of the restraints + of morality or education, we get on wonderfully well. There is no fighting + or quarrelling, as there would certainly be among the same number of + Europeans with as little restraint upon their actions, and there is + scarcely any of that noise and excitement which might be expected. In fine + weather the greater part of them are quietly enjoying themselves—some + are sleeping under the shadow of the sails; others, in little groups of + three or four, are talking or chewing betel; one is making a new handle to + his chopping-knife, another is stitching away at a new pair of trousers or + a shirt, and all are as quiet and well-conducted as on board the + best-ordered English merchantman. Two or three take it by turns to watch + in the bows and see after the braces and halyards of the great sails; the + two steersmen are below in the steerage; our captain, or the juragan, + gives the course, guided partly by the compass and partly by the direction + of the wind, and a watch of two or three on the poop look after the + trimming of the sails and call out the hours by the water-clock. This is a + very ingenious contrivance, which measures time well in both rough weather + and fine. It is simply a bucket half filled with water, in which floats + the half of a well-scraped cocoa-nut shell. In the bottom of this shell is + a very small hole, so that when placed to float in the bucket a fine + thread of water squirts up into it. This gradually fills the shell, and + the size of the hole is so adjusted to the capacity of the vessel that, + exactly at the end of an hour, plump it goes to the bottom. The watch then + cries out the number of hours from sunrise and sets the shell afloat again + empty. This is a very good measurer of time. I tested it with my watch and + found that it hardly varied a minute from one hour to another, nor did the + motion of the vessel have any effect upon it, as the water in the bucket + of course kept level. It has a great advantage for a rude people in being + easily understood, in being rather bulky and easy to see, and in the final + submergence being accompanied with a little bubbling and commotion of the + water, which calls the attention to it. It is also quickly replaced if + lost while in harbour. + </p> + <p> + Our captain and owner I find to be a quiet, good-tempered man, who seems + to get on very well with all about him. When at sea he drinks no wine or + spirits, but indulges only in coffee and cakes, morning and afternoon, in + company with his supercargo and assistants. He is a man of some little + education, can read and write well both Dutch and Malay, uses a compass, + and has a chart. He has been a trader to Aru for many years, and is well + known to both Europeans and natives in this part of the world. + </p> + <p> + Dec. 24th.-Fine, and little wind. No land in sight for the first time + since we left Macassar. At noon calm, with heavy showers, in which our + crew wash their clothes, anti in the afternoon the prau is covered with + shirts, trousers, and sarongs of various gay colours. I made a discovery + to-day which at first rather alarmed me. The two ports, or openings, + through which the tillers enter from the lateral rudders are not more than + three or four feet above the surface of the water, which thus has a free + entrance into the vessel. I of course had imagined that this open space + from one side to the other was separated from the hold by a water-tight + bulkhead, so that a sea entering might wash out at the further side, and + do no more harm than give the steersmen a drenching. To my surprise end + dismay, however, I find that it is completely open to the hold, so that + half-a-dozen seas rolling in on a stormy night would nearly, or quite, + swamp us. Think of a vessel going to sea for a month with two holes, each + a yard square, into the hold, at three feet above the water-line,-holes, + too, which cannot possibly be closed! But our captain says all praus are + so; and though he acknowledges the danger, "he does not know how to alter + it—the people are used to it; he does not understand praus so well + as they do, and if such a great alteration were made, he should be sure to + have difficulty in getting a crew!" This proves at all events that praus + must be good sea-boats, for the captain has been continually making + voyages in them for the last ten years, and says he has never known water + enough enter to do any harm. + </p> + <p> + Dec.25th.-Christmas-day dawned upon us with gusts of wind, driving rain, + thunder and lightning, added to which a short confused sea made our queer + vessel pitch and roll very uncomfortably. About nine o'clock, however, it + cleared up, and we then saw ahead of us the fine island of Bouru, perhaps + forty or fifty miles distant, its mountains wreathed with clouds, while + its lower lands were still invisible. The afternoon was fine, and the wind + got round again to the west; but although this is really the west monsoon, + there is no regularity or steadiness about it, calms and breezes from + every point of the compass continually occurring. The captain, though + nominally a Protestant, seemed to have no idea of Christmas-day as a + festival. Our dinner was of rice and curry as usual, and an extra glass of + wine was all I could do to celebrate it. + </p> + <p> + Dec. 26th.—Fine view of the mountains of Bouru, which we have now + approached considerably. Our crew seem rather a clumsy lot. They do not + walk the deck with the easy swing of English sailors, but hesitate and + stagger like landsmen. In the night the lower boom of our mainsail broke, + and they were all the morning repairing it. It consisted of two bamboos + lashed together, thick end to thin, and was about seventy feet long. The + rigging and arrangement of these praus contrasts strangely with that of + European vessels, in which the various ropes and spars, though much more + numerous, are placed so as not to interfere with each other's action. Here + the case is quite different; for though there are no shrouds or stays to + complicate the matter, yet scarcely anything can be done without first + clearing something else out of the way. The large sails cannot be shifted + round to go on the other tack without first hauling down the jibs, and the + booms of the fore and aft sails have to be lowered and completely detached + to perform the same operation. Then there are always a lot of ropes foul + of each other, and all the sails can never be set (though they are so few) + without a good part of their surface having the wind kept out of them by + others. Yet praus are much liked even by those who have had European + vessels, because of their cheapness both in first cost and in keeping up; + almost all repairs can be done by the crew, and very few European stores + are required. + </p> + <p> + Dec. 28th.—This day we saw the Banda group, the volcano first + appearing,—a perfect cone, having very much the outline of the + Egyptian pyramids, and looking almost as regular. In the evening the smoke + rested over its summit like a small stationary cloud. This was my first + view of an active volcano, but pictures and panoramas have so impressed + such things on one's mind, that when we at length behold them they seem + nothing extraordinary. + </p> + <p> + Dec. 30th.—Passed the island of Teor, and a group near it, which are + very incorrectly marked on the charts. Flying-fish were numerous to-day. + It is a smaller species than that of the Atlantic, and more active and + elegant in its motions. As they skim along the surface they turn on their + sides, so as fully to display their beautiful fins, taking a flight of + about a hundred yards, rising and falling in a most graceful manner. At a + little distance they exactly resemble swallows, and no one who sees them + can doubt that they really do fly, not merely descend in an oblique + direction from the height they gain by their first spring. In the evening + an aquatic bird, a species of booby (Sula fiber.) rested on our hen-coop, + and was caught by the neck by one of my boys. + </p> + <p> + Dec. 31st—At daybreak the Ke Islands (pronounced Kay) were in sight, + where we are to stay a few days. About noon we rounded the northern point, + and endeavoured to coast along to the anchorage; but being now on the + leeward side of the island, the wind came in violent irregular gusts, and + then leaving us altogether, we were carried back by a strong current. Just + then two boats-load of natives appeared, and our owner having agreed with + them to tow us into harbour, they tried to do so, assisted by our own + boat, but could make no way. We were therefore obliged to anchor in a very + dangerous place on a rocky bottom, and we were engaged till nearly dark + getting hawsers secured to some rocks under water. The coast of Ke along + which we had passed was very picturesque. Light coloured limestone rocks + rose abruptly from the water to the height of several hundred feet, + everywhere broken into jutting peaks and pinnacles, weather-worn into + sharp points and honeycombed surfaces, and clothed throughout with a most + varied and luxuriant vegetation. The cliffs above the sea offered to our + view screw-pines and arborescent Liliaceae of strange forms, mingled with + shrubs and creepers; while the higher slopes supported a dense growth of + forest trees. Here and there little bays and inlets presented beaches of + dazzling whiteness. The water was transparent as crystal, and tinged the + rock-strewn slope which plunged steeply into its unfathomable depths with + colours varying from emerald to lapis-lazuli. The sea was calm as a lake, + and the glorious sun of the tropics threw a flood of golden light over + all. The scene was to me inexpressibly delightful. I was in a new world, + and could dream of the wonderful productions hid in those rocky forests, + and in those azure abysses. But few European feet had ever trodden the + shores I gazed upon its plants, and animals, and men were alike almost + unknown, and I could not help speculating on what my wanderings there for + a few days might bring to light. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIX. THE KE ISLANDS. + </h2> + <h3> + (JANUARY 1857) + </h3> + <p> + THE native boats that had come to meet us were three or four in number, + containing in all about fifty men. + </p> + <p> + They were long canoes, with the bow and stern rising up into a beak six or + night feet high, decorated with shells and waving plumes of cassowaries + hair. I now had my first view of Papuans in their own country, and in less + than five minutes was convinced that the opinion already arrived at by the + examination of a few Timor and New Guinea slaves was substantially + correct, and that the people I now had an opportunity of comparing side by + side belonged to two of the most distinct and strongly marked races that + the earth contains. Had I been blind, I could have been certain that these + islanders were not Malays. The loud, rapid, eager tones, the incessant + motion, the intense vital activity manifested in speech and action, are + the very antipodes of the quiet, unimpulsive, unanimated Malay These Ke + men came up singing and shouting, dipping their paddles deep in the water + and throwing up clouds of spray; as they approached nearer they stood up + in their canoes and increased their noise and gesticulations; and on + coming alongside, without asking leave, and without a moment's hesitation, + the greater part of them scrambled up on our deck just as if they were + come to take possession of a captured vessel. Then commenced a scene of + indescribable confusion. These forty black, naked, mop-headed savages + seemed intoxicated with joy and excitement. Not one of them could remain + still for a moment. Every individual of our crew was in turn surrounded + and examined, asked for tobacco or arrack, grinned at and deserted for + another. All talked at once, and our captain was regularly mobbed by the + chief men, who wanted to be employed to tow us in, and who begged + vociferously to be paid in advance. A few presents of tobacco made their + eyes glisten; they would express their satisfaction by grins and shouts, + by rolling on deck, or by a headlong leap overboard. Schoolboys on an + unexpected holiday, Irishmen at a fair, or mid-shipmen on shore, would + give but a faint idea of the exuberant animal enjoyment of these people. + </p> + <p> + Under similar circumstances Malays could not behave as these Papuans did. + If they came on board a vessel (after asking permission), not a word would + be at first spoken, except a few compliments, and only after some time, + and very cautiously, world any approach be made to business. One would + speak at a time, with a low voice and great deliberation, and the mode of + making a bargain would be by quietly refusing all your offers, or even + going away without saying another word about the matter, unless advanced + your price to what they were willing to accept. Our crew, many of whom had + not made the voyage before, seemed quite scandalized at such unprecedented + bad manners, and only very gradually made any approach to fraternization + with the black fellows. They reminded me of a party of demure and + well-behaved children suddenly broken in upon by a lot of wild romping, + riotous boys, whose conduct seems most extraordinary and very naughty. + These moral features are more striking and more conclusive of absolute + diversity than oven the physical contrast presented by the two races, + though that is sufficiently remarkable. The sooty blackness of the skin, + the mop-like head of frizzly hair, and, most important of all, the marked + form of countenance of quite a different type from that of the Malay, are + what we cannot believe to result from mere climatal or other modifying + influences on one and the same race. The Malay face is of the Mongolian + type, broad and somewhat flat. The brows are depressed, the mouth wide, + but not projecting, and the nose small and well formed but for the great + dilatation of the nostrils. The face is smooth, and rarely develops the + trace of a beard; the hair black, coarse, and perfectly straight. The + Papuan, on the other hand, has a face which we may say is compressed and + projecting. The brows are protuberant and overhanging, the mouth large and + prominent, while the nose is very large, the apex elongated downwards, the + ridge thick, and the nostrils large. It is an obtrusive and remarkable + feature in the countenance, the very reverse of what obtains in the Malay + face. The twisted beard and frizzly hair complete this remarkable + contrast. Hero then I had reached a new world, inhabited by a strange + people. Between the Malayan tribes, among whom I had for some years been + living, and the Papuan races, whose country I had now entered, we may + fairly say that there is as much difference, both moral and physical, as + between the red Indians of South America and the negroes of Guinea on the + opposite side of the Atlantic. + </p> + <p> + Jan. 1st, 1857.-This has been a day of thorough enjoyment. I have wandered + in the forests of an island rarely seen by Europeans. Before daybreak we + left our anchorage, and in an hour reached the village of Har, where we + were to stay three or four days. The range of hills here receded so as to + form a small bay, and they were broken up into peaks and hummocks with + intervening flats and hollows. A broad beach of the whitest sand lined the + inner part of the bay, backed by a mass of cocoa-nut palms, among which + the huts were concealed, and surmounted by a dense and varied growth of + timber. Canoes and boats of various sizes were drawn up on the beach and + one or two idlers, with a few children and a dog, gazed at our prau as we + came to an anchor. + </p> + <p> + When we went on shore the first thing that attracted us was a large and + well-constructed shed, under which a long boat was being built, while + others in various stages of completion were placed at intervals along the + beach. Our captain, who wanted two of moderate size for the trade among + the islands at Aru, immediately began bargaining for them, and in a short + tine had arranged the nuns number of brass guns, gongs, sarongs, + handkerchiefs, axes, white plates, tobacco, and arrack, which he was to + give for a hair which could be got ready in four days. We then went to the + village, which consisted only of three or four huts, situated immediately + above the beach on an irregular rocky piece of ground overshadowed with + cocoa-nuts, palms, bananas, and other fruit trees. The houses were very + rude, black, and half rotten, raised a few feet on posts with low sides of + bamboo or planks, and high thatched roofs. They had small doors and no + windows, an opening under the projecting gables letting the smoke out and + a little light in. The floors were of strips of bamboo, thin, slippery, + and elastic, and so weak that my feet were in danger of plunging through + at every step. Native boxes of pandanus-leaves and slabs of palm pith, + very neatly constructed, mats of the same, jars and cooking pots of native + pottery, and a few European plates and basins, were the whole furniture, + and the interior was throughout dark and smoke-blackened, and dismal in + the extreme. + </p> + <p> + Accompanied by Ali and Baderoon, I now attempted to make some + explorations, and we were followed by a train of boys eager to see what we + were going to do. The most trodden path from the beach led us into a shady + hollow, where the trees were of immense height and the undergrowth scanty. + From the summits of these trees came at intervals a deep booming sound, + which at first puzzled us, but which we soon found to proceed from some + large pigeons. My boys shot at them, and after one or two misses, brought + one down. It was a magnificent bird twenty inches long, of a bluish white + colour, with the back wings and tail intense metallic green, with golden, + blue, and violet reflexions, the feet coral red, and the eyes golden + yellow. It is a rare species, which I have named Carpophaga concinna, and + is found only in a few small islands, where, however, it abounds. It is + the same species which in the island of Banda is called the nutmeg-pigeon, + from its habit of devouring the fruits, the seed or nutmeg being thrown up + entire and uninjured. Though these pigeons have a narrow beak, yet their + jaws and throat are so extensible that they can swallow fruits of very + large size. I had before shot a species much smaller than this one, which + had a number of hard globular palm-fruits in its crop, each more than an + inch in diameter. + </p> + <p> + A little further the path divided into two, one leading along the beach, + and across mangrove and sago swamps the other rising to cultivated + grounds. We therefore returned, and taking a fresh departure from the + village, endeavoured to ascend the hills and penetrate into the interior. + The path, however, was a most trying one. Where there was earth, it was a + deposit of reddish clay overlying the rock, and was worn so smooth by the + attrition of naked feet that my shoes could obtain no hold on the sloping + surface. A little farther we came to the bare rock, and this was worse, + for it was so rugged and broken, and so honeycombed and weatherworn into + sharp points and angles, that my boys, who had gone barefooted all their + lives, could not stand it. Their feet began to bleed, and I saw that if I + did not want them completely lamed it would be wise to turn lack. My own + shoes, which were rather thin, were but a poor protection, and would soon + have been cut to pieces; yet our little naked guides tripped along with + the greatest ease and unconcern, and seemed much astonished at our + effeminacy in not being able to take a walk which to them was a perfectly + agreeable one. During the rest of our stay in the island we were obliged + to confine ourselves to the vicinity of the shore and the cultivated + grounds, and those more level portions of the forest where a little soil + had accumulated and the rock had been less exposed to atmospheric action. + </p> + <p> + The island of Ke (pronounced exactly as the letter K, but erroneously + spelt in our maps Key or Ki) is long and narrow, running in a north and + south direction, and consists almost entirely of rock and mountain. It is + everywhere covered with luxuriant forests, and in its bays and inlets the + sand is of dazzling whiteness, resulting from the decomposition of the + coralline limestone of which it is entirely composed. In all the little + swampy inlets and valleys sago trees abound, and these supply the main + subsistence of the natives, who grow no rice, and have scarcely any other + cultivated products but cocoa-nuts, plantains, and yams. From the + cocoa-nuts, which surround every hut, and which thrive exceedingly on the + porous limestone soil and under the influence of salt breezes, oil is made + which is sold at a good price to the Aru traders, who all touch here to + lay in their stuck of this article, as well as to purchase boats and + native crockery. Wooden bowls, pans, and trays are also largely made here, + hewn out of solid blocks of wood with knife and adze; and these are + carried to all parts of the Moluccas. But the art in which the natives of + Ke pre-eminently excel is that of boat building. Their forests supply + abundance of fine timber, though, probably not more so than many other + islands, and from some unknown causes these remote savages have come to + excel in what seems a very difficult art. Their small canoes are + beautifully formed, broad and low in the centre, but rising at each end, + where they terminate in high-pointed beaks more or less carved, and + ornamented with a plume of feathers. They are not hollowed out of a tree, + but are regularly built of planks running from ego to end, and so + accurately fitted that it is often difficult to find a place where a + knife-blade can be inserted between the joints. The larger ones are from + 20 to 30 tons burthen, and are finished ready for sea without a nail or + particle of iron being used, and with no other tools than axe, adze, and + auger. These vessels are handsome to look at, good sailers, and admirable + sea-boats, and will make long voyages with perfect safety, traversing the + whole Archipelago from New Guinea to Singapore in seas which, as every one + who has sailed much in them can testify, are not so smooth and + tempest-free as word-painting travellers love to represent them. + </p> + <p> + The forests of Ke produce magnificent timber, tall, straight, and durable, + of various qualities, some of which are said to be superior to the best + Indian teak. To make each pair of planks used in the construction of the + larger boats an entire tree is consumed. It is felled, often miles away + from the shore, cut across to the proper length, and then hewn + longitudinally into two equal portions. Each of these forms a plank by + cutting down with the axe to a uniform thickness of three or four inches, + leaving at first a solid block at each end to prevent splitting. Along the + centre of each plank a series of projecting pieces are left, standing up + three or four inches, about the same width, and a foot long; these are of + great importance in the construction of the vessel. When a sufficient + number of planks have been made, they are laboriously dragged through the + forest by three or four men each to the beach, where the boat is to be + built. A foundation piece, broad in the middle and rising considerably at + each end, is first laid on blocks and properly shored up. The edges of + this are worked true and smooth with the adze, and a plank, properly + curved and tapering at each end, is held firmly up against it, while a + line is struck along it which allows it to be cut so as to fit exactly. A + series of auger holes, about as large as one's finger, are then bored + along the opposite edges, and pins of very hard wood are fitted to these, + so that the two planks are held firmly, and can be driven into the closest + contact; and difficult as this seems to do without any other aid than rude + practical skill in forming each edge to the true corresponding curves, and + in poring the holes so as exactly to match both in position and direction, + yet so well is it done that the best European shipwright cannot produce + sounder or closer-fitting joints. The boat is built up in this way by + fitting plank to plank till the proper height and width are obtained. We + have now a skin held together entirely by the hardwood pins connecting the + edges of the planks, very strong and elastic, but having nothing but the + adhesion of these pins to prevent the planks gaping. In the smaller boats + seats, in the larger ones cross-beams, are now fixed. They are sprung into + slight notches cut to receive them, and are further secured to the + projecting pieces of the plank below by a strong lashing of rattan. Ribs + are now formed of single pieces of tough wood chosen and trimmed so as + exactly to fit on to the projections from each plank, being slightly + notched to receive them, and securely bound to them by rattans passed + through a hole in each projecting piece close to the surface of the plank. + The ends are closed against the vertical prow and stern posts, and further + secured with pegs and rattans, and then the boat is complete; and when + fitted with rudders, masts, and thatched covering, is ready to do battle + with, the waves. A careful consideration of the principle of this mode of + construction, and allowing for the strength and binding qualities of + rattan (which resembles in these respects wire rather than cordage), makes + me believe that a vessel carefully built in this manner is actually + stronger and safer than one fastened in the ordinary way with nails. + </p> + <p> + During our stay here we were all very busy. Our captain was daily + superintending the completion of his two small praus. All day long native + boats were coming with fish, cocoa-nuts, parrots and lories, earthen pans, + sirip leaf, wooden bowls, and trays, &c. &e., which every one of + the fifty inhabitants of our prau seemed to be buying on his own account, + till all available and most unavailable space of our vessel was occupied + with these miscellaneous articles: for every man on board a prau considers + himself at liberty to trade, and to carry with him whatever he can afford + to buy. + </p> + <p> + Money is unknown and valueless here—knives, cloth, and arrack + forming the only medium of exchange, with tobacco for small coin. Every + transaction is the subject of a special bargain, and the cause of much + talking. It is absolutely necessary to offer very little, as the natives + are never satisfied till you add a little more. They are then far better + pleased than if you had given them twice the amount at first and refused + to increase it. + </p> + <p> + I, too, was doing a little business, having persuaded some of the natives + to collect insects for me; and when they really found that I gave them + most fragrant tobacco for worthless black and green beetles, I soon had + scores of visitors, men, women, and children, bringing bamboos full of + creeping things, which, alas! too frequently had eaten each other into + fragments during the tedium of a day's confinement. Of one grand new + beetle, glittering with ruby and emerald tints, I got a large quantity, + having first detected one of its wing-cases ornamenting the outside of a + native's tobacco pouch. It was quite a new species, and had not been found + elsewhere than on this little island. It is one of the Buprestidae, and + has been named Cyphogastra calepyga. + </p> + <p> + Each morning after an early breakfast I wandered by myself into the + forest, where I found delightful occupation in capturing the large and + handsome butterflies, which were tolerably abundant, and most of them new + to me; for I was now upon the confines of the Moluccas and New Guinea,—a + region the productions of which were then among the most precious and rare + in the cabinets of Europe. Here my eyes were feasted for the first time + with splendid scarlet lories on the wing, as well as by the sight of that + most imperial butterfly, the "Priamus" of collectors, or a closely allied + species, but flying so high that I did not succeed in capturing a + specimen. One of them was brought me in a bamboo, bored up with a lot of + beetles, and of course torn to pieces. The principal drawback of the place + for a collector is the want of good paths, and the dreadfully rugged + character of the surface, requiring the attention to be so continually + directed to securing a footing, as to make it very difficult to capture + active winged things, who pass out of reach while one is glancing to see + that the next step may not plunge one into a chasm or over a precipice. + Another inconvenience is that there are no running streams, the rock being + of so porous a nature that the surface-water everywhere penetrates its + fissures; at least such is the character of the neighbourhood we visited, + the only water being small springs trickling out close to the sea-beach. + </p> + <p> + In the forests of Ke, arboreal Liliaceae and Pandanaceae abound, and give + a character to the vegetation in the more exposed rocky places. Flowers + were scarce, and there were not many orchids, but I noticed the fine white + butterfly-orchis, Phalaenopsis grandiflora, or a species closely allied to + it. The freshness and vigour of the vegetation was very pleasing, and on + such an arid rocky surface was a sure indication of a perpetually humid + climate. Tall clean trunks, many of them buttressed, and immense trees of + the fig family, with aerial roots stretching out and interlacing and + matted together for fifty or a hundred feet above the ground, were the + characteristic features; and there was an absence of thorny shrubs and + prickly rattans, which would have made these wilds very pleasant to roam + in, had it not been for the sharp honeycombed rocks already alluded to. In + damp places a fine undergrowth of broadleaved herbaceous plants was found, + about which swarmed little green lizards, with tails of the most "heavenly + blue," twisting in and out among the stalks and foliage so actively that I + often caught glimpses of their tails only, when they startled me by their + resemblance to small snakes. Almost the only sounds in these primeval + woods proceeded from two birds, the red lories, who utter shrill screams + like most of the parrot tribe, and the large green nutmeg-pigeon, whose + voice is either a loud and deep boom, like two notes struck upon a very + large gong, or sometimes a harsh toad-like croak, altogether peculiar and + remarkable. Only two quadrupeds are said by the natives to inhabit the + island—a wild pig and a Cuscus, or Eastern opossum, of neither of + which could I obtain specimens. + </p> + <p> + The insects were more abundant, and very interesting. Of butterflies I + caught thirty-five species, most of them new to me, and many quite unknown + in European collections. Among them was the fine yellow and black Papilio + euchenor, of which but few specimens had been previously captured, and + several other handsome butterflies of large size, as well as some + beautiful little "blues," and some brilliant dayflying moths. The beetle + tribe were less abundant, yet I obtained some very fine and rare species. + On the leaves of a slender shrub in an old clearing I found several fine + blue and black beetles of the genus Eupholus, which almost rival in beauty + the diamond beetles of South America. Some cocoa-nut palms in blossom on + the beach were frequented by a fine green floral beetle (Lomaptera) which, + when the flowers were shaken, flew off like a small swarm of bees. I got + one of our crew to climb up the tree, and he brought me a good number in + his hand; and seeing they were valuable, I sent him up again with my net + to shake the flowers into, and thus secured a large quantity. My best + capture, however, was the superb insect of the Buprestis family, already + mentioned as having been obtained from the natives, who told me they found + it in rotten trees in the mountains. + </p> + <p> + In the forest itself the only common and conspicuous coleoptera were two + tiger beetles. One, Therates labiata, was much larger than our green tiger + beetle, of a purple black colour, with green metallic glosses, and the + broad upper lip of a bright yellow. It was always found upon foliage, + generally of broad-leaned herbaceous plants, and in damp and gloomy + situations, taking frequent short flights from leaf to leaf, and + preserving an alert attitude, as if always looking out for its prey. Its + vicinity could be immediately ascertained, often before it was seen, by a + very pleasant odour, like otto of roses, which it seems to emit + continually, and which may probably be attractive to the small insects on + which it feeds. The other, Tricondyla aptera, is one of the most curious + forms in the family of the Cicindelidae, and is almost exclusively + confined to the Malay islands. In shape it resembles a very large ant, + more than an inch long, and of a purple black colour. Like an ant also it + is wingless, and is generally found ascending trees, passing around the + trunks in a spiral direction when approached, to avoid capture, so that it + requires a sudden run and active fingers to secure a specimen. This + species emits the usual fetid odour of the ground beetles. My collections + during our four days' stay at Ke were as follow:—Birds, 13 species; + insects, 194 species; and 3 kinds of land-shells. + </p> + <p> + There are two kinds of people inhabiting these islands—the + indigenes, who have the Papuan characters strongly marked, and who are + pagans; and a mixed race, who are nominally Mahometans, and wear cotton + clothing, while the former use only a waist cloth of cotton or bark. These + Mahometans are said to have been driven out of Banda by the early European + settlers. They were probably a brown race, more allied to the Malays, and + their mixed descendants here exhibit great variations of colour, hair, and + features, graduating between the Malay and Papuan types. It is interesting + to observe the influence of the early Portuguese trade with these + countries in the words of their language, which still remain in use even + among these remote and savage islanders. "Lenco" for handkerchief, and + "faca" for knife, are here used to the exclusion of the proper Malay + terms. The Portuguese and Spaniards were truly wonderful conquerors and + colonizers. They effected more rapid changes in the countries they + conquered than any other nations of modern times, resembling the Romans in + their power of impressing their own language, religion, and manners on + rode and barbarous tribes. + </p> + <p> + The striking contrast of character between these people and the Malays is + exemplified in many little traits. One day when I was rambling in the + forest, an old man stopped to look at me catching an insect. He stood very + quiet till I had pinned and put it away in my collecting box, when he + could contain himself no longer, but bent almost double, and enjoyed a + hearty roar of laughter. Every one will recognise this as a true negro + trait. A Malay would have stared, and asked with a tone of bewilderment + what I was doing, for it is but little in his nature to laugh, never + heartily, and still less at or in the presence of a stranger, to whom, + however, his disdainful glances or whispered remarks are less agreeable + than the most boisterous open expression of merriment. The women here were + not so much frightened at strangers, or made to keep themselves so much + secluded as among the Malay races; the children were more merry and had + the "nigger grin," while the noisy confusion of tongues among the men, and + their excitement on very ordinary occasions, are altogether removed from + the general taciturnity and reserve of the Malay. + </p> + <p> + The language of the Ke people consists of words of one, two, or three + syllables in about equal proportions, and has many aspirated and a few + guttural sounds. The different villages have slight differences of + dialect, but they are mutually intelligible, and, except in words that + have evidently been introduced during a long-continued commercial + intercourse, seem to have no affinity whatever with the Malay languages. + </p> + <p> + Jan. 6th.-The small boats being finished, we sailed for Aru at 4 P.M., and + as we left the shores of Ke had a line view of its rugged and mountainous + character; ranges of hills, three or four thousand feet high, stretching + southwards as far as the eye could reach, everywhere covered with a lofty, + dense, and unbroken forest. We had very light winds, and it therefore took + us thirty hours to make the passage of sixty miles to the low, or flat, + but equally forest-covered Aru Islands, where we anchored in the harbour + of Dobbo at nine in the evening of the next day. + </p> + <p> + My first voyage in a prau being thus satisfactorily terminated, I must, + before taking leave of it for some months, bear testimony to the merits of + the queer old-world vessel. Setting aside all ideas of danger, which is + probably, after all, not more than in any other craft, I must declare that + I have never, either before or since, made a twenty days' voyage so + pleasantly, or perhaps, more correctly speaking, with so little + discomfort. This I attribute chiefly to having my small cabin on deck, and + entirely to myself, to having my own servants to wait upon me, and to the + absence of all those marine-store smells of paint, pitch, tallow, and new + cordage, which are to me insupportable. Something is also to be put down + to freedom from all restraint of dress, hours of meals, &c., and to + the civility and obliging disposition of the captain. I had agreed to have + my meals with him, but whenever I wished it I had them in my own berth, + and at what hours I felt inclined. The crew were all civil and + good-tempered, and with very little discipline everything went on + smoothly, and the vessel was kept very clean and in pretty good order, so + that on the whole I was much delighted with the trip, and was inclined to + rate the luxuries of the semi-barbarous prau as surpassing those of the + most magnificent screw-steamer, that highest result of our civilisation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXX. THE ARU ISLANDS—RESIDENCE IN DOBBO + </h2> + <h3> + (JANUARY TO MARCH 1857.) + </h3> + <p> + On the 8th of January, 1857, I landed at Dobbo, the trading settlement of + the Bugis and Chinese, who annually visit the Aru Islands. It is situated + on the small island of Wamma, upon a spit of sand which projects out to + the north, and is just wide enough to contain three rows of houses. Though + at first sight a most strange and desolate-looking place to build a + village on, it has many advantages. There is a clear entrance from the + west among the coral reefs that border the land, and there is good + anchorage for vessels, on one side of the village or the other, in both + the east and west monsoons. Being fully exposed to the sea-breezes in + three directions it is healthy, and the soft sandy heath offers great + facilities for hauling up the praus, in order to secure them from + sea-worms and prepare them for the homeward voyage. At its southern + extremity the sand-bank merges in the beach of the island, and is backed + by a luxuriant growth of lofty forest. The houses are of various sizes, + but are all built after one pattern, being merely large thatched sheds, a + small portion of which, next the entrance, is used as a dwelling, while + the rest is parted oft; and often divided by one or two floors, in order + better to stow away merchandise and native produce. + </p> + <p> + As we had arrived early in the season, most of the houses were empty, and + the place looked desolate in the extreme—the whole of the + inhabitants who received us on our landing amounting to about half-a-dozen + Bugis and Chinese. Our captain, Herr Warzbergen, had promised to obtain a + house for me, but unforeseen difficulties presented themselves. One which + was to let had no roof; and the owner, who was building it on speculation, + could not promise to finish it in less than a month. Another, of which the + owner was dead, and which I might therefore take undisputed possession of + as the first comer, wanted considerable repairs, and no one could be found + to do the work, although about four times its value was offered. The + captain, therefore, recommended me to take possession of a pretty good + house near his own, whose owner was not expected for some weeks; and as I + was anxious to be on shore, I immediately had it cleared out, and by + evening had all my things housed, and was regularly installed as an + inhabitant of Dobbo. I had brought with me a cane chair, and a few light + boards, which were soon rigged up into a table and shelves. A broad bamboo + bench served as sofa and bedstead, my boxes were conveniently arranged, my + mats spread on the floor, a window cut in the palm-leaf wall to light my + table, and though the place was as miserable and gloomy a shed as could be + imagined, I felt as contented as if I had obtained a well-furnished + mansion, and looked forward to a month's residence in it with unmixed + satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + The next morning, after an early breakfast, I set off to explore the + virgin forests of Aru, anxious to set my mind at rest as to the treasures + they were likely to yield, and the probable success of my long-meditated + expedition. A little native imp was our guide, seduced by the gift of a + German knife, value three-halfpence, and my Macassar boy Baderoon brought + his chopper to clear the path if necessary. + </p> + <p> + We had to walk about half a mile along the beach, the ground behind the + village being mostly swampy, and then turned into the forest along a path + which leads to the native village of Wamma, about three miles off on the + other side of the island. The path was a narrow one, and very little used, + often swampy and obstructed by fallen trees, so that after about a mile we + lost it altogether, our guide having turned back, and we were obliged to + follow his example. In the meantime, however, I had not been idle, and my + day's captures determined the success of my journey in an entomological + point of view. I had taken about thirty species of butterflies, more than + I had ever captured in a day since leaving the prolific banks of the + Amazon, and among them were many most rare and beautiful insects, hitherto + only known by a few specimens from New Guinea. The large and handsome + spectre butterfly, Hestia durvillei; the pale-winged peacock butterfly, + Drusilla catops; and the most brilliant and wonderful of the clear-winged + moths, Cocytia durvillei, were especially interesting, as well, as several + little "blues," equalling in brilliancy and beauty anything the butterfly + world can produce. In the other groups of insects I was not so successful, + but this was not to be wondered at in a mere exploring ramble, when only + what is most conspicuous and novel attracts the attention. Several pretty + beetles, a superb "bug," and a few nice land-shells were obtained, and I + returned in the afternoon well satisfied with my first trial of the + promised land. + </p> + <p> + The next two days were so wet and windy that there was no going out; but + on the succeeding one the sun shone brightly, and I had the good fortune + to capture one of the most magnificent insects the world contains, the + great bird-winged butterfly, Ornithoptera Poseidon. I trembled with + excitement as I saw it coming majestically towards me, and could hardly + believe I had really succeeded in my stroke till I had taken it out of the + net and was gazing, lost in admiration, at the velvet black and brilliant + green of its wings, seven inches across, its bolder body, and crimson + breast. It is true I had seen similar insects in cabinets at home, but it + is quite another thing to capture such oneself-to feel it struggling + between one's fingers, and to gaze upon its fresh and living beauty, a + bright gem shirring out amid the silent gloom of a dark and tangled + forest. The village of Dobbo held that evening at least one contented man. + </p> + <p> + Jan. 26th.—Having now been here a fortnight, I began to understand a + little of the place and its peculiarities. Praus continually arrived, and + the merchant population increased almost daily. Every two or three days a + fresh house was opened, and the necessary repairs made. In every direction + men were bringing in poles, bamboos, rattans, and the leaves of the nipa + palm to construct or repair the walls, thatch, doors, and shutters of + their houses, which they do with great celerity. Some of the arrivals were + Macassar men or Bugis, but more from the small island of Goram, at the + east end of Ceram, whose inhabitants are the petty traders of the far + East. Then the natives of Aru come in from the other side of the islands + (called here "blakang tana," or "back of the country") with the produce + they have collected during the preceding six months, and which they now + sell to the traders, to some of whom they are most likely in debt. + </p> + <p> + Almost all, or I may safely say all, the new arrivals pay me a visit, to + see with their own eyes the unheard-of phenomenon of a person come to stay + at Dobbo who does not trade! They have their own ideas of the uses that + may possibly be made of stuffed birds, beetles, and shells which are not + the right shells—that is, "mother-of-pearl." They every day bring me + dead and broken shells, such as I can pick up by hundreds on the beach, + and seem quite puzzled and distressed when I decline them. If, however, + there are any snail shells among a lot, I take them, and ask for more—a + principle of selection so utterly unintelligible to them, that they give + it up in despair, or solve the problem by imputing hidden medical virtue + to those which they see me preserve so carefully. + </p> + <p> + These traders are all of the Malay race, or a mixture of which Malay is + the chef ingredient, with the exception of a few Chinese. The natives of + Aru, on the other hand, are, Papuans, with black or sooty brown skims, + woolly or frizzly hair, thick-ridged prominent noses, and rather slender + limbs. Most of them wear nothing but a waist-cloth, and a few of them may + be seen all day long wandering about the half-deserted streets of Dobbo + offering their little bit of merchandise for sale. + </p> + <p> + Living in a trader's house everything is brought to me as well as to the + rest,—bundles of smoked tripang, or "beche de mer," looking like + sausages which have been rolled in mud and then thrown up the chimney; + dried sharks' fins, mother-of-pearl shells, as well as birds of Paradise, + which, however, are so dirty and so badly preserved that I have as yet + found no specimens worth purchasing. When I hardly look at the articles, + and make no offer for them, they seem incredulous, and, as if fearing they + have misunderstood me, again offer them, and declare what they want in + return—knives, or tobacco, or sago, or handkerchiefs. I then have to + endeavour to explain, through any interpreter who may be at hand, that + neither tripang nor pearl oyster shells have any charms for me, and that I + even decline to speculate in tortoiseshell, but that anything eatable I + will buy—fish, or turtle, or vegetables of any sort. Almost the only + food, however, that we can obtain with any regularity, are fish and + cockles of very good quality, and to supply our daily wants it is + absolutely necessary to be always provided with four articles—tobacco, + knives, sago-cakes, and Dutch copper doits—because when the + particular thing asked for is not forthcoming, the fish pass on to the + next house, and we may go that day without a dinner. It is curious to see + the baskets and buckets used here. The cockles are brought in large volute + shells, probably the Cymbium ducale, while gigantic helmet-shells, a + species of Cassis, suspended by a rattan handle, form the vessels in which + fresh water is daily carried past my door. It is painful to a naturalist + to see these splendid shells with their inner whorls ruthlessly broken + away to fit them for their ignoble use. + </p> + <p> + My collections, however, got on but slowly, owing to the unexpectedly bad + weather, violent winds with heavy showers having been so continuous as + only to give me four good collecting days out of the first sixteen I spent + here. Yet enough had been collected to show me that with time and fine + weather I might expect to do something good. From the natives I obtained + some very fine insects and a few pretty land-shells; and of the small + number of birds yet shot more than half were known New Guinea species, and + therefore certainly rare in European collections, while the remainder were + probably new. In one respect my hopes seemed doomed to be disappointed. I + had anticipated the pleasure of myself preparing fine specimens of the + Birds of Paradise, but I now learnt that they are all at this season out + of plumage, and that it is in September and October that they have the + long plumes of yellow silky feathers in full perfection. As all the praus + return in July, I should not be able to spend that season in Aru without + remaining another whole year, which was out of the question. I was + informed, however, that the small red species, the "King Bird of + Paradise," retains its plumage at all seasons, and this I might therefore + hope to get. + </p> + <p> + As I became familiar with the forest scenery of the island, I perceived it + to possess some characteristic features that distinguished it from that of + Borneo and Malacca, while, what is very singular and interesting, it + recalled to my mind the half-forgotten impressions of the forests of + Equatorial America. For example, the palms were much more abundant than I + had generally found them in the East, more generally mingled with the + other vegetation, more varied in form and aspect, and presenting some of + those lofty and majestic smooth-stemmed, pinnate-leaved species which + recall the Uauassu (Attalea speciosa) of the Amazon, but which I had + hitherto rarely met with in the Malayan islands. + </p> + <p> + In animal life the immense number and variety of spiders and of lizards + were circumstances that recalled the prolific regions of south America, + more especially the abundance and varied colours of the little jumping + spiders which abound on flowers and foliage, and are often perfect gems of + beauty. The web-spinning species were also more numerous than I had ever + seen them, and were a great annoyance, stretching their nets across the + footpaths just about the height of my face; and the threads composing + these are so strong and glutinous as to require much trouble to free + oneself from them. Then their inhabitants, great yellow-spotted monsters + with bodies two inches long, and legs in proportion, are not pleasant to o + run one's nose against while pursuing some gorgeous butterfly, or gazing + aloft in search of some strange-voiced bird. I soon found it necessary not + only to brush away the web, but also to destroy the spinner; for at first, + having cleared the path one day, I found the next morning that the + industrious insects had spread their nets again in the very same places. + </p> + <p> + The lizards were equally striking by their numbers, variety, and the + situations in which they were found. The beautiful blue-tailed species so + abundant in Ke was not seen here. The Aru lizards are more varied but more + sombre in their colours—shades of green, grey, brown, and even + black, being very frequently seen. Every shrub and herbaceous plant was + alive with them, every rotten trunk or dead branch served as a station for + some of these active little insect-hunters, who, I fear, to satisfy their + gross appetites, destroy many gems of the insect world, which would feast + the eyes and delight the heart of our more discriminating entomologists. + Another curious feature of the jungle here was the multitude of sea-shells + everywhere met with on the ground and high up on the branches and foliage, + all inhabited by hermit-crabs, who forsake the beach to wander in the + forest. I lave actually seen a spider carrying away a good-sized shell and + devouring its (probably juvenile) tenant. On the beach, which I had to + walls along every morning to reach the forest, these creatures swarmed by + thousands. Every dead shell, from the largest to the most minute, was + appropriated by them. They formed small social parties of ten or twenty + around bits of stick or seaweed, but dispersed hurriedly at the sound of + approaching footsteps. After a windy night, that nasty-looking Chinese + delicacy the sea-slug was sometimes thrown up on the beach, which was at + such times thickly strewn with some of the most beautiful shells that + adorn our cabinets, along with fragments and masses of coral and strange + sponges, of which I picked up more than twenty different sorts. In many + cases sponge and coral are so much alike that it is only on touching them + that they can be distinguished. Quantities of seaweed, too, are thrown up; + but strange as it may seem, these are far less beautiful and less varied + than may be found on any favourable part of our own coasts. + </p> + <p> + The natives here, even those who seem to be of pare Papuan race, were much + more reserved and taciturn than those of Ke. This is probably because I + only saw them as yet among strangers and in small parties, One must see + the savage at home to know what he really is. Even here, however, the + Papuan character sometimes breaks out. Little boys sing cheerfully as they + walk along, or talk aloud to themselves (quite a negro characteristic); + and try all they can, the men cannot conceal their emotions in the true + Malay fashion. A number of them were one day in my house, and having a + fancy to try what sort of eating tripang would be, I bought a couple, + paying for them with such an extravagant quantity of tobacco that the + seller saw I was a green customer. He could not, however, conceal his + delight, but as he smelt the fragrant weed, and exhibited the large + handful to his companions, he grinned and twisted and gave silent chuckles + in a most expressive pantomime. I had often before made the same mistake + in paying a Malay for some trifle. In no case, however, was his pleasure + visible on his countenance—a dull and stupid hesitation only showing + his surprise, which would be exhibited exactly in the same way whether he + was over or under paid. These little moral traits are of the greatest + interest when taken in connexion with physical features. They do not admit + of the same ready explanation by external causes which is so frequently + applied to the latter. Writers on the races of mankind have too often to + trust to the information of travellers who pass rapidly from country to + country, and thus have few opportunities of becoming acquainted with + peculiarities of national character, or even of ascertaining what is + really the average physical conformation of the people. Such are + exceedingly apt to be deceived in places where two races have long, + intermingled, by looking on intermediate forms and mixed habits as + evidences of a natural transition from one race to the other, instead of + an artificial mixture of two distinct peoples; and they will be the more + readily led into this error if, as in the present case, writers on the + subject should have been in the habit of classing these races as mere + varieties of one stock, as closely related in physical conformation as + from their geographical proximity one might suppose they ought to be. So + far as I have yet seen, the Malay and Papuan appear to be as widely + separated as any two human races that exist, being distinguished by + physical, mental, and moral characteristics, all of the most marked and + striking kind. + </p> + <p> + Feb 5th.—I took advantage of a very fine calm day to pay a visit to + the island of Wokan, which is about a mile from us, and forms part of the + "canna busar," or mainland of Aru. This is a large island, extending from + north to south about a hundred miles, but so low in many parts as to be + intersected by several creeks, which run completely through it, offering a + passage for good-sized vessels. On the west side, where we are, there are + only a few outlying islands, of which ours (Wamma) is the principal; but + on the east coast are a great number of islands, extending some miles + beyond the mainland, and forming the "blakang tang," or "back country," of + the traders, being the principal seat of the pearl, tripang, and + tortoiseshell fisheries. To the mainland many of the birds and animals of + the country are altogether confined; the Birds of paradise, the black + cockatoo, the great brush-turkey, and the cassowary, are none of them + found on Wamma or any of the detached islands. I did not, however, expect + in this excursion to see any decided difference in the forest or its + productions, and was therefore agreeably surprised. The beach was overhung + with the drooping branches of lame trees, loaded with Orchideae, ferns, + and other epiphytal plants. In the forest there was more variety, some + parts being dry, and with trees of a lower growth, while in others there + were some of the most beautiful palms I have ever seen, with a perfectly + straight, smooth, slender stem, a hundred feet high, and a crown of + handsome drooping leaves. But the greatest novelty and most striking + feature to my eyes were the tree-ferns, which, after seven years spent in + the tropics, I now saw in perfection for the first time. All I had + hitherto met with were slender species, not more than twelve feet high, + and they gave not the least idea of the supreme beauty of trees bearing + their elegant heads of fronds more than thirty feet in the air, like those + which were plentifully scattered about this forest. There is nothing in + tropical vegetation so perfectly beautiful. + </p> + <p> + My boys shot five sorts of birds, none of which we had obtained during a + month's shooting in Wamma. Two were very pretty flycatchers, already known + from New Guinea; one of them (Monarcha chrysomela), of brilliant black and + bright orange colours, is by some authors considered to be the most + beautiful of all flycatchers; the other is pure white and velvety black, + with a broad fleshy ring round the eye of are azure blue colour; it is + named the "spectacled flycatcher" (Monarcha telescopthalma), and was first + found in New Guinea, along with the other, by the French naturalists + during the voyage of the discovery-ship Coquille. + </p> + <p> + Feb. 18th.—Before leaving Macassar, I had written to the Governor of + Amboyna requesting him to assist me with the native chiefs of Aru. I now + received by a vessel which had arrived from Amboyna a very polite answer + informing me that orders had been sent to give me every assistance that I + might require; and I was just congratulating myself on being at length + able to get a boat and men to go to the mainland and explore the interior, + when a sudden check came in the form of a piratical incursion. A small + prau arrived which had been attacked by pirates and had a man wounded. + They were said to have five boats, but more were expected to be behind and + the traders were all in consternation, fearing that their small vessels + sent trading to the "blakang tana" would be plundered. The Aru natives + were of course dreadfully alarmed, as these marauders attack their + villages, burn and murder, and carry away women and children for slaves. + Not a man will stir from his village for some time, and I must remain + still a prisoner in Dobbo. The Governor of Amboyna, out of pure kindness, + has told the chiefs that they are to be responsible for my safety, so that + they have au excellent excuse for refusing to stir. + </p> + <p> + Several praus went out in search of the pirates, sentinels were appointed, + and watch-fires lighted on the beach to guard against the possibility of a + night attack, though it was hardly thought they would be bold enough to + attempt to plunder Dobbo. The next day the praus returned, and we had + positive information that these scourges of the Eastern seas were really + among us. One of Herr Warzbergen's small praus also arrived in a sad + plight. It had been attacked six days before, just as it was returning, + from the "blakang tana." The crew escaped in their small boat and hid in + the jungle, while the pirates came up and plundered the vessel. They took + away everything but the cargo of mother-of-pearl shell, which was too + bulky for them. All the clothes and boxes of the men, and the sails and + cordage of the prau, were cleared off. They had four large war boats, and + fired a volley of musketry as they came up, and sent off their small boats + to the attack. After they had left, our men observed from their + concealment that three had stayed behind with a small boat; and being + driven to desperation by the sight of the plundering, one brave fellow + swam off armed only with his parang, or chopping-knife, and coming on them + unawares made a desperate attack, killing one and wounding the other two, + receiving himself numbers of slight wounds, and then swimming off again + when almost exhausted. Two other prams were also plundered, and the crew + of one of them murdered to a man. They are said to be Sooloo pirates, but + have Bugis among them. On their way here they have devastated one of the + small islands east of Ceram. It is now eleven years since they have + visited Aru, and by thus making their attacks at long and uncertain + intervals the alarm dies away, and they find a population for the most + part unarmed and unsuspicious of danger. None of the small trading vessels + now carry arms, though they did so for a year or two after the last + attack, which was just the time when there was the least occasion for it. + A week later one of the smaller pirate boats was captured in the "blakang + tana." Seven men were killed and three taken prisoners. The larger vessels + have been often seen but cannot be caught, as they have very strong crews, + and can always escape by rowing out to sea in the eye of the wind, + returning at night. They will thus remain among the innumerable islands + and channels, till the change of the monsoon enables them to sail + westward. + </p> + <p> + March 9th.-For four or five days we have had a continual gale of wind, + with occasional gusts of great fury, which seem as if they would send + Dobbo into the sea. Rain accompanies it almost every alternate hour, so + that it is not a pleasant time. During such weather I can do little, but + am busy getting ready a boat I have purchased, for an excursion into the + interior. There is immense difficulty about men, but I believe the + "Orang-kaya," or head man of Wamma, will accompany me to see that I don't + run into danger. + </p> + <p> + Having become quite an old inhabitant of Dobbo, I will endeavour to sketch + the sights and sounds that pervade it, and the manners and customs of its + inhabitants. The place is now pretty full, and the streets present a far + more cheerful aspect than when we first arrived. Every house is a store, + where the natives barter their produce for what they are most in need of. + Knives, choppers, swords, guns, tobacco, gambier, plates, basins, + handkerchiefs, sarongs, calicoes, and arrack, are the principal articles + wanted by the natives; but some of the stores contain also tea, coffee, + sugar, wine, biscuits, &c., for the supply of the traders; and others + are full of fancy goods, china ornaments, looking-glasses, razors, + umbrellas, pipes, and purses, which take the fancy of the wealthier + natives. Every fine day mats are spread before the doors and the tripang + is put out to dry, as well as sugar, salt, biscuit, tea, cloths, and other + things that get injured by an excessively moist atmosphere. In the morning + and evening, spruce Chinamen stroll about or chat at each other's doors, + in blue trousers, white jacket, and a queue into which red silk is plaited + till it reaches almost to their heels. An old Bugis hadji regularly takes + an evening stroll in all the dignity of flowing green silk robe and gay + turban, followed by two small boys carrying his sirih and betel boxes. + </p> + <p> + In every vacant space new houses are being built, and all sorts of odd + little cooking-sheds are erected against the old ones, while in some + out-of-the-way corners, massive log pigsties are tenanted by growing + porkers; for how can the Chinamen exist six months without one feast of + pig? + </p> + <p> + Here and there are stalls where bananas are sold, and every morning two + little boys go about with trays of sweet rice and crated cocoa-nut, fried + fish, or fried plantains; and whichever it may be, they have but one cry, + and that is "Chocolat-t—t!" This must be a Spanish or Portuguese + cry, handed down for centuries, while its meaning has been lost. The Bugis + sailors, while hoisting the main sail, cry out, "Vela a vela,—vela, + vela, vela!" repeated in an everlasting chorus. As "vela" is Portuguese a + sail, I supposed I had discovered the origin of this, but I found + afterwards they used the same cry when heaving anchor, and often chanted + it to "hela," which is so much an universal expression of exertion and + hard breathing that it is most probably a mere interjectional cry. + </p> + <p> + I daresay there are now near five hundred people in Dobbo of various + races, all met in this remote corner of the East, as they express it, "to + look for their fortune;" to get money any way they can. They are most of + them people who have the very worst reputation for honesty as well as every + other form of morality,—Chinese, Bugis, Ceramese, and half-caste + Javanese, with a sprinkling of half-wild Papuans from Timor, Babber, and + other islands, yet all goes on as yet very quietly. This motley, ignorant, + bloodthirsty, thievish population live here without the shadow of a + government, with no police, no courts, and no lawyers; yet they do not cut + each other's throats, do not plunder each other day and night, do not fall + into the anarchy such a state of things might be supposed to lead to. It + is very extraordinary! It puts strange thoughts into one's head about the + mountain-load of government under which people exist in Europe, and + suggests the idea that we may be over-governed. Think of the hundred Acts + of Parliament annually enacted to prevent us, the people of England, from + cutting each other's throats, or from doing to our neighbour as we would + not be done by. Think of the thousands of lawyers and barristers whose + whole lives are spent in telling us what the hundred Acts of Parliament + mean, and one would be led to infer that if Dobbo has too little law + England has too much. + </p> + <p> + Here we may behold in its simplest form the genius of Commerce at the work + of Civilization. Trade is the magic that keeps all at peace, and unites + these discordant elements into a well-behaved community. All are traders, + and know that peace and order are essential to successful trade, and thus + a public opinion is created which puts down all lawlessness. Often in + former year, when strolling along the Campong Glam in Singapore, I have + thought how wild and ferocious the Bugis sailors looked, and how little + should like to trust myself among them. But now I find them to be very + decent, well-behaved fellows; I walk daily unarmed in the jungle, where I + meet them continually; I sleep in a palm-leaf hut, which any one may + enter, with as little fear and as little danger of thieves or murder as if + I were under the protection of the Metropolitan police. It is true the + Dutch influence is felt here. The islands are nominally under the + government of the Moluccas, which the native chiefs acknowledge; and in + most years a commissioner arrives from Amboyna, who makes the tour of the + islands, hears complaints, settle disputes, and carries away prisoner any + heinous offender. This year he is not expected to come, as no orders have + yet been received to prepare for him; so the people of Dobbo will probably + be left to their own devices. One day a man was caught in the act of + stealing a piece of iron from Herr Warzbergen's house, which he had + entered by making a hole through the thatch wall. In the evening the chief + traders of the place, Bugis and Chinese, assembled, the offender was tried + and found guilty, and sentenced to receive twenty lashes on the spot. They + were given with a small rattan in the middle of the street, not very + severely, the executioner appeared to sympathise a little with the + culprit. The disgrace seemed to be thought as much of as the pain; for + though any amount of clever cheating is thought rather meritorious than + otherwise, open robbery and housebreaking meet with universal reprobation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXI. THE ARU ISLANDS.—JOURNEY AND RESIDENCE IN THE + INTERIOR. + </h2> + <h3> + (MARCH TO MAY 1857.) + </h3> + <p> + MY boat was at length ready, and having obtained two men besides my own + servants, after an enormous amount of talk and trouble, we left Dobbo on + the morning of March 13th, for the mainland of Aru. By noon we reached the + mouth of a small river or creek, which we ascended, winding among + mangrove, swamps, with here and there a glimpse of dry land. In two hours + we reached a house, or rather small shed, of the most miserable + description, which our steersman, the "Orang-kaya" of Wamma, said was the + place we were to stay at, and where he had assured me we could get every + kind of bird and beast to be found in Aru. The shed was occupied by about + a dozen men, women, and children; two cooking fires were burning in it, + and there seemed little prospect of my obtaining any accommodation. I + however deferred inquiry till I had seen the neighbouring forest, and + immediately started off with two men, net, and guns, along a path at the + back of the house. In an hour's walk I saw enough to make me determine to + give the place a trial, and on my return, finding the "Orang-kaya" was in + a strong fever-fit and unable to do anything, I entered into negotiations + with the owner of the house for the use of a slip at one end of it about + five feet wide, for a week, and agreed to pay as rent one "parang," or + chopping-knife. I then immediately got my boxes and bedding out of the + boat, hung up a shelf for my bird-skins and insects, and got all ready for + work next morning. My own boys slept in the boat to guard the remainder of + my property; a cooking place sheltered by a few mats was arranged under a + tree close by, and I felt that degree of satisfaction and enjoyment which + I always experience when, after much trouble and delay, I am on the point + of beginning work in a new locality. + </p> + <p> + One of my first objects was to inquire for the people who are accustomed + to shoot the Paradise birds. They lived at some distance in the jungle, + and a man was sent to call them. When they arrived, we had a talk by means + of the "Orang-kaya" as interpreter, and they said they thought they could + get some. They explained that they shoot the birds with a bow and arrow, + the arrow having a conical wooden cap fitted to the end as large as a + teacup, so as to kill the bird by the violence of the blow without making + any wound or shedding any blood. The trees frequented by the birds are + very lofty; it is therefore necessary to erect a small leafy covering or + hut among the branches, to which the hunter mounts before daylight in the + morning and remains the whole day, and whenever a bird alights they are + almost sure of securing it. (See Frontispiece.) They returned to their + homes the same evening, and I never saw anything more of them, owing, as I + afterwards found, to its being too early to obtain birds in good plumage. + </p> + <p> + The first two or three days of our stay here were very wet, and I obtained + but few insects or birds, but at length, when I was beginning to despair, + my boy Baderoon returned one day with a specimen which repaid me for + months of delay and expectation. It was a small bird a little less than a + thrush. The greater part of its plumage was of an intense cinnabar red, + with a gloss as of spun glass. On the head the feathers became short and + velvety, and shaded into rich orange. Beneath, from the breast downwards, + was pure white, with the softness and gloss of silk, and across the breast + a band of deep metallic green separated this colour from the red of the + throat. Above each eye was a round spot of the same metallic green; the + bill was yellow, and the feet and legs were of a fine cobalt ķille, + strikingly contrasting with all the other parts of the body. Merely in + arrangement of colours and texture of plumage this little bird was a gem + of the first water, yet there comprised only half its strange beauty. + Springing from each side of the breast, and ordinarily lying concealed + under the wings, were little tufts of greyish feathers about two inches + long, and each terminated by a broad band of intense emerald green. These + plumes can be raised at the will of the bird, and spread out into a pair + of elegant fans when the wings are elevated. But this is not the only + ornament. The two middle feathers of the tail are in the form of slender + wires about five inches long, and which diverge in a beautiful double + curve. About half an inch of the end of this wire is webbed on the outer + side only, awe coloured of a fine metallic green, and being curled + spirally inwards form a pair of elegant glittering buttons, hanging five + inches below the body, and the same distance apart. These two ornaments, + the breast fans and the spiral tipped tail wires, are altogether unique, + not occurring on any other species of the eight thousand different birds + that are known to exist upon the earth; and, combined with the most + exquisite beauty of plumage, render this one of the most perfectly lovely + of the many lovely productions of nature. My transports of admiration and + delight quite amused my Aru hosts, who saw nothing more in the "Burong + raja" than we do in the robin of the goldfinch. + </p> + <p> + Thus one of my objects in coming to the far fast was accomplished. I had + obtained a specimen of the King Bird of Paradise (Paradisea regia), which + had been described by Linnaeus from skins preserved in a mutilated state + by the natives. I knew how few Europeans had ever beheld the perfect + little organism I now gazed upon, and how very imperfectly it was still + known in Europe. The emotions excited in the minds of a naturalist, who + has long desired to see the actual thing which he has hitherto known only + by description, drawing, or badly-preserved external covering—especially + when that thing is of surpassing rarity and beauty, require the poetic + faculty fully to express them. The remote island in which I found myself + situated, in an almost unvisited sea, far from the tracks of merchant + fleets and navies; the wild luxuriant tropical forest, which stretched far + away on every side; the rude uncultured savages who gathered round me,—all + had their influence in determining the emotions with which I gazed upon + this "thing of beauty." I thought of the long ages of the past, during + which the successive generations of this little creature had run their + course—year by year being born, and living and dying amid these dark + and gloomy woods, with no intelligent eye to gaze upon their loveliness; + to all appearance such a wanton waste of beauty. Such ideas excite a + feeling of melancholy. It seems sad, that on the one hand such exquisite + creatures should live out their lives and exhibit their charms only in + these wild inhospitable regions, doomed for ages yet to come to hopeless + barbarism; while on the other hand, should civilized man ever reach these + distant lands, and bring moral, intellectual, and physical light into the + recesses of these virgin forests, we may be sure that he will so disturb + the nicely-balanced relations of organic and inorganic nature as to cause + the disappearance, and finally the extinction, of these very beings whose + wonderful structure and beauty he alone is fitted to appreciate and enjoy. + This consideration must surely tell us that all living things were <i>not</i> + made for man. Many of them have no relation to him. The cycle of their + existence has gone on independently of his, and is disturbed or broken by + every advance in man's intellectual development; and their happiness and + enjoyment, their loves and hates, their struggles for existence, their + vigorous life and early death, would seem to be immediately related to + their own well-being and perpetuation alone, limited only by the equal + well-being and perpetuation of the numberless other organisms with which + each is more or less intimately connected. + </p> + <p> + After the first king-bird was obtained, I went with my men into the + forest, and we were not only rewarded with another in equally perfect + plumage, but I was enabled to see a little of the habits of both it and + the larger species. It frequents the lower trees of the less dense + forests: and is very active, flying strongly with a whirring sound, and + continually hopping or flying from branch to branch. It eats hard + stone-bearing fruits as large as a gooseberry, and often flutters its + wings after the manner of the South American manakins, at which time it + elevates and expands the beautiful fans with which its breast is adorned. + The natives of Aru call it "Goby-goby." + </p> + <p> + One day I get under a tree where a number of the Great Paradise birds were + assembled, but they were high up in the thickest of the foliage, and + flying and jumping about so continually that I could get no good view of + them. At length I shot one, but it was a young specimen, and was entirely + of a rich chocolate-brown colour, without either the metallic green throat + or yellow plumes of the full-grown bird. All that I had yet seen resembled + this, and the natives told me that it would be about two months before any + would be found in full plumage. I still hoped, therefore, to get some. + Their voice is most extraordinary. At early morn, before the sun has + risen, we hear a loud cry of "Wawk-wawk-wawk, wķk-wķk-wķk," which resounds + through the forest, changing its direction continually. This is the Great + Bird of Paradise going to seek his breakfast. Others soon follow his + example; lories and parroquets cry shrilly, cockatoos scream, king-hunters + croak and bark, and the various smaller birds chirp and whistle their + morning song. As I lie listening to these interesting sounds, I realize my + position as the first European who has ever lived for months together in + the Aru islands, a place which I had hoped rather than expected ever to + visit. I think how many besides my self have longed to reach these almost + fairy realms, and to see with their own eyes the many wonderful and + beautiful things which I am daily encountering. But now Ali and Baderoon + are up and getting ready their guns and ammunition, and little Brio has + his fire lighted and is boiling my coffee, and I remember that I had a + black cockatoo brought in late last night, which I must skin immediately, + and so I jump up and begin my day's work very happily. + </p> + <p> + This cockatoo is the first I have seen, and is a great prize. It has a + rather small and weak body, long weak legs, large wings, and an enormously + developed head, ornamented with a magnificent crest, and armed with a + sharp-pointed hoofed bill of immense size and strength. The plumage is + entirely black, but has all over it the curious powdery white secretion + characteristic of cockatoo. The cheeks are bare, and of an intense + blood-red colour. Instead of the harsh scream of the white cockatoos, its + voice is a somewhat plaintive whistle. The tongue is a curious organ, + being a slender fleshy cylinder of a deep red colour, terminated by a + horny black plate, furrowed across and somewhat prehensile. The whole + tongue has a considerable extensile power. I will here relate something of + the habits of this bird, with which I have since become acquainted. It + frequents the lower parts of the forest, and is seen singly, or at most + two or three together. It flies slowly and noiselessly, and may be killed + by a comparatively slight wound. It eats various fruits and seeds, but + seems more particularly attached to the kernel of the kanary-nut, which + grows on a lofty forest tree (Canarium commune), abundant in the islands + where this bird is found; and the manner in which it gets at these seeds + shows a correlation of structure and habits, which would point out the + "kanary" as its special food. The shell of this nut is so excessively hard + that only a heavy hammer will crack it; it is somewhat triangular, and the + outside is quite smooth. The manner in which the bird opens these nuts is + very curious. Taking one endways in its bill and keeping it firm by a + pressure of the tongue, it cuts a transverse notch by a lateral sawing + motion of the sharp-edged lower mandible. This done, it takes hold of the + nut with its foot, and biting off a piece of leaf retains it in the deep + notch of the upper mandible, and again seizing the nut, which is prevented + from slipping by the elastic tissue of the leaf, fixes the edge of the + lower mandible in the notch, and by a powerful nip breaks of a piece of + the shell, again taking the nut in its claws, it inserts the very long and + sharp point of the bill and picks out the kernel, which is seized hold of, + morsel by morsel, by the extensible tongue. Thus every detail of form and + structure in the extraordinary bill of this bird seems to have its use, + and we may easily conceive that the black cockatoos have maintained + themselves in competition with their more active and more numerous white + allies, by their power of existing on a kind of food which no other bird + is able to extract from its stony shell. The species is the Microglossum + aterrimum of naturalists. + </p> + <p> + During the two weeks which I spent in this little settlement, I had good + opportunities of observing the natives at their own home, and living in + their usual manner. There is a great monotony and uniformity in everyday + savage life, and it seemed to me a more miserable existence than when it + had the charm of novelty. To begin with the most important fact in the + existence of uncivilized peoples—their food—the Aru men have + no regular supply, no staff of life, such as bread, rice, mandiocca, + maize, or sago, which are the daily food of a large proportion of mankind. + They have, however, many sorts of vegetables, plantains, yams, sweet + potatoes, and raw sago; and they chew up vast quantities of sugar-cane, as + well as betel-nuts, gambir, and tobacco. Those who live on the coast have + plenty of fish; but when inland, as we are here, they only go to the sea + occasionally, and then bring home cockles and other shell-fish by the + boatload. Now and then they get wild pig or kangaroo, but too rarely to + form anything like a regular part of their diet, which is essentially + vegetable; and what is of more importance, as affecting their health, + green, watery vegetables, imperfectly cooked, and even these in varying + and often in sufficient quantities. To this diet may be attributed the + prevalence of skin diseases, and ulcers on the legs and joints. The scurfy + skin disease so common among savages has a close connexion with the + poorness and irregularity of their living. The Malays, who are never + without their daily rice, are generally free from it; the hill-Dyaks of + Borneo, who grow rice and live well, are clean skinned while the less + industrious and less cleanly tribes, who live for a portion of the year on + fruits and vegetables only, are very subject to this malady. It seems + clear that in this, as in other respects, man is not able to make a beast + of himself with impunity, feeding like the cattle on the herbs and fruits + of the earth, and taking no thought of the morrow. To maintain his health + and beauty he must labour to prepare some farinaceous product capable of + being stored and accumulated, so as to give him a regular supply of + wholesome food. When this is obtained, he may add vegetables, fruits, and + meat with advantage. + </p> + <p> + The chief luxury of the Aru people, besides betel and tobacco, is arrack + (Java rum), which the traders bring in great quantities and sell very + cheap. A day's fishing or rattan cutting will purchase at least a + half-gallon bottle; and when the tripang or birds' nests collected during + a season are sold, they get whole boxes, each containing fifteen such + bottles, which the inmates of a house will sit round day and night till + they have finished. They themselves tell me that at such bouts they often + tear to pieces the house they are in, break and destroy everything they + can lay their hands on, and make such an infernal riot as is alarming to + behold. + </p> + <p> + The houses and furniture are on a par with the food. A rude shed, + supported on rough and slender sticks rather than posts, no walls, but the + floor raised to within a foot of the eaves, is the style of architecture + they usually adopt. Inside there are partition walls of thatch, forming + little boxes or sleeping places, to accommodate the two or three separate + families that usually live together. A few mats, baskets, and cooking + vessels, with plates and basins purchased from the Macassar traders, + constitute their whole furniture; spears and bows are their weapons; a + sarong or mat forms the clothing of the women, a waistcloth of the men. + For hours or even for days they sit idle in their houses, the women + bringing in the vegetables or sago which form their food. Sometimes they + hunt or fish a little, or work at their houses or canoes, but they seem to + enjoy pure idleness, and work as little as they can. They have little to + vary the monotony of life, little that can be called pleasure, except + idleness and conversation. And they certainly do talk! Every evening there + is a little Babel around me: but as I understand not a word of it, I go on + with my book or work undisturbed. Now and then they scream and shout, or + laugh frantically for variety; and this goes on alternately with + vociferous talking of men, women, and children, till long after I am in my + mosquito curtain and sound asleep. + </p> + <p> + At this place I obtained some light on the complicated mixture of races in + Aru, which would utterly confound an ethnologist. Many of the natives, + though equally dark with the others, have little of the Papuan + physiognomy, but have more delicate features of the European type, with + more glossy, curling hair: These at first quite puzzled me, for they have + no more resemblance to Malay than to Papuan, and the darkness of skin and + hair would forbid the idea of Dutch intermixture. Listening to their + conversation, however, I detected some words that were familiar to me. + "Accabķ" was one; and to be sure that it was not an accidental + resemblance, I asked the speaker in Malay what "accabķ" meant, and was + told it meant "done or finished," a true Portuguese word, with its meaning + retained. Again, I heard the word "jafui" often repeated, and could see, + without inquiry, that its meaning was "he's gone," as in Portuguese. + "Porco," too, seems a common name, though the people have no idea of its + European meaning. This cleared up the difficulty. I at once understood + that some early Portuguese traders had penetrated to these islands, and + mixed with the natives, influencing their language, and leaving in their + descendants for many generations the visible characteristics of their + race. If to this we add the occasional mixture of Malay, Dutch, and + Chinese with the indigenous Papuans, we have no reason to wonder at the + curious varieties of form and feature occasionally to be met with in Aru. + In this very house there was a Macassar man, with an Aru wife and a family + of mixed children. In Dobbo I saw a Javanese and an Amboyna man, each with + an Aru wife and family; and as this kind of mixture has been going on for + at least three hundred years, and probably much longer, it has produced a + decided effect on the physical characteristics of a considerable portion + of the population of the islands, more especially in Dobbo and the parts + nearest to it. + </p> + <p> + March 28th.—The "Orang-kaya" being very ill with fever had begged to + go home, and had arranged with one of the men of the house to go on with + me as his substitute. Now that I wanted to move, the bugbear of the + pirates was brought up, and it was pronounced unsafe to go further than + the next small river. This world not suit me, as I had determined to + traverse the channel called Watelai to the "blakang-tana;" but my guide + was firm in his dread of pirates, of which I knew there was now no danger, + as several vessels had gone in search of them, as well as a Dutch gunboat + which had arrived since I left Dobbo. I had, fortunately, by this time + heard that the Dutch "Commissie" had really arrived, and therefore + threatened that if my guide did not go with me immediately, I would appeal + to the authorities, and he would certainly be obliged to gig a back the + cloth which the "Orang-kaya" had transferred to him in prepayment. This + had the desired effect; matters were soon arranged, and we started the + next morning. The wind, however, was dead against us, and after rowing + hard till midday we put in to a small river where there were few huts, to + cook our dinners. The place did not look very promising, but as we could + not reach our destination, the Watelai river, owing to the contrary wind, + I thought we might as well wait here a day or two. I therefore paid a + chopper for the use of a small shed, and got my bed and some boxes on + shore. In the evening, after dark, we were suddenly alarmed by the cry of + "Bajak! bajak!" (Pirates!) The men all seized their bows and spears, and + rushed down to the beach; we got hold of our guns and prepared for action, + but in a few minutes all came back laughing and chattering, for it had + proved to be only a small boat and some of their own comrades returned + from fishing. When all was quiet again, one of the men, who could speak a + little Malay, came to me and begged me not to sleep too hard. "Why?" said + I. "Perhaps the pirates may really come," said he very seriously, which + made me laugh and assure him I should sleep as hard as I could. + </p> + <p> + Two days were spent here, but the place was unproductive of insects or + birds of interest, so we made another attempt to get on. As soon as we got + a little away from the land we had a fair wind, and in six hours' sailing + reached the entrance of the Watelai channel, which divides the most + northerly from the middle portion of Aru. At its mouth this was about half + a mile wide, but soon narrowed, and a mile or two on it assumed entirely + the aspect of a river about the width of the Thames at London, winding + among low but undulating and often hilly country. The scene was exactly + such as might be expected in the interior of a continent. The channel + continued of a uniform average width, with reaches and sinuous bends, one + bank being often precipitous, or even forming vertical cliffs, while the + other was flat and apparently alluvial; and it was only the pure + salt-water, and the absence of any stream but the slight flux and reflux + of the tide, that would enable a person to tell that he was navigating a + strait and not a river. The wind was fair, and carried us along, with + occasional assistance from our oars, till about three in the afternoon, + when we landed where a little brook formed two or three basins in the + coral rock, and then fell in a miniature cascade into the salt water + river. Here we bathed and cooked our dinner, and enjoyed ourselves lazily + till sunset, when we pursued our way for two hours snore, and then moored + our little vessel to an overhanging tree for the night. + </p> + <p> + At five the next morning we started again, and in an hour overtook four + large praus containing the "Commissie," who had come from Dobbo to make + their official tour round the islands, and had passed us in the eight. I + paid a visit to the Dutchmen, one of whom spoke a little English, but we + found that we could get on much better with Malay. They told me that they + had been delayed going after the pirates to one of the northern islands, + and had seen three of their vessels but could not catch them, because on + being pursued they rowed out in the wind's eye, which they are enabled to + do by having about fifty oars to each boat. Having had some tea with + thorn, I bade them adieu, and turned up a narrow channel which our pilot + said would take us to the village of Watelai, on the west side of Are. + After going some miles we found the channel nearly blocked up with coral, + so that our boat grated along the bottom, crunching what may truly be + called the living rock. Sometimes all hands had to get out and wade, to + lighten the vessel and lift it over the shallowest places; but at length + we overcame all obstacles and reached a wide bay or estuary studded with + little rocks and islets, and opening to the western sea and the numerous + islands of the "blakang-tuna." I now found that the village we were going + to was miles away; that we should have to go out to sea, and round a rocky + point. A squall seemed coming on, and as I have a horror of small boats at + sea, and from all I could learn Watelai village was not a place to stop at + (no birds of Paradise being found there), I determined to return and go to + a village I had heard of up a tributary of the Watelai river, and situated + nearly in the centre of the mainland of Aru. The people there were said to + be good, and to be accustomed to hunting and bird-catching, being too far + inland to get any part of their food from the sea. While I was deciding + this point the squall burst upon us, and soon raised a rolling sea in the + shallow water, which upset an oil bottle and a lamp, broke some of my + crockery, and threw us all into confusion. Rowing hard we managed to get + back into the main river by dusk, and looked out for a place to cook our + suppers. It happened to be high water, and a very high tide, so that every + piece of sand or beach was covered, and it was with the greatest + difficulty, and after much groping in the dark, that we discovered a + little sloping piece of rock about two feet square on which to make a fire + and cook some rice. The next day we continued our way back, and on the + following day entered a stream on the south side of the Watelai river, and + ascending to where navigation ceased found the little village of Wanumbai, + consisting of two large houses surrounded by plantations, amid the virgin + forests of Aru. + </p> + <p> + As I liked the look of the place, and was desirous of staying some time, I + sent my pilot to try and make a bargain for house accommodation. The owner + and chief man of the place made many excuses. First, he was afraid I would + not like his house, and then was doubtful whether his son, who was away, + would like his admitting me. I had a long talk with him myself, and tried + to explain what I was doing, and how many things I would buy of them, and + showed him my stock of heads, and knives, and cloth, and tobacco, all of + which I would spend with his family and friends if he would give me + house-room. He seemed a little staggered at this, and said he, would talk + to his wife, and in the meantime I went for a little walk to see the + neighbourhood. When I came back, I again sent my pilot, saying that I + would go away if he would not dive me part of his house. In about half an + hour he returned with a demand for about half the cost of building a + house, for the rent of a small portion of it for a few weeks. As the only + difficulty now was a pecuniary one, I got out about ten yards of cloth, an + axe, with a few beads and some tobacco, and sent them as my final offer + for the part of the house which I had before pointed out. This was + accepted after a little more talk, and I immediately proceeded to take + possession. + </p> + <p> + The house was a good large one, raised as usual about seven feet on posts, + the walls about three or four feet more, with a high-pitched roof. The + floor was of bamboo laths, and in the sloping roof way an immense shutter, + which could be lifted and propped up to admit light and air. At the end + where this was situated the floor was raised about a foot, and this piece, + about ten feet wide by twenty long, quite open to the rest of the house, + was the portion I was to occupy. At one end of this piece, separated by a + thatch partition, was a cooking place, with a clay floor and shelves for + crockery. At the opposite end I had my mosquito curtain hung, and round + the walls we arranged my boxes and other stores, fated up a table and + seat, and with a little cleaning and dusting made the place look quite + comfortable. My boat was then hauled up on shore, and covered with + palm-leaves, the sails and oars brought indoors, a hanging-stage for + drying my specimens erected outside the house and another inside, and my + boys were set to clean their gnus and get all ready for beginning work. + </p> + <p> + The next day I occupied myself in exploring the paths in the immediate + neighbourhood. The small river up which we had ascended ceases to be + navigable at this point, above which it is a little rocky brook, which + quite dries up in the hot season. There was now, however, a fair stream of + water in it; and a path which was partly in and partly by the side of the + water, promised well for insects, as I here saw the magnificent blue + butterfly, Papilio ulysses, as well as several other fine species, + flopping lazily along, sometimes resting high up on the foliage which + drooped over the water, at others settling down on the damp rock or on the + edges of muddy pools. A little way on several paths branched off through + patches of second-growth forest to cane-fields, gardens, and scattered + houses, beyond which again the dark wall of verdure striped with + tree-trunks, marked out the limits of the primeval forests. The voices of + many birds promised good shooting, and on my return I found that my boys + had already obtained two or three kinds I had not seen before; and in the + evening a native brought me a rare and beautiful species of ground-thrush + (Pitta novaeguinaeae) hitherto only known from New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + As I improved my acquaintance with them I became much interested in these + people, who are a fair sample of the true savage inhabitants of the Aru + Islands, tolerably free from foreign admixture. The house I lived in + contained four or five families, and there were generally from six to a + dozen visitors besides. They kept up a continual row from morning till + night—talking, laughing, shouting, without intermission—not + very pleasant, but interesting as a study of national character. My boy + Ali said to me, "Banyak quot bitchara Orang Aru" (The Aru people are very + strong talkers), never having been accustomed to such eloquence either in + his own or any other country he had hitherto visited. Of an evening the + men, having got over their first shyness, began to talk to me a little, + asking about my country, &c., and in return I questioned them about + any traditions they had of their own origin. I had, however, very little + success, for I could not possibly make them understand the simple question + of where the Aru people first came from. I put it in every possible way to + them, but it was a subject quite beyond their speculations; they had + evidently never thought of anything of the kind, and were unable to + conceive a thing so remote and so unnecessary to be thought about, as + their own origin. Finding this hopeless, I asked if they knew when the + trade with Aru first began, when the Bugis and Chinese and Macassar men + first came in their praus to buy tripang and tortoise-shell, and birds' + nests, and Paradise birds? + </p> + <p> + This they comprehended, but replied that there had always been the same + trade as long as they or their fathers recollected, but that this was the + first time a real white man had come among them, and, said they, "You see + how the people come every day from all the villages round to look at you." + This was very flattering, and accounted for the great concourse of + visitors which I had at first imagined was accidental. A few years before + I had been one of the gazers at the Zoolus, and the Aztecs in London. Now + the tables were turned upon me, for I was to these people a new and + strange variety of man, and had the honour of affording to them, in my own + person, an attractive exhibition, gratis. + </p> + <p> + All the men and boys of Aru are expert archers, never stirring without + their bows and arrows. They shoot all sorts of birds, as well as pigs and + kangaroos occasionally, and thus have a tolerably good supply of meat to + eat with their vegetables. The result of this better living is superior + healthiness, well-made bodies, and generally clear skins. They brought me + numbers of small birds in exchange for beads or tobacco, but mauled them + terribly, notwithstanding my repeated instructions. When they got a bird + alive they would often tie a string to its leg, and keep it a day or two, + till its plumage was so draggled and dirtied as to be almost worthless. + One of the first things I got from there was a living specimen of the + curious and beautiful racquet-tailed kingfisher. Seeing how much I admired + it, they afterwards brought me several more, which wore all caught before + daybreak, sleeping in cavities of the rocky banks of the stream. My + hunters also shot a few specimens, and almost all of them had the red bill + more or less clogged with mud and earth. This indicates the habits of the + bird, which, though popularly a king-fisher, never catches fish, but lives + on insects and minute shells, which it picks up in the forest, darting + down upon them from its perch on some low branch. The genus Tanysiptera, + to which this bird belongs, is remarkable for the enormously lengthened + tail, which in all other kingfishers is small and short. Linnaeus named + the species known to him "the goddess kingfisher" (Alcedo dea), from its + extreme grace and beauty, the plumage being brilliant blue and white, with + the bill red, like coral. Several species of these interesting birds are + now known, all confined within the very limited area which comprises the + Moluccas, New Guinea, and the extreme North of Australia. They resemble + each other so closely that several of them can only be distinguished by + careful comparison. One of the rarest, however, which inhabits New Guinea, + is very distinct from the rest, being bright red beneath instead of white. + That which I now obtained was a new one, and has been named Tanysiptera + hydrocharis, but in general form and coloration it is exactly similar to + the larger species found in Amboyna, and figured at page 468 of my first + volume. + </p> + <p> + New and interesting birds were continually brought in, either by my own + boys or by the natives, and at the end of a week Ali arrived triumphant + one afternoon with a fine specimen of the Great Bird of Paradise. The + ornamental plumes had not yet attained their full growth, but the richness + of their glossy orange colouring, and the exquisite delicacy of the + loosely waving feathers, were unsurpassable. At the same time a great + black cockatoo was brought in, as well as a fine fruit-pigeon and several + small birds, so that we were all kept hard at work skinning till sunset. + Just as we had cleared away and packed up for the night, a strange beast + was brought, which had been shot by the natives. It resembled in size, and + in its white woolly covering, a small fat lamb, but had short legs, + hand-like feet with large claws, and a long prehensile tail. It was a + Cuscus (C. maculatus), one of the curious marsupial animals of the Papuan + region, and I was very desirous to obtain the skin. The owners, however, + said they wanted to eat it; and though I offered them a good price, and + promised to give them all the meat, there was grout hesitation. Suspecting + the reason, I offered, though it was night, to set to work immediately and + get out the body for them, to which they agreed. The creature was much + hacked about, and the two hind feet almost cut off; but it was the largest + and finest specimen of the kind I had seen; and after an hour's hard work + I handed over the body to the owners, who immediately cut it up and + roasted it for supper. + </p> + <p> + As this was a very good place for birds, I determined to remain a month + longer, and took the opportunity of a native boat going to Dobbo, to send + Ali for a fresh supply of ammunition and provisions. They started on the + 10th of April, and the house was crowded with about a hundred men, boys, + women, and girls, bringing their loads of sugar-cane, plantains, + sirih-leaf, yams, &c.; one lad going from each house to sell the + produce and make purchases. The noise was indescribable. At least fifty of + the hundred were always talking at once, and that not in the low measured + tones of the apathetically polite Malay, but with loud voices, shouts, and + screaming laughter, in which the women and children were even more + conspicuous than the men. It was only while gazing at me that their + tongues were moderately quiet, because their eyes were fully occupied. The + black vegetable soil here overlying the coral rock is very rich, and the + sugar-cane was finer than any I had ever seen. The canes brought to the + boat were often ten and even twelve feet long, and thick in proportion, + with short joints throughout, swelling between the knots with the + abundance of the rich juice. At Dobbo they get a high price for it, 1d. to + 3d. a stick, and there is an insatiable demand among the crews of the + praus and the Baba fishermen. Here they eat it continually. They half live + on it, and sometimes feed their pigs with it. Near every house are great + heaps of the refuse cane; and large wicker-baskets to contain this refuse + as it is produced form a regular part of the furniture of a house. + Whatever time of the day you enter, you are sure to find three or four + people with a yard of cane in one hand, a knife in the other, and a basket + between their legs, hacking, paring, chewing, and basket-filling, with a + persevering assiduity which reminds one of a hungry cow grazing, or of a + caterpillar eating up a leaf. + </p> + <p> + After five days' absence the boats returned from Dobbo, bringing Ali and + all the things I had sent for quite safe. A large party had assembled to + be ready to carry home the goods brought, among which were a good many + cocoa-nut, which are a great luxury here. It seems strange that they + should never plant them; but the reason simply is, that they cannot bring + their hearts to bury a good nut for the prospective advantage of a crop + twelve years hence. There is also the chance of the fruits being dug up + and eaten unless watched night and day. Among the things I had sent for + was a box of arrack, and I was now of course besieged with requests for a + little drop. I gave them a flask (about two bottles), which was very soon + finished, and I was assured that there were many present who had not had a + taste. As I feared my box would very soon be emptied if I supplied all + their demands, I told them I had given them one, but the second they must + pay for, and that afterwards I must have a Paradise bird for each flask. + They immediately sent round to all the neighbouring houses, and mustered + up a rupee in Dutch copper money, got their second flask, and drunk it as + quickly as the first, and were then very talkative, but less noisy and + importunate than I had expected. Two or three of them got round me and + begged me for the twentieth time to tell them the name of my country. + Then, as they could not pronounce it satisfactorily, they insisted that I + was deceiving them, and that it was a name of my own invention. One funny + old man, who bore a ludicrous resemblance, to a friend of mine at home, + was almost indignant. "Ung-lung! "said he, "who ever heard of such a name?—ang + lang—anger-lung—that can't be the name of your country; you + are playing with us." Then he tried to give a convincing illustration. "My + country is Wanumbai—anybody can say Wanumbai. I'm an orang-Wanumbai; + but, N-glung! who ever heard of such a name? Do tell us the real name of + your country, and then when you are gone we shall know how to talk about + you." To this luminous argument and remonstrance I could oppose nothing + but assertion, and the whole party remained firmly convinced that I was + for some reason or other deceiving them. They then attacked me on another + point—what all the animals and birds and insects and shells were + preserved so carefully for. They had often asked me this before, and I had + tried to explain to them that they would be stuffed, and made to look as + if alive, and people in my country would go to look at them. But this was + not satisfying; in my country there must be many better things to look at, + and they could not believe I would take so much trouble with their birds + and beasts just for people to look at. They did not want to look at them; + and we, who made calico and glass and knives, and all sorts of wonderful + things, could not want things from Aru to look at. They had evidently been + thinking about it, and had at length got what seemed a very satisfactory + theory; for the same old man said to me, in a low, mysterious voice, "What + becomes of them when you go on to the sea?" "Why, they are all packed up + in boxes," said I "What did you think became of them?" "They all come to + life again, don't they?" said he; and though I tried to joke it off, and + said if they did we should have plenty to eat at sea, he stuck to his + opinion, and kept repeating, with an air of deep conviction, "Yes, they + all come to life again, that's what they do—they all come to life + again." + </p> + <p> + After a little while, and a good deal of talking among themselves, he + began again—"I know all about it—oh yes! Before you came we + had rain every day—very wet indeed; now, ever since you have been + here, it is fine hot weather. Oh, yes! I know all about it; you can't + deceive me." And so I was set down as a conjurer, and was unable to repel + the charge. But the conjurer was completely puzzled by the next question: + "What," said the old man, "is the great ship, where the Bugis and Chinamen + go to sell their things? It is always in the great sea—its name is + Jong; tell us all about it." In vain I inquired what they knew about it; + they knew nothing but that it was called "Jong," and was always in the + sea, and was a very great ship, and concluded with, "Perhaps that is your + country?" Finding that I could not or would not tell them anything about + "Jong," there came more regrets that I would not tell them the real name + of my country; and then a long string of compliments, to the effect that I + was a much better sort of a person than the Bugis and Chinese, who + sometimes came to trade with them, for I gave them things for nothing, and + did not try to cheat them. How long would I stop? was the next earnest + inquiry. Would I stay two or three months? They would get me plenty of + birds and animals, and I might soon finish all the goods I had brought, + and then, said the old spokesman, "Don't go away, but send for more things + from Dobbo, and stay here a year or two." And then again the old story, + "Do tell us the name of your country. We know the Bugis men, and the + Macassar men, and the Java men, and the China men; only you, we don't know + from what country you come. Ung-lung! it can't be; I know that is not the + name of your country." Seeing no end to this long talk, I said I was + tired, and wanted to go to sleep; so after begging—one a little bit + of dry fish for his supper, and another a little salt to eat with his sago—they + went off very quietly, and I went outside and took a stroll round the + house by moonlight, thinking of the simple people and the strange + productions of Aru, and then turned in under my mosquito curtain; to sleep + with a sense of perfect security in the midst of these good-natured + savages. + </p> + <p> + We now had seven or eight days of hot and dry weather, which reduced the + little river to a succession of shallow pools connected by the smallest + possible thread of trickling water. If there were a dry season like that + of Macassar, the Aru Islands would be uninhabitable, as there is no part + of them much above a hundred feet high; and the whole being a mass of + porous coralline rock, allows the surface water rapidly to escape. The + only dry season they have is for a month or two about September or + October, and there is then an excessive scarcity of water, so that + sometimes hundreds of birds and other animals die of drought. The natives + then remove to houses near the sources of the small streams, where, in the + shady depths of the forest, a small quantity of water still remains. Even + then many of them have to go miles for their water, which they keep in + large bamboos and use very sparingly. They assure me that they catch and + kill game of all kinds, by watching at the water holes or setting snares + around them. That would be the time for me to make my collections; but the + want of water would be a terrible annoyance, and the impossibility of + getting away before another whole year had passed made it out of the + question. + </p> + <p> + Ever since leaving Dobbo I had suffered terribly from insects, who seemed + here bent upon revenging my long-continued persecution of their race. At + our first stopping-place sand-flies were very abundant at night, + penetrating to every part of the body, and producing a more lasting + irritation than mosquitoes. My feet and ankles especially suffered, and + were completely covered with little red swollen specks, which tormented me + horribly. On arriving here we were delighted to find the house free from + sand-flies or mosquitoes, but in the plantations where my daily walks led + me, the day-biting mosquitoes swarmed, and seemed especially to delight in + attaching my poor feet. After a month's incessant punishment, those useful + members rebelled against such treatment and broke into open insurrection, + throwing out numerous inflamed ulcers, which were very painful, and + stopped me from walking. So I found myself confined to the house, and with + no immediate prospect of leaving it. Wounds or sores in the feet are + especially difficult to heal in hot climates, and I therefore dreaded them + more than any other illness. The confinement was very annoying, as the + fine hot weather was excellent for insects, of which I had every promise + of obtaining a fine collection; and it is only by daily and unremitting + search that the smaller kinds, and the rarer and more interesting + specimens, can be obtained. When I crawled down to the river-side to + bathe, I often saw the blue-winged Papilio ulysses, or some other equally + rare and beautiful insect; but there was nothing for it but patience, and + to return quietly to my bird-skinning, or whatever other work I had + indoors. The stings and bites and ceaseless irritation caused by these + pests of the tropical forests, would be borne uncomplainingly; but to be + kept prisoner by them in so rich and unexplored a country where rare and + beautiful creatures are to be met with in every forest ramble—a + country reached by such a long and tedious voyage, and which might not in + the present century be again visited for the same purpose—is a + punishment too severe for a naturalist to pass over in silence. + </p> + <p> + I had, however, some consolation in the birds my boys brought home daily, + more especially the Paradiseas, which they at length obtained in full + plumage. It was quite a relief to my mind to get these, for I could hardly + have torn myself away from Aru had I not obtained specimens. + </p> + <p> + But what I valued almost as much as the birds themselves was the knowledge + of their habits, which I was daily obtaining both from the accounts of my + hunters, and from the conversation of the natives. The birds had now + commenced what the people here call their "sacaleli," or dancing-parties, + in certain trees in the forest, which are not fruit trees as I at first + imagined, but which have an immense tread of spreading branches and large + but scattered leaves, giving a clear space for the birds to play and + exhibit their plumes. On one of these trees a dozen or twenty + full-plumaged male birds assemble together, raise up their wings, stretch + out their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in a + continual vibration. Between whiles they fly across from branch to branch + in great excitement, so that the whole tree is filled with waving plumes + in every variety of attitude and motion. (See Frontispiece.) The bird + itself is nearly as large as a crow, and is of a rich coffee brown colour. + The head and neck is of a pure straw yellow above and rich metallic green + beneath. The long plumy tufts of golden orange feathers spring from the + sides beneath each wing, and when the bird is in repose are partly + concealed by them. At the time of its excitement, however, the wings are + raised vertically over the back, the head is bent down and stretched out, + and the long plumes are raised up and expanded till they form two + magnificent golden fans, striped with deep red at the base, and fading off + into the pale brown tint of the finely divided and softly waving points. + The whole bird is then overshadowed by them, the crouching body, yellow + head, and emerald green throat forming but the foundation and setting to + the golden glory which waves above. When seen in this attitude, the Bird + of Paradise really deserves its name, and must be ranked as one of the + most beautiful and most wonderful of living things. I continued also to + get specimens of the lovely little king-bird occasionally, as well as + numbers of brilliant pigeons, sweet little parroquets, and many curious + small birds, most nearly resembling those of Australia and New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + Here, as among most savage people I have dwelt among, I was delighted with + the beauty of the human form-a beauty of which stay-at-home civilized + people can scarcely have any conception. What are the finest Grecian + statues to the living, moving, breathing men I saw daily around me? The + unrestrained grace of the naked savage as he goes about his daily + occupations, or lounges at his ease, must be seen to be understood; and a + youth bending his bow is the perfection of manly beauty. The women, + however, except in extreme youth, are by no means so pleasant to look at + as the men. Their strongly-marked features are very unfeminine, and hard + work, privations, and very early marriages soon destroy whatever of beauty + or grace they may for a short time possess. Their toilet is very simple, + but also, I am sorry to say, very coarse, and disgusting. It consists + solely of a mat of plaited strips of palm leaves, worn tight round the + body, and reaching from the hips to the knees. It seems not to be changed + till worn out, is seldom washed, and is generally very dirty. This is the + universal dress, except in a few cases where Malay "sarongs" have come + into use. Their frizzly hair is tied in a bench at the back of the head. + They delight in combing, or rather forking it, using for that purpose a + large wooden fork with four diverging prongs, which answers the purpose of + separating and arranging the long tangled, frizzly mass of cranial + vegetation much better than any comb could do. The only ornaments of the + women are earrings and necklaces, which they arrange in various tasteful + ways. The ends of a necklace are often attached to the earrings, and then + looped on to the hair-knot behind. This has really an elegant appearance, + the beads hanging gracefully on each side of the head, and by establishing + a connexion with the earrings give an appearance of utility to those + barbarous ornaments. We recommend this style to the consideration of those + of the fair sex who still bore holes in their ears and hang rings thereto. + Another style of necklace among these Papuan belles is to wear two, each + hanging on one side of the neck and under the opposite arm, so as to cross + each other. This has a very pretty appearance, in part due to the contrast + of the white beads or kangaroo teeth of which they are composed with the + dark glossy skin. The earrings themselves are formed of a bar of copper or + silver, twisted so that the ends cross. The men, as usual among savages, + adorn themselves more than the women. They wear necklaces, earrings, and + finger rings, and delight in a band of plaited grass tight round the arm + just below the shoulder, to which they attach a bunch of hair or bright + coloured feathers by way of ornament. The teeth of small animals, either + alone, or alternately with black or white beads, form their necklaces, and + sometimes bracelets also. For these latter, however, they prefer brass + wire, or the black, horny, wing-spines of the cassowary, which they + consider a charm. Anklets of brass or shell, and tight plaited garters + below the knee, complete their ordinary decorations. + </p> + <p> + Some natives of Kobror from further south, and who are reckoned the worst + and least civilized of the Aru tribes, came one day to visit us. They have + a rather more than usually savage appearance, owing to the greater amount + of ornaments they use—the most conspicuous being a large + horseshoe-shaped comb which they wear over the forehead, the ends resting + on the temples. The back of the comb is fastened into a piece of wood, + which is plated with tin in front, and above is attached a plume of + feathers from a cock's tail. In other respects they scarcely differed from + the people I was living with. They brought me a couple of birds, some + shells and insects; showing that the report of the white man and his doing + had reached their country. There was probably hardly a man in Aru who had + not by this time heard of me. + </p> + <p> + Besides the domestic utensils already mentioned, the moveable property of + a native is very scanty. He has a good supply of spears and bows and + arrows for hunting, a parang, or chopping-knife, and an axe-for the stone + age has passed away here, owing to the commercial enterprise of the Bugis + and other Malay races. Attached to a belt, or hung across his shoulder, he + carries a little skin pouch and an ornamented bamboo, containing + betel-nut, tobacco, and lime, and a small German wooden-handled knife is + generally stuck between his waist-cloth of bark and his bare shin. Each + man also possesses a "cadjan," or sleeping-mat, made of the broad leaves + of a pandanus neatly sewn together in three layers. This mat is abort four + feet square, and when folded has one end sewn up, so that it forms a kind + of sack open at one side. In the closed corner the head or feet can be + placed, or by carrying it on the head in a shower it forms both coat and + umbrella. It doubles up ix a small compass for convenient carriage, and + then forms a light and elastic cushion, so that on a journey it becomes + clothing, house, bedding, and furniture, all in one. + </p> + <p> + The only ornaments in an Aru horse are trophies of the chase—jaws of + wild pigs, the heads and backbones of cassowaries, and plumes made from + the feathers of the Bird of Paradise, cassowary, and domestic fowl. The + spears, shields, knife-handles, and other utensils are more or less carved + in fanciful designs, and the mats and leaf boxes are painted or plaited in + neat patterns of red, black, and yellow colours. I must not forget these + boxes, which are most ingeniously made of the pith of a balm leaf pegged + together, lined inside with pandanus leaves, and outside with the same, or + with plaited grass. All the joints and angles are coffered with strips of + split rattan sewn neatly on. The lid is covered with the brown leathery + spathe of the Areca palm, which is impervious to water, and the whole box + is neat, strong, and well finished. They are made from a few inches to two + or three feet long, and being much esteemed by the Malay as clothes-boxes, + are a regular article of export from Aru. The natives use the smaller ones + for tobacco or betel-nut, but seldom have clothes enough to require the + larger ones, which are only made for sale. + </p> + <p> + Among the domestic animals which may generally be seen in native houses, + are gaudy parrots, green, red, and blue, a few domestic fowls, which have + baskets hung for them to lay in under the eaves, and who sleep on the + ridge, and several half-starved wolfish-baking dogs. Instead of rats and + mice there are curious little marsupial animals about the same size, which + run about at night and nibble anything eatable that may be left uncovered. + Four or five different kinds of ants attack everything not isolated by + water, and one kind even swims across that; great spiders lurk in baskets + and boxes, or hide in the folds of my mosquito curtain; centipedes and + millepedes are found everywhere. I have caught them under my pillow and on + my bead; while in every box, and under every hoard which has lain for some + days undisturbed, little scorpions are sure to be found snugly ensconced, + with their formidable tails quickly turned up ready for attack or defence. + Such companions seem very alarming and dangerous, but all combined are not + so bad as the irritation of mosquitoes, or of the insect pests often found + at home. These latter are a constant and unceasing source of torment and + disgust, whereas you may live a long time among scorpions, spiders, and + centipedes, ugly and venomous though they are, and get no harm from them. + After living twelve years in the tropics, I have never yet been bitten or + stung by either. + </p> + <p> + The lean and hungry dogs before mentioned were my greatest enemies, and + kept me constantly on the watch. If my boys left the bird they were + skinning for an instant, it was sure to be carried off. Everything eatable + had to be hung up to the roof, to be out of their reach. Ali had just + finished skinning a fine King Bird of Paradise one day, when he dropped + the skin. Before he could stoop to pick it up, one of this famished race + had seized upon it, and he only succeeded in rescuing it from its fangs + after it was torn to tatters. Two skins of the large Paradisea, which were + quite dry and ready to pack away, were incautiously left on my table for + the night, wrapped up in paper. The next morning they were gone, and only + a few scattered feathers indicated their fate. My hanging shelf was out of + their reach; but having stupidly left a box which served as a step, a + full-plumaged Paradise bird was next morning missing; and a dog below the + house was to be seen still mumbling over the fragments, with the fine + golden plumes all trampled in the mud. Every night, as soon as I was in + bed, I could hear them searching about for what they could devour, under + my table, and all about my boxes and baskets, keeping me in a state of + suspense till morning, lest something of value might incautiously have + been left within their read. They would drink the oil of my floating lamp + and eat the wick, and upset or break my crockery if my lazy boys had + neglected to wash away even the smell of anything eatable. Bad, however, + as they are here, they were worse in a Dyak's house in Borneo where I was + once staying, for there they gnawed off the tops of my waterproof boots, + ate a large piece out of an old leather game-bag, besides devouring a + portion of my mosquito curtain! + </p> + <p> + April 28th.—Last evening we had a grand consultation, which had + evidently been arranged and discussed beforehand. A number of the natives + gathered round me, and said they wanted to talk. Two of the best Malay + scholars helped each other, the rest putting in hints and ideas in their + own language. They told me a long rambling story; but, partly owing to + their imperfect knowledge of Malay, partly through my ignorance of local + terms, and partly through the incoherence of their narrative, I could not + make it out very clearly. It was, however, a tradition, and I was glad to + find they had anything of the kind. A long time ago, they said, some + strangers came to Aru, and came here to Wanumbai, and the chief of the + Wanumbai people did not like them, and wanted them to go away, but they + would not go, and so it came to fighting, and many Aru men were killed, + and some, along with the chief, were taken prisoners, and carried away by + the strangers. Some of the speakers, however, said that he was not carried + away, but went away in his own boat to escape from the foreigners, and + went to the sea and never came back again. But they all believe that the + chief and the people that went with him still live in some foreign + country; and if they could but find out where, they would send for them to + come back again. Now having some vague idea that white men must know every + country beyond the sea, they wanted to know if I had met their people in + my country or in the sea. They thought they must be there, for they could + not imagine where else they could be. They had sought for them everywhere, + they said—on the land and in the sea, in the forest and on the + mountains, in the air and in the sky, and could not find them; therefore, + they must be in my country, and they begged me to tell them, for I must + surely know, as I came from across the great sea. I tried to explain to + them that their friends could not have reached my country in small boats; + and that there were plenty of islands like Aru all about the sea, which + they would be sure to find. Besides, as it was so long ago, the chief and + all the people must be dead. But they quite laughed at this idea, and said + they were sure they were alive, for they had proof of it. And then they + told me that a good many years ago, when the speakers were boys, some + Wokan men who were out fishing met these lost people in the sea, and spoke + to them; and the chief gave the Wokan men a hundred fathoms of cloth to + bring to the men of Wanumbai, to show that they were alive and would soon + come back to them, but the Wokan men were thieves, and kept the cloth, and + they only heard of it afterwards; and when they spoke about it, the Wokan + men denied it, and pretended they had not received the cloth;—so + they were quite sure their friends were at that time alive and somewhere + in the sea. And again, not many years ago, a report came to them that some + Bugis traders had brought some children of their lost people; so they went + to Dobbo to see about it, and the owner of the house, who was now speaking + to me, was one who went; but the Bugis man would not let them see the + children, and threatened to kill them if they came into his house. He kept + the children shut up in a large box, and when he went away he took them + with him. And at the end of each of these stories, they begged me in an + imploring tone to tell them if I knew where their chief and their people + now were. + </p> + <p> + By dint of questioning, I got some account of the strangers who had taken + away their people. They said they were wonderfully strong, and each one + could kill a great many Aru men; and when they were wounded, however + badly, they spit upon the place, and it immediately became well. And they + made a great net of rattans, and entangled their prisoners in it, and sunk + them in the water; and the next day, when they pulled the net up on shore, + they made the drowned men come to life again, and carried them away. + </p> + <p> + Much more of the same kind was told me, but in so confused and rambling a + manner that I could make nothing out of it, till I inquired how long ago + it was that all this happened, when they told me that after their people + were taken away the Bugis came in their praus to trade in Aru, and to buy + tripang and birds' nests. It is not impossible that something similar to + what they related to me really happened when the early Portuguese + discoverers first came to Aru, and has formed the foundation for a + continually increasing accumulation of legend and fable. I have no doubt + that to the next generation, or even before, I myself shall be transformed + into a magician or a demigod, a worker of miracles, and a being of + supernatural knowledge. They already believe that all the animals I + preserve will come to life again; and to their children it will be related + that they actually did so. An unusual spell of fine weather setting in + just at my arrival has made them believe I can control the seasons; and + the simple circumstance of my always walking alone in the forest is a + wonder and a mystery to them, as well as my asking them about birds and + animals I have not yet seen, and showing an acquaintance with their form, + colours, and habits. These facts are brought against me when I disclaim + knowledge of what they wish me to tell them. "You must know," say they; + "you know everything: you make the fine weather for your men to shoot, and + you know all about our birds and our animals as well as we do; and you go + alone into the forest and are not afraid." Therefore every confession of + ignorance on my part is thought to be a blind, a mere excuse to avoid + telling them too much. My very writing materials and books are to them + weird things; and were I to choose to mystify them by a few simple + experiments with lens and magnet, miracles without end would in a few + years cluster about me; and future travellers, penetrating to Wanumbai, + world h hardly believe that a poor English naturalist, who had resided a + few months among them, could have been the original of the supernatural + being to whom so many marvels were attributed. + </p> + <p> + Far some days I had noticed a good deal of excitement, and many strangers + came and went armed with spears and cutlasses, bows and shields. I now + found there was war near us—two neighbouring villages having a + quarrel about some matter of local politics that I could not understand. + They told me it was quite a common thing, and that they are rarely without + fighting somewhere near. Individual quarrels are taken up by villages and + tribes, and the nonpayment of the stipulated price for a wife is one of + the most frequent causes of bitterness and bloodshed. One of the war + shields was brought me to look at. It was made of rattans and covered with + cotton twist, so as to be both light, strong, and very tough. I should + think it would resist any ordinary bullet. Abort the middle there was au + arm-hole with a shutter or flap over it. This enables the arm to be put + through and the bow drawn, while the body and face, up to the eyes, remain + protected, which cannot be done if the shield is carried on the arm by + loops attached at the back in the ordinary way. A few of the young men + from our house went to help their friends, but I could not bear that any + of them were hurt, or that there was much hard fighting. + </p> + <p> + May 8th.-I had now been six weeks at Wanumbai, but for more than half the + time was laid up in the house with ulcerated feet. My stores being nearly + exhausted, and my bird and insect boxes full, and having no immediate + prospect of getting the use of my legs again, I determined on returning to + Dobbo. Birds had lately become rather scarce, and the Paradise birds had + not yet become as plentiful as the natives assured me they would be in + another month. The Wanumbai people seemed very sorry at my departure; and + well they might be, for the shells and insects they picked up on the way + to and from their plantations, and the birds the little boys shot with + their bows and arrows, kept them all well supplied with tobacco and + gambir, besides enabling them to accumulate a stock of beads and coppers + for future expenses. The owner of the house was supplied gratis with a + little rice, fish, or salt, whenever he asked for it, which I must say was + not very often. On parting, I distributed among them my remnant stock of + salt and tobacco, and gave my host a flask of arrack, and believe that on + the whole my stay with these simple and good-natured people was productive + of pleasure and profit to both parties. I fully intended to come back; and + had I known that circumstances would have prevented my doing so, shoed + have felt some sorrow in leaving a place where I had first seen so many + rare and beautiful living things, and bad so fully enjoyed the pleasure + which fills the heart of the naturalist when he is so fortunate as to + discover a district hitherto unexplored, and where every day brings forth + new and unexpected treasures. We loaded our boat in the afternoon, and, + starting before daybreak, by the help of a fair wind reached Dobbo late + the same evening. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXII. THE ARU ISLANDS.—SECOND RESIDENCE AT DOBBO. + </h2> + <h3> + (MAY AND JUNE 1857.) + </h3> + <p> + DOBBO was full to overflowing, and I was obliged to occupy the court-house + where the Commissioners hold their sittings. They had now left the island, + and I found the situation agreeable, as it was at the end of the village, + with a view down the principal street. It was a mere shed, but half of it + had a roughly boarded floor, and by putting up a partition and opening a + window I made it a very pleasant abode. In one of the boxes I had left in + charge of Herr Warzbergen, a colony of small ants had settled and + deposited millions of eggs. It was luckily a fine hot day, and by carrying + the box some distance from the house, and placing every article in the + sunshine for an hour or two, I got rid of them without damage, as they + were fortunately a harmless species. + </p> + <p> + Dobbo now presented an animated appearance. Five or six new houses had + been added to the street; the praus were all brought round to the western + side of the point, where they were hauled up on the beach, and were being + caulked and covered with a thick white lime-plaster for the homeward + voyage, making them the brightest and cleanest looking things in the + place. Most of the small boats had returned from the "blakang-tana" (back + country), as the side of the islands towards New Guinea is called. Piles + of firewood were being heaped up behind the houses; sail-makers and + carpenters were busy at work; mother-of-pearl shell was being tied up in + bundles, and the black and ugly smoked tripang was having a last exposure + to the sun before loading. The spare portion of the crews were employed + cutting and squaring timber, and boats from Ceram and Goram were + constantly unloading their cargoes of sago-cake for the traders' homeward + voyage. The fowls, ducks, and goats all looked fat and thriving on the + refuse food of a dense population, and the Chinamen's pigs were in a state + of obesity that foreboded early death. Parrots and Tories and cockatoos, + of a dozen different binds, were suspended on bamboo perches at the doors + of the houses, with metallic green or white fruit-pigeons which cooed + musically at noon and eventide. Young cassowaries, strangely striped with + black and brown, wandered about the houses or gambolled with the + playfulness of kittens in the hot sunshine, with sometimes a pretty little + kangaroo, caught in the Aru forests, but already tame and graceful as a + petted fawn. + </p> + <p> + Of an evening there were more signs of life than at the time of my former + residence. Tom-toms, jews'-harps, and even fiddles were to be heard, and + the melancholy Malay songs sounded not unpleasantly far into the night. + Almost every day there was a cock-fight in the street. The spectators make + a ring, and after the long steel spurs are tied on, and the poor animals + are set down to gash and kill each other, the excitement is immense. Those + who lave made bets scream and yell and jump frantically, if they think + they are going to win or lose, but in a very few minutes it is all over; + there is a hurrah from the winners, the owners seize their cocks, the + winning bird is caressed and admired, the loser is generally dead or very + badly wounded, and his master may often be seen plucking out his feathers + as he walks away, preparing him for the cooking pot while the poor bird is + still alive. + </p> + <p> + A game at foot-ball, which generally took place at sunset, was, however, + much more interesting to me. The ball used is a rather small one, and is + made of rattan, hollow, light, and elastic. The player keeps it dancing a + little while on his foot, then occasionally on his arm or thigh, till + suddenly he gives it a good blow with the hollow of the foot, and sends it + flying high in the air. Another player runs to meet it, and at its first + bound catches it on his foot and plays in his turn. The ball must never be + touched with the hand; but the arm, shoulder, knee, or thigh are used at + pleasure to rest the foot. Two or three played very skilfully, keeping the + ball continually flying about, but the place was too confined to show off + the game to advantage. One evening a quarrel arose from some dispute in + the game, and there was a great row, and it was feared there would be a + fight about it—not two men only, but a party of a dozen or twenty on + each side, a regular battle with knives and krisses; but after a large + amount of talk it passed off quietly, and we heard nothing about it + afterwards. + </p> + <p> + Most Europeans being gifted by nature with a luxuriant growth of hair upon + their faces, think it disfigures them, and keep up a continual struggle + against her by mowing down every morning the crop which has sprouted up + flaring the preceding twenty-four hours. Now the men of Mongolian race + are, naturally, just as many of us want to he. They mostly pass their + lives with faces as smooth and beardless as an infant's. But shaving seems + an instinct of the human race; for many of these people, having no hair to + take off their faces, shave their heads. Others, however, set resolutely + to work to force nature to give them a beard. One of the chief + cock-fighters at Dobbo was a Javanese, a sort of master of the ceremonies + of the ring, who tied on the spars and acted as backer-up to one of the + combatants. This man had succeeded, by assiduous cultivation, in raising a + pair of moustaches which were a triumph of art, for they each contained + about a dozen hairs more than three inches long, and which, being well + greased and twisted, were distinctly visible (when not too far off) as a + black thread hanging down on each side of his mouth. But the beard to + match was the difficulty, for nature had cruelly refused to give him a + rudiment of hair on his chin, and the most talented gardener could not do + much if he had nothing to cultivate. But true genius triumphs over + difficulties. Although there was no hair proper on the chin; there + happened to be, rather on one side of it, a small mole or freckle which + contained (as such things frequently do) a few stray hairs. These had been + made the most of. They had reached four or five inches in length, and + formed another black thread dangling from the left angle of the chin. The + owner carried this as if it were something remarkable (as it certainly + was); he often felt it affectionately, passed it between his fingers, and + was evidently extremely proud of his moustaches and beard! + </p> + <p> + One of the most surprising things connected with Aru was the excessive + cheapness of all articles of European or native manufacture. We were here + two thousand miles beyond Singapore and Batavia, which are themselves + emporiums of the "far east," in a place unvisited by, and almost unknown + to, European traders; everything reached us through at least two or three + hands, often many more; yet English calicoes and American cotton cloths + could be bought for 8s. the piece, muskets for 15s., common scissors and + German knives at three-halfpence each, and other cutlery, cotton goods, + and earthenware in the same proportion. The natives of this out-of-the-way + country can, in fact, buy all these things at about the same money price + as our workmen at home, but in reality very much cheaper, for the produce + of a few hours' labour enables the savage to purchase in abundance what + are to him luxuries, while to the European they are necessaries of life. + The barbarian is no happier and no better off for this cheapness. On the + contrary, it has a most injurious effect on him. He wants the stimulus of + necessity to force him to labour; and if iron were as dear as silver, and + calico as costly as satin, the effect would be beneficial to him. As it + is, he has more idle hours, gets a more constant supply of tobacco, and + can intoxicate himself with arrack more frequently and more thoroughly; + for your Aru man scorns to get half drunk-a tumbler full of arrack is but + a slight stimulus, and nothing less than half a gallon of spirit will make + him tipsy to his own satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + It is not agreeable to reflect on this state of things. At least half of + the vast multitudes of uncivilized peoples, on whom our gigantic + manufacturing system, enormous capital, and intense competition force the + produce of our looms and workshops, would be not a whit worse off + physically, and would certainly be improved morally, if all the articles + with which w e supply them were double or treble their present prices. If + at the same time the difference of cost, or a large portion of it, could + find its way into the pockets of the manufacturing workmen, thousands + would be raised from want to comfort, from starvation to health, and would + be removed from one of the chief incentives to crime. It is difficult for + an Englishman to avoid contemplating with pride our gigantic and + ever-increasing manufactures and commerce, and thinking everything good + that renders their progress still more rapid, either by lowering the price + at which the articles can be produced, or by discovering new markets to + which they may be sent. If, however, the question that is so frequently + asked of the votaries of the less popular sciences were put here—"Cui + bono?"—it would be found more difficult to answer than had been + imagined. The advantages, even to the few who reap them, would be seen to + be mostly physical, while the wide-spread moral and intellectual evils + resulting from unceasing labour, low wages, crowded dwellings, and + monotonous occupations, to perhaps as large a number as those who gain any + real advantage, might be held to show a balance of evil so great, as to + lead the greatest admirers of our manufactures and commerce to doubt the + advisability of their further development. It will be said: "We cannot + stop it; capital must be employed; our population must be kept at work; if + we hesitate a moment, other nations now hard pressing us will get ahead, + and national ruin will follow." Some of this is true, some fallacious. It + is undoubtedly a difficult problem which we have to solve; and I am + inclined to think it is this difficulty that makes men conclude that what + seems a necessary and unalterable state of things must be good-that its + benefits must be greater than its evils. This was the feeling of the + American advocates of slavery; they could not see an easy, comfortable way + out of it. In our own case, however, it is to be hoped, that if a fair + consideration of the matter in all its hearings shows that a preponderance + of evil arises from the immensity of our manufactures and commerce-evil + which must go on increasing with their increase-there is enough both of + political wisdom and true philanthropy in Englishmen, to induce them to + turn their superabundant wealth into other channels. The fact that has led + to these remarks is surely a striking one: that in one of the most remote + corners of the earth savages can buy clothing cheaper than the people of + the country where it is made; that the weaver's child should shiver in the + wintry wind, unable to purchase articles attainable by the wild natives of + a tropical climate, where clothing is mere ornament or luxury, should make + us pause ere we regard with unmixed admiration the system which has led to + such a result, and cause us to look with some suspicion on the further + extension of that system. It must be remembered too that our commerce is + not a purely natural growth. It has been ever fostered by the legislature, + and forced to an unnatural luxuriance by the protection of our fleets and + armies. The wisdom and the justice of this policy have been already + doubted. So soon, therefore, as it is seen that the further extension of + our manufactures and commerce would be an evil, the remedy is not far to + seek. + </p> + <p> + After six weeks' confinement to the house I was at length well, and could + resume my daily walks in the forest. I did not, however, find it so + productive as when I had first arrived at Dobbo. There was a damp + stagnation about the paths, and insects were very scarce. In some of my + best collecting places I now found a mass of rotting wood, mingled with + young shoots, and overgrown with climbers, yet I always managed to add + something daily to my extensive collections. I one day met with a curious + example of failure of instinct, which, by showing it to be fallible, + renders it very doubtful whether it is anything more than hereditary + habit, dependent on delicate modifications of sensation. Some sailors cut + down a good-sized tree, and, as is always my practice, I visited it daily + for some time in search of insects. Among other beetles came swarms of the + little cylindrical woodborers (Platypus, Tesserocerus, &c.), and + commenced making holes in the bark. After a day or two I was surprised to + find hundreds of them sticking in the holes they had bored, and on + examination discovered that the milky sap of the tree was of the nature of + gutta-percha, hardening rapidly on exposure to the air, and glueing the + little animals in self-dug graves. The habit of boring holes in trees in + which to deposit their eggs, was not accompanied by a sufficient + instinctive knowledge of which trees were suitable, and which destructive + to them. If, as is very probable, these trees have an attractive odour to + certain species of borers, it might very likely lead to their becoming + extinct; while other species, to whom the same odour was disagreeable, and + who therefore avoided the dangerous trees, would survive, and would be + credited by us with an instinct, whereas they would really be guided by a + simple sensation. + </p> + <p> + Those curious little beetles, the Brenthidae, were very abundant in Aru. + The females have a pointed rostrum, with which they bore deep holes in the + bark of dead trees, often burying the rostrum up to the eyes, and in these + holes deposit their eggs. The males are larger, and have the rostrum + dilated at the end, and sometimes terminating in a good-sized pair of + jaws. I once saw two males fighting together; each had a fore-leg laid + across the neck of the other, and the rostrum bent quite in an attitude of + defiance, and looking most ridiculous. Another time, two were fighting for + a female, who stood close by busy at her boring. They pushed at each other + with their rostra, and clawed and thumped, apparently in the greatest + rage, although their coats of mail must have saved both from injury. The + small one, however, soon ran away, acknowledging himself vanquished. In + most Coleoptera the female is larger than the male, and it is therefore + interesting, as bearing on the question of sexual selection, that in this + case, as in the stag-beetles where the males fight together, they should + be not only better armed, but also much larger than the females. Just as + we were going away, a handsome tree, allied to Erythrina, was in blossom, + showing its masses of large crimson flowers scattered here and there about + the forest. Could it have been seen from an elevation, it would have had a + fine effect; from below I could only catch sight of masses of gorgeous + colour in clusters and festoons overhead, about which flocks of blue and + orange lories were fluttering and screaming. + </p> + <p> + A good many people died at Dobbo this season; I believe about twenty. They + were buried in a little grove of Casuarinas behind my house. Among the + traders was a. Mahometan priest, who superintended the funerals, which + were very simple. The body was wrapped up in new white cotton cloth, and + was carried on a bier to the grave. All the spectators sat down on the + ground, and the priest chanted some verses from the Koran. The graves were + fenced round with a slight bamboo railing, and a little carved wooden + head-post was put to mark the spot. There was also in the village a small + mosque, where every Friday the faithful went to pray. This is probably + more remote from Mecca than any other mosque in the world, and marks the + farthest eastern extension of the Mahometan religion. The Chinese here, as + elsewhere, showed their superior wealth and civilization by tombstones of + solid granite brought from Singapore, with deeply-cut inscriptions, the + characters of which are painted in red, blue, and gold. No people have + more respect for the graves of their relations and friends than this + strange, ubiquitous, money-getting people. + </p> + <p> + Soon after we had returned to Dobbo, my Macassar boy, Baderoon, took his + wages and left me, because I scolded him for laziness. He then occupied + himself in gambling, and at first had some luck, and bought ornaments, and + had plenty of money. Then his luck turned; he lost everything, borrowed + money and lost that, and was obliged to become the slave of his creditor + till he had worked out the debt. He was a quick and active lad when he + pleased, but was apt to be idle, and had such an incorrigible propensity + for gambling, that it will very likely lead to his becoming a slave for + life. + </p> + <p> + The end of June was now approaching, the east monsoon had set in steadily, + and in another week or two Dobbo would be deserted. Preparations for + departure were everywhere visible, and every sunny day (rather rare now) + the streets were as crowded and as busy as beehives. Heaps of tripang were + finally dried and packed up in sacks; mother-of-pearl shell, tied up with + rattans into convenient bundles, was all day long being carried to the + beach to be loaded; water-casks were filled, and cloths and mat-sails + mended and strengthened for the run home before the strong east wind. + Almost every day groups of natives arrived from the most distant parts of + the islands, with cargoes of bananas and sugar-cane to exchange for + tobacco, sago, bread, and other luxuries, before the general departure. + The Chinamen killed their fat pig and made their parting feast, and kindly + sent me some pork, and a basin of birds' nest stew, which had very little + more taste than a dish of vermicelli. My boy Ali returned from Wanumbai, + where I had sent him alone for a fortnight to buy Paradise birds and + prepare the skins; he brought me sixteen glorious specimens, and had he + not been very ill with fever and ague might have obtained twice the + number. He had lived with the people whose house I had occupied, and it is + a proof of their goodness, if fairly treated, that although he took with + him a quantity of silver dollars to pay for the birds they caught, no + attempt was made to rob him, which might have been done with the most + perfect impunity. He was kindly treated when ill, and was brought back to + me with the balance of the dollars he had not spent. + </p> + <p> + The Wanumbai people, like almost all the inhabitants of the Aru Islands, + are perfect savages, and I saw no signs of any religion. There are, + however, three or four villages on the coast where schoolmasters from + Amboyna reside, and the people are nominally Christians, and are to some + extent educated and civilized. I could not get much real knowledge of the + customs of the Aru people during the short time I was among them, but they + have evidently been considerably influenced by their long association with + Mahometan traders. They often bury their dead, although the national + custom is to expose the body an a raised stage till it decomposes. Though + there is no limit to the number of wives a man may have, they seldom + exceed one or two. A wife is regularly purchased from the parents, the + price being a large assortment of articles, always including gongs, + crockery, and cloth. They told me that some of the tribes kill the old men + and women when they can no longer work, but I saw many very old and + decrepid people, who seemed pretty well attended to. No doubt all who have + much intercourse with the Bugis and Ceramese traders gradually lose many + of their native customs, especially as these people often settle in their + villages and marry native women. + </p> + <p> + The trade carried on at Dobbo is very considerable. This year there were + fifteen large praus from Macassar, and perhaps a hundred small boats from + Ceram, Goram, and Ke. The Macassar cargoes are worth about Ŗ1,000. each, + and the other boats take away perhaps about Ŗ3,000, worth, so that the + whole exports may be estimated at Ŗ18,000. per annum. The largest and most + bulky items are pearl-shell and tripang, or "beche-de-mer," with smaller + quantities of tortoise-shell, edible birds' nests, pearls, ornamental + woods, timber, and Birds of Paradise. These are purchased with a variety + of goods. Of arrack, about equal in strength to ordinary West India rum, + 3,000 boxes, each containing fifteen half-gallon bottles, are consumed + annually. Native cloth from Celebes is much esteemed for its durability, + and large quantities are sold, as well as white English calico and + American unbleached cottons, common crockery, coarse cutlery, muskets, + gunpowder, gongs, small brass cannon, and elephants' tusks. These three + last articles constitute the wealth of the Aru people, with which they pay + for their wives, or which they hoard up as "real property." Tobacco is in + immense demand for chewing, and it must be very strong, or an Aru man will + not look at it. Knowing how little these people generally work, the mass + of produce obtained annually shows that the islands must be pretty thickly + inhabited, especially along the coasts, as nine-tenths of the whole are + marine productions. + </p> + <p> + It was on the 2d of July that we left Aru, followed by all the Macassar + praus, fifteen in number, who had agreed to sail in company. We passed + south of Banda, and then steered due west, not seeing land for three days, + till we sighted some low islands west of Bouton. We had a strong and + steady south-east wind day and night, which carried us on at about five + knots an hour, where a clipper ship would have made twelve. The sky was + continually cloudy, dark, and threatening, with occasional drizzling + showers, till we were west of Bouru, when it cleared up and we enjoyed the + bright sunny skies of the dry season for the rest of our voyage. It is + about here, therefore that the seasons of the eastern and western regions + of the Archipelago are divided. West of this line from June to December is + generally fine, and often very dry, the rest of the year being the wet + season. East of it the weather is exceedingly uncertain, each island, and + each side of an island, having its own peculiarities. The difference seems + to consist not so much in the distribution of the rainfall as in that of + the clouds and the moistness of the atmosphere. In Aru, for example, when + we left, the little streams were all dried up, although the weather was + gloomy; while in January, February, and March, when we had the hottest + sunshine and the finest days, they were always flowing. The driest time of + all the year in Aru occurs in September and October, just as it does in + Java and Celebes. The rainy seasons agree, therefore, with those of the + western islands, although the weather is very different. The Molucca sea + is of a very deep blue colour, quite distinct from the clear light blue of + the Atlantic. In cloudy and dull weather it looks absolutely black, and + when crested with foam has a stern and angry aspect. The wind continued + fair and strong during our whole voyage, and we reached Macassar in + perfect safety on the evening of the 11th of July, having made the passage + from Aru (more than a thousand miles) in nine and a half days. + </p> + <p> + My expedition to the Aru Islands had been eminently successful. Although I + had been for months confined to the house by illness, and had lost much + time by the want of the means of locomotion, and by missing the right + season at the right place, I brought away with me more than nine thousand + specimens of natural objects, of about sixteen hundred distinct species. I + had made the acquaintance of a strange and little-known race of men; I had + become familiar with the traders of the far East; I had revelled in the + delights of exploring a new fauna and flora, one of the most remarkable + and most beautiful and least-known in the world; and I had succeeded in + the main object for which I had undertaken the journey-namely, to obtain + fine specimens of the magnificent Birds of Paradise, and to be enabled to + observe them in their native forests. By this success I was stimulated to + continue my researches in the Moluccas and New Guinea for nearly five + years longer, and it is still the portion of my travels to which I look + back with the most complete satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIII. THE ARU ISLANDS—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ASPECTS OF + </h2> + <p> + NATURE. + </p> + <p> + IN this chapter I propose to give a general sketch of the physical + geography of the Aru Islands, and of their relation to the surrounding + countries; and shall thus be able to incorporate the information obtained + from traders, and from the works of other naturalists with my own + observations in these exceedingly interesting and little-known regions. + </p> + <p> + The Aru group may be said to consist of one very large central island with + a number of small ones scattered round it. The great island is called by + the natives and traders "Tang-busar" (great or mainland), to distinguish + it as a whole from Dobbo, or any of the detached islands. It is of an + irregular oblong form, about eighty miles from north to south, and forty + or fifty from east to west, in which direction it is traversed by three + narrow channels, dividing it into four portions. These channels are always + called rivers by the traders, which puzzled me much till I passed through + one of them, and saw how exceedingly applicable the name was. The northern + channel, called the river of Watelai, is about a quarter of a mile wide at + its entrance, but soon narrows to abort the eighth of a mile, which width + it retains, with little variation, during its whole, length of nearly + fifty miles, till it again widens at its eastern mouth. Its course is + moderately winding, and the hanks are generally dry and somewhat elevated. + In many places there are low cliffs of hard coralline limestone, more or + less worn by the action of water; while sometimes level spaces extend from + the banks to low ranges of hills a little inland. A few small streams + enter it from right and left, at the mouths of which are some little rocky + islands. The depth is very regular, being from ten to fifteen fathoms, and + it has thus every feature of a true river, but for the salt water and the + absence of a current. The other two rivers, whose names are Vorkai and + Maykor, are said to be very similar in general character; but they are + rather near together, and have a number of cross channels intersecting the + flat tract between them. On the south side of Maykor the banks are very + rocky, and from thence to the southern extremity of Aru is an + uninterrupted extent of rather elevated and very rocky country, penetrated + by numerous small streams, in the high limestone cliffs bordering which + the edible birds' nests of Aru are chiefly obtained. All my informants + stated that the two southern rivers are larger than Watelai. + </p> + <p> + The whole of Aru is low, but by no means so flat as it has been + represented, or as it appears from the sea. Most of it is dry rocky + ground, with a somewhat undulating surface, rising here and there into + abrupt hillocks, or cut into steep and narrow ravines. Except the patches + of swamp which are found at the mouths of most of the small rivers, there + is no absolutely level ground, although the greatest elevation is probably + not more than two hundred feet. The rock which everywhere appears in the + ravines and brooks is a coralline limestone, in some places soft and + pliable, in others so hard and crystalline as to resemble our mountain + limestone. + </p> + <p> + The small islands which surround the central mass are very numerous; but + most of them are on the east side, where they form a fringe, often + extending ten or fifteen miles from the main islands. On the west there + are very few, Wamma and Palo Pabi being the chief, with Ougia, and Wassia + at the north-west extremity. On the east side the sea is everywhere + shallow, and full of coral; and it is here that the pearl-shells are found + which form one of the chief staples of Aru trade. All the islands are + covered with a dense and very lofty forest. + </p> + <p> + The physical features here described are of peculiar interest, and, as far + as I am aware, are to some extent unique; for I have been unable to find + any other record of an island of the size of Aru crossed by channels which + exactly resemble true rivers. How these channels originated were a + complete puzzle to me, till, after a long consideration of the whole of + the natural phenomena presented by these islands, I arrived at a + conclusion which I will now endeavour to explain. There are three ways in + which we may conceive islands which are not volcanic to have been formed, + or to have been reduced to their present condition, by elevation, by + subsidence, or by separation from a continent or larger island. The + existence of coral rock, or of raised beaches far inland, indicates recent + elevation; lagoon coral-islands, and such as have barrier or encircling + reefs, have suffered subsidence; while our own islands, whose productions + are entirely those of the adjacent continent, have been separated from it. + Now the Aru Islands are all coral rock, and the adjacent sea is shallow + and full of coral, it is therefore evident that they have been elevated + from beneath the ocean at a not very distant epoch. But if we suppose that + elevation to be the first and only cause of their present condition, we + shall find ourselves quite unable to explain the curious river-channels + which divide them. Fissures during upheaval would not produce the regular + width, the regular depth, or the winding curves which characterise them; + and the action of tides and currents during their elevation might form + straits of irregular width and depth, but not the river-like channels + which actually exist. If, again, we suppose the last movement to have been + one of subsidence, reducing the size of the islands, these channels are + quite as inexplicable; for subsidence would necessarily lead to the + flooding of all low tracts on the banks of the old rivers, and thus + obliterate their courses; whereas these remain perfect, and of nearly + uniform width from end to end. + </p> + <p> + Now if these channels have ever been rivers they must have flowed from + some higher regions, and this must have been to the east, because on the + north and west the sea-bottom sinks down at a short distance from the + shore to an unfathomable depth; whereas on the east, a shallow sea, + nowhere exceeding fifty fathoms, extends quite across to New Guinea, a + distance of about a hundred and fifty miles. An elevation of only three + hundred feet would convert the whole of this sea into moderately high + land, and make the Aru Islands a portion of New Guinea; and the rivers + which have their mouths at Utanata and Wamuka, might then have flowed on + across Aru, in the channels which are now occupied by salt water. Then the + intervening land sunk down, we must suppose the land that now constitutes + Aru to have remained nearly stationary, a not very improbable supposition, + when we consider the great extent of the shallow sea, and the very small + amount of depression the land need have undergone to produce it. + </p> + <p> + But the fact of the Aru Islands having once been connected with New Guinea + does not rest on this evidence alone. There is such a striking resemblance + between the productions of the two countries as only exists between + portions of a common territory. I collected one hundred species of + land-birds in the Aru Islands, and about eighty of them, have been found + on the mainland of New Guinea. Among these are the great wingless + cassowary, two species of heavy brush turkeys, and two of short winged + thrushes; which could certainly not have passed over the 150 miles of open + sea to the coast of New Guinea. This barrier is equally effectual in the + case of many other birds which live only in the depths of the forest, as + the kinghunters (Dacelo gaudichaudi), the fly-catching wrens (Todopsis), + the great crown pigeon (Goura coronata), and the small wood doves + (Ptilonopus perlatus, P. aurantiifrons, and P. coronulatus). Now, to show + the real effect of such barrier, let us take the island of Ceram, which is + exactly the same distance from New Guinea, but separated from it by a deep + sea. Cut of about seventy land-birds inhabiting Ceram, only fifteen are + found in New Guinea, and none of these are terrestrial or forest-haunting + species. The cassowary is distinct; the kingfishers, parrots, pigeons, + flycatchers, honeysuckers, thrushes, and cuckoos, are almost always quite + distinct species. More than this, at least twenty genera, which are common + to New Guinea and Aru, do not extend into Ceram, indicating with a force + which every naturalist will appreciate, that the two latter countries have + received their faunas in a radically different manner. Again, a true + kangaroo is found in Aru, and the same species occurs in Mysol, which is + equally Papuan in its productions, while either the same, or one closely + allied to it, inhabits New Guinea; but no such animal is found in Ceram, + which is only sixty miles from Mysol. Another small marsupial animal + (Perameles doreyanus) is common to Aru and New Guinea. The insects show + exactly the same results. The butterflies of Aru are all either New Guinea + species, or very slightly modified forms; whereas those of Ceram are more + distinct than are the birds of the two countries. + </p> + <p> + It is now generally admitted that we may safely reason on such facts as + those, which supply a link in the defective geological record. The upward + and downward movements which any country has undergone, and the succession + of such movements, can be determined with much accuracy; but geology alone + can tell us nothing of lands which have entirely disappeared beneath the + ocean. Here physical geography and the distribution of animals and plants + are of the greatest service. By ascertaining the depth of the seas + separating one country from another, we can form some judgment of the + changes which are taking place. If there are other evidences of + subsidence, a shallow sea implies a former connexion of the adjacent + lands; but if this evidence is wanting, or if there is reason to suspect a + rising of the land, then the shallow sea may be the result of that rising, + and may indicate that the two countries will be joined at some future + time, but not that they have previously been so. The nature of the animals + and plants inhabiting these countries will, however, almost always enable + us to determine this question. Mr. Darwin has shown us how we may + determine in almost every case, whether an island has ever been connected + with a continent or larger land, by the presence or absence of terrestrial + Mammalia and reptiles. What he terms "oceanic islands" possess neither of + these groups of animals, though they may have a luxuriant vegetation, and + a fair number of birds, insects, and landshells; and we therefore conclude + that they have originated in mid-ocean, and have never been connected with + the nearest masses of land. St. Helena, Madeira, and New Zealand are + examples of oceanic islands. They possess all other classes of life, + because these have means of dispersion over wide spaces of sea, which + terrestrial mammals and birds have not, as is fully explained in Sir + Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology," and Mr. Darwin's "Origin of + Species." On the other hand, an island may never have been actually + connected with the adjacent continents or islands, and yet may possess + representatives of all classes of animals, because many terrestrial + mammals and some reptiles have the means of passing over short distances + of sea. But in these cases the number of species that have thus migrated + will be very small, and there will be great deficiencies even in birds and + flying insects, which we should imagine could easily cross over. The + island of Timor (as I have already shown in Chapter XIII) bears this + relation to Australia; for while it contains several birds and insects of + Australian forms, no Australian mammal or reptile is found in it, and a + great number of the most abundant and characteristic forms of Australian + birds and insects are entirely absent. Contrast this with the British + Islands, in, which a large proportion of the plants, insects, reptiles, + and Mammalia of the adjacent parts of the continent are fully represented, + while there are no remarkable deficiencies of extensive groups, such as + always occur when there is reason to believe there has been no such + connexion. The case of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, and the Asiatic + continent is equally clear; many large Mammalia, terrestrial birds, and + reptiles being common to all, while a large number more are of closely + allied forms. Now, geology has taught us that this representation by + allied forms in the same locality implies lapse of time, and we therefore + infer that in Great Britain, where almost every species is absolutely + identical with those on the Continent, the separation has been very + recent; while in Sumatra and Java, where a considerable number of the + continental species are represented by allied forms, the separation was + more remote. + </p> + <p> + From these examples we may see how important a supplement to geological + evidence is the study of the geographical distribution of animals and + plants, in determining the former condition of the earth's surface; and + how impossible it is to understand the former without taking the latter + into account. The productions of the Aru Islands offer the strangest + evidence, that at no very distant epoch they formed a part of New Guinea; + and the peculiar physical features which I have described, indicate that + they must have stood at very nearly the same level then as they do now, + having been separated by the subsidence of the great plain which formerly + connected them with it. + </p> + <p> + Persons who have formed the usual ideas of the vegetation of the tropics + who picture to themselves the abundance and brilliancy of the flowers, and + the magnificent appearance of hundreds of forest trees covered with masses + of coloured blossoms, will be surprised to hear, that though vegetation in + Aru is highly luxuriant and varied, and would afford abundance of fine and + curious plants to adorn our hothouses, yet bright and showy flowers are, + as a general rule, altogether absent, or so very scarce as to produce no + effect whatever on the general scenery. To give particulars: I have + visited five distinct localities in the islands, I have wandered daily in + the forests, and have passed along upwards of a hundred miles of coast and + river during a period of six months, much of it very fine weather, and + till just as I was about to leave, I never saw a single plant of striking + brilliancy or beauty, hardly a shrub equal to a hawthorn, or a climber + equal to a honeysuckle! It cannot be said that the flowering season had + not arrived, for I saw many herbs, shrubs, and forest trees in flower, but + all had blossoms of a green or greenish-white tint, not superior to our + lime-trees. Here and there on the river banks and coasts are a few + Convolvulaceae, not equal to our garden Ipomaeas, and in the deepest + shades of the forest some fine scarlet and purple Zingiberaceae, but so + few and scattered as to be nothing amid the mass of green and flowerless + vegetation. Yet the noble Cycadaceae and screw-pines, thirty or forty feet + high, the elegant tree ferns, the lofty palms, and the variety of + beautiful and curious plants which everywhere meet the eye, attest the + warmth and moisture of the tropics, and the fertility of the soil. + </p> + <p> + It is true that Aru seemed to me exceptionally poor in flowers, but this + is only an exaggeration of a general tropical feature; for my whole + experience in the equatorial regions of the west and the east has + convinced me, that in the most luxuriant parts of the tropics, flowers are + less abundant, on the average less showy, and are far less effective in + adding colour to the landscape than in temperate climates. I have never + seen in the tropics such brilliant masses of colour as even England can + show in her furze-clad commons, her heathery mountain-sides, her glades of + wild hyacinths, her fields of poppies, her meadows of buttercups and + orchises—carpets of yellow, purple, azure-blue, and fiery crimson, + which the tropics can rarely exhibit. We, have smaller masses of colour in + our hawthorn and crab trees, our holly and mountain-ash, our boom; + foxgloves, primroses, and purple vetches, which clothe with gay colours + the whole length and breadth of our land, These beauties are all common. + They are characteristic of the country and the climate; they have not to + be sought for, but they gladden the eye at every step. In the regions of + the equator, on the other hand, whether it be forest or savannah, a sombre + green clothes universal nature. You may journey for hours, and even for + days, and meet with nothing to break the monotony. Flowers are everywhere + rare, and anything at all striking is only to be met with at very distant + intervals. + </p> + <p> + The idea that nature exhibits gay colours in the tropics, and that the + general aspect of nature is there more bright and varied in hue than with + us, has even been made the foundation of theories of art, and we have been + forbidden to use bright colours in our garments, and in the decorations of + our dwellings, because it was supposed that we should be thereby acting in + opposition to the teachings of nature. The argument itself is a very poor + one, since it might with equal justice be maintained, that as we possess + faculties for the appreciation of colours, we should make up for the + deficiencies of nature and use the gayest tints in those regions where the + landscape is most monotonous. But the assumption on which the argument is + founded is totally false, so that even if the reasoning were valid, we + need not be afraid of outraging nature, by decorating our houses and our + persons with all those gay hues which are so lavishly spread over our + fields and mountains, our hedges, woods, and meadows. + </p> + <p> + It is very easy to see what has led to this erroneous view of the nature + of tropical vegetation. In our hothouses and at our flower-shows we gather + together the finest flowering plants from the most distant regions of the + earth, and exhibit them in a proximity to each other which never occurs in + nature. A hundred distinct plants, all with bright, or strange, or + gorgeous flowers, make a wonderful show when brought together; but perhaps + no two of these plants could ever be seen together in a state of nature, + each inhabiting a distant region or a different station. Again, all + moderately warm extra-European countries are mixed up with the tropics in + general estimation, and a vague idea is formed that whatever is + preeminently beautiful must come from the hottest parts of the earth. But + the fact is quite the contrary. Rhododendrons and azaleas are plants of + temperate regions, the grandest lilies are from temperate Japan, and a + large proportion of our most showy flowering plants are natives of the + Himalayas, of the Cape, of the United States, of Chili, or of China and + Japan, all temperate regions. True, there are a great number of grand and + gorgeous flowers in the tropics, but the proportion they bear to the mass + of the vegetation is exceedingly small; so that what appears an anomaly is + nevertheless a fact, and the effect of flowers on the general aspect of + nature is far less in the equatorial than in the temperate regions of the + earth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIV. NEW GUINEA.—DOREY. + </h2> + <h3> + (MARCH TO JULY 1858.) + </h3> + <p> + AFTER my return from Gilolo to Ternate, in March 1858, I made arrangements + for my long-wished-for voyage to the mainland of New Guinea, where I + anticipated that my collections would surpass those which I had formed at + the Aru Islands. The poverty of Ternate in articles used by Europeans was + shown, by my searching in vain through all the stores for such common + things as flour, metal spoons, wide-mouthed phials, beeswax, a penknife, + and a stone or metal pestle and mortar. I took with me four servants: my + head man Ali, and a Ternate lad named Jumaat (Friday), to shoot; Lahagi, a + steady middle-aged man, to cut timber and assist me in insect-collecting; + and Loisa, a Javanese cook. As I knew I should have to build a house at + Dorey, where I was going, I took with me eighty cadjans, or waterproof + mats, made of pandanus leaves, to cover over my baggage on first landing, + and to help to roof my house afterwards. + </p> + <p> + We started on the 25th of March in the schooner Hester Helena, belonging + to my friend Mr. Duivenboden, and bound on a trading voyage along the + north coast of New Guinea. Having calms and light airs, we were three days + reaching Gane, near the south end of Gilolo, where we stayed to fill up + our water-casks and buy a few provisions. We obtained fowls, eggs, sago, + plantains, sweet potatoes, yellow pumpkins, chilies, fish, and dried + deer's meat; and on the afternoon of the 29th proceeded on our voyage to + Dorey harbour. We found it, however, by no means easy to get along; for so + near to the equator the monsoons entirely fail of their regularity, and + after passing the southern point of Gilolo we had calms, light puffs of + wind, and contrary currents, which kept us for five days in sight of the + same islands between it and Poppa. A squall them brought us on to the + entrance of Dampier's Straits, where we were again becalmed, and were + three more days creeping through them. Several native canoes now came off + to us from Waigiou on one side, and Batanta on the other, bringing a few + common shells, palm-leaf mats, cocoa-nuts, and pumpkins. They were very + extravagant in their demands, being accustomed to sell their trifles to + whalers and China ships, whose crews will purchase anything at ten times + its value. My only purchases were a float belonging to a turtle-spear, + carved to resemble a bird, and a very well made palm-leaf box, for which + articles I gave a copper ring and a yard of calico. The canoes were very + narrow and furnished with an outrigger, and in some of them there was only + one man, who seemed to think nothing of coming out alone eight or ten + miles from shore. The people were Papuans, much resembling the natives of + Aru. + </p> + <p> + When we had got out of the Straits, and were fairly in the great Pacific + Ocean, we had a steady wind for the first time since leaving Ternate, but + unfortunately it was dead ahead, and we had to beat against it, tacking on + and off the coast of New Guinea. I looked with intense interest on those + rugged mountains, retreating ridge behind ridge into the interior, where + the foot of civilized man had never trod. There was the country of the + cassowary and the tree-kangaroo, and those dark forests produced the most + extraordinary and the most beautiful of the feathered inhabitants of the + earth—the varied species of Birds of Paradise. A few days more and I + hoped to be in pursuit of these, and of the scarcely less beautiful + insects which accompany them. We had still, however, for several days only + calms and light head-winds, and it was not till the 10th of April that a + fine westerly breeze set in, followed by a squally night, which kept us + off the entrance of Dorey harbour. The next morning we entered, and came + to anchor off the small island of Mansinam, on which dwelt two German + missionaries, Messrs. Otto and Geisler. The former immediately came on + board to give us welcome, and invited us to go on shore and breakfast with + him. We were then introduced to his companion who was suffering dreadfully + from an abscess on the heel, which had confined him to the house for six + months—and to his wife, a young German woman, who had been out only + three months. Unfortunately she could speak no Malay or English, and had + to guess at our compliments on her excellent breakfast by the justice we + did to it. + </p> + <p> + These missionaries were working men, and had been sent out, as being more + useful among savages than persons of a higher class. They had been here + about two years, and Mr. Otto had already learnt to speak the Papuan + language with fluency, and had begun translating some portions of the + Bible. The language, however, is so poor that a considerable number of + Malay words have to be used; and it is very questionable whether it is + possible to convey any idea of such a book, to a people in so low a state + of civilization. The only nominal converts yet made are a few of the + women; and some few of the children attend school, and are being taught to + read, but they make little progress. There is one feature of this mission + which I believe will materially interfere with its moral effect. The + missionaries are allowed to trade to eke out the very small salaries + granted them from Europe, and of course are obliged to carry out the trade + principle of buying cheap and selling dear, in order to make a profit. + Like all savages the natives are quite careless of the future, and when + their small rice crops are gathered they bring a large portion of it to + the missionaries, and sell it for knives, beads, axes, tobacco, or any + other articles they may require. A few months later, in the wet season, + when food is scarce, they come to buy it back again, and give in exchange + tortoiseshell, tripang, wild nutmegs, or other produce. Of course the rice + is sold at a much higher rate than it was bought, as is perfectly fair and + just—and the operation is on the whole thoroughly beneficial to the + natives, who would otherwise consume and waste their food when it was + abundant, and then starve—yet I cannot imagine that the natives see + it in this light. They must look upon the trading missionaries with some + suspicion, and cannot feel so sure of their teachings being disinterested, + as would be the case if they acted like the Jesuits in Singapore. The + first thing to be done by the missionary in attempting to improve savages, + is to convince them by his actions that lie comes among them for their + benefit only, and not for any private ends of his own. To do this he must + act in a different way from other men, not trading and taking advantage of + the necessities of those who want to sell, but rather giving to those who + are in distress. It would be well if he conformed himself in some degree + to native customs, and then endeavoured to show how these customs might be + gradually modified, so as to be more healthful and more agreeable. A few + energetic and devoted men acting in this way might probably effect a + decided moral improvement on the lowest savage tribes, whereas trading + missionaries, teaching what Jesus said, but not doing as He did, can + scarcely be expected to do more than give them a very little of the + superficial varnish of religion. + </p> + <p> + Dorey harbour is in a fine bay, at one extremity of which an elevated + point juts out, and, with two or three small islands, forms a sheltered + anchorage. The only vessel it contained when we arrived was a Dutch brig, + laden with coals for the use of a war-steamer, which was expected daily, + on an exploring expedition along the coasts of New Guinea, for the purpose + of fixing on a locality for a colony. In the evening we paid it a visit, + and landed at the village of Dorey, to look out for a place where I could + build my house. Mr. Otto also made arrangements for me with some of the + native chiefs, to send men to cut wood, rattans, and bamboo the next day. + </p> + <p> + The villages of Mansinam and Dorey presented some features quite new to + me. The houses all stand completely in the water, and are reached by long + rude bridges. They are very low, with the roof shaped like a large boat, + bottom upwards. The posts which support the houses, bridges, and platforms + are small crooked sticks, placed without any regularity, and looking as if + they were tumbling down. The floors are also formed of sticks, equally + irregular, and so loose and far apart that I found it almost impossible to + walls on them. The walls consist of bits of boards, old boats, rotten + mats, attaps, and palm-leaves, stuck in anyhow here and there, and having + altogether the most wretched and dilapidated appearance it is possible to + conceive. Under the eaves of many of the houses hang human skulls, the + trophies of their battles with the savage Arfaks of the interior, who + often come to attack them. A large boat-shaped council-house is supported + on larger posts, each of which is grossly carved to represent a naked male + or female human figure, and other carvings still more revolting are placed + upon the platform before the entrance. The view of an ancient + lake-dweller's village, given as the frontispiece of Sir Charles Lyell's + "Antiquity of Man," is chiefly founded on a sketch of this very village of + Dorey; but the extreme regularity of the structures there depicted has no + place in the original, any more than it probably had in the actual + lake-villages. + </p> + <p> + The people who inhabit these miserable huts are very similar to the Ke and + Aru islanders, and many of them are very handsome, being tall and + well-made, with well-cut features and large aquiline noses. Their colour + is a deep brown, often approaching closely to black, and the fine mop-like + heads of frizzly hair appear to be more common than elsewhere, and are + considered a great ornament, a long six-pronged bamboo fork being kept + stuck in them to serve the purpose of a comb; and this is assiduously used + at idle moments to keep the densely growing mass from becoming matted and + tangled. The majority have short woolly hair, which does not seem capable + of an equally luxuriant development. A growth of hair somewhat similar to + this, and almost as abundant, is found among the half-breeds between the + Indian and Negro in South America. Can this be an indication that the + Papuans are a mixed race? + </p> + <p> + For the first three days after our arrival I was fully occupied from + morning to night building a house, with the assistance of a dozen Papuans + and my own men. It was immense trouble to get our labourers to work, as + scarcely one of them could speak a word of Malay; and it was only by the + most energetic gesticulations, and going through a regular pantomime of + what was wanted, that we could get them to do anything. If we made them + understand that a few more poles were required, which two could have + easily cut, six or eight would insist upon going together, although we + needed their assistance in other things. One morning ten of them came to + work, bringing only one chopper between them, although they knew I had + none ready for use. + </p> + <p> + I chose a place about two hundred yards from the beach, on an elevated + ground, by the side of the chief path from the village of Dorey to the + provision-grounds and the forest. Within twenty yards was a little stream; + which furnished us with excellent water and a nice place to bathe. There + was only low underwood to clear away, while some fine forest trees stood + at a short distance, and we cut down the wood for about twenty yards round + to give us light and air. The house, about twenty feet by fifteen; was + built entirely of wood, with a bamboo floor, a single door of thatch, and + a large window, looking over the sea, at which I fixed my table, and close + beside it my bed, within a little partition. I bought a number of very + large palm-leaf mats of the natives, which made excellent walls; while the + mats I had brought myself were used on the roof, and were covered over + with attaps as soon as we could get them made. Outside, and rather behind, + was a little hut, used for cooking, and a bench, roofed over, where my men + could sit to skin birds and animals. When all was finished, I had my goods + and stores brought up, arranged them conveniently inside, and then paid my + Papuans with knives and choppers, and sent them away. The next day our + schooner left for the more eastern islands, and I found myself fairly + established as the only European inhabitant of the vast island of New + Guinea. + </p> + <p> + As we had some doubt about the natives, we slept at first with loaded guns + beside us and a watch set; but after a few days, finding the people + friendly, and feeling sure that they would not venture to attack five + well-armed men, we took no further precautions. We had still a day or + two's work in finishing up the house, stopping leaks, putting up our + hanging shelves for drying specimens inside and out, and making the path + down to the water, and a clear dry space in front of the horse. + </p> + <p> + On the 17th, the steamer not having arrived, the coal-ship left, having + lain here a month, according to her contract; and on the same day my + hunters went out to shoot for the first time, and brought home a + magnificent crown pigeon and a few common birds. The next day they were + more successful, and I was delighted to see them return with a Bird of + Paradise in full plumage, a pair of the fine Papuan lories (Lorius + domicella), four other lories and parroquets, a grackle (Gracula dumonti), + a king-hunter (Dacelo gaudichaudi), a racquet-tailed kingfisher + (Tanysiptera galatea), and two or three other birds of less beauty. + </p> + <p> + I went myself to visit the native village on the hill behind Dorey, and + took with me a small present of cloth, knives, and beads, to secure the + good-will of the chief, and get him to send some men to catch or shoot + birds for me. The houses were scattered about among rudely cultivated + clearings. Two which I visited consisted of a central passage, on each + side of which opened short passages, admitting to two rooms, each of which + was a house accommodating a separate family. They were elevated at least + fifteen feet above the ground, on a complete forest of poles, and were so + rude and dilapidated that some of the small passages had openings in the + floor of loose sticks, through which a child might fall. The inhabitants + seemed rather uglier than those at Dorey village. They are, no doubt, the + true indigenes of this part of New Guinea, living in the interior, and + subsisting by cultivation and hunting. The Dorey men, on the other hand, + are shore-dwellers, fishers and traders in a small way, and have thus the + character of a colony who have migrated from another district. These + hillmen or "Arfaks" differed much in physical features. They were + generally black, but some were brown like Malays. Their hair, though + always more or less frizzly, was sometimes short and matted, instead of + being long, loose, and woolly; and this seemed to be a constitutional + difference, not the effect of care and cultivation. Nearly half of them + were afflicted with the scurfy skin-disease. The old chief seemed much + pleased with his present, and promised (through an interpreter I brought + with me) to protect my men when they came there shooting, and also to + procure me some birds and animals. While conversing, they smoked tobacco + of their own growing, in pipes cut from a single piece of wood with a long + upright handle. + </p> + <p> + We had arrived at Dorey about the end of the wet season, when the whole + country was soaked with moisture The native paths were so neglected as to + be often mere tunnels closed over with vegetation, and in such places + there was always a fearful accumulation of mud. To the naked Papuan this + is no obstruction. He wades through it, and the next watercourse makes him + clean again; but to myself, wearing boots and trousers, it was a most + disagreeable thing to have to go up to my knees in a mud-hole every + morning. The man I brought with me to cut wood fell ill soon after we + arrived, or I would have set him to clear fresh paths in the worst places. + For the first ten days it generally rained every afternoon and all night r + but by going out every hour of fine weather, I managed to get on tolerably + with my collections of birds and insects, finding most of those collected + by Lesson during his visit in the Coquille, as well as many new ones. It + appears, however, that Dorey is not the place for Birds of Paradise, none + of the natives being accustomed to preserve them. Those sold here are all + brought from Amberbaki, about a hundred miles west, where the Doreyans go + to trade. + </p> + <p> + The islands in the bay, with the low lands near the coast, seem to have + been formed by recently raised coral reef's, and are much strewn with + masses of coral but little altered. The ridge behind my house, which runs + out to the point, is also entirely coral rock, although there are signs of + a stratified foundation in the ravines, and the rock itself is more + compact and crystalline. It is therefore, probably older, a more recent + elevation having exposed the low grounds and islands. On the other side of + the bay rise the great mass of the Arfak mountains, said by the French + navigators to be about ten thousand feet high, and inhabited by savage + tribes. These are held in great dread by the Dorey people, who have often + been attacked and plundered by them, and have some of their skulls hanging + outside their houses. If I was seem going into the forest anywhere in the + direction of the mountains, the little boys of the village would shout + after me, "Arfaki! Arfaki?" just as they did after Lesson nearly forty + years before. + </p> + <p> + On the 15th of May the Dutch war-steamer Etna arrived; but, as the coals + had gone, it was obliged to stay till they came back. The captain knew + when the coalship was to arrive, and how long it was chartered to stay at + Dorey, and could have been back in time, but supposed it would wait for + him, and so did not hurry himself. The steamer lay at anchor just opposite + my house, and I had the advantage of hearing the half-hourly bells struck, + which was very pleasant after the monotonous silence of the forest. The + captain, doctor, engineer, and some other of the officers paid me visits; + the servants came to the brook to wash clothes, and the son of the Prince + of Tidore, with one or two companions, to bathe; otherwise I saw little of + them, and was not disturbed by visitors so much as I had expected to be. + About this time the weather set in pretty fine, but neither birds nor + insects became much more abundant, and new birds-were very scarce. None of + the Birds of Paradise except the common one were ever met with, and we + were still searching in vain for several of the fine birds which Lesson + had obtained here. Insects were tolerably abundant, but were not on the + average so fine as those of Amboyna, and I reluctantly came to the + conclusion that Dorey was not a good collecting locality. Butterflies were + very scarce, and were mostly the same as those which I had obtained at + Aru. + </p> + <p> + Among the insects of other orders, the most curious and novel were a group + of horned flies, of which I obtained four distinct species, settling on + fallen trees and decaying trunks. These remarkable insects, which have + been described by Mr. W. W. Saunders as a new genus, under the name of + Elaphomia or deer-flies, are about half an inch long, slender-bodied, and + with very long legs, which they draw together so as to elevate their + bodies high above the surface they are standing upon. The front pair of + legs are much shorter, and these are often stretched directly forwards, so + as to resemble antenna. The horns spring from beneath the eye, and seem to + be a prolongation of the lower part of the orbit. In the largest and most + singular species, named Elaphomia cervicornis or the stag-horned deer-fly, + these horns are nearly as long as the body, having two branches, with two + small snags near their bifurcation, so as to resemble the horns of a stag. + They are black, with the tips pale, while the body and legs are yellowish + brown, and the eyes (when alive) violet and green. The next species + (Elaphomia wallacei) is of a dark brown colour, banded and spotted with + yellow. The horns are about one-third the length of the insect, broad, + flat, and of an elongated triangular foam. They are of a beautiful pink + colour, edged with black, and with a pale central stripe. The front part + of the head is also pink, and the eyes violet pink, with a green stripe + across them, giving the insect a very elegant and singular appearance. The + third species (Elaphomia alcicornis, the elk-horned deer-fly) is a little + smaller than the two already described, but resembling in colour Elaphomia + wallacei. The horns are very remarkable, being suddenly dilated into a + flat plate, strongly toothed round the outer margin, and strikingly + resembling the horns of the elk, after which it has been named. They are + of a yellowish colour, margined with brown, and tipped with black on the + three upper teeth. The fourth species (Elaphomia brevicornis, the + short-horned deer-fly) differs considerably from the rest. It is stouter + in form, of a nearly black colour, with a yellow ring at the base of the + abdomen; the wings have dusky stripes, and the head is compressed and + dilated laterally, with very small flat horns; which are black with a pale + centre, and look exactly like the rudiment of the horns of the two + preceding species. None of the females have any trace of the horns, and + Mr. Saunders places in the same genus a species which has no horns in + either sex (Elaphomia polita). It is of a shining black colour, and + resembles Elaphomia cervicornis in form, size, and general appearance. The + figures above given represent these insects of their natural size and in + characteristic attitudes. + </p> + <p> + The natives seldom brought me anything. They are poor creatures, and, + rarely shoot a bird, pig, or kangaroo, or even the sluggish opossum-like + Cuscus. The tree-kangaroos are found here, but must be very scarce, as my + hunters, although out daily in the forest, never once saw them. Cockatoos, + lories, and parroquets were really the only common birds. Even pigeons + were scarce, and in little variety, although we occasionally got the fine + crown pigeon, which was always welcome as an addition to our scantily + furnished larder. + </p> + <p> + Just before the steamer arrived I had wounded my ankle by clambering among + the trunks and branches of fallen trees (which formed my best hunting + grounds for insects), and, as usual with foot wounds in this climate, it + turned into an obstinate ulcer, keeping me in the house for several days. + When it healed up it was followed by an internal inflammation of the foot, + which by the doctor's advice I poulticed incessantly for four or five + days, bringing out a severe inflamed swelling on the tendon above the + heel. This had to be leeched, and lanced, and doctored with ointments and + poultices for several weeks, till I was almost driven to despair,—for + the weather was at length fine, and I was tantalized by seeing grand + butterflies flying past my door, and thinking of the twenty or thirty new + species of insects that I ought to be getting every day. And this, too, in + New Guinea—a country which I might never visit again,—a + country which no naturalist had ever resided in before,—a country + which contained more strange and new and beautiful natural objects than + any other part of the globe. The naturalist will be able to appreciate my + feelings, sitting from morning to night in my little hut, unable to move + without a crutch, and my only solace the birds my hunters brought in every + afternoon, and the few insects caught by my Ternate man, Lahagi, who now + went out daily in my place, but who of course did not get a fourth part of + what I should have obtained. To add to my troubles all my men were more or + less ill, some with fever, others with dysentery or ague; at one time + there were three of them besides myself all helpless, the coon alone being + well, and having enough to do to wait upon us. The Prince of Tidore and + the Resident of Panda were both on board the steamer, and were seeking + Birds of Paradise, sending men round in every direction, so that there was + no chance of my getting even native skins of the rarer kinds; and any + birds, insects, or animals the Dorey people had to sell were taken on + board the steamer, where purchasers were found for everything, and where a + larger variety of articles were offered in exchange than I had to show. + </p> + <p> + After a month's close confinement in the house I was at length able to go + out a little, and about the same time I succeeded in getting a boat and + six natives to take Ali and Lahagi to Amberbaki, and to bring them back at + the end of a month. Ali was charged to buy all the Birds of Paradise he + could get, and to shoot and skin all other rare or new birds; and Lahagi + was to collect insects, which I hoped might be more abundant than at + Dorey. When I recommenced my daily walks in search of insects, I found a + great change in the neighbourhood, and one very agreeable to me. All the + time I had been laid up the ship's crew and the Javanese soldiers who had + been brought in a tender (a sailing ship which had arrived soon after the + Etna), had been employed cutting down, sawing, and splitting large trees + for firewood, to enable the steamer to get back to Amboyna if the + coal-ship did not return; and they had also cleared a number of wide, + straight paths through the forest in various directions, greatly to the + astonishment of the natives, who could not make out what it all meant. I + had now a variety of walks, and a good deal of dead wood on which to + search for insects; but notwithstanding these advantages, they were not + nearly so plentiful as I had found them at Sarawak, or Amboyna, or + Batchian, confirming my opinion that Dorey was not a good locality. It is + quite probable, however, that at a station a few miles in the interior, + away from the recently elevated coralline rocks and the influence of the + sea air, a much more abundant harvest might be obtained. + </p> + <p> + One afternoon I went on board the steamer to return the captain's visit, + and was shown some very nice sketches (by one of the lieutenants), made on + the south coast, and also at the Arfak mountain, to which they had made an + excursion. From these and the captain's description, it appeared that the + people of Arfak were similar to those of Dorey, and I could hear nothing + of the straight-haired race which Lesson says inhabits the interior, but + which no one has ever seen, and the account of which I suspect has + originated in some mistake. The captain told me he had made a detailed + survey of part of the south coast, and if the coal arrived should go away + at once to Humboldt Pay, in longitude 141° east, which is the line up to + which the Dutch claim New Guinea. On board the tender I found a brother + naturalist, a German named Rosenberg, who was draughtsman to the surveying + staff. He had brought two men with him to shoot and skin birds, and had + been able to purchase a few rare skins from the natives. Among these was a + pair of the superb Paradise Pie (Astrapia nigra) in tolerable + preservation. They were brought from the island of Jobie, which may be its + native country, as it certainly is of the rarer species of crown pigeon + (Goura steursii), one of which was brought alive and sold on board. Jobie, + however, is a very dangerous place, and sailors are often murdered there + when on shore; sometimes the vessels themselves being attacked. Wandammen, + on the mainland opposite Jobie, inhere there are said to be plenty of + birds, is even worse, and at either of these places my life would not have + been worth a week's purchase had I ventured to live alone and unprotected + as at Dorey. On board the steamer they had a pair of tree kangaroos alive. + They differ chiefly from the ground-kangaroo in having a more hairy tail, + not thickened at the base, and not used as a prop; and by the powerful + claws on the fore-feet, by which they grasp the bark and branches, and + seize the leaves on which they feed. They move along by short jumps on + their hind-feet, which do not seem particularly well adapted for climbing + trees. It has been supposed that these tree-kangaroos are a special + adaptation to the swampy, half-drowned forests of, New Guinea, in place of + the usual form of the group, which is adapted only to dry ground. Mr. + Windsor Earl makes much of this theory, but, unfortunately for it, the + tree-kangaroos are chiefly found in the northern peninsula of New Guinea, + which is entirely composed of hills and mountains with very little flat + land, while the kangaroo of the low flat Aru Islands (Dorcopsis asiaticus) + is a ground species. A more probable supposition seems to lie, that the + tree-kangaroo has been modified to enable it to feed on foliage in the + vast forests of New Guinea, as these form the great natural feature which + distinguishes that country from Australia. + </p> + <p> + On June 5th, the coal-ship arrived, having been sent back from Amboyna, + with the addition of some fresh stores for the steamer. The wood, which + had been almost all taken on board, was now unladen again, the coal taken + in, and on the 17th both steamer and tender left for Humboldt Bay. We were + then a little quiet again, and got something to eat; for while the vessels + were here every bit of fish or vegetable was taken on board, and I had + often to make a small parroquet serve for two meals. My men now returned + from Amberbaki, but, alas brought me almost nothing. They had visited + several villages, and even went two days' journey into the interior, but + could find no skins of Birds of Paradise to purchase, except the common + kind, and very few even of those. The birds found were the same as at + Dorey, but were still scarcer. None of the natives anywhere near the coast + shoot or prepare Birds of Paradise, which come from far in the interior + over two or three ranges of mountains, passing by barter from village to + village till they reach the sea. There the natives of Dorey buy them, and + on their return home sell them to the Bugis or Ternate traders. It is + therefore hopeless for a traveller to go to any particular place on the + coast of New Guinea where rare Paradise birds may have been bought, in + hopes of obtaining freshly killed specimens from the natives; and it also + shows the scarcity of these birds in any one locality, since from the + Amberbaki district, a celebrated place, where at least five or six species + have been procured, not one of the rarer ones has been obtained this year. + The Prince of Tidore, who would certainly have got them if any were to be + had, was obliged to put up with a few of the common yellow ones. I think + it probable that a longer residence at Dorey, a little farther in the + interior, might show that several of the rarer kinds were found there, as + I obtained a single female of the fine scale-breasted Ptiloris magnificus. + I was told at Ternate of a bird that is certainly not yet known in Europe, + a black King Paradise Bird, with the curled tail and beautiful side plumes + of the common species, but all the rest of the plumage glossy black. The + people of Dorey knew nothing about this, although they recognised by + description most of the otter species. + </p> + <p> + When the steamer left, I was suffering from a severe attack of fever. In + about a week I got over this, but it was followed by such a soreness of + the whole inside of the mouth, tongue, and gums, that for many days I + could put nothing solid between my lips, but was obliged to subsist + entirely on slops, although in other respects very well. At the same time + two of my men again fell ill, one with fever, the other with dysentery, + and both got very bad. I did what I could for them with my small stock of + medicines, but they lingered on for some weeks, till on June 26th poor + Jumaat died. He was about eighteen years of age, a native, I believe, of + Bouton, and a quiet lad, not very active, but doing his work pretty + steadily, and as well as he was able. As my men were all Mahometans, I let + them bury him in their own fashion, giving them some new cotton cloth for + a shroud. + </p> + <p> + On July 6th the steamer returned from the eastward. The weather was still + terribly wet, when, according to rule, it should have been fine and dry. + We had scarcely anything to eat, and were all of us ill. Fevers, colds, + and dysentery were continually attacking us, and made me long I-o get away + from New Guinea, as much as ever I had longed to come there. The captain + of the Etna paid me a visit, and gave me a very interesting account of his + trip. They had stayed at Humboldt Bay several days, and found it a much + more beautiful and more interesting place than Dorey, as well as a better + harbour. The natives were quite unsophisticated, being rarely visited + except by stray whalers, and they were superior to the Dorey people, + morally and physically. They went quite naked. Their houses were some in + the water and some inland, and were all neatly and well built; their + fields were well cultivated, and the paths to them kept clear and open, in + which respects Dorey is abominable. They were shy at first, and opposed + the boats with hostile demonstrations, beading their bows, and intimating + that they would shoot if an attempt was made to land. Very judiciously the + captain gave way, but threw on shore a few presents, and after two or + three trials they were permitted to land, and to go about and see the + country, and were supplied with fruits and vegetables. All communication + was carried on with them by signs—the Dorey interpreter, who + accompanied the steamer, being unable to understand a word of their + language. No new birds or animals were obtained, but in their ornaments + the feathers of Paradise birds were seen, showing, as might be expected, + that these birds range far in this direction, and probably all over New + Guinea. + </p> + <p> + It is curious that a rudimental love of art should co-exist with such a + very low state of civilization. The people of Dorey are great carvers and + painters. The outsides of the houses, wherever there is a plank, are + covered with rude yet characteristic figures. The high-peaked prows of + their boats are ornamented with masses of open filagree work, cut out of + solid blocks of wood, and often of very tasteful design, As a figurehead, + or pinnacle, there is often a human figure, with a head of cassowary + feathers to imitate the Papuan "mop." The floats of their fishing-lines, + the wooden beaters used in tempering the clay for their pottery, their + tobacco-boxes, and other household articles, are covered with carving of + tasteful and often elegant design. Did we not already know that such taste + and skill are compatible with utter barbarism, we could hardly believe + that the same people are, in other matters, utterly wanting in all sense + of order, comfort, or decency. Yet such is the case. They live in the most + miserable, crazy, and filthy hovels, which are utterly destitute of + anything that can be called furniture; not a stool, or bench, or board is + seen in them, no brush seems to be known, and the clothes they wear are + often filthy bark, or rags, or sacking. Along the paths where they daily + pass to and from their provision grounds, not an overhanging bough or + straggling briar ever seems to be cut, so that you have to brush through a + rank vegetation, creep under fallen trees and spiny creepers, and wade + through pools of mud and mire, which cannot dry up because the sun is not + allowed to penetrate. Their food is almost wholly roots and vegetables, + with fish or game only as an occasional luxury, and they are consequently + very subject to various skin diseases, the children especially being often + miserable-looking objects, blotched all over with eruptions and sores. If + these people are not savages, where shall we find any? Yet they have all a + decided love for the fine arts, and spend their leisure time in executing + works whose good taste and elegance would often be admired in our schools + of design! + </p> + <p> + During the latter part of my stay in New Guinea the weather was very wet, + my only shooter was ill, and birds became scarce, so that my only resource + was insect-hunting. I worked very hard every hour of fine weather, and + daily obtained a number of new species. Every dead tree and fallen log was + searched and searched again; and among the dry and rotting leaves, which + still hung on certain trees which had been cut down, I found an abundant + harvest of minute Coleoptera. Although I never afterwards found so many + large and handsome beetles as in Borneo, yet I obtained here a great + variety of species. For the first two or three weeks, while I was + searching out the best localities, I took about 30 different kinds of + beetles n day, besides about half that number of butterflies, and a few of + the other orders. But afterwards, up to the very last week, I averaged 49 + species a day. On the 31st of May, I took 78 distinct sorts, a larger + number than I had ever captured before, principally obtained among dead + trees and under rotten bark. A good long walk on a fine day up the hill, + and to the plantations of the natives, capturing everything not very + common that came in my way, would produce about 60 species; but on the + last day of June I brought home no less than 95 distinct kinds of beetles, + a larger number than I ever obtained in one day before or since. It was a + fine hot day, and I devoted it to a search among dead leaves, beating + foliage, and hunting under rotten bark, in all the best stations I had + discovered during my walks. I was out from ten in the morning till three + in the afternoon, and it took me six hours' work at home to pin and set + out all the specimens, and to separate the species. Although T had already + been working this shot daily for two months and a half, and had obtained + over 800 species of Coleoptera, this day's work added 32 new ones. Among + these were 4 Longicorns, 2 Caribidae, 7 Staphylinidae, 7 Curculionidae, 2 + Copridae, 4 Chrysomelidae, 3 Heteromera, 1 Elates, and 1 Buprestis. Even + on the last day I went out, I obtained 10 new species; so that although I + collected over a thousand distinct sorts of beetles in a space not much + exceeding a square mile during the three months of my residence at Dorey, + I cannot believe that this represents one half the species really + inhabiting the same spot, or a fourth of what might be obtained in an area + extending twenty miles in each direction. + </p> + <p> + On the 22d of July the schooner Hester Helena arrived, and five days + afterwards we bade adieu to Dorey, without much regret, for in no place + which I have visited have I encountered more privations and annoyances. + Continual rain, continual sickness, little wholesome food, with a plague + of ants and files, surpassing anything I had before met with, required all + a naturalist's ardour to encounter; and when they were uncompensated by + great success in collecting, became all the more insupportable. This long + thought-of and much-desired voyage to New Guinea had realized none of my + expectations. Instead of being far better than the Aru Islands, it was in + almost everything much worse. Instead of producing several of the rarer + Paradise birds, I had not even seen one of them, and had not obtained any + one superlatively fine bird or insect. I cannot deny, however, that Dorey + was very rich in ants. One small black kind was excessively abundant. + Almost every shrub and tree was more or less infested with it, and its + large papery nests were everywhere to be seen. They immediately took + possession of my house, building a large nest in the roof, and forming + papery tunnels down almost every post. They swarmed on my table as I was + at work setting out my insects, carrying them off from under my very nose, + and even tearing them from the cards on which they were gummed if I left + them for an instant. They crawled continually over my hands and face, got + into my hair, and roamed at will over my whole body, not producing much + inconvenience till they began to bite, which they would do on meeting with + any obstruction to their passage, and with a sharpness which made me jump + again and rush to undress and turn out the offender. They visited my bed + also, so that night brought no relief from their persecutions; and I + verily believe that during my three and a half months' residence at Dorey + I was never for a single hour entirely free from them. They were not + nearly so voracious as many other kinds, but their numbers and ubiquity + rendered it necessary to be constantly on guard against them. + </p> + <p> + The flies that troubled me most were a large kind of blue-bottle or + blow-fly. These settled in swarms on my bird skins when first put out to + dry, filling their plumage with masses of eggs, which, if neglected, the + next day produced maggots. They would get under the wings or under the + body where it rested on the drying-board, sometimes actually raising it up + half an inch by the mass of eggs deposited in a few hours; and every egg + was so firmly glued to the fibres of the feathers, as to make it a work of + much time and patience to get them off without injuring the bird. In no + other locality have I ever been troubled with such a plague as this. + </p> + <p> + On the 29th we left Dorey, and expected a quick voyage home, as it was the + time of year when we ought to have had steady southerly and easterly + winds. Instead of these, however, we had calms and westerly breezes, and + it was seventeen days before we reached Ternate, a distance of five + hundred miles only, which, with average winds, could have been done in + five days. It was a great treat to me to find myself back again in my + comfortable house, enjoying milk to my tea and coffee, fresh bread and + butter, and fowl and fish daily for dinner. This New Guinea voyage had + used us all up, and I determined to stay and recruit before I commenced + any fresh expeditions. My succeeding journeys to Gilolo and Batchian have + already been narrated, and if; now only remains for me to give an account + of my residence in Waigiou, the last Papuan territory I visited in search + of Birds of Paradise. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXV. VOYAGE FROM CERAM TO WAIGIOU. + </h2> + <h3> + (JUNE AND JULY 1860.) + </h3> + <p> + IN my twenty-fifth chapter I have described my arrival at Wahai, on my way + to Mysol and Waigiou, islands which belong to the Papuan district, and the + account of which naturally follows after that of my visit to the mainland + of New Guinea. I now take up my narrative at my departure from Wahai, with + the intention of carrying various necessary stores to my assistant, Mr. + Allen, at Silinta, in Mysol, and then continuing my journey to Waigiou. It + will be remembered that I was travelling in a small prau, which I had + purchased and fitted up in Goram, and that, having been deserted by my + crew on the coast of Ceram, I had obtained four men at Wahai, who, with my + Amboynese hunter, constituted my crew. + </p> + <p> + Between Ceram and Mysol there are sixty miles of open sea, and along this + wide channel the east monsoon blows strongly; so that with native praus, + which will not lay up to the wind, it requires some care in crossing. In + order to give ourselves sufficient leeway, we sailed back from Wahai + eastward, along the coast of Ceram, with the land-breeze; but in the + morning (June 18th) had not gone nearly so far as I expected. My pilot, an + old and experienced sailor, named Gurulampoko, assured me there was a + current setting to the eastward, and that we could easily lay across to + Silinta, in Mysol. As we got out from the land the wind increased, and + there was a considerable sea, which made my short little vessel plunge and + roll about violently. By sunset we had not got halfway across, but could + see Mysol distinctly. All night we went along uneasily, and at daybreak, + on looking out anxiously, I found that we had fallen much to the westward + during the night, owing, no doubt, to the pilot being sleepy and not + keeping the boat sufficiently close to the wind. We could see the + mountains distinctly, but it was clear we should not reach Silinta, and + should have some difficulty in getting to the extreme westward point of + the island. The sea was now very boisterous, and our prau was continually + beaten to leeward by the waves, and after another weary day we found w e + could not get to Mysol at all, but might perhaps reach the island called + Pulo Kanary, about ten miles to the north-west. Thence we might await a + favourable wind to reach Waigamma, on the north side of the island, and + visit Allen by means of a small boat. + </p> + <p> + About nine o'clock at night, greatly to my satisfaction, we got under the + lea of this island, into quite smooth water—for I had been very sick + and uncomfortable, and had eaten scarcely anything since the preceding + morning. We were slowly nearing the shore, which the smooth dark water + told us we could safely approach; and were congratulating ourselves on + soon being at anchor, with the prospect of hot coffee, a good supper, and + a sound sleep, when the wind completely dropped, and we had to get out the + oars to row. We were not more than two hundred yards from the shore, when + I noticed that we seemed to get no nearer although the men were rowing + hard, but drifted to the westward, and the prau would not obey the helm, + but continually fell off, and gave us much trouble to bring her up again. + Soon a laud ripple of water told us we were seized by one of those + treacherous currents which so frequently frustrate all the efforts of the + voyager in these seas; the men threw down the oars in despair, and in a + few minutes we drifted to leeward of the island fairly out to sea again, + and lost our last chance of ever reaching Mysol! Hoisting our jib, we lay + to, and in the morning found ourselves only a few miles from the island, + but wit, such a steady wind blowing from its direction as to render it + impossible for us to get back to it. + </p> + <p> + We now made sail to the northward, hoping soon to get a more southerly + wind. Towards noon the sea was much smoother, and with a S.S.E. wind we + were laying in the direction of Salwatty, which I hoped to reach, as I + could there easily get a boat to take provisions and stores to my + companion in Mysol. This wind did not, however, last long, but died away + into a calm; and a light west wind springing up, with a dark bank of + clouds, again gave us hopes of reaching Mysol. We were soon, however, + again disappointed. The E.S.E. wind began to blow again with violence, and + continued all night in irregular gusts, and with a short cross sea tossed + us about unmercifully, and so continually took our sails aback, that we + were at length forced to run before it with our jib only, to escape being + swamped by our heavy mainsail. After another miserable and anxious night, + we found that we had drifted westward of the island of Poppa, and the wind + being again a little southerly, we made all sail in order to reach it. + This we did not succeed in doing, passing to the north-west, when the wind + again blew hard from the E.S.E., and our last hope of finding a refuge + till better weather was frustrated. This was a very serious matter to me, + as I could not tell how Charles Allen might act, if, after waiting in vain + for me, he should return to Wahai, and find that I had left there long + before, and had not since been heard of. Such an event as our missing an + island forty miles long would hardly occur to him, and he would conclude + either that our boat had foundered, or that my crew had murdered me and + run away with her. However, as it was physically impossible now for me to + reach him, the only thing to be done was to make the best of my way to + Waigiou, and trust to our meeting some traders, who might convey to him + the news of my safety. + </p> + <p> + Finding on my map a group of three small islands, twenty-five miles north + of Poppa, I resolved, if possible, to rest there a day or two. We could + lay our boat's head N.E. by N.; but a heavy sea from the eastward so + continually beat us off our course, and we made so much leeway, that I + found it would be as much as we could do to reach them. It was a delicate + point to keep our head in the best direction, neither so close to the wind + as to stop our way, or so free as to carry us too far to leeward. I + continually directed the steersman myself, and by incessant vigilance + succeeded, just at sunset, in bringing our boat to an anchor under the lee + of the southern point of one of the islands. The anchorage was, however, + by no means good, there being a fringing coral reef, dry at low water, + beyond which, on a bottom strewn with masses of coral, we were obliged to + anchor. We had now been incessantly tossing about for four days in our + small undecked boat, with constant disappointments and anxiety, and it was + a great comfort to have a night of quiet and comparative safety. My old + pilot had never left the helm for more than an hour at a time, when one of + the others would relieve him for a little sleep; so I determined the next + morning to look out for a secure and convenient harbour, and rest on shore + for a day. + </p> + <p> + In the morning, finding it would be necessary for us to get round a rocky + point, I wanted my men to go on shore and cut jungle-rope, by which to + secure us from being again drafted away, as the wind was directly off + shore. I unfortunately, however, allowed myself to be overruled by the + pilot and crew, who all declared that it was the easiest thing possible, + and that they would row the boat round the point in a few minutes. They + accordingly got up the anchor, set the jib, and began rowing; but, just as + I had feared, we drifted rapidly off shore, and had to drop anchor again + in deeper water, and much farther off. The two best men, a Papuan and a + Malay now swam on shore, each carrying a hatchet, and went into the jungle + to seek creepers for rope. After about an hour our anchor loosed hold, and + began to drag. This alarmed me greatly, and we let go our spare anchor, + and, by running out all our cable, appeared tolerably secure again. We + were now most anxious for the return of the men, and were going to fire + our muskets to recall them, when we observed them on the beach, some way + off, and almost immediately our anchors again slipped, and we drifted + slowly away into deep water. We instantly seized the oars, but found we + could not counteract the wind and current, and our frantic cries to the + men were not heard till we had got a long way off; as they seemed to be + hunting for shell-fish on the beach. Very soon, however, they stared at + us, and in a few minutes seemed to comprehend their situation; for they + rushed down into the water, as if to swim off, but again returned on + shore, as if afraid to make the attempt. We had drawn up our anchors at + first not to check our rowing; but now, finding we could do nothing, we + let them both hang down by the full length of the cables. This stopped our + way very much, and we drifted from shore very slowly, and hoped the men + would hastily form a raft, or cut down a soft-wood tree, and paddle out, + to us, as we were still not more than a third of a mile from shore. They + seemed, however, to have half lost their senses, gesticulating wildly to + us, running along the beach, then going unto the forest; and just when we + thought they had prepared some mode of making an attempt to reach us, we + saw the smoke of a fire they had made to cook their shell-fish! They had + evidently given up all idea of coming after us, and we were obliged to + look to our own position. + </p> + <p> + We were now about a mile from shore, and midway between two of the + islands, but we were slowly drifting out, to sea to the westward, and our + only chance of yet saving the men was to reach the opposite shore. We + therefore sot our jib and rowed hard; but the wind failed, and we drifted + out so rapidly that we had some difficulty in reaching the extreme + westerly point of the island. Our only sailor left, then swam ashore with + a rope, and helped to tow us round the point into a tolerably safe and + secure anchorage, well sheltered from the wind, but exposed to a little + swell which jerked our anchor and made us rather uneasy. We were now in a + sad plight, having lost our two best men, and being doubtful if we had + strength left to hoist our mainsail. We had only two days' water on board, + and the small, rocky, volcanic island did not promise us much chance of + finding any. The conduct of the men on shore was such as to render it + doubtful if they would make any serious attempt to reach us, though they + might easily do so, having two good choppers, with which in a day they + could male a small outrigger raft on which they could safely cross the two + miles of smooth sea with the wind right aft, if they started from the east + end of the island, so as to allow for the current. I could only hope they + would be sensible enough to make the attempt, and determined to stay as + long as I could to give them the chance. + </p> + <p> + We passed an anxious night, fearful of again breaking our anchor or rattan + cable. In the morning (23d), finding all secure, I waded on shore with my + two men, leaving the old steersman and the cook on board, with a loaded + musketto recall us if needed. We first walked along the beach, till + stopped by the vertical cliffs at the east end of the island, finding a + place where meat had been smoked, a turtle-shell still greasy, and some + cut wood, the leaves of which were still green, showing that some boat had + been here very recently. We then entered the jungle, cutting our way up to + the top of the hill, but when we got there could see nothing, owing to the + thickness of the forest. Returning, we cut some bamboos, and sharpened + them to dig for water in a low spot where some sago-trees were growing; + when, just as we were going to begin, Hoi, the Wahai man, called out to + say he had found water. It was a deep hole among the Sago trees, in stiff + black clay, full of water, which was fresh, but smelt horribly from the + quantity of dead leaves and sago refuse that had fallen in. Hastily + concluding that it was a spring, or that the water had filtered in, we + baled it all out as well as a dozen or twenty buckets of mud and rubbish, + hoping by night to have a good supply of clean water. I then went on board + to breakfast, leaving my two men to make a bamboo raft to carry us on + shore and back without wading. I had scarcely finished when our cable + broke, and we bumped against the rocks. Luckily it was smooth and calm, + and no damage was done. We searched for and got up our anchor, and found + teat the cable had been cut by grating all night upon the coral. Had it + given way in the night, we might have drifted out to sea without our + anchor, or been seriously damaged. In the evening we went to fetch water + from the well, when, greatly to our dismay, we found nothing but a little + liquid mud at the bottom, and it then became evident that the hole was one + which had been made to collect rain water, and would never fill again as + long as the present drought continued. As we did not know what we might + suffer for want of water, we filled our jar with this muddy stuff so that + it might settle. In the afternoon I crossed over to the other side of the + island, and made a large fire, in order that our men might see we were + still there. + </p> + <p> + The next day (24th) I determined to have another search for water; and + when the tide was out rounded a rocky point and went to the extremity of + the island without finding any sign of the smallest stream. On our way + back, noticing a very small dry bed of a watercourse, I went up it to + explore, although everything was so dry that my men loudly declared it was + useless to expect water there; but a little way up I was rewarded by + finding a few pints in a small pool. We searched higher up in every hole + and channel where water marks appeared, but could find not a drop more. + Sending one of my men for a large jar and teacup, we searched along the + beach till we found signs of another dry watercourse, and on ascending + this were so fortunate as to discover two deep sheltered rock-holes + containing several gallons of water, enough to fill all our jars. When the + cup came we enjoyed a good drink of the cool pure water, and before we + left had carried away, I believe, every drop on the island. + </p> + <p> + In the evening a good-sized prau appeared in sight, making apparently for + the island where our men were left, and we had some hopes they might be + seen and picked up, but it passed along mid-channel, and did not notice + the signals we tried to make. I was now, however, pretty easy as to the + fate of the men. There was plenty of sago on our rocky island, and there + world probably be some on the fiat one they were left on. They had + choppers, and could cut down a tree and make sago, and would most likely + find sufficient water by digging. Shell-fish were abundant, and they would + be able to manage very well till some boat should touch there, or till I + could send and fetch them. The next day we devoted to cutting wood, + filling up our jars with all the water we could find, and making ready to + sail in the evening. I shot a small lory closely resembling a common + species at Ternate, and a glossy starling which differed from the allied + birds of Ceram and Matabello. Large wood-pigeons and crows were the only + other birds I saw, but I did not obtain specimens. + </p> + <p> + About eight in the evening of June 25th we started, and found that with + all hands at work we could just haul up our mainsail. We had a fair wind + during the night and sailed north-east, finding ourselves in the morning + about twenty miles west of the extremity of Waigiou with a number of + islands intervening. About ten o'clock we ran full on to a coral reef, + which alarmed us a good deal, but luckily got safe off again. About two in + the afternoon we reached an extensive coral reef, and were sailing close + alongside of it, when the wind suddenly dropped, and we drifted on to it + before we could get in our heavy mainsail, which we were obliged to let + run down and fall partly overboard. We had much difficulty in getting off, + but at last got into deep water again, though with reefs and islands all + around us. At night we did not know what to do, as no one on board could + tell where we were or what dangers might surround us, the only one of our + crew who was acquainted with the coast of Waigiou having been left on the + island. We therefore took in all sail and allowed ourselves to drift, as + we were some miles from the nearest land. A light breeze, however, sprang + up, and about midnight we found ourselves again bumping over a coral reef. + As it was very dark, and we knew nothing of our position, we could only + guess how to get off again, and had there been a little more wind we might + have been knocked to pieces. However, in about half an hour we did get + off, and then thought it best to anchor on the edge of the reef till + morning. Soon after daylight on the 7th, finding our prau had received no + damage, we sailed on with uncertain winds and squalls, threading our way + among islands and reefs, and guided only by a small map, which was very + incorrect and quite useless, and by a general notion of the direction we + ought to take. In the afternoon we found a tolerable anchorage under a + small island and stayed for the night, and I shot a large fruit-pigeon new + to me, which I have since named Carpophaga tumida. I also saw and shot at + the rare white-headed kingfisher (Halcyon saurophaga), but did not kill + it. The next morning we sailed on, and having a fair wind reached the + shores of the large island of Waigiou. On rounding a point we again ran + full on to a coral reef with our mainsail up, but luckily the wind had + almost died away, and with a good deal of exertion we managed get safely + off. + </p> + <p> + We now had to search for the narrow channel among islands, which we knew + was somewhere hereabouts, and which leads to the villages on the south + side of Waigiou. Entering a deep bay which looked promising, we got to the + end of it, but it was then dusk, so we anchored for the night, and having + just finished all our water could cook no rice for supper. Next morning + early (29th) we went on shore among the mangroves, and a little way inland + found some water, which relieved our anxiety considerably, and left us + free to go along the coast in search of the opening, or of some one who + could direct us to it. During the three days we had now been among the + reefs and islands, we had only seen a single small canoe, which had + approached pretty near to us, and then, notwithstanding our signals, went + off in another direction. The shores seemed all desert; not a house, or + boat, or human being, or a puff of smoke was to be seen; and as we could + only go on the course that the ever-changing wind would allow us (our + hands being too few to row any distance), our prospects of getting to our + destination seemed rather remote and precarious. Having gone to the + eastward extremity of the deep bay we had entered, without finding any + sign of an opening, we turned westward; and towards evening were so + fortunate as to find a small village of seven miserable houses built on + piles in the water. Luckily the Orang-kaya, or head man, could speak a + little. Malay, and informed us that the entrance to the strait was really + in the bay we had examined, but that it was not to be seen except when + close inshore. He said the strait was often very narrow, and wound among + lakes and rocks and islands, and that it would take two days to reach the + large village of Muka, and three more to get to Waigiou. I succeeded in + hiring two men to go with us to Muka, bringing a small boat in which to + return; but we had to wait a day for our guides, so I took my gun and made + a little excursion info the forest. The day was wet and drizzly, and I + only succeeded in shooting two small birds, but I saw the great black + cockatoo, and had a glimpse of one or two Birds of Paradise, whose loud + screams we had heard on first approaching the coast. Leaving the village + the next morning (July 1st) with a light wind, it took us all day to reach + the entrance to the channel, which resembled a small river, and was + concealed by a projecting point, so that it was no wonder we did not + discover it amid the dense forest vegetation which everywhere covers these + islands to the water's edge. A little way inside it becomes bounded by + precipitous rocks, after winding among which for about two miles, we + emerged into what seemed a lake, but which was in fact a deep gulf having + a narrow entrance on the south coast. This gulf was studded along its + shores with numbers of rocky islets, mostly mushroom shaped, from the + `eater having worn away the lower part of the soluble coralline limestone, + leaving them overhanging from ten to twenty feet. Every islet was covered + will strange-looping shrubs and trees, and was generally crowned by lofty + and elegant palms, which also studded the ridges of the mountainous + shores, forming one of the most singular and picturesque landscapes I have + ever seen. The current which had brought us through the narrow strait now + ceased, and we were obliged to row, which with our short and heavy prau + was slow work. I went on shore several times, but the rocks were so + precipitous, sharp, and honeycombed, that I found it impossible to get + through the tangled thicket with which they were everywhere clothed. It + took us three days to get to the entrance of the gulf, and then the wind + was such as to prevent our going any further, and we might have had to + wait for days or weeps, when, much to my surprise and gratification, a + boat arrived from Muka with one of the head men, who had in some + mysterious manner heard I was on my way, and had come to my assistance, + bringing a present of cocoa-nuts and vegetables. Being thoroughly + acquainted with the coast, and having several extra men to assist us, he + managed to get the prau along by rowing, poling, or sailing, and by night + had brought us safely into harbour, a great relief after our tedious and + unhappy voyage. We had been already eight days among the reefs and islands + of Waigiou, coming a distance of about fifty miles, and it was just forty + days since we had sailed from Goram. + </p> + <p> + Immediately on our arrival at Muka, I engaged a small boat and three + natives to go in search of my lost men, and sent one of my own men with + them to make sure of their going to the right island. In ten days they + returned, but to my great regret and disappointment, without the men. The + weather had been very bad, and though they had reached an island within + sight of that in which the men were, they could get no further. They had + waited there six days for better weather, and then, having no more + provisions, and the man I had sent with them being very ill and not + expected to live, they returned. As they now knew the island, I was + determined they should make another trial, and (by a liberal payment of + knives, handkerchiefs, and tobacco, with plenty of provisions) persuaded + them to start back immediately, and make another attempt. They did not + return again till the 29th of July, having stayed a few days at their own + village of Bessir on the way; but this time they had succeeded and brought + with them my two lost men, in tolerable health, though thin and weak. They + had lived exactly a month on the island had found water, and had subsisted + on the roots and tender flower-stalks of a species of Bromelia, on + shell-fish and on a few turtles' eggs. Having swum to the island, they had + only a pair of trousers and a shirt between them, but had made a hut of + palm-leaves, and had altogether got on very well. They saw that I waited + for them three days at the opposite island, but had been afraid to cross, + lest the current should have carried them out to sea, when they would have + been inevitably lost. They had felt sure I would send for them on the + first opportunity, and appeared more grateful than natives usually are for + my having done so; while I felt much relieved that my voyage, though + sufficiently unfortunate, had not involved loss of life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVI. WAIGIOU. + </h2> + <h3> + (JULY TO SEPTEMBER 1860.) + </h3> + <p> + THE village of Muka, on the south coast of Waigiou, consists of a number + of poor huts, partly in the water and partly on shore, and scattered + irregularly over a space of about half a mile in a shallow bay. Around it + are a few cultivated patches, and a good deal of second-growth woody + vegetation; while behind, at the distance of about half a mile, rises the + virgin forest, through which are a few paths to some houses and + plantations a mile or two inland. The country round is rather flat, and in + places swampy, and there are one or two small streams which run behind the + village into the sea below it. Finding that no house could be had suitable + to my purpose, and hawing so often experienced the advantages of living + close to or just within the forest, I obtained the assistance of + half-a-dozen men; and having selected a spot near the path and the stream, + and close to a fine fig-tree, which stood just within the forest, we + cleared the ground and set to building a house. As I did not expect to + stay here so long as I had done at Dorey, I built a long, low, narrow + shed, about seven feet high on one side and four on the other, which + required but little wood, and was put up very rapidly. Our sails, with a + few old attaps from a deserted but in the village, formed the walls, and a + quantity of "cadjans," or palm-leaf mats, covered in the roof. On the + third day my house was finished, and all my things put in and comfortably + arranged to begin work, and I was quite pleased at having got established + so quickly and in such a nice situation. + </p> + <p> + It had been so far fine weather, but in the night it rained hard, and we + found our mat roof would not keep out water. It first began to drop, and + then to stream over everything. I had to get up in the middle of the night + to secure my insect-boxes, rice, and other perishable articles, and to + find a dry place to sleep in, for my bed was soaked. Fresh leaks kept + forming as the rain continued, and w e all passed a very miserable and + sleepless night. In the morning the sun shone brightly, and everything was + put out to dry. We tried to find out why the mats leaked, and thought we + had discovered that they had been laid on upside down. Having shifted + there all, and got everything dry and comfortable by the evening, we again + went to bed, and before midnight were again awaked by torrent of rain and + leaks streaming in upon us as bad as ever. There was no more sleep for us + that night, and the next day our roof was again taken to pieces, and we + came to the conclusion that the fault was a want of slope enough in the + roof for mats, although it would be sufficient for the usual attap thatch. + I therefore purchased a few new and some old attaps, and in the parts + these would not cover we put the mats double, and then at last had the + satisfaction of finding our roof tolerably water-tight. + </p> + <p> + I was now able to begin working at the natural history of the island. When + I first arrived I was surprised at being told that there were no Paradise + Birds at Muka, although there were plenty at Bessir, a place where the + natives caught them and prepared the skins. I assured the people I had + heard the cry of these birds close to the village, but they world not + believe that I could know their cry. However, the very first time I went + into the forest I not only heard but saw them, and was convinced there + were plenty about; but they were very shy, and it was some time before we + got any. My hunter first shot a female, and I one day got very close to a + fine male. He was, as I expected, the rare red species, Paradisea rubra, + which alone inhabits this island, and is found nowhere else. He was quite + low down, running along a bough searching for insects, almost like a + woodpecker, and the long black riband-like filaments in his tail hung down + in the most graceful double curve imaginable. I covered him with my gun, + and was going to use the barrel which had a very small charge of powder + and number eight shot, so as not to injure his plumage, but the gun missed + fire, and he was off in an instant among the thickest jungle. Another day + we saw no less than eight fine males at different times, and fired four + times at them; but though other birds at the same distance almost always + dropped, these all got away, and I began to think we were not to get this + magnificent species. At length the fruit ripened on the fig-tree close by + my house, and many birds came to feed on it; and one morning, as I was + taking my coffee, a male Paradise Bird was seen to settle on its top. I + seized my gun, ran under the tree, and, gazing up, could see it flying + across from branch to branch, seizing a fruit here and another there, and + then, before I could get a sufficient aim to shoot at such a height (for + it was one of the loftiest trees of the tropics), it was away into the + forest. They now visited the tree every morning; but they stayed so short + a time, their motions were so rapid, and it was so difficult to see them, + owing to the lower trees, which impeded the view, that it was only after + several days' watching, and one or two misses, that I brought down my bird—a + male in the most magnificent plumage. + </p> + <p> + This bird differs very much from the two large species which I had already + obtained, and, although it wants the grace imparted by their long golden + trains, is in many respects more remarkable and more beautiful. The head, + back, and shoulders are clothed with a richer yellow, the deep metallic + green colour of the throat extends further over the head, and the feathers + are elongated on the forehead into two little erectile crests. The side + plumes are shorter, but are of a rich red colour, terminating in delicate + white points, and the middle tail-feathers are represented by two long + rigid glossy ribands, which are black, thin, and semi-cylindrical, and + droop gracefully in a spiral curve. Several other interesting birds were + obtained, and about half-a-dozen quite new ones; but none of any + remarkable beauty, except the lovely little dove, Ptilonopus pulchellus, + which with several other pigeons I shot on the same fig-tree close to my + house. It is of a beautiful green colour above, with a forehead of the + richest crimson, while beneath it is ashy white and rich yellow, banded + with violet red. + </p> + <p> + On the evening of our arrival at Muka I observed what appeared like a + display of Aurora Borealis, though I could hardly believe that this was + possible at a point a little south of the equator. The night was clear and + calm, and the northern sky presented a diffused light, with a constant + succession of faint vertical flashings or flickerings, exactly similar to + an ordinary aurora in England. The next day was fine, but after that the + weather was unprecedentedly bad, considering that it ought to have been + the dry monsoon. For near a month we had wet weather; the sun either not + appearing at all, or only for an hour or two about noon. Morning and + evening, as well as nearly all night, it rained or drizzled, and + boisterous winds, with dark clouds, formed the daily programme. With the + exception that it was never cold, it was just such weather as a very bad + English November or February. + </p> + <p> + The people of Waigiou are not truly indigenes of the island, which + possesses no "Alfuros," or aboriginal inhabitants. They appear to be a + mixed race, partly from Gilolo, partly from New Guinea. Malays and Alfuros + from the former island have probably settled here, and many of them have + taken Papuan wives from Salwatty or Dorey, while the influx of people from + those places, and of slaves, has led to the formation of a tribe + exhibiting almost all the transitions from a nearly pure Malayan to an + entirely Papuan type. The language spoken by them is entirely Papuan, + being that which is used on all the coasts of Mysol, Salwatty, the + north-west of New Guinea, and the islands in the great Geelvink Bay,—a + fact which indicates the way in which the coast settlements have been + formed. The fact that so many of the islands between New Guinea and the + Moluccas—such as Waigiou, Guebe, Poppa, Obi, Batchian, as well as + the south and east peninsulas of Gilolo—possess no aboriginal + tribes, but are inhabited by people who are evidently mongrels and + wanderers, is a remarkable corroborative proof of the distinctness of the + Malayan and Papuan races, and the separation of the geographical areas + they inhabit. If these two great races were direct modifications, the one + of the other, we should expect to find in the intervening region some + homogeneous indigenous race presenting intermediate characters. For + example, between the whitest inhabitants of Europe and the black Klings of + South India, there are in the intervening districts homogeneous races + which form a gradual transition from one to the other; while in America, + although there is a perfect transition from the Anglo-Saxon to the negro, + and from the Spaniard to the Indian, there is no homogeneous race forming + a natural transition from one to the other. In the Malay Archipelago we + have an excellent example of two absolutely distinct races, which appear + to have approached each other, and intermingled in an unoccupied territory + at a very recent epoch in the history of man; and I feel satisfied that no + unprejudiced person could study them on the spot without being convinced + that this is the true solution of the problem, rather than the almost + universally accepted view that they are but modifications of one and the + same race. + </p> + <p> + The people of Muka live in that abject state of poverty that is almost + always found where the sago-tree is abundant. Very few of them take the + trouble to plant any vegetables or fruit, but live almost entirely on sago + and fish, selling a little tripang or tortoiseshell to buy the scanty + clothing they require. Almost all of them, however, possess one or more + Papuan slaves, on whose labour they live in almost absolute idleness, just + going out on little fishing or trading excursions, as an excitement in + their monotonous existence. They are under the rule of the Sultan of + Tidore, and every year have to pay a small tribute of Paradise birds, + tortoiseshell, or sago. To obtain these, they go in the fine season on a + trading voyage to the mainland of New Guinea, and getting a few goods on + credit from some Ceram or Bugis trader, make hard bargains with the + natives, and gain enough to pay their tribute, and leave a little profit + for themselves. + </p> + <p> + Such a country is not a very pleasant one to live in, for as there are no + superfluities, there is nothing to sell; and had it not been for a trader + from Ceram who was residing there during my stay, who had a small + vegetable garden, and whose men occasionally got a few spare fish, I + should often have had nothing to eat. Fowls, fruit, and vegetables are + luxuries very rarely to be purchased at Muka; and even cocoa-nuts, so + indispensable for eastern cookery, are not to be obtained; for though + there are some hundreds of trees in the village, all the fruit is eaten + green, to supply the place of the vegetables the people are too lazy to + cultivate. Without eggs, cocoa-nuts, or plantains, we had very short + commons, and the boisterous weather being unpropitious for fishing, we had + to live on what few eatable birds we could shoot, with an occasional + cuscus, or eastern opossum, the only quadruped, except pigs, inhabiting + the island. + </p> + <p> + I had only shot two male Paradiseas on my tree when they ceased visiting + it, either owing to the fruit becoming scarce, or that they were wise + enough to know there was danger. We continued to hear and see them in the + forest, but after a month had not succeeded in shooting any more; and as + my chief object in visiting Waigiou was to get these birds, I determined + to go to Bessir, where there are a number of Papuans who catch and + preserve them. I hired a small outrigger boat for this journey, and left + one of my men to guard my house and goods. We had to wait several days for + fine weather, and at length started early one morning, and arrived late at + night, after a rough and disagreeable passage. The village of Bessir was + built in the water at the point of a small island. The chief food of the + people was evidently shell-fish, since great heaps of the shells had + accumulated in the shallow water between the houses and the land, forming + a regular "kitchen-midden" for the exploration of some future + archeologist. We spent the night in the chief's house, and the next + morning went over to the mainland to look out for a place where I could + reside. This part of Waigiou is really another island to the south of the + narrow channel we had passed through in coming to Muka. It appears to + consist almost entirely of raised coral, whereas the northern island + contains hard crystalline rocks. The shores were a range of low limestone + cliffs, worn out by the water, so that the upper part generally overhung. + At distant intervals were little coves and openings, where small streams + came down from the interior; and in one of these we landed, pulling our + boat up on a patch of white sandy beach. Immediately above was a large + newly-made plantation of yams and plantains, and a small hot, which the + chief said we might have the use of, if it would do for me. It was quite a + dwarf's house, just eight feet square, raised on posts so that the floor + was four and a half feet above the ground, and the highest part of the + ridge only five feet above the flour. As I am six feet and an inch in my + stockings, I looked at this with some dismay; but finding that the other + houses were much further from water, were dreadfully dirty, and were + crowded with people, I at once accepted the little one, and determined to + make the best of it. At first I thought of taking out the floor, which + would leave it high enough to walk in and out without stooping; but then + there would not be room enough, so I left it just as it was, had it + thoroughly cleaned out, and brought up my baggage. The upper story I used + for sleeping in, and for a store-room. In the lower part (which was quite + open all round) I fixed up a small table, arranged my boxes, put up + hanging-shelves, laid a mat on the ground with my wicker-chair upon it, + hung up another mat on the windward side, and then found that, by bending + double and carefully creeping in, I could sit on my chair with my head + just clear of the ceiling. Here I lived pretty comfortably for six weeks, + taking all my meals and doing all my work at my little table, to and from + which I had to creep in a semi-horizontal position a dozen times a day; + and, after a few severe knocks on the head by suddenly rising from my + chair, learnt to accommodate myself to circumstances. We put up a little + sloping cooking-but outside, and a bench on which my lads could skin their + birds. At night I went up to my little loft, they spread their mats on the + floor below, and we none of us grumbled at our lodgings. + </p> + <p> + My first business was to send for the men who were accustomed to catch the + Birds of Paradise. Several came, and I showed them my hatchets, beads, + knives, and handkerchiefs; and explained to them, as well as I could by + signs, the price I would give for fresh-killed specimens. It is the + universal custom to pay for everything in advance; but only one man + ventured on this occasion to take goods to the value of two birds. The + rest were suspicious, and wanted to see the result of the first bargain + with the strange white man, the only one who had ever come to their + island. After three days, my man brought me the first bird—a very + fine specimen, and alive, but tied up in a small bag, and consequently its + tail and wing feathers very much crushed and injured. I tried to explain + to him, and to the others that came with him, that I wanted them as + perfect as possible, and that they should either kill them, or keep them + on a perch with a string to their leg. As they were now apparently + satisfied that all was fair, and that I had no ulterior designs upon them, + six others took away goods; some for one bird, some for more, and one for + as many as six. They said they had to go a long way for them, and that + they would come back as soon as they caught any. At intervals of a few + days or a week, some of them would return, bringing me one or more birds; + but though they did not bring any more in bags, there was not much + improvement in their condition. As they caught them a long way off in the + forest, they would scarcely ever come with one, but would tie it by the + leg to a stick, and put it in their house till they caught another. The + poor creature would make violent efforts to escape, would get among the + ashes, or hang suspended by the leg till the limb was swollen and + half-putrefied, and sometimes die of starvation and worry. One had its + beautiful head all defiled by pitch from a dammar torch; another had been + so long dead that its stomach was turning green. Luckily, however, the + skin and plumage of these birds is so firm and strong, that they bear + washing and cleaning better than almost any other sort; and I was + generally able to clean them so well that they did not perceptibly differ + from those I had shot myself. + </p> + <p> + Some few were brought me the same day they were caught, and I had an + opportunity of examining them in all their beauty and vivacity. As soon as + I found they were generally brought alive, I set one of my men to make a + large bamboo cage with troughs for food and water, hoping to be able to + keep some of them. I got the natives to bring me branches of a fruit they + were very fond of, and I was pleased to find they ate it greedily, and + would also take any number of live grasshoppers I gave them, stripping off + the legs and wings, and then swallowing them. They drank plenty of water, + and were in constant motion, jumping about the cage from perch to perch, + clinging on the top and sides, and rarely resting a moment the first day + till nightfall. The second day they were always less active, although they + would eat as freely as before; and on the morning of the third day they + were almost always found dead at the bottom of the cage, without any + apparent cause. Some of them ate boiled rice as well as fruit and insects; + but after trying many in succession, not one out of ten lived more than + three days. The second or third day they would be dull, and in several + cases they were seized with convulsions, and fell off the perch, dying a + few hours afterwards. I tried immature as well as full-plumaged birds, but + with no better success, and at length gave it up as a hopeless task, and + confined my attention to preserving specimens in as good a condition as + possible. + </p> + <p> + The Red Birds of Paradise are not shot with blunt arrows, as in the Aru + Islands and some parts of New Guinea, but are snared in a very ingenious + manner. A large climbing Arum bears a red reticulated fruit, of which the + birds are very fond. The hunters fasten this fruit on a stout forked + stick, and provide themselves with a fine but strong cord. They then seep + out some tree in the forest on which these birds are accustomed to perch, + and climbing up it fasten the stick to a branch and arrange the cord in a + noose so ingeniously, that when the bird comes to eat the fruit its legs + are caught, and by pulling the end of the cord, which hangs down to the + ground, it comes free from the branch and brings down the bird. Sometimes, + when food is abundant elsewhere, the hunter sits from morning till night + under his tree with the cord in his hand, and even for two or three whole + days in succession, without even getting a bite; while, on the other hand, + if very lucky, he may get two or three birds in a day. There are only + eight or ten men at Bessir who practise this art, which is unknown + anywhere else in the island. I determined, therefore, to stay as long as + possible, as my only chance of getting a good series of specimens; and + although I was nearly starved, everything eatable by civilized man being + scarce or altogether absent, I finally succeeded. + </p> + <p> + The vegetables and fruit in the plantations around us did not suffice for + the wants of the inhabitants, and were almost always dug up or gathered + before they were ripe. It was very rarely we could purchase a little fish; + fowls there were none; and we were reduced to live upon tough pigeons and + cockatoos, with our rice and sago, and sometimes we could not get these. + Having been already eight months on this voyage, my stock of all + condiments, spices and butter, was exhausted, and I found it impossible to + eat sufficient of my tasteless and unpalatable food to support health. I + got very thin and weak, and had a curious disease known (I have since + heard) as brow-ague. Directly after breakfast every morning an intense + pain set in on a small spot on the right temple. It was a severe burning + ache, as bad as the worst toothache, and lasted about two hours, generally + going off at noon. When this finally ceased, I had an attack of fever, + which left me so weak and so unable to eat our regular food, that I feel + sure my life was saved by a couple of tins of soup which I had long + reserved for some such extremity. I used often to go out searching after + vegetables, and found a great treasure in a lot of tomato plants run wild, + and bearing little fruits about the size of gooseberries. I also boiled up + the tops of pumpkin plants and of ferns, by way of greens, and + occasionally got a few green papaws. The natives, when hard up for food, + live upon a fleshy seaweed, which they boil till it is tender. I tried + this also, but found it too salt and bitter to be endured. + </p> + <p> + Towards the end of September it became absolutely necessary for me to + return, in order to make our homeward voyage before the end of the east + monsoon. Most of the men who had taken payment from me had brought the + birds they had agreed for. One poor fellow had been so unfortunate as not + to get one, and he very honestly brought back the axe he had received in + advance; another, who had agreed for six, brought me the fifth two days + before I was to start, and went off immediately to the forest again to get + the other. He did not return, however, and we loaded our boat, and were + just on the point of starting, when he came running down after us holding + up a bird, which he handed to me, saying with great satisfaction, "Now I + owe you nothing." These were remarkable and quite unexpected instances of + honesty among savages, where it would have been very easy for them to have + been dishonest without fear of detection or punishment. + </p> + <p> + The country round about Bessir was very hilly and rugged, bristling with + jagged and honey-combed coralline rocks, and with curious little chasms + and ravines. The paths often passed through these rocky clefts, which in + the depths of the forest were gloomy and dark in the extreme, and often + full of fine-leaved herbaceous plants and curious blue-foliaged + Lycopodiaceae. It was in such places as these that I obtained many of my + most beautiful small butterflies, such as Sospita statira and Taxila + pulchra, the gorgeous blue Amblypodia hercules, and many others. On the + skirts of the plantations I found the handsome blue Deudorix despoena, and + in the shady woods the lovely Lycaena wallacei. Here, too, I obtained the + beautiful Thyca aruna, of the richest orange on the upper side; while + below it is intense crimson and glossy black; and a superb specimen of a + green Ornithoptera, absolutely fresh and perfect, and which still remains + one of the glories of my cabinet. + </p> + <p> + My collection of birds, though not very rich in number of species, was yet + very interesting. I got another specimen of the rare New Guinea kite + (Henicopernis longicauda), a large new goatsucker (Podargus + superciliaris), and a most curious ground-pigeon of an entirely new genus, + and remarkable for its long and powerful bill. It has been named + Henicophaps albifrons. I was also much pleased to obtain a fine series of + a large fruit-pigeon with a protuberance on the bill (Carpophaga tumida), + and to ascertain that this was not, as had been hitherto supposed, a + sexual character, but was found equally in male and female birds. I + collected only seventy-three species of birds in Waigiou, but twelve of + them were entirely new, and many others very rare; and as I brought away + with me twenty-four fine specimens of the Paradisea rubra, I did not + regret my visit to the island, although it had by no means answered my + expectations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVII. VOYAGE FROM WAIGIOU TO TERNATE. + </h2> + <h3> + (SEPTEMBER 29 To NOVEMBER 5, 1860.) + </h3> + <p> + I HAD left the old pilot at Waigiou to take care of my house and to get + the prau into sailing order—to caulk her bottom, and to look after + the upper works, thatch, and ringing. When I returned I found it nearly + ready, and immediately began packing up and preparing for the voyage. Our + mainsail had formed one side of our house, but the spanker and jib had + been put away in the roof, and on opening them to see if any repairs were + wanted, to our horror we found that some rats had made them their nest, + and had gnawed through them in twenty places. We had therefore to buy + matting and make new sails, and this delayed us till the 29th of + September, when we at length left Waigiou. + </p> + <p> + It took us four days before we could get clear of the land, having to pass + along narrow straits beset with reefs and shoals, and full of strong + currents, so that an unfavourable wind stopped us altogether. One day, + when nearly clear, a contrary tide and head wind drove us ten miles back + to our anchorage of the night before. This delay made us afraid of running + short of water if we should be becalmed at sea, and we therefore + determined, if possible, to touch at the island where our men had been + lost, and which lay directly in our proper course. The wind was, however, + as usual, contrary, being S.S.W. instead of S.S.E., as it should have been + at this time of the year, and all we could do was to reach the island of + Gagie, where we came to an anchor by moonlight under bare volcanic hills. + In the morning we tried to enter a deep bay, at the head of which some + Galela fishermen told us there was water, but a head-wind prevented us. + For the reward of a handkerchief, however, they took us to the place in + their boat, and we filled up our jars and bamboos. We then went round to + their camping-place on the north coast of the island to try and buy + something to eat, but could only get smoked turtle meat as black and as + hard as lumps of coal. A little further on there was a plantation + belonging to Guebe people, but under the care of a Papuan slave, and the + next morning we got some plantains and a few vegetables in exchange for a + handkerchief and some knives. On leaving this place our anchor had got + foul in some rock or sunken log in very deep water, and after many + unsuccessful attempts, we were forced to cut our rattan cable and leave it + behind us. We had now only one anchor left. + </p> + <p> + Starting early, on the 4th of October, the same S.S.W wind continued, and + we began to fear that we should hardly clear the southern point of Gilolo. + The night of the 5th was squally, with thunder, but after midnight it got + tolerably fair, and we were going along with a light wind and looking out + for the coast of Gilolo, which we thought we must be nearing, when we + heard a dull roaring sound, like a heavy surf, behind us. In a short time + the roar increased, and we saw a white line of foam coming on, which + rapidly passed us without doing any harm, as our boat rose easily over the + wave. At short intervals, ten or a dozen others overtook us with bleat + rapidity, and then the sea became perfectly smooth, as it was before. I + concluded at once that these must be earthquake waves; and on reference to + the old voyagers we find that these seas have been long subject to similar + phenomena. Dampier encountered them near Mysol and New Guinea, and + describes them as follows: "We found here very strange tides, that ran in + streams, making a great sea, and roaring so loud that we could hear them + before they came within a mile of us. The sea round about them seemed all + broken, and tossed the ship so that she would not answer her helm. These + ripplings commonly lasted ten or twelve minutes, and then the sea became + as still and smooth as a millpond. We sounded often when in the midst of + them, but found no ground, neither could we perceive that they drove us + any way. We had in one night several of these tides, that came mostly from + the west, and the wind being from that quarter we commonly heard them a + long time before they came, and sometimes lowered our topsails, thinking + it was a gust of wind. They were of great length, from north to south, but + their breadth not exceeding 200 yards, and they drove a great pace. For + though we had little wind to move us, yet these world soon pass away, and + leave the water very smooth, and just before we encountered them we met a + great swell, but it did not break." Some time afterwards, I learnt that an + earthquake had been felt on the coast of Gilolo the very day we had + encountered these curious waves. + </p> + <p> + When daylight came, we saw the land of Gilolo a few miles off, but the + point was unfortunately a little to windward of us. We tried to brace up + all we could to round it, but as we approached the shore we got into a + strong current setting northward, which carried us so rapidly with it that + we found it necessary to stand off again, in order to get out of its + influence. Sometimes we approached the point a little, and our hopes + revived; then the wind fell, and we drifted slowly away. Night found us in + nearly the same position as we had occupied in the morning, so we hung + down our anchor with about fifteen fathoms of cable to prevent drifting. + On the morning of the 7th we were however, a good way up the coast, and we + now thought our only chance would be to got close in-shore, where there + might be a return current, and we could then row. The prau was heavy, and + my men very poor creatures for work, so that it took us six hours to get + to the edge of the reef that fringed the shore; and as the wind might at + any moment blow on to it, our situation was a very dangerous one. Luckily, + a short distance off there was a sandy bay, where a small stream stopped + the growth of the coral; and by evening we reached this and anchored for + the night. Here we found some Galela men shooting deer and pigs; but they + could not or would not speak Malay, and we could get little information + from them. We found out that along shore the current changed with the + tide, while about a mile out it was always one way, and against us; and + this gave us some hopes of getting back to the point, from which we were + now distant twenty miles. Next morning we found that the Galela men had + left before daylight, having perhaps some vague fear of our intentions, + anal very likely taking me for a pirate. During the morning a boat passed, + and the people informed us that, at a short distance further towards the + point, there was a much better harbour, where there were plenty of Galela + men, from whom we, might probably get some assistance. + </p> + <p> + At three in the afternoon, when the current turned, we started; but having + a head-wind, made slow progress. At dusk we reached the entrance of the + harbour, but an eddy and a gust of wind carried us away and out to sea. + After sunset there was a land breeze, and we sailed a little to the + south-east. It then became calm, and we hung down our anchor forty + fathoms, to endeavour to counteract the current; but it was of little + avail, and in the morning we found ourselves a good way from shore, and + just opposite our anchorage of the day before, which we again reached by + hard rowing. I gave the men this day to rest and sleep; and the next day + (Oct. 10th) we again started at two in the morning with a land breeze. + After I had set them to their oars, and given instructions to keep close + in-shore, and on no account to get out to sea, I went below, being rather + unwell. At daybreak I found, to my great astonishment, that we were again + far off-shore, and was told that the wind had gradually turned more ahead, + and had carried us out—none of them having the sense to take down + the sail and row in-shore, or to call me. As soon as it was daylight, we + saw that we had drifted back, and were again opposite our former + anchorage, and, for the third time, had to row hard to get to it. As we + approached the shore, I saw that the current was favourable to us, and we + continued down the coast till we were close to the entrance to the lower + harbour. Just as we were congratulating ourselves on having at last + reached it, a strong south-east squall came on, blowing us back, and + rendering it impossible for us to enter. Not liking the idea of again + returning, I determined on trying to anchor, and succeeded in doing so, in + very deep water and close to the reefs; but the prevailing winds were such + that, should we not hold, we should have no difficulty in getting out to + sea. By the time the squall had passed, the current had turned against us, + and we expected to have to wait till four in the afternoon, when we + intended to enter the harbour. + </p> + <p> + Now, however, came the climax of our troubles. The swell produced by the + squall made us jerk our cable a good deal, and it suddenly snapped low + down in the water. We drifted out to sea, and immediately set our + mainsail, but we were now without any anchor, and in a vessel so poorly + manned that it could not be rowed against the most feeble current or the + slightest wind, it word be madness to approach these dangerous shores + except in the most perfect calm. We had also only three days' food left. + It was therefore out of the question making any further attempts to get + round the point without assistance, and I at once determined to run to the + village of Gani-diluar, about ten miles further north, where we understood + there was a good harbour, and where we might get provisions and a few more + rowers. Hitherto winds and currents load invariably opposed our passage + southward, and we might have expected them to be favourable to us now we + had turned our bowsprit in an opposite direction. But it immediately fell + calm, and then after a time a westerly land breeze set in, which would not + serve us, and we had to row again for hours, and when night came had not + reached the village. We were so fortunate, however, as to find a deep + sheltered cove where the water was quite smooth, and we constructed a + temporary anchor by filling a sack with stones from our ballast, which + being well secured by a network of rattans held us safely during the + night. The next morning my men went on shore to cut wood suitable for + making fresh anchors, and about noon, the current turning in our favour, + we proceeded to the village, where we found an excellent and + well-protected anchorage. + </p> + <p> + On inquiry, we found that the head men resided at the other Gani on the + western side of the peninsula, and it was necessary to send messengers + across (about half a day's journey) to inform them of my arrival, and to + beg them to assist me. I then succeeded in buying a little sago, some + dried deer-meat and cocoa-nuts, which at once relieved our immediate want + of something to eat. At night we found our bag of atones still held us + very well, and we slept tranquilly. + </p> + <p> + The next day (October 12th), my men set to work making anchors and oars. + The native Malay anchor is ingeniously constructed of a piece of tough + forked timber, the fluke being strengthened by twisted rattans binding it + to the stem, while the cross-piece is formed of a long flat stone, secured + in the same manner. These anchors when well made, hold exceedingly arm, + and, owing to the expense of iron, are still almost universally used on + board the smaller praus. In the afternoon the head men arrived, and + promised me as many rowers as I could put on the prau, and also brought me + a few eggs and a little rice, which were very acceptable. On the 14th + there was a north wind all day, which would have been invaluable to us a + few days earlier, but which was now only tantalizing. On the 16th, all + being ready, we started at daybreak with two new anchors and ten rowers, + who understood their work. By evening we had come more than half-way to + the point, and anchored for the night in a small bay. At three the next + morning I ordered the anchor up, but the rattan cable parted close to the + bottom, having been chafed by rocks, and we then lost our third anchor on + this unfortunate voyage. The day was calm, and by noon we passed the + southern point of Gilolo, which had delayed us eleven days, whereas the + whole voyage during this monsoon should not have occupied more than half + that time. Having got round the point our course was exactly in the + opposite direction to what it had been, and now, as usual, the wind + changed accordingly, coming from the north and north-west,—so that + we still had to row every mile up to the village of Gani, which we did not + reach till the evening of the 18th. A Bugis trader who was residing there, + and the Senaji, or chief, were very kind; the former assisting me with a + spare anchor and a cable, and making me a present of some vegetables, and + the latter baking fresh sago cakes for my men; and giving rue a couple of + fowls, a bottle of oil, and some pumpkins. As the weather was still very + uncertain, I got four extra men to accompany me to Ternate, for which + place we started on the afternoon of the 20th. + </p> + <p> + We had to keep rowing all night, the land breezes being too weak to enable + us to sail against the current. During the afternoon of the 21st we had an + hour's fair wind, which soon changed into a heavy squall with rain, and my + clumsy men let the mainsail get taken aback and nearly upset us, tearing + the sail; and, what was worse, losing an hour's fair wind. The night was + calm, and we made little progress. + </p> + <p> + On the 22d we had light head-winds. A little before noon we passed, with + the assistance of our oars, the Paciencia Straits, the narrowest part of + the channel between Batchian and Gilolo. These were well named by the + early Portuguese navigators, as the currents are very strong, and there + are so many eddies, that even with a fair wind vessels are often quite + unable to pass through them. In the afternoon a strong north wind (dead + ahead) obliged us to anchor twice. At nigh it was calm, and we crept along + slowly with our oars. + </p> + <p> + On the 23d we still had the wind ahead, or calms. We then crossed over + again to the mainland of Gilolo by the advice of our Gani men, who knew + the coast well. Just as we got across we had another northerly squall with + rain, and had to anchor on the edge of a coral reef for the night. I + called up my men about three on the morning of the 24th, but there was no + wind to help us, and we rowed along slowly. At daybreak there was a fair + breeze from the south, but it lasted only an hour. All the rest of the day + we had nothing but calms, light winds ahead, and squalls, and made very + little progress. + </p> + <p> + On the 25th we drifted out to the middle of the channel, but made no + progress onward. In the afternoon we sailed and rowed to the south end of + Kaiķa, and by midnight reached the village. I determined to stay here a + few days to rest and recruit, and in hopes of getting better weather. I + bought some onions and other vegetables, and plenty of eggs, and my men + baked fresh sago cakes. I went daily to my old hunting-ground in search of + insects, but with very poor success. It was now wet, squally weather, and + there appeared a stagnation of insect life. We Staved five days, during + which time twelve persons died in the village, mostly from simple + intermittent fever, of the treatment of which the natives are quite + ignorant. During the whole of this voyage I had suffered greatly from + sunburnt lips, owing to having exposed myself on deck all day to loon + after our safety among the shoals and reefs near Waigiou. The salt in the + air so affected them that they would not heal, but became excessively + painful, and bled at the slightest touch, and for a long time it was with + great difficulty I could eat at all, being obliged to open my mouth very + wide, and put in each mouthful with the greatest caution. I kept them + constantly covered with ointment, which was itself very disagreeable, and + they caused me almost constant pain for more than a month, as they did not + get well till I had returned to Ternate, and was able to remain a week + indoors. + </p> + <p> + A boat which left for Ternate, the day after we arrived, was obliged to + return the next day, on account of bad weather. On the 31st we went out to + the anchorage at the mouth of the harbour, so as to be ready to start at + the first favourable opportunity. + </p> + <p> + On the 1st of November I called up my men at one in the morning, and we + started with the tide in our favour. Hitherto it had usually been calm at + night, but on this occasion we had a strong westerly squall with rain, + which turned our prau broadside, and obliged us to anchor. When it had + passed we went on rowing all night, but the wind ahead counteracted the + current in our favour, and we advanced but little. Soon after sunrise the + wind became stronger and more adverse, and as we had a dangerous lee-shore + which we could not clear, we had to put about and get an offing to the + W.S.W. This series of contrary winds and bad weather ever since we + started, not having had a single day of fair wind, was very remarkable. My + men firmly believed there was something unlucky in the boat, and told me I + ought to have had a certain ceremony gone through before starting, + consisting of boring a hole in the bottom and pouring some kind of holy + oil through it. It must be remembered that this was the season of the + south-east monsoon, and yet we had not had even half a day's south-east + wind since we left Waigiou. Contrary winds, squalls, and currents drifted + us about the rest of the day at their pleasure. The night was equally + squally and changeable, and kept us hard at work taking in and making + sail, and rowing in the intervals. + </p> + <p> + Sunrise on the 2d found us in the middle of the ten-mile channel between + Kaiķa and Makian. Squalls and showers succeeded each other during the + morning. At noon there was a dead calm, after which a light westerly + breeze enabled us to reach a village on Makian in the evening. Here I + bought some pumelos (Citrus decumana), kanary-nuts, and coffee, and let my + men have a night's sleep. + </p> + <p> + The morning of the 3d was fine, and we rowed slowly along the coast of + Makian. The captain of a small prau at anchor, seeing me on deck and + guessing who I was, made signals for us to stop, and brought me a letter + from Charles Allen, who informed me he had been at Ternate twenty days, + and was anxiously waiting my arrival. This was good news, as I was equally + anxious about him, and it cheered up my spirits. A light southerly wind + now sprung up, and we thought we were going to have fine weather. It soon + changed, however, to its old quarter, the west; dense clouds gathered over + the sky, and in less than half an hour we had the severest squall we had + experienced during our whole voyage. Luckily we got our great mainsail + down in time, or the consequences might have been serious. It was a + regular little hurricane, and my old Bugis steersman began shouting out to + "Allah! il Allah!" to preserve us. We could only keep up our jib, which + was almost blown to rags, but by careful handling it kept us before the + wind, and the prau behaved very well. Our small boat (purchased at Gani) + was towing astern, and soon got full of water, so that it broke away and + we saw no more of it. In about an hour the fury of the wind abated a + little, and in two more we were able to hoist our mainsail, reefed and + half-mast high. Towards evening it cleared up and fell calm, and the sea, + which had been rather high, soon went down. Not being much of a seaman + myself I had been considerably alarmed, and even the old steersman assured + me he had never been in a worse squall all his life. He was now more than + ever confirmed in his opinion of the unluckiness of the boat, and in the + efficiency of the holy oil which all Bugis praus had poured through their + bottoms. As it was, he imputed our safety and the quick termination of the + squall entirely to his own prayers, saying with a laugh, "Yes, that's the + way we always do on board our praus; when things are at the worst we stand + up and shout out our prayers as loud as we can, and then Tuwan Allah helps + us." + </p> + <p> + After this it took us two days more to reach Ternate, having our usual + calms, squalls, and head-winds to the very last; and once having to return + back to our anchorage owing to violent gusts of wind just as we were close + to the town. Looking at my whole voyage in this vessel from the time when + I left Goram in May, it will appear that rely experiences of travel in a + native prau have not been encouraging. My first crew ran away; two men + were lost for a month on a desert island; we were ten times aground on + coral reefs; we lost four anchors; the sails were devoured by rats; the + small boat was lost astern; we were thirty-eight days on the voyage home, + which should not have taken twelve; we were many times short of food and + water; we had no compass-lamp, owing to there not being a drop of oil in + Waigiou when we left; and to crown all, during the whole of our voyages + from Goram by Ceram to Waigiou, and from Waigiou to Ternate, occupying in + all seventy-eight days, or only twelve days short of three months (all in + what was supposed to be the favourable season), we had not one single day + of fair wind. We were always close braced up, always struggling against + wind, tide, and leeway, and in a vessel that would scarcely sail nearer + than eight points from the wind. Every seaman will admit that my first + voyage in my own boat was a most unlucky one. + </p> + <p> + Charles Allen had obtained a tolerable collection of birds and insects at + Mysol, but far less than he would have done if I had not been so + unfortunate as to miss visiting him. After waiting another week or two + till he was nearly starved, he returned to Wahai in Ceram, and heard, much + to his surprise, that I had left a fortnight before. He was delayed there + more than a month before he could get back to the north side of Mysol, + which he found a much better locality, but it was not yet the season for + the Paradise Birds; and before he had obtained more than a few of the + common sort, the last prau was ready to leave for Ternate, and he was + obliged to take the opportunity, as he expected I would be waiting there + for him. + </p> + <p> + This concludes the record of my wanderings. I next went to Timor, and + afterwards to Bourn, Java, and Sumatra, which places have already been + described. Charles Allen made a voyage to New Guinea, a short account of + which will be given in my next chapter on the Birds of Paradise. On his + return he went to the Sula Islands, and made a very interesting collection + which served to determine the limits of the zoological group of Celebes, + as already explained in my chapter on the natural history of that island. + His next journey was to Flores and Solor, where he obtained some valuable + materials, which I have used in my chapter on the natural history of the + Timor group. He afterwards went to Coti on the east coast of Borneo, from + which place I was very anxious to obtain collections, as it is a quite new + locality as far as possible from Sarawak, and I had heard very good + accounts of it. On his return thence to Sourabaya in Java, he was to have + gone to the entirely unknown Sumba or Sandal-wood Island. Most + unfortunately, however, he was seized with a terrible fever on his arrival + at Coti, and, after lying there some weeks, was taken to Singapore in a + very bad condition, where he arrived after I had left for England. When he + recovered he obtained employment in Singapore, and I lost his services as + a collector. + </p> + <p> + The three concluding chapters of my work will treat of the birds of + Paradise, the Natural History of the Papuan Islands, and the Races of Man + in the Malay Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE BIRDS OF PARADISE. + </h2> + <p> + AS many of my journeys were made with the express object of obtaining + specimens of the Birds of Paradise, and learning something of their habits + and distribution; and being (as far as I am aware) the only Englishman who + has seen these wonderful birds in their native forests, and obtained + specimens of many of them, I propose to give here, in a connected form, + the result of my observations and inquiries. + </p> + <p> + When the earliest European voyagers reached the Moluccas in search of + cloves and nutmegs, which were then rare and precious spices, they were + presented with the dried shins of birds so strange and beautiful as to + excite the admiration even of those wealth-seeking rovers. The Malay + traders gave them the name of "Manuk dewata," or God's birds; and the + Portuguese, finding that they had no feet or wings, and not being able to + learn anything authentic about then, called them "Passaros de Col," or + Birds of the Sun; while the learned Dutchmen, who wrote in Latin, called + them "Avis paradiseus," or Paradise Bird. John van Linschoten gives these + names in 1598, and tells us that no one has seen these birds alive, for + they live in the air, always turning towards the sun, and never lighting + on the earth till they die; for they have neither feet nor wings, as, he + adds, may be seen by the birds carried to India, and sometimes to Holland, + but being very costly they were then rarely seen in Europe. More than a + hundred years later Mr. William Funnel, who accompanied Dampier, and wrote + an account of the voyage, saw specimens at Amboyna, and was told that they + came to Banda to eat nutmegs, which intoxicated them and made them fall + down senseless, when they were killed by ants. Down to 1760, when Linnaeus + named the largest species, Paradisea apoda (the footless Paradise Bird), + no perfect specimen had been seen in Europe, and absolutely nothing was + known about them. And even now, a hundred years later, most books state + that they migrate annually to Ternate, Banda, and Amboyna; whereas the + fact is, that they are as completely unknown in those islands in a wild + state as they are in England. Linnaeus was also acquainted with a small + species, which he named Paradisea regia (the King Bird of Paradise), and + since then nine or ten others have been named, all of which were first + described from skins preserved by the savages of New Guinea, and generally + more or less imperfect. These are now all known in the Malay Archipelago + as "Burong coati," or dead birds, indicating that the Malay traders never + saw them alive. + </p> + <p> + The Paradiseidae are a group of moderate-sized birds, allied in their + structure and habits to crows, starlings, and to the Australian + honeysuckers; but they are characterised by extraordinary developments of + plumage, which are unequalled in any other family of birds. In several + species large tufts of delicate bright-coloured feathers spring from each + side of the body beneath the wings, forming trains, or fans, or shields; + and the middle feathers of the tail are often elongated into wires, + twisted into fantastic shapes, or adorned with the most brilliant metallic + tints. In another set of species these accessory plumes spring from the + head, the back, or the shoulders; while the intensity of colour and of + metallic lustre displayed by their plumage, is not to be equalled by any + other birds, except, perhaps, the humming-birds, and is not surpassed even + by these. They have been usually classified under two distinct families, + Paradiseidae and Epimachidae, the latter characterised by long and slender + beaks, and supposed to be allied to the Hoopoes; but the two groups are so + closely allied in every essential point of structure and habits, that I + shall consider them as forming subdivisions of one family. I will now give + a short description of each of the known species, and then add some + general remarks on their natural history. + </p> + <p> + The Great Bird of Paradise (Paradisea apoda of Linnaeus) is the largest + species known, being generally seventeen or eighteen inches from the beak + to the tip of the tail. The body, wings, and tail are of a rich + coffee-brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish-violet or + purple-brown. The whole top of the head and neck is of an exceedingly + delicate straw-yellow, the feathers being short and close set, so as to + resemble plush or velvet; the lower part of the throat up to the eye + clothed with scaly feathers of an emerald, green colour, and with a rich + metallic gloss, and velvety plumes of a still deeper green extend in a + band across the forehead and chin as far as the eye, which is bright + yellow. The beak is pale lead blue; and the feet, which are rather large + and very strong and well formed, are of a pale ashy-pink. The two middle + feathers of the tail have no webs, except a very small one at the base and + at the extreme tip, forming wire-like cirrhi, which spread out in an + elegant double curve, and vary from twenty-four to thirty-four inches + long. From each side of the body, beneath the wings, springs a dense tuft + of long and delicate plumes, sometimes two feet in length, of the most + intense golden-orange colour and very glossy, but changing towards the + tips into a pale brown. This tuft of plumage cam be elevated and spread + out at pleasure, so as almost to conceal the body of the bird. + </p> + <p> + These splendid ornaments are entirely confined to the male sex, while the + female is really a very plain and ordinary-looking bird of a uniform + coffee-brown colour which never changes, neither does she possess the long + tail wires, nor a single yellow or green feather about the dead. The young + males of the first year exactly resemble the females, so that they can + only be distinguished by dissection. The first change is the acquisition + of the yellow and green colour on the head and throat, and at the same + time the two middle tail feathers grow a few inches longer than the rest, + but remain webbed on both sides. At a later period these feathers are + replaced by the long bare shafts of the full length, as in the adult bird; + but there is still no sign of the magnificent orange side-plumes, which + later still complete the attire of the perfect male. To effect these + changes there must be at least three successive moultings; and as the + birds were found by me in all the stages about the same time, it is + probable that they moult only once a year, and that the full plumage is + not acquired till the bird is four years old. It was long thought that the + fine train of feathers was assumed for a short time only at the breeding + season, but my own experience, as well as the observation of birds of an + allied species which I brought home with me, and which lived two years in + this country, show that the complete plumage is retained during the whole + year, except during a short period of moulting as with most other birds. + </p> + <p> + The Great Bird of Paradise is very active and vigorous and seems to be in + constant motion all day long. It is very abundant, small flocks of females + and young male being constantly met with; and though the full-plumaged + birds are less plentiful, their loud cries, which are heard daily, show + that they also are very numerous. Their note is, + "Wawk-wawk-wawk-Wok-wok-wok," and is so loud and shrill as to be heard a + great distance, and to form the most prominent and characteristic animal + sound in the Aru Islands. The mode of nidification is unknown; but the + natives told me that the nest was formed of leaves placed on an ant's + nest, or on some projecting limb of a very lofty tree, and they believe + that it contains only one young bird. The egg is quite unknown, and the + natives declared they had never seen it; and a very high reward offered + for one by a Dutch official did not meet with success. They moult about + January or February, and in May, when they are in full plumage, the males + assemble early in the morning to exhibit themselves in the singular manner + already described at p. 252. This habit enables the natives to obtain + specimens with comparative ease. As soon as they find that the birds have + fled upon a tree on which to assemble, they build a little shelter of palm + leaves in a convenient place among the branches, and the hunter ensconces + himself in it before daylight, armed with his bow and a number of arrows + terminating in a round knob. A boy waits at the foot of the tree, and when + the birds come at sunrise, and a sufficient number have assembled, and + have begun to dance, the hunter shoots with his blunt arrow so strongly as + to stun the bird, which drops down, and is secured and killed by the boy + without its plumage being injured by a drop of blood. The rest take no + notice, and fall one after another till some of them take the alarm. (See + Frontispiece.) + </p> + <p> + The native mode of preserving them is to cut off the wings and feet, and + then skin the body up to the beak, taking out the skull. A stout stick is + then run up through the specimen coming out at the mouth. Round this some + leaves are stuffed, and the whole is wrapped up in a palm spathe and dried + in the smoky hut. By this plan the head, which is really large, is shrunk + up almost to nothing, the body is much reduced and shortened, and the + greatest prominence is given to the flowing plumage. Some of these native + skins are very clean, and often have wings and feet left on; others are + dreadfully stained with smoke, and all hive a most erroneous idea of the + proportions of the living bird. + </p> + <p> + The Paradisea apoda, as far as we have any certain knowledge, is confined + to the mainland of the Aru Islands, never being found in the smaller + islands which surround the central mass. It is certainly not found in any + of the parts of New Guinea visited by the Malay and Bugis traders, nor in + any of the other islands where Birds of Paradise are obtained. But this is + by no means conclusive evidence, for it is only in certain localities that + the natives prepare skins, and in other places the same birds may be + abundant without ever becoming known. It is therefore quite possible that + this species may inhabit the great southern mass of New Guinea, from which + Aru has been separated; while its near ally, which I shall next describe, + is confined to the north-western peninsula. + </p> + <p> + The Lesser Bird of Paradise (Paradisea papuana of Bechstein), "Le petit + Emeraude" of French authors, is a much smaller bird than the preceding, + although very similar to it. It differs in its lighter brown colour, not + becoming darker or purpled on the breast; in the extension of the yellow + colour all over the upper part of the back and on the wing coverts; in the + lighter yellow of the side plumes, which have only a tinge of orange, and + at the tips are nearly pure white; and in the comparative shortness of the + tail cirrhi. The female differs remarkably front the same sex in Paradisea + apoda, by being entirely white on the under surface of the body, and is + thus a much handsomer bird. The young males are similarly coloured, and as + they grow older they change to brown, and go through the same stages in + acquiring the perfect plumage as has already been described in the allied + species. It is this bird which is most commonly used in ladies' + head-dresses in this country, and also forms an important article of + commerce in the East. + </p> + <p> + The Paradisea papuana has a comparatively wide range, being the common + species on the mainland of New Guinea, as well as on the islands of Mysol, + Salwatty, Jobie, Biak and Sook. On the south coast of New Guinea, the + Dutch naturalist, Muller, found it at the Oetanata river in longitude 136° + E. I obtained it myself at Dorey; and the captain of the Dutch steamer + Etna informed me that he had seen the feathers among the natives of + Humboldt Bay, in 141° E. longitude. It is very probable, therefore, that + it ranges over the whole of the mainland of New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + The true Paradise Birds are omnivorous, feeding on fruits and insects—of + the former preferring the small figs; of the latter, grasshoppers, + locusts, and phasmas, as well as cockroaches and caterpillars. When I + returned home, in 1862, I was so fortunate as to find two adult males of + this species in Singapore; and as they seemed healthy, and fed voraciously + on rice, bananas, and cockroaches, I determined on giving the very high + price asked for them—Ŗ100.—and to bring them to England by the + overland route under my own care. On my way home I stayed a week at + Bombay, to break the journey, and to lay in a fresh stock of bananas for + my birds. I had great difficulty, however, in supplying them with insect + food, for in the Peninsular and Oriental steamers cockroaches were scarce, + and it was only by setting traps in the store-rooms, and by hunting an + hour every night in the forecastle, that I could secure a few dozen of + these creatures,—scarcely enough for a single meal. At Malta, where + I stayed a fortnight, I got plenty of cockroaches from a bake-house, and + when I left, took with me several biscuit-tins' full, as provision for the + voyage home. We came through the Mediterranean in March, with a very cold + wind; and the only place on board the mail-steamer where their large cage + could be accommodated was exposed to a strong current of air down a + hatchway which stood open day and night, yet the birds never seemed to + feel the cold. During the night journey from Marseilles to Paris it was a + sharp frost; yet they arrived in London in perfect health, and lived in + the Zoological Gardens for one, and two years, often displaying their + beautiful plumes to the admiration of the spectators. It is evident, + therefore, that the Paradise Birds are very hardy, and require air and + exercise rather than heat; and I feel sure that if a good sized + conservators` could be devoted to them, or if they could be turned loose + in the tropical department of the Crystal Palace or the Great Palm House + at Kew, they would live in this country for many years. + </p> + <p> + The Red Bird of Paradise (Paradisea rubra of Viellot), though allied to + the two birds already described, is much more distinct from them than they + are from each other. It is about the same size as Paradisea papuana (13 to + 14 inches long), but differs from it in many particulars. The side plumes, + instead of being yellow, are rich crimson, and only extend about three or + four inches beyond the end of the tail; they are somewhat rigid, and the + ends are curved downwards and inwards, and are tipped with white. The two + middle tail feathers, instead of being simply elongated and deprived of + their webs, are transformed into stiff black ribands, a quarter of an inch + wide, but curved like a split quill, and resembling thin half cylinders of + horn or whalebone. When a dead bird is laid on its back, it is seen that + these ribands take a curve or set, which brings them round so as to meet + in a double circle on the neck of the bird; but when they hang downwards, + during life, they assume a spiral twist, and form an exceedingly graceful + double curve. They are about twenty-two inches long, and always attract + attention as the most conspicuous and extraordinary feature of the + species. The rich metallic green colour of the throat extends over the + front half of the head to behind the eyes, and on the forehead forms a + little double crest of scaly feathers, which adds much to the vivacity of + the bird's aspect. The bill is gamboge yellow, and the iris blackish + olive. (Figure at p. 353.) + </p> + <p> + The female of this species is of a tolerably uniform coffee-brown colour, + but has a blackish head, and the nape neck, and shoulders yellow, + indicating the position of the brighter colours of the male. The changes + of plumage follow the same order of succession as in the other species, + the bright colours of the head and neck being first developed, then the + lengthened filaments of the tail, and last of all, the red side plumes. I + obtained a series of specimens, illustrating the manner in which the + extraordinary black tail ribands are developed, which is very remarkable. + They first appear as two ordinary feathers, rather shorter than the rest + of the tail; the second stage would no doubt be that shown in a specimen + of Paradisea apoda, in which the feathers are moderately lengthened, and + with the web narrowed in the middle; the third stage is shown by a + specimen which has part of the midrib bare, and terminated by a spatulate + web; in another the bare midrib is a little dilated and semi-cylindrical, + and the terminal web very small; in a fifth, the perfect black horny + riband is formed, but it bears at its extremity a brown spatulate web, + while in another a portion of the black riband itself bears, for a portion + of its length, a narrow brown web. It is only after these changes are + fully completed that the red side plumes begin to appear. + </p> + <p> + The successive stages of development of the colours and plumage of the + Birds of Paradise are very interesting, from the striking manner in which + they accord with the theory of their having been produced by the simple + action of variation, and the cumulative power of selection by the females, + of those male birds which were more than usually ornamental. Variations of + <i>colour</i> are of all others the most frequent and the most striking, + and are most easily modified and accumulated by man's selection of them. + We should expect, therefore, that the sexual differences of <i>colour</i> + would be those most early accumulated and fixed, and would therefore + appear soonest in the young birds; and this is exactly what occurs in the + Paradise Birds. Of all variations in the <i>form</i> of birds' feathers, + none are so frequent as those in the head and tail. These occur more, or + less in every family of birds, and are easily produced in many + domesticated varieties, while unusual developments of the feathers of the + body are rare in the whole class of birds, and have seldom or never + occurred in domesticated species. In accordance with these facts, we find + the scale-formed plumes of the throat, the crests of the head, and the + long cirrhi of the tail, all fully developed before the plumes which + spring from the side of the body begin to mane their appearance. If, on + the other hand, the male Paradise Birds have not acquired their + distinctive plumage by successive variations, but have been as they are + mow from the moment they first appeared upon the earth, this succession + becomes at the least unintelligible to us, for we can see no reason why + the changes should not take place simultaneously, or in a reverse order to + that in which they actually occur. + </p> + <p> + What is known of the habits of this bird, and the way in which it is + captured by the natives, have already been described at page 362. + </p> + <p> + The Red Bird of Paradise offers a remarkable case of restricted range, + being entirely confined to the small island of Waigiou, off the north-west + extremity of New Guinea, where it replaces the allied species found in the + other islands. + </p> + <p> + The three birds just described form a well-marked group, agreeing in every + point of general structure, in their comparatively large size, the brown + colour of their bodies, wings, and tail, and in the peculiar character of + the ornamental plumage which distinguishes the male bird. The group ranges + nearly over the whole area inhabited by the family of the Paradiseidae, + but each of the species has its own limited region, and is never found in + the same district with either of its close allies. To these three birds + properly belongs the generic title Paradisea, or true Paradise Bird. + </p> + <p> + The next species is the Paradisea regia of Linnaeus, or Ding Bird of + Paradise, which differs so much from the three preceding species as to + deserve a distinct generic name, and it has accordingly been called + Cicinnurus regius. By the Malays it is called "Burong rajah," or King + Bird, and by the natives of the Aru Islands "Goby-goby." + </p> + <p> + This lovely little bird is only about six and a half inches long, partly + owing to the very short tail, which does not surpass the somewhat square + wings. The head, throat, and entire upper surface are of the richest + glossy crimson red, shading to orange-crimson on the forehead, where the + feathers extend beyond the nostrils more than half-way down the beak. The + plumage is excessively brilliant, shining in certain lights with a + metallic or glassy lustre. The breast and belly are pure silky white, + between which colour and the red of the throat there is a broad band of + rich metallic green, and there is a small spot of the same colour close + above each eye. From each side of the body beneath the wing, springs a + tuft of broad delicate feathers about an inch and a half long, of an ashy + colour, but tipped with a broad band of emerald green, bordered within by + a narrow line of buff: These plumes are concealed beneath the wing, but + when the bird pleases, can be raised and spread out so as to form an + elegant semicircular fan on each shoulder. But another ornament still more + extraordinary, and if possible more beautiful, adorns this little bird. + The two middle tail feathers are modified into very slender wirelike + shafts, nearly six inches long, each of which bears at the extremity, on + the inner side only, a web of an emerald green colour, which is coiled up + into a perfect spiral disc, and produces a most singular and charming + effect. The bill is orange yellow, and the feet and legs of a fine cobalt + blue. (See upper figure on the plate at the commencement of this chapter.) + </p> + <p> + The female of this little gem is such a plainly coloured bird, that it can + at first sight hardly be believed to belong to the same species. The upper + surface is of a dull earthy brown, a slight tinge of orange red appearing + only on the margins of the quills. Beneath, it is of a paler yellowish + brown, scaled and banded with narrow dusky markings. The young males are + exactly like the female, and they no doubt undergo a series of changes as + singular as those of Paradisea rubra; but, unfortunately, I was unable to + obtain illustrative specimens. + </p> + <p> + This exquisite little creature frequents the smaller trees in the thickest + parts of the forest, feeding on various fruits; often of a very large size + for so small a bird. It is very active both on its wings and feet, and + makes a whirring sound while flying, something like the South American + manakins. It often flutters its wings and displays the beautiful fan which + adorns its breast, while the star-bearing tail wires diverge in an elegant + double curve. It is tolerably plentiful in the Aru Islands, which led to + it, being brought to Europe at an early period along with Paradisea apoda. + It also occurs in the island of Mysol and in every part of New Guinea + which has been visited by naturalists. + </p> + <p> + We now come to the remarkable little bird called the "Magnificent," first + figured by Buffon, and named Paradisea speciosa by Boddaert, which, with + one allied species, has been formed into a separate genus by Prince + Buonaparte, under the name of Diphyllodes, from the curious double mantle + which clothes the back. + </p> + <p> + The head is covered with short brown velvety feathers, which advance on + the back so as to cover the nostrils. From the nape springs a dense mass + of feathers of a straw-yellow colour, and about one and a half inches + long, forming a mantle over the upper part of the back. Beneath this, and + forming a band about one-third of an inch beyond it, is a second mantle of + rich, glossy, reddish-brown fathers. The rest of the bath is orange-brown, + the tail-coverts and tail dark bronzy, the wings light orange-buff: The + whole under surface is covered with an abundance of plumage springing from + the margins of the breast, and of a rich deep green colour, with + changeable hues of purple. Down the middle of the breast is a broad band + of scaly plumes of the same colour, while the chin and throat are of a + rich metallic bronze. From the middle of the tail spring two narrow + feathers of a rich steel blue, and about ten inches long. These are webbed + on the inner side only, and curve outward, so as to form a double circle. + </p> + <p> + From what we know of the habits of allied species, we may be sure that the + greatly developed plumage of this bird is erected and displayed in some + remarkable manner. The mass of feathers on the under surface are probably + expanded into a hemisphere, while the beautiful yellow mantle is no doubt + elevated so as to give the bird a very different appearance from that + which it presents in the dried and flattened skins of the natives, through + which alone it is at present known. The feet appear to be dark blue. + </p> + <p> + This rare and elegant little bird is found only on the mainland of New + Guinea, and in the island of Mysol. + </p> + <p> + A still more rare and beautiful species than the last is the Diphyllodes + wilsoni, described by Mr. Cassin from a native skin in the rich museum of + Philadelphia. The same bird was afterwards named "Diphyllodes respublica" + by Prince Buonaparte, and still later, "Schlegelia calva," by Dr. + Bernstein, who was so fortunate as to obtain fresh specimens in Waigiou. + </p> + <p> + In this species the upper mantle is sulphur yellow, the lower one and the + wings pure red, the breast plumes dark green, and the lengthened middle + tail feathers much shorter than in the allied species. The most curious + difference is, however, that the top of the head is bald, the bare skin + being of a rich cobalt blue, crossed by several lines of black velvety + feathers. + </p> + <p> + It is about the same size as Diphyllodes speciosa, and is no doubt + entirely confined to the island of Waigiou. The female, as figured and + described by Dr. Bernstein, is very like that of Cicinnurus regius, being + similarly banded beneath; and we may therefore conclude that its near + ally, the "Magnificent," is at least equally plain in this sex, of which + specimens have not yet been obtained. + </p> + <p> + The Superb Bird of Paradise was first figured by Buffon, and was named by + Boddaert, Paradisea atra, from the black ground colour of its plumage. It + forms the genus Lophorina of Viellot, and is one of the rarest and most + brilliant of the whole group, being only known front mutilated native + skins. This bird is a little larger than the Magnificent. The ground + colour of the plumage is intense black, but with beautiful bronze + reflections on the neck, and the whole head scaled with feathers of + brilliant metallic green and blue. Over its breast it bears a shield + formed of narrow and rather stiff feathers, much elongated towards the + sides, of a pure bluish-green colour, and with a satiny gloss. But a still + more extraordinary ornament is that which springs from the back of the + neck,—a shield of a similar form to that on the breast, but much + larger, and of a velvety black colour, glossed with bronze and purple. The + outermost feathers of this shield are half an inch longer than the wing, + and when it is elevated it must, in conjunction with the breast shield, + completely change the form and whole appearance of the bird. The bill is + black, and the feet appear to be yellow. + </p> + <p> + This wonderful little bird inhabits the interior of the northern peninsula + of New Guinea only. Neither I nor Mr. Allen could hear anything of it in + any of the islands or on any part of the coast. It is true that it was + obtained from the coast-natives by Lesson; but when at Sorong in 1861, Mr. + Allen learnt that it is only found three days' journey in the interior. + Owing to these "Black Birds of Paradise," as they are called, not being so + much valued as articles of merchandise, they now seem to be rarely + preserved by the natives, and it thus happened that during several years + spent on the coasts of New Guinea and in the Moluccas I was never able to + obtain a skin. We are therefore quite ignorant of the habits of this bird, + and also of its female, though the latter is no doubt as plain and + inconspicuous as in all the other species of this family. + </p> + <p> + The Golden, or Six-shafted, Paradise Bird, is another rare species, first + figured by Buffon, and never yet obtained in perfect condition. It was + named by Boddaert, Paradisea sexpennis, and forms the genus Parotia of + Viellot. This wonderful bird is about the size of the female Paradisea + rubra. The plumage appear, at first sight black, but it glows in certain + light with bronze and deep purple. The throat and breast are scaled with + broad flat feathers of an intense golden hue, changing to green and blue + tints in certain lights. On the back of the head is a broad recurved band + of feathers, whose brilliancy is indescribable, resembling the sheen of + emerald and topaz rather than any organic substance. Over the forehead is + a large patch of pure white feathers, which shine like satin; and from the + sides of the head spring the six wonderful feathers from which the bird + receives its name. These are slender wires, six inches long, with a small + oval web at the extremity. In addition to these ornaments, there is also + an immense tuft of soft feathers on each side of the breast, which when + elevated must entirely hide the wings, and give the bird au appearance of + being double its real bulk. The bill is black, short, and rather + compressed, with the feathers advancing over the nostrils, as in + Cicinnurus regius. This singular and brilliant bird inhabits the same + region as the Superb Bird of Paradise, and nothing whatever is known about + it but what we can derive from an examination of the skins preserved by + the natives of New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + The Standard Wing, named Semioptera wallacei by Mr. G. R. Gray, is an + entirely new form of Bird of Paradise, discovered by myself in the island + of Batchian, and especially distinguished by a pair of long narrow + feathers of a white colour, which spring from among the short plumes which + clothe the bend of the wing, and are capable of being erected at pleasure. + The general colour of this bird is a delicate olive-brown, deepening to a + loud of bronzy olive in the middle of the back, and changing to a delicate + ashy violet with a metallic gloss, on the crown of the head. The feathers, + which cover the nostrils and extend half-way down the beak, are loose and + curved upwards. Beneath, it is much more beautiful. The scale-like + feathers of the breast are margined with rich metallic blue-green, which + colour entirely covers the throat and sides of the neck, as well as the + long pointed plumes which spring from the sides of the breast, and extend + nearly as far as the end of the wings. The most curious feature of the + bird, however, and one altogether unique in the whole class, is found in + the pair of long narrow delicate feathers which spring from each wing + close to the bend. On lifting the wing-coverts they are seen to arise from + two tubular horny sheaths, which diverge from near the point of junction + of the carpal bones. As already described at p. 41, they are erectile, and + when the bird is excited are spread out at right angles to the wing and + slightly divergent. They are from six to six and a half inches long, the + upper one slightly exceeding the lower. The total length of the bird is + eleven inches. The bill is horny olive, the iris deep olive, and the feet + bright orange. + </p> + <p> + The female bird is remarkably plain, being entirely of a dull pale earthy + brown, with only a slight tinge of ashy violet on the head to relieve its + general monotony; and the young males exactly resemble her. (See figures + at p. 41.) + </p> + <p> + This bird, frequents the lower trees of the forests, and, like most + Paradise Birds, is in constant motion—flying from branch to branch, + clinging to the twigs and even to the smooth and vertical trunks almost as + easily as a woodpecker. It continually utters a harsh, creaking note, + somewhat intermediate between that of Paradisea apoda, and the more + musical cry of Cicinnurus regius. The males at short intervals open and + flutter their wings, erect the long shoulder feathers, and spread out the + elegant green breast shields. + </p> + <p> + The Standard Wing is found in Gilolo as well as in Batchian, and all the + specimens from the former island have the green breast shield rather + longer, the crown of the head darker violet, and the lower parts of the + body rather more strongly scaled with green. This is the only Paradise + Bird yet found in the Moluccan district, all the others being confined to + the Papuan Islands and North Australia. + </p> + <p> + We now come to the Epimachidae, or Long-billed Birds of Paradise, which, + as before stated, ought not to be separated from the Paradiseidae by the + intervention of any other birds. One of the most remarkable of these is + the Twelve-wired Paradise Bird, Paradises alba of Blumenbach, but now + placed in the genus Seleucides of Lesson. + </p> + <p> + This bird is about twelve inches long, of which the compressed and curved + beak occupies two inches. The colour of the breast and upper surface + appears at first sight nearly black, but a close examination shows that no + part of it is devoid of colour; and by holding it in various lights, the + most rich and glowing tints become visible. The head, covered with short + velvety feathers, which advance on the chic much further than on the upper + part of the beak, is of a purplish bronze colour; the whole of the back + and shoulders is rich bronzy green, while the closed wings and tail are of + the most brilliant violet purple, all the plumage having a delicate silky + gloss. The mass of feathers which cover the breast is really almost black, + with faint glosses of green and purple, but their outer edges are margined + with glittering bands of emerald green. The whole lower part of the body + is rich buffy yellow, including the tuft of plumes which spring from the + sides, and extend an inch and a half beyond the tail. When skins are + exposed to the light the yellow fades into dull white, from which + circumstance it derived its specific name. About six of the innermost of + these plumes on each side have the midrib elongated into slender black + wires, which bend at right angles, and curve somewhat backwards to a + length of about ten inches, forming one of those extraordinary and + fantastic ornaments with which this group of birds abounds. The bill is + jet black, and the feet bright yellow. (See lower figure on the plate at + the beginning of this chapter). + </p> + <p> + The female, although not quite so plain a bird as in some other species, + presents none of the gay colours or ornamental plumage of the male. The + top of the head and back of the neck are black, the rest of the upper + parts rich reddish brown; while the under surface is entirely yellowish + ashy, somewhat blackish on the breast, and crossed throughout with narrow + blackish wavy bands. + </p> + <p> + The Seleucides alba is found in the island of Salwatty, and in the + north-western parts of New Guinea, where it frequents flowering trees, + especially sago-palms and pandani, sucking the flowers, round and beneath + which its unusually large and powerful feet enable it to cling. Its + motions are very rapid. It seldom rests more than a few moments on one + tree, after which it flies straight off, and with great swiftness, to + another. It has a loud shrill cry, to be heard a long way, consisting of + "Cah, cah," repeated five or six times in a descending scale, and at the + last note it generally flies away. The males are quite solitary in their + habits, although, perhaps, they assemble at pertain times like the true + Paradise Birds. All the specimens shot and opened by my assistant Mr. + Allen, who obtained this fine bird during his last voyage to New Guinea, + had nothing in their stomachs but a brown sweet liquid, probably the + nectar of the flowers on which they had been feeding. They certainly, + however, eat both fruit and insects, for a specimen which I saw alive on + board a Dutch steamer ate cockroaches and papaya fruit voraciously. This + bird had the curious habit of resting at noon with the bill pointing + vertically upwards. It died on the passage to Batavia, and I secured the + body and formed a skeleton, which shows indisputably that it is really a + Bird of Paradise. The tongue is very long and extensible, but flat and + little fibrous at the end, exactly like the true Paradiseas. + </p> + <p> + In the island of Salwatty, the natives search in the forests till they + find the sleeping place of this bird, which they know by seeing its dung + upon the ground. It is generally in a low bushy tree. At night they climb + up the trap, and either shoot the birds with blunt arrows, or even catch + them alive with a cloth. In New Guinea they are caught by placing snares + on the trees frequented by them, in the same way as the Red Paradise birds + are caught in Waigiou, and which has already been described at page 362. + </p> + <p> + The great Epimaque, or Long-tailed Paradise Bird (Epimachus magnus), is + another of these wonderful creatures, only known by the imperfect skins + prepared by the natives. In its dark velvety plumage, glowed with bronze + and purple, it resembles the Seleucides alba, but it bears a magnificent + tail more than two feet long, glossed on the upper surface with the most + intense opalescent blue. Its chief ornament, however, consists in the + group of broad plumes which spring from the sides of the breast, and which + are dilated at the extremity, and banded with the most vivid metallic blue + and green. The bill is long and curved, and the feet black, and similar to + those of the allied forms. The total length of this fine bird is between + three and four feet. + </p> + <p> + This splendid bird inhabits the mountains of New Guinea, in the same + district with the Superb and the Six-shafted Paradise Birds, and I was + informed is sometimes found in the ranges near the coast. I was several + times assured by different natives that this bird makes its nest in a hole + under ground, or under rocks, always choosing a place with two apertures, + so that it may enter at one and go out at the other. This is very unlike + what we should suppose to be the habits of the bird, but it is not easy to + conceive how the story originated if it is not true; and all travellers + know that native accounts of the habits of animals, however strange they + may seem, almost invariably turn out to be correct. + </p> + <p> + The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird (Epimachus magnificus of Cuvier) is now + generally placed with the Australian Rifle birds in the genus Ptiloris. + Though very beautiful, these birds are less strikingly decorated with + accessory plumage than the other species we have been describing, their + chief ornament being a more or less developed breastplate of stiff + metallic green feathers, and a small tuft of somewhat hairy plumes on the + sides of the breast. The back and wings of this species are of an intense + velvety black, faintly glossed in certain lights with rich purple. The two + broad middle tail feathers are opalescent green-blue with a velvety + surface, and the top of the head is covered with feathers resembling + scales of burnished steel. A large triangular space covering the chin, + throat, and breast, is densely scaled with feathers, having a steel-blue + or green lustre, and a silky feel. This is edged below with a narrow band + of black, followed by shiny bronzy green, below which the body is covered + with hairy feathers of a rich claret colour, deepening to black at the + tail. The tufts of side plumes somewhat resemble those of the true Birds + of Paradise, but are scanty, about as long as the tail, and of a black + colour. The sides of the head are rich violet, and velvety feathers extend + on each side of the beak over the nostrils. + </p> + <p> + I obtained at Dorey a young male of this bird, in a state of plumage which + is no doubt that of the adult female, as is the case in all the allied + species. The upper surface, wings, and tail are rich reddish brown, while + the under surface is of a pale ashy colour, closely barred throughout with + narrow wavy black bands. There is also a pale banded stripe over the eye, + and a long dusky stripe from the gape down each side of the neck. This + bird is fourteen inches long, whereas the native skins of the adult male + are only about ten inches, owing to the way in which the tail is pushed + in, so as to give as much prominence as possible to the ornamental plumage + of the breast. + </p> + <p> + At Cape York, in North Australia, there is a closely allied species, + Ptiloris alberti, the female of which is very similar to the young male + bird here described. The beautiful Rifle Birds of Australia, which much + resemble those Paradise Birds, are named Ptiloris paradiseus and Ptiloris + victories, The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird seems to be confined to the + mainland of New Guinea, and is less rare than several of the other + species. + </p> + <p> + There are three other New Guinea birds which are by some authors classed + with the Birds of Paradise, and which, being almost equally remarkable for + splendid plumage, deserve to be noticed here. The first is the Paradise + pie (Astrapia nigra of Lesson), a bird of the size of Paradises rubra, but + with a very long tail, glossed above with intense violet. The back is + bronzy black, the lower parts green, the throat and neck bordered with + loose broad feathers of an intense coppery hue, while on the top of the + head and neck they are glittering emerald green, All the plumage round the + head is lengthened and erectile, and when spread out by the living bird + must lave an effect hardly surpassed by any of the true Paradise birds. + The bill is black and the feet yellow. The Astrapia seems to me to be + somewhat intermediate between the Paradiseidae and Epimachidae. + </p> + <p> + There is an allied species, having a bare carunculated head, which has + been called Paradigalla carunculata. It is believed to inhabit, with the + preceding, the mountainous, interior of New Guinea, but is exceedingly + rare, the only known specimen being in the Philadelphia Museum. + </p> + <p> + The Paradise Oriole is another beautiful bird, which is now sometimes + classed with the Birds of Paradise. It has been named Paradises aurea and + Oriolus aureus by the old naturalists, and is now generally placed in the + same genus as the Regent Bird of Australia (Sericulus chrysocephalus). But + the form of the bill and the character of the plumage seem to me to be so + different that it will have to form a distinct genus. This bird is almost + entirely yellow, with the exception of the throat, the tail, and part of + the wings and back, which are black; but it is chiefly characterised by a + quantity of long feathers of an intense glossy orange colour, which cover + its neck down to the middle of the back, almost like the hackles of a + game-cock. + </p> + <p> + This beautiful bird inhabits the mainland of New Guinea, and is also found + in Salwatty, but is so rare that I was only able to obtain one imperfect + native skin, and nothing whatever is known of its habits. + </p> + <p> + I will now give a list of all the Birds of Paradise yet known, with the + places they are believed to inhabit. + </p> + <p> + 1. Paradisea apoda (The Great Paradise Bird). Aru Islands. + </p> + <p> + 2. Paradisea papuana (The Lesser Paradise Bird). New Guinea. Mysol, Jobie. + </p> + <p> + 3. Paradisea rubra (The Red Paradise Bird). Waigiou. + </p> + <p> + 4. Cicinnurus regius (The King Paradise Bird). New Guinea, Aru Islands, + Mysol, Salwatty. + </p> + <p> + 5. Diphyllodes speciosa (The Magnificent). New Guinea, Mysol, Salwatty. + </p> + <p> + 6. Diphyllodes wilsoni (The Red Magnificent). Waigiou. + </p> + <p> + 7. Lophorina atra (The Superb). New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + 8. Parotia sexpennis (The Golden Paradise Bird). New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + 9. Semioptera wallacei (The Standard Wing). Batchian, Gilolo. + </p> + <p> + 10. Epimachus magnus (The Long-tailed Paradise Bird). New Guinea + </p> + <p> + 11. Seleucides albs (The Twelve-wired Paradise Bird).New Guinea, Salwatty. + </p> + <p> + 12. Ptiloris magnifica (The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird). New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + 13. Ptiloris alberti (Prince Albert's Paradise Bird). North Australia. + </p> + <p> + 14. Ptiloris Paradisea (The Rifle Bird). East Australia. + </p> + <p> + 15. Ptiloris victoriae (The Victorian Rifle Bird). North-East Australia. + </p> + <p> + 16. Astrapia nigra (The Paradise Pie). New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + 17. Paradigalla carunculata (The Carunculated Paradise Pie). New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + 18. (?) Sericulus aureus (The Paradise Oriole). New Guinea, Salwatty. + </p> + <p> + We see, therefore, that of the eighteen species which seem to deserve a + place among the Birds of Paradise, eleven are known to inhabit the great + island of New Guinea, eight of which are entirely confined to it and the + hardly separated island of Salwatty. But if we consider those islands + which are now united to New Guinea by a shallow sea to really form a part + of it, we shall find that fourteen of the Paradise Birds belong to that + country, while three inhabit the northern and eastern parts of Australia, + and one the Moluccas. All the more extraordinary and magnificent species + are, however, entirely confined to the Papuan region. + </p> + <p> + Although I devoted so much time to a search after these wonderful birds, I + only succeeded myself in obtaining five species during a residence of many + months in the Aru Islands, New Guinea, and Waigiou. Mr. Allen's voyage to + Mysol did not procure a single additional species, but we both heard of a + place called Sorong, on the mainland of New Guinea, near Salwatty, where + we were told that all the kinds we desired could be obtained. We therefore + determined that he should visit this place, and endeavour to penetrate + into the interior among the natives, who actually shoot and skin the Birds + of Paradise. He went in the small prau I had fitted up at Goram, and + through the kind assistance of the Dutch Resident at Ternate, a lieutenant + and two soldiers were sent by the Sultan of Tidore to accompany and + protect him, and to assist him in getting men and in visiting the + interior. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these precautions, Mr. Allen met with difficulties in this + voyage which we had neither of us encountered before. To understand these, + it is necessary to consider that the Birds of Paradise are an article of + commerce, and are the monopoly of the chiefs of the coast villages, who + obtain them at a low rate from the mountaineers, and sell them to the + Bugis traders. A portion is also paid every year as tribute to the Sultan + of Tidore. The natives are therefore very jealous of a stranger, + especially a European, interfering in their trade, and above all of going + into the interior to deal with the mountaineers themselves. They of course + think he will raise the prices in the interior, and lessen the supply on + the coast, greatly to their disadvantage; they also think their tribute + will be raised if a European takes back a quantity of the rare sorts; and + they have besides a vague and very natural dread of some ulterior object + in a white man's coming at so much trouble and expense to their country + only to get Birds of Paradise, of which they know he can buy plenty (of + the common yellow ones which alone they value) at Ternate, Macassar, or + Singapore. + </p> + <p> + It thus happened that when Mr. Allen arrived at Sorong, and explained his + intention of going to seek Birds of Paradise in the interior, innumerable + objections were raised. He was told it was three or four days' journey + over swamps and mountains; that the mountaineers were savages and + cannibals, who would certainly kill him; and, lastly, that not a man in + the village could be found who dare go with him. After some days spent in + these discussions, as he still persisted in making the attempt, and showed + them his authority from the Sultan of Tidore to go where he pleased and + receive every assistance, they at length provided him with a boat to go + the first part of the journey up a river; at the same time, however, they + sent private orders to the interior villages to refuse to sell any + provisions, so as to compel him to return. On arriving at the village + where they were to leave the river and strike inland, the coast people + returned, leaving Mr. Allen to get on as he could. Here he called on the + Tidore lieutenant to assist him, and procure men as guides and to carry + his baggage to the villages of the mountaineers. This, however, was not so + easily done. A quarrel took place, and the natives, refusing to obey the + imperious orders of the lieutenant, got out their knives and spears to + attack him and his soldiers; and Mr. Allen himself was obliged to + interfere to protect those who had come to guard him. The respect due to a + white man and the timely distribution of a few presents prevailed; and, on + showing the knives, hatchets, and beads he was willing to give to those + who accompanied him, peace was restored, and the next day, travelling over + a frightfully rugged country, they reached the villages of the + mountaineers. Here Mr. Allen remained a month without any interpreter + through whom he could understand a word or communicate a want. However, by + signs and presents and a pretty liberal barter, he got on very well, some + of them accompanying him every day in the forest to shoot, and receiving a + small present when he was successful. + </p> + <p> + In the grand matter of the Paradise Birds, however, little was done. Only + one additional species was found, the Seleucides alba, of which he had + already obtained a specimen in Salwatty; but he learnt that the other + kinds' of which he showed them drawings, were found two or three days' + journey farther in the interior. When I sent my men from Dorey to + Amberbaki, they heard exactly the same story—that the rarer sorts + were only found several days' journey in the interior, among rugged + mountains, and that the skins were prepared by savage tribes who had never + even been seen by any of the coast people. + </p> + <p> + It seems as if Nature had taken precautions that these her choicest + treasures should not be made too common, and thus be undervalued. This + northern coast of New Guinea is exposed to the full swell of the Pacific + Ocean, and is rugged and harbourless. The country is all rocky and + mountainous, covered everywhere with dense forests, offering in its swamps + and precipices and serrated ridges an almost impassable barrier to the + unknown interior; and the people are dangerous savages, in the very lowest + stage of barbarism. In such a country, and among such a people, are found + these wonderful productions of Nature, the Birds of Paradise, whose + exquisite beauty of form and colour and strange developments of plumage + are calculated to excite the wonder and admiration of the most civilized + and the most intellectual of mankind, and to furnish inexhaustible + materials for study to the naturalist, and for speculation to the + philosopher. + </p> + <p> + Thus ended my search after these beautiful birds. Five voyages to + different parts of the district they inhabit, each occupying in its + preparation and execution the larger part of a year, produced me only five + species out of the fourteen known to exist in the New Guinea district. The + kinds obtained are those that inhabit the coasts of New Guinea and its + islands, the remainder seeming to be strictly confined to the central + mountain-ranges of the northern peninsula; and our researches at Dorey and + Amberbaki, near one end of this peninsula, and at Salwatty and Sorong, + near the other, enable me to decide with some certainty on the native + country of these rare and lovely birds, good specimens of which have never + yet been seen in Europe. + </p> + <p> + It must be considered as somewhat extraordinary that, during five years' + residence and travel in Celebes, the Moluccas, and New Guinea, I should + never have been able to purchase skins of half the species which Lesson, + forty years ago, obtained during a few weeks in the same countries. I + believe that all, except the common species of commerce, are now much more + difficult to obtain than they were even twenty years ago; and I impute it + principally to their having been sought after by the Dutch officials + through the Sultan of Tidore. The chiefs of the annual expeditions to + collect tribute have had orders to get all the rare sorts of Paradise + Birds; and as they pay little or nothing for them (it being sufficient to + say they are for the Sultan), the head men of the coast villages would for + the future refuse to purchase them from the mountaineers, and confine + themselves instead to the commoner species, which are less sought after by + amateurs, but are a more profitable merchandise. The same causes + frequently lead the inhabitants of uncivilized countries to conceal + minerals or other natural products with which they may become acquainted, + from the fear of being obliged to pay increased tribute, or of bringing + upon themselves a new and oppressive labour. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIX. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PAPUAN ISLANDS. + </h2> + <p> + NEW GUINEA, with the islands joined to it by a shallow sea, constitute the + Papuan group, characterised by a very close resemblance in their peculiar + forms of life. Having already, in my chapters on the Aru Islands and on + the Birds of Paradise, given some details of the natural history of this + district, I shall here confine myself to a general sketch of its animal + productions, and of their relations to those of the rest of the world. + </p> + <p> + New Guinea is perhaps the largest island on the globe, being a little + larger than Borneo. It is nearly fourteen hundred miles long, and in the + widest part four hundred broad, and seems to be everywhere covered with + luxuriant forests. Almost everything that is yet known of its natural + productions comes from the north-western peninsula, and a few islands + grouped around it. These do not constitute a tenth part of the area of the + whole island, and are so cut off from it, that their fauna may well he + somewhat different; yet they have produced us (with a very partial + exploration) no less than two hundred and fifty species of land birds, + almost all unknown elsewhere, and comprising some of the most curious and + most beautiful of the feathered tribes. It is needless to say how much + interest attaches to the far larger unknown portion of this great island, + the greatest terra incognita that still remains for the naturalist to + explore, and the only region where altogether new and unimagined forms of + life may perhaps be found. There is now, I am happy to say, some chance + that this great country will no longer remain absolutely unknown to us. + The Dutch Government have granted well-equipped steamer to carry a + naturalist (Mr. Rosenberg, already mentioned in this work) and assistants + to New Guinea, where they are to spend some years in circumnavigating the + island, ascending its large rivers a< far as possible into the + interior, and making extensive collections of its natural productions. + </p> + <p> + The Mammalia of New Guinea and the adjacent islands, yet discovered, are + only seventeen in number. Two of these are bats, one is a pig of a + peculiar species (Sus papuensis), and the rest are all marsupials. The + bats are, no doubt, much more numerous, but there is every reason to + believe that whatever new land Mammalia man be discovered will belong to + the marsupial order. One of these is a true kangaroo, very similar to some + of middle-sized kangaroos of Australia, and it is remarkable as being the + first animal of the kind ever seen by Europeans. It inhabits Mysol and the + Aru Islands (an allied species being found in New Guinea), and was seen + and described by Le Brun in 1714, from living specimens at Batavia. A much + more extraordinary creature is the tree-kangaroo, two species of which are + known from New Guinea. These animals do not differ very strikingly in form + from the terrestrial kangaroos, and appear to be but imperfectly adapted + to an arboreal life, as they move rather slowly, and do not seem to have a + very secure footing on the limb of a tree. The leaping power of the + muscular tail is lost, and powerful claws have been acquired to assist in + climbing, but in other respects the animal seems better adapted to walls + on terra firma. This imperfect adaptation may be due to the fact of there + being no carnivore in New Guinea, and no enemies of any kind from which + these animals have to escape by rapid climbing. Four species of Cuscus, + and the small flying opossum, also inhabit New Guinea; and there are five + other smaller marsupials, one of which is the size of a rat, and takes its + place by entering houses and devouring provisions. + </p> + <p> + The birds of New Guinea offer the greatest possible contrast to the + Mammalia, since they are more numerous, more beautiful, and afford more + new, curious, and elegant forms than those of any other island on the + globe. Besides the Birds of Paradise, which we have already sufficiently + considered, it possesses a number of other curious birds, which in the + eyes of the ornithologist almost serves to distinguish it as one of the + primary divisions of the earth. Among its thirty species of parrots are + the Great Pluck Cockatoo, and the little rigid-tailed Nasiterna, the giant + and the dwarf of the whole tribe. The bare-headed Dasyptilus is one of the + most singular parrots known; while the beautiful little long-tailed + Charmosyna, and the great variety of gorgeously-coloured lories, have no + parallels elsewhere. Of pigeons it possesses about forty distinct species, + among which are the magnificent crowned pigeons, now so well known in our + aviaries, and pre-eminent both for size and beauty; the curious Trugon + terrestris, which approaches the still more strange Didunculus of Samoa; + and a new genus (Henicophaps), discovered by myself, which possesses a + very long and powerful bill, quite unlike that of any other pigeon. Among + its sixteen kingfishers, it possesses the carious hook-billed Macrorhina, + and a red and blue Tanysiptera, the most beautiful of that beautiful + genus. Among its perching birds are the fine genus of crow-like starlings, + with brilliant plumage (Manucodia); the carious pale-coloured crow + (Gymnocorvus senex); the abnormal red and black flycatcher (Peltops + blainvillii); the curious little boat-billed flycatchers + (Machaerirhynchus); and the elegant blue flycatcher-wrens (Todopsis). + </p> + <p> + The naturalist will obtain a clearer idea of the variety and interest of + the productions of this country, by the statement, that its land birds + belong to 108 genera, of which 20 are exclusively characteristic of it; + while 35 belong to that limited area which includes the Moluccas and North + Australia, and whose species of these genera have been entirely derived + from New Guinea. About one-half of the New Guinea genera are found also in + Australia, about one-third in India and the Indo-Malay islands. + </p> + <p> + A very curious fact, not hitherto sufficiently noticed, is the appearance + of a pure Malay element in the birds of New Guinea. We find two species of + Eupetes, a curious Malayan genus allied to the forked-tail water-chats; + two of Alcippe, an Indian and Malay wren-like form; an Arachnothera, quite + resembling the spider-catching honeysuckers of Malacca; two species of + Gracula, the Mynahs of India; and a curious little black Prionochilus, a + saw-billed fruit pecker, undoubtedly allied to the Malayan form, although + perhaps a distinct genus. Now not one of these birds, or anything allied + to them, occurs in the Moluccas, or (with one exception) in Celebes or + Australia; and as they are most of them birds of short flight, it is very + difficult to conceive how or when they could have crossed the space of + more than a thousand miles, which now separates them from their nearest + allies. Such facts point to changes of land and sea on a large scale, and + at a rate which, measured by the time required for a change of species, + must be termed rapid. By speculating on such changes, we may easily see + how partial waves of immigration may have entered New Guinea, and how all + trace of their passage may have been obliterated by the subsequent + disappearance of the intervening land. + </p> + <p> + There is nothing that the study of geology teaches us that is more certain + or more impressive than the extreme instability of the earth's surface. + Everywhere beneath our feet we find proofs that what is land has been sea, + and that where oceans now spread out has once been land; and that this + change from sea to land, and from land to sea, has taken place, not once + or twice only, but again and again, during countless ages of past time. + Now the study of the distribution of animal life upon the present surface + of the earth, causes us to look upon this constant interchange of land and + sea—this making and unmaking of continents, this elevation and + disappearance of islands—as a potent reality, which has always and + everywhere been in progress, and has been the main agent in determining + the manner in which living things are now grouped and scattered over the + earth's surface. And when we continually come upon such little anomalies + of distribution as that just now described, we find the only rational + explanation of them, in those repeated elevations and depressions which + have left their record in mysterious, but still intelligible characters on + the face of organic nature. + </p> + <p> + The insects of New Guinea are less known than the birds, but they seem + almost equally remarkable for fine forms and brilliant colours. The + magnificent green and yellow Ornithopterae are abundant, and have most + probably spread westward from this point as far as India. Among the + smaller butterflies are several peculiar genera of Nymphalidae and + Lycaenidae, remarkable for their large size, singular markings, or + brilliant coloration. The largest and most beautiful of the clear-winged + moths (Cocytia d'urvillei) is found here, as well as the large and + handsome green moth (Nyctalemon orontes). The beetles furnish us with many + species of large size, and of the most brilliant metallic lustre, among + which the Tmesisternus mirabilis, a longicorn beetle of a golden green + colour; the excessively brilliant rose-chafers, Lomaptera wallacei and + Anacamptorhina fulgida; one of the handsomest of the Buprestidae, Calodema + wallacei; and several fine blue weevils of the genus Eupholus, are perhaps + the most conspicuous. Almost all the other orders furnish us with large or + extraordinary forms. The curious horned flies have already been mentioned; + and among the Orthoptera the great shielded grasshoppers are the most + remarkable. The species here figured (Megalodon ensifer) has the thorax + covered by a large triangular horny shield, two and a half inches long, + with serrated edges, a somewhat wavy, hollow surface, and a faun median + line, so as very closely to resemble a leaf. The glossy wing-coverts (when + fully expanded, more than nine inches across) are of a fine green colour + and so beautifully veined as to imitate closely some of the large shining + tropical leaves. The body is short, and terminated in the female by a long + curved sword-like ovipositor (not seen in the cut), and the legs are all + long and strongly-spined. These insects are sluggish in their motions, + depending for safety on their resemblance to foliage, their horny shield + and wing-coverts, and their spiny legs. + </p> + <p> + The large islands to the east of New Guinea are very little known, but the + occurrence of crimson lories, which are quite absent from Australia, and + of cockatoos allied to those of New Guinea and the Moluccas, shows that + they belong to the Papuan group; and we are thus able to define the Malay + Archipelago as extending eastward to the Solomon's Islands. New Caledonia + and the New Hebrides, on the other hand, seem more nearly allied to + Australia; and the rest of the islands of the Pacific, though very poor in + all forms of life, possess a few peculiarities which compel us to class + them as a separate group. Although as a matter of convenience I have + always separated the Moluccas as a distinct zoological group from New + Guinea, I have at the same time pointed out that its fauna was chiefly + derived from that island, just as that of Timor was chiefly derived from + Australia. If we were dividing the Australian region for zoological + purposes alone, we should form three great groups: one comprising + Australia, Timor, and Tasmania; another New Guinea, with the islands from + Bouru to the Solomon's group; and the third comprising the greater part of + the Pacific Islands. + </p> + <p> + The relation of the New Guinea fauna to that of Australia is very close. + It is best marked in the Mammalia by the abundance of marsupials, and the + almost complete absence of all other terrestrial forms. In birds it is + less striking, although still very clear, for all the remarkable old-world + forms which are absent from the one are equally so from the other, such as + Pheasants, Grouse, Vultures, and Woodpeckers; while Cockatoos, + Broad-tailed Parrots, Podargi, and the great families of the Honeysuckers + and Brush-turkeys, with many others, comprising no less than twenty-four + genera of land-birds, are common to both countries, and are entirely + confined to them. + </p> + <p> + When we consider the wonderful dissimilarity of the two regions in all + those physical conditions which were once supposed to determine the forms + of life-Australia, with its open plains, stony deserts, dried up rivers, + and changeable temperate climate; New Guinea, with its luxuriant forests, + uniformly hot, moist, and evergreen—this great similarity in their + productions is almost astounding, and unmistakeably points to a common + origin. The resemblance is not nearly so strongly marked in insects, the + reason obviously being, that this class of animals are much more + immediately dependent on vegetation and climate than are the more highly + organized birds and Mammalia. Insects also have far more effective means + of distribution, and have spread widely into every district favourable to + their development and increase. The giant Ornithopterae have thus spread + from New Guinea over the whole Archipelago, and as far as the base of the + Himalayas; while the elegant long-horned Anthribidae have spread in the + opposite direction from Malacca to New Guinea, but owing to unfavourable + conditions have not been able to establish themselves in Australia. That + country, on the other hand, has developed a variety of flower-haunting + Chafers and Buprestidae, and numbers of large and curious terrestrial + Weevils, scarcely any of which are adapted to the damp gloomy forests of + New Guinea, where entirely different forms are to be found. There are, + however, some groups of insects, constituting what appear to be the + remains of the ancient population of the equatorial parts of the + Australian region, which are still almost entirely confined to it. Such + are the interesting sub-family of Longicorn coleoptera—Tmesisternitae; + one of the best-marked genera of Buprestidae—Cyphogastra; and the + beautiful weevils forming the genus Eupholus. Among butterflies we have + the genera Mynes, Hypocista, and Elodina, and the curious eye-spotted + Drusilla, of which last a single species is found in Java, but in no other + of the western islands. + </p> + <p> + The facilities for the distribution of plants are still greater than they + are for insects, and it is the opinion of eminent botanists, that no such + clearly-defined regions pan be marked out in botany as in zoology. The + causes which tend to diffusion are here most powerful, and have led to + such intermingling of the floras of adjacent regions that none but broad + and general divisions can now be detected. These remarks have an important + bearing on the problem of dividing the surface of the earth into great + regions, distinguished by the radical difference of their natural + productions. Such difference we now know to be the direct result of + long-continued separation by more or less impassable barriers; and as wide + oceans and great contrast: of temperature are the most complete barriers + to the dispersal of all terrestrial forms of life, the primary divisions + of the earth should in the main serve for all terrestrial organisms. + However various may be the effects of climate, however unequal the means + of distribution; these will never altogether obliterate the radical + effects of long-continued isolation; and it is my firm conviction, that + when the botany and the entomology of New Guinea and the surrounding + islands become as well known as are their mammals and birds, these + departments of nature will also plainly indicate the radical distinctions + of the Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan regions of the great Malay + Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XL. THE RACES OF MAN IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. + </h2> + <p> + PROPOSE to conclude this account of my Eastern travels, with a short + statement of my views as to the races of man which inhabit the various + parts of the Archipelago, their chief physical and mental characteristics, + their affinities with each other and with surrounding tribes, their + migrations, and their probable origin. + </p> + <p> + Two very strongly contrasted races inhabit the Archipelago—the + Malays, occupying almost exclusively the larger western half of it, and + the Papuans, whose headquarters are New Guinea and several of the adjacent + islands. Between these in locality, are found tribes who are also + intermediate in their chief characteristics, and it is sometimes a nice + point to determine whether they belong to one or the other race, or have + been formed by a mixture of the two. + </p> + <p> + The Malay is undoubtedly the most important of these two races, as it is + the one which is the most civilized, which has come most into contact with + Europeans, and which alone has any place in history. What may be called + the true Malay races, as distinguished from others who have merely a Malay + element in their language, present a considerable uniformity of physical + and mental characteristics, while there are very great differences of + civilization and of language. They consist of four great, and a few minor + semi-civilized tribes, and a number of others who may be termed savages. + The Malays proper inhabit the Malay peninsula, and almost all the coast + regions of Borneo and Sumatra. They all speak the Malay language, or + dialects of it; they write in the Arabic character, and are Mahometans in + religion. The Javanese inhabit Java, part of Sumatra, Madura, Bali, and + Bart of Lombock. They speak the Javanese and Kawi languages, which they + write in a native character. They are now Mahometans in Java, but Brahmins + in Bali and Lombock. The Bugis are the inhabitants of the greater parts of + Celebes, and there seems to be an allied people in Sumbawa. They speak the + Bugis and Macassar languages, with dialects, and have two different native + characters in which they write these. They are all Mahometans. The fourth + great race is that of the Tagalas in the Philippine Islands, about whom, + as I did not visit those Islands, I shall say little. Many of them are now + Christians, and speak Spanish as well as their native tongue, the Tagala. + The Moluccan-Malays, who inhabit chiefly Ternate, Tidore, Batchian, and + Amboyna, may be held to form a fifth division of semi-civilized Malays. + They are all Mahometans, but they speak a variety of curious languages, + which seem compounded of Bugis and Javanese, with the languages of the + savage tribes of the Moluccas. + </p> + <p> + The savage Malays are the Dyaks of Borneo; the Battaks and other wild + tribes of Sumatra; the Jakuns of the Malay Peninsula; the aborigines of + Northern Celebes, of the Sula island, and of part of Bouru. + </p> + <p> + The colour of all these varied tribes is a light reddish brown, with more + or less of an olive tinge, not varying in any important degree over an + extent of country as large as all Southern Europe. The hair is equally + constant, being invariably black and straight, and of a rather coarse + texture, so that any lighter tint, or any wave or curl in it, is an almost + certain proof of the admixture of some foreign blood. The face is nearly + destitute of beard, and the breast and limbs are free from hair. The + stature is tolerably equal, and is always considerably below that of the + average European; the body is robust, the breast well developed, the feet + small, thick, and short, the hands small and rather delicate. The face is + a little broad, and inclined to be flat; the forehead is rather rounded, + the brows low, the eyes black and very slightly oblique; the nose is + rather small, not prominent, but straight and well-shaped, the apex a + little rounded, the nostrils broad and slightly exposed; the cheek-bones + are rather prominent, the mouth large, the lips broad and well cut, but + not protruding, the chin round and well-formed. + </p> + <p> + In this description there seems little to object to on the score of + beauty, and yet on the whole the Malays are certainly not handsome. In + youth, however, they are often very good-looking, and many of the boys and + girls up to twelve or fifteen years of age are very pleasing, and some + have countenances which are in their way almost perfect. I am inclined to + think they lose much of their good looks by bad habits and irregular + living. At a very early age they chew betel and tobacco almost + incessantly; they suffer much want and exposure in their fishing and other + excursions; their lives are often passed in alternate starvation and + feasting, idleness and excessive labour,—and this naturally produces + premature old age and harshness of features. + </p> + <p> + In character the Malay is impassive. He exhibits a reserve, diffidence, + and even bashfulness, which is in some degree attractive, and leads the + observer to thinly that the ferocious and bloodthirsty character imputed + to the race must be grossly exaggerated. He is not demonstrative. His + feelings of surprise, admiration, or fear, are never openly manifested, + and are probably not strongly felt. He is slow and deliberate in speech, + and circuitous in introducing the subject he has come expressly to + discuss. These are the main features of his moral nature, and exhibit + themselves in every action of his life. + </p> + <p> + Children and women are timid, and scream and run at the unexpected sight + of a European. In the company of men they are silent, and are generally + quiet and obedient. When alone the Malay is taciturn; he neither talks nor + sings to himself. When several are paddling in a canoe, they occasionally + chant a monotonous and plaintive song. He is cautious of giving offence to + his equals. He does not quarrel easily about money matters; dislikes + asking too frequently even for payment of his just debts, and will often + give them up altogether rather than quarrel with his debtor. Practical + joking is utterly repugnant to his disposition; for he is particularly + sensitive to breaches of etiquette, or any interference with the personal + liberty of himself or another. As an example, I may mention that I have + often found it very difficult to get one Malay servant to waken another. + He will call as loud as he can, but will hardly touch, much less shake his + comrade. I have frequently had to waken a hard sleeper myself when on a + land or sea journey. + </p> + <p> + The higher classes of Malays are exceedingly polite, and have all the + quiet ease and dignity of the best-bred Europeans. Yet this is compatible + with a reckless cruelty and contempt of human life, which is the dark side + of their character. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that different + persons give totally opposite accounts of them—one praising them for + their soberness, civility, and good-nature; another abusing them for their + deceit, treachery, and cruelty. The old traveller Nicolo Conti, writing in + 1430, says: "The inhabitants of Java and Sumatra exceed every other people + in cruelty. They regard killing a man as a mere jest; nor is any + punishment allotted for such a deed. If any one purchase a new sword, and + wish to try it, he will thrust it into the breast of the first person he + meets. The passers-by examine the wound, and praise the skill of the + person who inflicted it, if he thrust in the weapon direct." Yet Drake + says of the south of Java: "The people (as are their kings) are a very + loving, true, and just-dealing people;" and Mr. Crawfurd says that the + Javanese, whom he knew thoroughly, are "a peaceable, docile, sober, + simple, and industrious people." Barbosa, on the other hand, who saw them + at Malacca about 1660, says: "They are a people of great ingenuity, very + subtle in all their dealings; very malicious, great deceivers, seldom + speaking the truth; prepared to do all manner of wickedness, and ready to + sacrifice their lives." + </p> + <p> + The intellect of the Malay race seems rather deficient. They are incapable + of anything beyond the simplest combinations of ideas, and have little + taste or energy for the acquirement of knowledge. Their civilization, such + as it is, does not seem to be indigenous, as it is entirely confined to + those nations who have been converted to the Mahometan or Brahminical + religions. + </p> + <p> + I will now give an equally brief sketch of the other great race of the + Malay Archipelago, the Papuan. + </p> + <p> + The typical Papuan race is in many respects the very opposite of the + Malay, and it has hitherto been very imperfectly described. The colour of + the body is a deep sooty-brown or black, sometimes approaching, but never + quite equalling, the jet-black of some negro races. It varies in tint, + however, more than that of the Malay, and is sometimes a dusky-brown. The + hair is very peculiar, being harsh, dry, and frizzly, growing in little + tufts or curls, which in youth are very short and compact, but afterwards + grow out to a considerable length, forming the compact frizzled mop which + is the Papuans' pride and glory. The face is adorned with a beard of the + same frizzly nature as the hair of the head. The arms, legs, and breast + are also more or less clothed with hair of a similar nature. + </p> + <p> + In stature the Papuan decidedly surpasses the Malay, and is perhaps equal, + or even superior, to the average of Europeans. The legs are long and thin, + and the hands and feet larger than in the Malays. The face is somewhat + elongated, the forehead flatfish, the brows very prominent; the nose is + large, rather arched and high, the base thick, the nostrils broad, with + the aperture hidden, owing to the tip of the nose being elongated; the + mouth is large, the lips thick and protuberant. The face has thus an + altogether more European aspect than in the Malay, owing to the large + nose; and the peculiar form of this organ, with the more prominent brows + and the character of the hair on the head, face, and body, enable us at a + glance to distinguish the two races. I have observed that most of these + characteristic features are as distinctly visible in children of ten or + twelve years old as in adults, and the peculiar form of the nose is always + shown in the figures which they carve for ornaments to their houses, or as + charms to wear round their necks. + </p> + <p> + The moral characteristics of the Papuan appear to me to separate him as + distinctly from the Malay as do his form and features. He is impulsive and + demonstrative in speech and action. His emotions and passions express + themselves in shouts and laughter, in yells and frantic leapings. Women + and children take their share in every discussion, and seem little alarmed + at the sight of strangers and Europeans. + </p> + <p> + Of the intellect of this race it is very difficult to judge, but I am + inclined to rate it somewhat higher than that of the Malays, + notwithstanding the fact that the Papuans have never yet made any advance + towards civilization. It must be remembered, however, that for centuries + the Malays have been influenced by Hindoo, Chinese, and Arabic + immigration, whereas the Papuan race has only been subjected to the very + partial and local influence of Malay traders. The Papuan has much more + vital energy, which would certainly greatly assist his intellectual + development. Papuan slaves show no inferiority of intellect, compared with + Malays, but rather the contrary; and in the Moluccas they are often + promoted to places of considerable trust. The Papuan has a greater feeling + for art than the Malay. He decorates his canoe, his house, and almost + every domestic utensil with elaborate carving, a habit which is rarely + found among tribes of the Malay race. + </p> + <p> + In the affections and moral sentiments, on the other hand, the Papuans + seem very deficient. In the treatment of their children they are often + violent and cruel; whereas the Malays are almost invariably kind and + gentle, hardly ever interfering at all with their children's pursuits and + amusements, and giving them perfect liberty at whatever age they wish to + claim it. But these very peaceful relations between parents and children + are no doubt, in a great measure, due to the listless and apathetic + character of the race, which never leads the younger members into serious + opposition to the elders; while the harsher discipline of the Papuans may + be chiefly due to that greater vigour and energy of mind which always, + sooner or later, leads to the rebellion of the weaker against the + stronger,—the people against their rulers, the slave against his + master, or the child against its parent. + </p> + <p> + It appears, therefore, that, whether we consider their physical + conformation, their moral characteristics, or their intellectual + capacities, the Malay and Papuan races offer remarkable differences and + striking contrasts. The Malay is of short stature, brown-skinned, + straight-haired, beardless, and smooth-bodied. The Papuan is taller, is + black-skinned, frizzly-haired, bearded, and hairy-bodied. The former is + broad-faced, has a small nose, and flat eyebrows; the latter is + long-faced, has a large and prominent nose, and projecting eyebrows. The + Malay is bashful, cold, undemonstrative, and quiet; the Papuan is bold, + impetuous, excitable, and noisy. The former is grave and seldom laughs; + the latter is joyous and laughter-loving,—the one conceals his + emotions, the other displays them. + </p> + <p> + Having thus described in some detail, the great physical, intellectual, + and moral differences between the Malays and Papuans, we have to consider + the inhabitants of the numerous islands which do not agree very closely + with either of these races. The islands of Obi, Batchian, and the three + southern peninsulas of Gilolo, possess no true indigenous population; but + the northern peninsula is inhabited by a native race, the so-called + Alfuros of Sahoe and Galela. These people are quite distinct from the + Malays, and almost equally so from the Papuans. They are tall and + well-made, with Papuan features, and curly hair; they are bearded and + hairy-limbed, but quite as light in colour as the Malays. They are an + industrious and enterprising race, cultivating rice and vegetables, and + indefatigable in their search after game, fish, tripang, pearls, and + tortoiseshell. + </p> + <p> + In the great island of Ceram there is also an indigenous race very similar + to that of Northern Gilolo. Bourn seems to contain two distinct races,—a + shorter, round-faced people, with a Malay physiognomy, who may probably + have come from Celebes by way of the Sula islands; and a taller bearded + race, resembling that of Ceram. + </p> + <p> + Far south of the Moluccas lies the island of Timor, inhabited by tribes + much nearer to the true Papuan than those of the Moluccas. + </p> + <p> + The Timorese of the interior are dusky brown or blackish, with bushy + frizzled hair, and the long Papuan nose. They are of medium height, and + rather slender figures. The universal dress is a long cloth twisted round + the waist, the fringed ends of which hang below the knee. The people are + said to be great thieves, and the tribes are always at war with each + other, but they are not very courageous or bloodthirsty. The custom of + "tabu," called here "pomali," is very general, fruit trees, houses, crop, + and property of all kinds being protected from depredation by this + ceremony, the reverence for which is very great. A palm branch stuck + across an open door, showing that the house is tabooed, is a more + effectual guard against robbery than any amount of locks and bars. The + houses in Timor are different from those of most of the other islands; + they seem all roof, the thatch overhanging the low walls and reaching the + ground, except where it is cut away for an entrance. In some parts of the + west end of Timor, and on the little island of Semau, the houses more + resemble those of the Hottentots, being egg-shaped, very small, and with a + door only about three feet high. These are built on the ground, while + those of the eastern districts art, raised a few feet on posts. In their + excitable disposition, loud voices, and fearless demeanour, the Timorese + closely resemble the people of New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + In the islands west of Timor, as far as Flores and Sandalwood Island, a + very similar race is found, which also extends eastward to Timor-laut, + where the true Papuan race begins to appear. The small islands of Savu and + Rotti, however, to the west of Timor, are very remarkable in possessing a + different and, in some respects, peculiar race. These people are very + handsome, with good features, resembling in many characteristics the race + produced by the mixture of the Hindoo or Arab with the Malay. They are + certainly distinct from the Timorese or Papuan races, and must be classed + in the western rather than the eastern ethnological division of the + Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + The whole of the great island of New Guinea, the Ke and Aru Islands, with + Mysol, Salwatty, and Waigiou, are inhabited almost exclusively by the + typical Papuans. I found no trace of any other tribes inhabiting the + interior of New Guinea, but the coast people are in some places mixed with + the browner races of the Moluccas. The same Papuan race seems to extend + over the islands east of New Guinea as far as the Fijis. + </p> + <p> + There remain to be noticed the black woolly-haired races of the + Philippines and the Malay peninsula, the former called "Negritos," and the + latter "Semangs." I have never seen these people myself, but from the + numerous accurate descriptions of them that have been published, I have + had no difficulty in satisfying myself that they have little affinity or + resemblance to the Papuans, with which they have been hitherto associated. + In most important characters they differ more from the Papuan than they do + from the Malay. They are dwarfs in stature, only averaging four feet six + inches to four feet eight inches high, or eight inches less than the + Malays; whereas the Papuans are decidedly taller than the Malays. The nose + is invariably represented as small, flattened, or turned up at the apex, + whereas the most universal character of the Papuan race is to have the + nose prominent and large, with the apex produced downwards, as it is + invariably represented in their own rude idols. The hair of these dwarfish + races agrees with that of the Papuans, but so it does with that of the + negroes of Africa. The Negritos and the Semangs agree very closely in + physical characteristics with each other and with the Andaman Islanders, + while they differ in a marked manner from every Papuan race. + </p> + <p> + A careful study of these varied races, comparing them with those of + Eastern Asia, the Pacific Islands, and Australia, has led me to adopt a + comparatively simple view as to their origin and affinities. + </p> + <p> + If we draw a line (see Physical Map, Vol. 1. p. 14), commencing to the + east of the Philippine Islands, thence along the western coast of Gilolo, + through the island of Bouru, and curving round the west end of Mores, then + bending back by Sandalwood Island to take in Rotti, we shall divide the + Archipelago into two portions, the races of which have strongly marked + distinctive peculiarities. This line will separate the Malayan and all the + Asiatic races, from the Papuans and all that inhabit the Pacific; and + though along the line of junction intermigration and commixture have taken + place, yet the division is on the whole almost as well defined and + strongly contrasted, as is the corresponding zoological division of the + Archipelago, into an Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan region. + </p> + <p> + I must briefly explain the reasons that have led me to consider this + division of the Oceanic races to be a true and natural one. The Malayan + race, as a whole, undoubtedly very closely resembles the East Asian + populations, from Siam to Mandchouria. I was much struck with this, when + in the island of Bali I saw Chinese traders who had adopted the costume of + that country, and who could then hardly be distinguished from Malays; and, + on the other hand, I have seen natives of Java who, as far as physiognomy + was concerned, would pass very well for Chinese. Then, again, we have the + most typical of the Malayan tribes inhabiting a portion of the Asiatic + continent itself, together with those great islands which, possessing the + same species of large Mammalia with the adjacent parts of the continent, + have in all probability formed a connected portion of Asia during the + human period. The Negritos are, no doubt, quite a distinct race from the + Malay; but yet, as some of them inhabit a portion of the continent, and + others the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal, they must be considered + to have had, in all probability, an Asiatic rather than a Polynesian + origin. + </p> + <p> + Now, turning to the eastern parts of the Archipelago, I find, by comparing + my own observations with those of the most trustworthy travellers and + missionaries, that a race identical in all its chief features with the + Papuan, is found in all the islands as far east as the Fijis; beyond this + the brown Polynesian race, or some intermediate type, is spread everywhere + over the Pacific. The descriptions of these latter often agree exactly + with the characters of the brown indigenes of Gilolo and Ceram. + </p> + <p> + It is to be especially remarked that the brown and the black Polynesian + races closely resemble each other. Their features are almost identical, so + that portraits of a New Zealander or Otaheitan will often serve accurately + to represent a Papuan or Timorese, the darker colour and more frizzly hair + of the latter being the only differences. They are both tall races. They + agree in their love of art and the style of their decorations. They are + energetic, demonstrative, joyous, and laughter-loving, and in all these + particulars they differ widely from the Malay. + </p> + <p> + I believe, therefore, that the numerous intermediate forms that occur + among the countless islands of the Pacific, are not merely the result of a + mixture of these races, but are, to some extent, truly intermediate or + transitional; and that the brown and the black, the Papuan, the natives of + Gilolo and Ceram, the Fijian, the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands and + those of New Zealand, are all varying forms of one great Oceanic or + Polynesian race. + </p> + <p> + It is, however, quite possible, and perhaps probable, that the brown + Polynesians were originally the produce of a mixture of Malays, or some + lighter coloured Mongol race with the dark Papuans; but if so, the + intermingling took place at such a remote epoch, and has been so assisted + by the continued influence of physical conditions and of natural + selection, leading to the preservation of a special type suited to those + conditions, that it has become a fixed and stable race with no signs of + mongrelism, and showing such a decided preponderance of Papuan character, + that it can best be classified as a modification of the Papuan type. The + occurrence of a decided Malay element in the Polynesian languages, has + evidently nothing to do with any such ancient physical connexion. It is + altogether a recent phenomenon, originating in the roaming habits of the + chief Malay tribes; and this is proved by the fact that we find actual + modern words of the Malay and Javanese languages in use in Polynesia, so + little disguised by peculiarities of pronunciation as to be easily + recognisable—not mere Malay roots only to be detected by the + elaborate researches of the philologist, as would certainly have been the + case had their introduction been as remote as the origin of a very + distinct race—a race as different from the Malay in mental and + moral, as it is in physical characters. + </p> + <p> + As bearing upon this question it is important to point out the harmony + which exists, between the line of separation of the human races of the + Archipelago and that of the animal productions of the same country, which + I have already so fully explained and illustrated. The dividing lines do + not, it is true, exactly agree; but I think it is a remarkable fact, and + something more than a mere coincidence, that they should traverse the same + district and approach each other so closely as they do. If, however, I am + right in my supposition that the region where the dividing line of the + Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan regions of zoology can now be drawn, was + formerly occupied by a much wider sea than at present, and if man existed + on the earth at that period, we shall see good reason why the races + inhabiting the Asiatic and Pacific areas should now meet and partially + intermingle in the vicinity of that dividing line. + </p> + <p> + It has recently been maintained by Professor Huxley, that the Papuans are + more closely allied to the negroes of Africa than to any other race. The + resemblance both in physical and mental characteristics had often struck + myself, but the difficulties in the way of accepting it as probable or + possible, have hitherto prevented me front giving full weight to those + resemblances. Geographical, zoological, and ethnological considerations + render it almost certain, that if these two races ever had a common + origin, it could only have been at a period far more remote than any which + has yet been assigned to the antiquity of the human race. And even if + their lenity could be proved, it would in no way affect my argument for + the close affinity of the Papuan and Polynesian races, and the radical + distinctness of both from the Malay. + </p> + <p> + Polynesia is pre-eminently an area of subsidence, and its great widespread + groups of coral-reefs mark out the position of former continents and + islands. The rich and varied, yet strangely isolated productions of + Australia and New Guinea, also indicate an extensive continent where such + specialized forms were developed. The races of men now inhabiting these + countries are, therefore, most probably the descendants of the races which + inhabited these continents and islands. This is the most simple and + natural supposition to make. And if we find any signs of direct affinity + between the inhabitants of any other part of the world and those of + Polynesia, it by no means follows that the latter were derived from the + former. For as, when a Pacific continent existed, the whole geography of + the earth's surface would probably be very different from what it now is, + the present continents may not then have risen above the ocean, and, when + they were formed at a subsequent epoch, may have derived some of their + inhabitants from the Polynesian area itself. It is undoubtedly true that + there are proofs of extensive migrations among the Pacific islands, which + have led to community of language from the sandwich group to New Zealand; + but there are no proofs whatever of recent migration from any surrounding + country to Polynesia, since there is no people to be found elsewhere + sufficiently resembling the Polynesian race in their chief physical and + mental characteristics. + </p> + <p> + If the past history of these varied races is obscure and uncertain, the + future is no less so. The true Polynesians, inhabiting the farthest isles + of the Pacific, are no doubt doomed to an early extinction. But the more + numerous Malay race seems well adapted to survive as the cultivator of the + soil, even when his country and government have passed into the hands of + Europeans. If the tide of colonization should be turned to New Guinea, + there can be little doubt of the early extinction of the Papuan race. A + warlike and energetic people, who will not submit to national slavery or + to domestic servitude, must disappear before the white man as surely as do + the wolf and the tiger. + </p> + <p> + I have now concluded my task. I have given, in more or less detail, a + sketch of my eight years' wanderings among the largest and the most + luxuriant islands which adorn our earth's surface. I have endeavoured to + convey my impressions of their scenery, their vegetation, their animal + productions, and their human inhabitants. I have dwelt at some length on + the varied and interesting problems they offer to the student of nature. + Before bidding my reader farewell, I wish to make a few observations on a + subject of yet higher interest and deeper importance, which the + contemplation of savage life has suggested, and on which I believe that + the civilized can learn something from the savage man. + </p> + <p> + We most of us believe that we, the higher races have progressed and are + progressing. If so, there must be some state of perfection, some ultimate + goal, which we may never reach, but to which all true progress must bring + nearer. What is this ideally perfect social state towards which mankind + ever has been, and still is tending? Our best thinkers maintain, that it + is a state of individual freedom and self-government, rendered possible by + the equal development and just balance of the intellectual, moral, and + physical parts of our nature,—a state in which we shall each be so + perfectly fitted for a social existence, by knowing what is right, and at + the same time feeling an irresistible impulse to do what we know to be + right., that all laws and all punishments shall be unnecessary. In such a + state every man would have a sufficiently well-balanced intellectual + organization, to understand the moral law in all its details, and would + require no other motive but the free impulses of his own nature to obey + that law. + </p> + <p> + Now it is very remarkable, that among people in a very low stage of + civilization, we find some approach to such a perfect social state. I have + lived with communities of savages in South America and in the East, who + have no laws or law courts but the public opinion of the village freely + expressed. Each man scrupulously respects the rights of his fellow, and + any infraction of those rights rarely or never takes place. In such a + community, all are nearly equal. There are cone of those wide + distinctions, of education and ignorance, wealth and poverty, master and + servant, which are the product of our civilization; there is none of that + wide-spread division of labour, which, while it increases wealth, products + also conflicting interests; there is not that severe competition and + struggle for existence, or for wealth, which the dense population of + civilized countries inevitably creates. All incitements to great crimes + are thus wanting, and petty ones are repressed, partly by the influence of + public opinion, but chiefly by that natural sense of justice and of his + neighbour's right, which seems to be, in some degree, inherent in every + race of man. + </p> + <p> + Now, although we have progressed vastly beyond the savage state in + intellectual achievements, we have not advanced equally in morals. It is + true that among those classes who have no wants that cannot be easily + supplied, and among whom public opinion has great influence; the rights of + others are fully respected. It is true, also, that we have vastly extended + the sphere of those rights, and include within them all the brotherhood of + man. But it is not too much to say, that the mass of our populations have + not at all advanced beyond the savage code of morals, and have in many + cases sunk below it. A deficient morality is the great blot of modern + civilization, and the greatest hindrance to true progress. + </p> + <p> + During the last century, and especially in the last thirty years, our + intellectual and material advancement has been too quickly achieved for us + to reap the full benefit of it. Our mastery over the forces of mature has + led to a rapid growth of population, and a vast accumulation of wealth; + but these have brought with them such au amount of poverty and crime, and + have fostered the growth of so much sordid feeling and so many fierce + passions, that it may well be questioned, whether the mental and moral + status of our population has not on the average been lowered, and whether + the evil has not overbalanced the good. Compared with our wondrous + progress in physical science and its practical applications, our system of + government, of administering justice, of national education, and our whole + social and moral organization, remains in a state of barbarism. [See note + next page.] And if we continue to devote our chief energies to the + utilizing of our knowledge the laws of nature with the view of still + further extending our commerce and our wealth, the evils which necessarily + accompany these when too eagerly pursued, may increase to such gigantic + dimensions as to be beyond our power to alleviate. + </p> + <p> + We should now clearly recognise the fact, that the wealth and knowledge + and culture of the few do not constitute civilization, and do not of + themselves advance us towards the "perfect social state." Our vast + manufacturing system, our gigantic commerce, our crowded towns and cities, + support and continually renew a mass of human misery and crime absolutely + greater than has ever existed before. They create and maintain in + life-long labour an ever-increasing army, whose lot is the more hard to + bear, by contrast with the pleasures, the comforts, and the luxury which + they see everywhere around them, but which they can never hope to enjoy; + and who, in this respect, are worse off than the savage in the midst of + his tribe. + </p> + <p> + This is not a result to boast of, or to be satisfied with; and, until + there is a more general recognition of this failure of our civilization—resulting + mainly from our neglect to train and develop more thoroughly the + sympathetic feelings and moral faculties of our nature, and to allow them + a larger share of influence in our legislation, our commerce, and our + whole social organization—we shall never, as regards the whole + community, attain to any real or important superiority over the better + class of savages. + </p> + <p> + This is the lesson I have been taught by my observations of uncivilized + man. I now bid my readers—Farewell! + </p> + <p> + NOTE. + </p> + <p> + THOSE who believe that our social condition approaches perfection, will + think the above word harsh and exaggerated, but it seems to me the only + word that can be truly applied to us. We are the richest country in the + world, and yet cue-twentieth of our population are parish paupers, and + one-thirtieth known criminals. Add to these, the criminals who escape + detection; and the poor who live mainly on private charity, (which, + according to Dr. Hawkesley, expends seven millions sterling annually is + London alone,) and we may be sure that more than ONE-TENTH of our + population are actually Paupers and Criminals. Both these classes we keep + idle or at unproductive labour, and each criminal costs us annually in our + prisons more than the wages of an honest agricultural labourer. We allow + over a hundred thousand persons known to have no means of subsistence but + by crime, to remain at large and prey upon the community, and many + thousand children to grow up before our eyes in ignorance and vice, to + supply trained criminals for the next generation. This, in a country which + boasts of its rapid increase in wealth, of its enormous commerce and + gigantic manufactures, of its mechanical skill and scientific knowledge, + of its high civilization and its pure Christianity,—I can but term a + state of social barbarism. We also boast of our love of justice, and that + the law protects rich and poor alike, yet we retain money fines as a + punishment, and make the very first steps to obtain justice a matter of + expense—in both cases a barbarous injustice, or denial of justice to + the poor. Again, our laws render it possible, that, by mere neglect of a + legal form, and contrary to his own wish and intention, a man's property + may all go to a stranger, and his own children be left destitute. Such + cases have happened through the operation of the laws of inheritance of + landed property; and that such unnatural injustice is possible among us, + shows that we are in a state of social barbarism. One more example to + justify my use of the term, and I have done. We permit absolute possession + of the soil of our country, with no legal rights of existence on the soil, + to the vast majority who do not possess it. A great landholder may legally + convert his whole property into a forest or a hunting-ground, and expel + every human being who has hitherto lived upon it. In a thickly-populated + country like England, where every acre has its owner and its occupier, + this is a power of legally destroying his fellow-creatures; and that such + a power should exist, and be exercised by individuals, in however small a + degree, indicates that, as regards true social science, we are still in a + state of barbarism. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred Russell Wallace + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO *** + +***** This file should be named 2539-h.htm or 2539-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/3/2539/ + +Produced by Martin Adamson, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + </body> +</html> diff --git a/2539.txt b/2539.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f36af1 --- /dev/null +++ b/2539.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10103 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred Russell Wallace + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Malay Archipelago + Volume II. (of II.) + +Author: Alfred Russell Wallace + +Posting Date: December 1, 2008 [EBook #2539] +Release Date: February, 2001 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO *** + + + + +Produced by Martin Adamson + + + + + +THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO + +VOLUME II. (of II.) + +by Alfred R. Wallace + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. THE MOLUCCAS--TERNATE. + +ON the morning of the 8th of January, 1858, I arrived at Ternate, the +fourth of a row of fine conical volcanic islands which shirt the west +coast of the large and almost unknown island of Gilolo. The largest +and most perfectly conical mountain is Tidore, which is over four +thousand Feet high--Ternate being very nearly the same height, but with +a more rounded and irregular summit. The town of Ternate is concealed +from view till we enter between the two islands, when it is discovered +stretching along the shore at the very base of the mountain. Its +situation is fine, and there are grand views on every side. Close +opposite is the rugged promontory and beautiful volcanic cone of Tidore; +to the east is the long mountainous coast of Gilolo, terminated towards +the north by a group of three lofty volcanic peaks, while immediately +behind the town rises the huge mountain, sloping easily at first and +covered with thick groves of fruit trees, but soon becoming steeper, +and furrowed with deep gullies. Almost to the summit, whence issue +perpetually faint wreaths of smoke, it is clothed with vegetation, +and looks calm and beautiful, although beneath are hidden fires which +occasionally burst forth in lava-streams, but more frequently make their +existence known by the earthquakes which have many times devastated the +town. + +I brought letters of introduction to Mr. Duivenboden, a native of +Ternate, of an ancient Dutch family, but who was educated in England, +and speaks our language perfectly. He was a very rich man, owned half +the town, possessed many ships, and above a hundred slaves. He +was moreover, well educated, and fond of literature and science--a +phenomenon in these regions. He was generally known as the king of +Ternate, from his large property and great influence with the native +Rajahs and their subjects. Through his assistance I obtained a house; +rather ruinous, but well adapted to my purpose, being close to the town, +yet with a free outlet to the country and the mountain. A few needful +repairs were soon made, some bamboo furniture and other necessaries +obtained, and after a visit to the Resident and Police Magistrate I +found myself an inhabitant of the earthquake-tortured island of Ternate, +and able to look about me and lay down the plan of my campaign for the +ensuing year. I retained this house for three years, as I found it very +convenient to have a place to return to after my voyages to the +various islands of the Moluccas and New Guinea, where I could pack +my collections, recruit my health, and make preparations for future +journeys. To avoid repetitions, I will in this chapter combine what +notes I have about Ternate. + +A description of my house (the plan of which is here shown) will +enable the reader to understand a very common mode of building in these +islands. There is of course only one floor. The walls are of stone up to +three feet high; on this are strong squared posts supporting the roof, +everywhere except in the verandah filled in with the leaf-stems of the +sago-palm, fitted neatly in wooden owing. The floor is of stucco, +and the ceilings are like the walls. The house is forty feet square, +consists of four rooms, a hall, and two verandahs, and is surrounded +by a wilderness of fruit trees. A deep well supplied me with pure cold +water, a great luxury in this climate. Five minutes' walk down the road +brought me to the market and the beach, while in the opposite direction +there were no more European houses between me and the mountain. In this +house I spent many happy days. Returning to it after a three or four +months' absence in some uncivilized region, I enjoyed the unwonted +luxuries of milk and fresh bread, and regular supplies of fish and eggs, +meat and vegetables, which were often sorely needed to restore my health +and energy. I had ample space and convenience or unpacking, sorting, and +arranging my treasures, and I had delightful walks in the suburbs of the +town, or up the lower slopes of the mountain, when I desired a little +exercise, or had time for collecting. + +The lower part of the mountain, behind the town of Ternate, is almost +entirely covered with a forest of fruit trees, and during the season +hundreds of men and women, boys and girls, go up every day to bring down +the ripe fruit. Durians and Mangoes, two of the very finest tropical +fruits, are in greater abundance at Ternate than I have ever seen them, +and some of the latter are of a quality not inferior to any in the +world. Lansats and Mangustans are also abundant, but these do not ripen +till a little later. Above the fruit trees there is a belt of clearings +and cultivated grounds, which creep up the mountain to a height of +between two and three thousand feet, above which is virgin forest, +reaching nearly to the summit, which on the side next the town is +covered with a high reedy grass. On the further side it is more +elevated, of a bare and desolate aspect, with a slight depression +marking the position of the crater. From this part descends a black +scoriaceous tract; very rugged, and covered with a scanty vegetation of +scattered bushes as far down as the sea. This is the lava of the +great eruption near a century ago, and is called by the natives +"batu-angas"(burnt rock). + +Just below my house is the fort, built by the Portuguese, below which is +an open space to the peach, and beyond this the native town extends for +about a mile to the north-east. About the centre of it is the palace +of the Sultan, now a large untidy, half-ruinous building of stone. This +chief is pensioned by the Dutch Government, but retains the sovereignty +over the native population of the island, and of the northern part of +Gilolo. The sultans of Ternate and Tidore were once celebrated through +the East for their power and regal magnificence. When Drake visited +Ternate in 1579, the Portuguese had been driven out of the island, +although they still had a settlement at Tidore. He gives a glowing +account of the Sultan: "The King had a very rich canopy with embossings +of gold borne over him, and was guarded with twelve lances. From the +waist to the ground was all cloth of gold, and that very rich; in the +attire of his head were finely wreathed in, diverse rings of plaited +gold, of an inch or more in breadth, which made a fair and princely +show, somewhat resembling a crown in form; about his neck he had a chain +of perfect gold, the links very great and one fold double; on his left +hand was a diamond, an emerald, a ruby, and a turky; on his right hand +in one ring a big and perfect turky, and in another ring many diamonds +of a smaller size." + +All this glitter of barbaric gold was the produce of the spice trade, of +which the Sultans kept the monopoly, and by which they became wealthy. +Ternate, with the small islands in a line south of it, as far as +Batchian, constitute the ancient Moluccas, the native country of the +clove, as well as the only part in which it was cultivated. Nutmegs +and mace were procured from the natives of New Guinea and the adjacent +islands, where they grew wild; and the profits on spice cargoes were so +enormous, that the European traders were glad to give gold and jewels, +and the finest manufactures of Europe or of India, in exchange. When the +Dutch established their influence in these seas, and relieved the native +princes from their Portuguese oppressors, they saw that the easiest +way to repay themselves would be to get this spice trade into their own +hands. For this purpose they adopted the wise principle of concentrating +the culture of these valuable products in those spots only of which they +could have complete control. To do this effectually it was necessary to +abolish the culture and trade in all other places, which they succeeded +in doing by treaty with the native rulers. These agreed to have all the +spice trees in their possessions destroyed. They gave up large though +fluctuating revenues, but they gained in return a fixed subsidy, freedom +from the constant attacks and harsh oppressions of the Portuguese, and a +continuance of their regal power and exclusive authority over their own +subjects, which is maintained in all the islands except Ternate to this +day. + +It is no doubt supposed by most Englishmen, who have been accustomed to +look upon this act of the Dutch with vague horror, as something +utterly unprincipled and barbarous, that the native population suffered +grievously by this destruction of such valuable property. But it is +certain that this was not the case. The Sultans kept this lucrative +trade entirely in their own hands as a rigid monopoly, and they would +take care not to give, their subjects more than would amount to their +usual wages, while: they would surely exact as large a quantity of spice +as they could possibly obtain. Drake and other early voyagers always +seem to have purchased their spice-cargoes from the Sultans and Rajahs, +and not from the cultivators. Now the absorption of so much labour in +the cultivation of this one product must necessarily have raised the +price of food and other necessaries; and when it was abolished, +more rice would be grown, more sago made, more fish caught, and more +tortoise-shell, rattan, gum-dammer, and other valuable products of the +seas and the forests would be obtained. I believe, therefore, that this +abolition of the spice trade in the Moluccas was actually beneficial to +the inhabitants, and that it was an act both wise in itself and morally +and politically justifiable. + +In the selection of the places in which to carry on the cultivation, +the Dutch were not altogether fortunate or wise. Banda was chosen for +nutmegs, and was eminently successful, since it continues to this day +to produce a large supply of this spice, and to yield a considerable +revenue. Amboyna was fixed upon for establishing the clove cultivation; +but the soil and climate, although apparently very similar to that of +its native islands, is not favourable, and for some years the Government +have actually been paying to the cultivators a higher rate than they +could purchase cloves elsewhere, owing to a great fall in the price +since the rate of payment was fixed for a term of years by the Dutch +Government, and which rate is still most honourably paid. + +In walking about the suburbs of Ternate, we find everywhere the ruins of +massive stone and brick buildings, gateways and arches, showing at once +the superior wealth of the ancient town and the destructive effects of +earthquakes. It was during my second stay in the town, after my return +from New Guinea, that I first felt an earthquake. It was a very slight +one, scarcely more than has been felt in this country, but occurring in +a place that lad been many times destroyed by them it was rather more +exciting. I had just awoke at gun-fire (5 A.M.), when suddenly the +thatch began to rustle and shake as if an army of cats were galloping +over it, and immediately afterwards my bed shook too, so that for an +instant I imagined myself back in New Guinea, in my fragile house, which +shook when an old cock went to roost on the ridge; but remembering that +I was now on a solid earthen floor, I said to myself, "Why, it's an +earthquake," and lay still in the pleasing expectation of another shock; +but none came, and this was the only earthquake I ever felt in Ternate. + +The last great one was in February 1840, when almost every house in the +place was destroyed. It began about midnight on the Chinese New Year's +festival, at which time every one stays up nearly all night feasting +at the Chinamen's houses and seeing the processions. This prevented +any lives being lost, as every one ran out of doors at the first shock, +which was not very severe. The second, a few minutes afterwards, threw +down a great many houses, and others, which continued all night and part +of the next day, completed the devastation. The line of disturbance +was very narrow, so that the native town a mile to the east scarcely +suffered at all. The wave passed from north to south, through the +islands of Tidore and Makian, and terminated in Batchian, where it was +not felt till four the following afternoon, thus taking no less than +sixteen hours to travel a hundred miles, or about six miles an hour. It +is singular that on this occasion there was no rushing up of the tide, +or other commotion of the sea, as is usually the case during great +earthquakes. + +The people of Ternate are of three well-marked races the Ternate Malays, +the Orang Sirani, and the Dutch. The first are an intrusive Malay race +somewhat allied to the Macassar people, who settled in the country at a +very early epoch, drove out the indigenes, who were no doubt the same +as those of the adjacent mainland of Gilolo, and established a monarchy. +They perhaps obtained many of their wives from the natives, which will +account for the extraordinary language they speak--in some respects +closely allied to that of the natives of Gilolo, while it contains +much that points to a Malayan origin. To most of these people the Malay +language is quite unintelligible, although such as are engaged in trade +are obliged to acquire it. "Orang Sirani," or Nazarenes, is the name +given by the Malays to the Christian descendants of the Portuguese, who +resemble those of Amboyna, and, like them, speak only Malay. There are +also a number of Chinese merchants, many of them natives of the place, +a few Arabs, and a number of half-breeds between all these races and +native women. Besides these there are some Papuan slaves, and a few +natives of other islands settled here, making up a motley and very +puzzling population, till inquiry and observation have shown the +distinct origin of its component parts. + +Soon after my first arrival in Ternate I went to the island of Gilolo, +accompanied by two sons of Mr. Duivenboden, and by a young Chinaman, a +brother of my landlord, who lent us the boat and crew. These latter +were all slaves, mostly Papuans, and at starting I saw something of the +relation of master and slave in this part of the world. The crew had +been ordered to be ready at three in the morning, instead of which none +appeared till five, we having all been kept waiting in the dark and +cold for two hours. When at length they came they were scolded by their +master, but only in a bantering manner, and laughed and joked with +him in reply. Then, just as we were starting, one of the strongest men +refused to go at all, and his master had to beg and persuade him to go, +and only succeeded by assuring him that I would give him something; so +with this promise, and knowing that there would be plenty to eat and +drink and little to do, the black gentleman was induced to favour us +with his company and assistance. In three hours' rowing and sailing we +reached our destination, Sedingole, where there is a house belonging to +the Sultan of Tidore, who sometimes goes there hunting. It was a dirty +ruinous shed, with no furniture but a few bamboo bedsteads. On taking +a walk into the country, I saw at once that it was no place for me. +For many miles extends a plain covered with coarse high grass, thickly +dotted here and there with trees, the forest country only commencing +at the hills a good way in the interior. Such a place would produce few +birds and no insects, and we therefore arranged to stay only two days, +and then go on to Dodinga, at the narrow central isthmus of Gilolo, +whence my friends would return to Ternate. We amused ourselves shooting +parrots, lories, and pigeons, and trying to shoot deer, of which we saw +plenty, but could not get one; and our crew went out fishing with a net, +so we did not want for provisions. When the time came for us to continue +our journey, a fresh difficulty presented itself, for our gentlemen +slaves refused in a body to go with us; saying very determinedly that +they would return to Ternate. So their masters were obliged to submit, +and I was left behind to get to Dodinga as I could. Luckily I succeeded +in hiring a small boat, which took me there the same night, with my two +men and my baggage. + +Two or three years after this, and about the same length of time before +I left the East, the Dutch emancipated all their slaves, paying their +owners a small compensation. No ill results followed. Owing to the +amicable relations which had always existed between them and their +masters, due no doubt in part to the Government having long accorded +them legal rights and protection against cruelty and ill-usage, many +continued in the same service, and after a little temporary difficulty +in some cases, almost all returned to work either for their old or for +new, masters. The Government took the very proper step of placing every +emancipated slave under the surveillance of the police-magistrate. They +were obliged to show that they were working for a living, and had some +honestly-acquired means of existence. All who could not do so were +placed upon public works at low wages, and thus were kept from the +temptation to peculation or other crimes, which the excitement of +newly-acquired freedom, and disinclination to labour, might have led +them into. + + + +CHAPTER XXII. GILOLO. + +(MARCH AND SEPTEMBER 1858.) + +I MADE but few and comparatively short visits to this large and little +known island, but obtained a considerable knowledge of its natural +history by sending first my boy Ali, and then my assistant, Charles +Allen, who stayed two or three months each in the northern peninsula, +and brought me back large collections of birds and insects. In this +chapter I propose to give a sketch of the parts which I myself visited. +My first stay was at Dodinga, situated at the head of a deep-bay +exactly opposite Ternate, and a short distance up a little stream +which penetrates a few miles inland. The village is a small one, and is +completely shut in by low hills. + +As soon as I arrived, I applied to the head man of the village for a +house to live in, but all were occupied, and there was much difficulty +in finding one. In the meantime I unloaded my baggage on the beach and +made some tea, and afterwards discovered a small but which the owner was +willing to vacate if I would pay him five guilders for a month's rent. +As this was something less than the fee-simple value of the dwelling, +I agreed to give it him for the privilege of immediate occupation, only +stipulating that he was to make the roof water-tight. This he agreed +to do, and came every day to tally and look at me; and when I each time +insisted upon his immediately mending the roof according to contract, +all the answer I could get was, "Ea nanti," (Yes, wait a little.) +However, when I threatened to deduct a quarter guilder from the rent for +every day it was not done, and a guilder extra if any of my things were +wetted, he condescended to work for half an hour, which did all that was +absolutely necessary. + +On the top of a bank, of about a hundred feet ascent from the water, +stands the very small but substantial fort erected by the Portuguese. +Its battlements and turrets have long since been overthrown by +earthquakes, by which its massive structure has also been rent; but it +cannot well be thrown down, being a solid mass of stonework, forming +a platform about ten feet high, and perhaps forty feet square. It is +approached by narrow steps under an archway, and is now surmounted by a +row of thatched hovels, in which live the small garrison, consisting of, +a Dutch corporal and four Javanese soldiers, the sole representatives +of the Netherlands Government in the island. The village is occupied +entirely by Ternate men. The true indigenes of Gilolo, "Alfuros" as they +are here called, live on the eastern coast, or in the interior of the +northern peninsula. The distance across the isthmus at this place is +only two miles, and there, is a good path, along which rice and sago +are brought from the eastern villages. The whole isthmus is very rugged, +though not high, being a succession of little abrupt hills anal valleys, +with angular masses of limestone rock everywhere projecting, and often +almost blocking up the pathway. Most of it is virgin forest, very +luxuriant and picturesque, and at this time having abundance of large +scarlet Ixoras in flower, which made it exceptionally gay. I got some +very nice insects here, though, owing to illness most of the time, my +collection was a small one, and my boy Ali shot me a pair of one of the +most beautiful birds of the East, Pitta gigas, a lame ground-thrush, +whose plumage of velvety black above is relieved by a breast of pure +white, shoulders of azure blue, and belly of vivid crimson. It has very +long and strong legs, and hops about with such activity in the dense +tangled forest, bristling with rocks, as to make it very difficult to +shoot. + +In September 1858, after my return from New Guinea, I went to stay +some time at the village of Djilolo, situated in a bay on the northern +peninsula. Here I obtained a house through the kindness of the Resident +of Ternate, who sent orders to prepare one for me. The first walk into +the unexplored forests of a new locality is a moment of intense interest +to the naturalist, as it is almost sure to furnish him with something +curious or hitherto unknown. The first thing I saw here was a flock of +small parroquets, of which I shot a pair, and was pleased to find a most +beautiful little long-tailed bird, ornamented with green, red, and +blue colours, and quite new to me. It was a variety of the Charmosyna +placentis, one of the smallest and most elegant of the brush-tongued +lories. My hunters soon shot me several other fine birds, and I myself +found a specimen of the rare and beautiful day-flying moth, Cocytia +d'Urvillei. + +The village of Djilolo was formerly the chief residence of the Sultans +of Ternate, till about eighty years ago, when at the request of the +Dutch they removed to their present abode. The place was then no doubt +much more populous, as is indicated by the wide extent of cleared +land in the neighbourhood, now covered with coarse high grass, very +disagreeable to walk through, and utterly barren to the naturalist. A +few days' exploring showed me that only some small patches of forest +remained for miles wound, and the result was a scarcity of insects and +a very limited variety of birds, which obliged me to change my locality. +There was another village called Sahoe, to which there was a road of +about twelve miles overland, and this had been recommended to me as +a good place for birds, and as possessing a large population both of +Mahomotans and Alfuros, which latter race I much wished to see. I set +off one morning to examine this place myself, expecting to pass +through some extent of forest on my way. In this however I was much +disappointed, as the whole road lies through grass and scrubby thickets, +and it was only after reaching the village of Sahoe that some high +forest land was perceived stretching towards the mountains to the north +of it. About half-way we dad to pass a deep river on a bamboo raft, +which almost sunk beneath us. This stream was said to rise a long way +off to the northward. + +Although Sahoe did not at all appear what I expected, I determined to +give it a trial, and a few days afterwards obtained a boat to carry +my things by sea while I walked overland. A large house on the beach +belonging to the Sultan was given me. It stood alone, and was quite +open on every side, so that little privacy could be had, but as I only +intended to stay a short time I made it do. Avery, few days dispelled +all hopes I might have entertained of making good collections in this +place. Nothing was to be found in every direction but interminable +tracts of reedy grass, eight or ten feet high, traversed by narrow +baths, often almost impassable. Here and there were clumps of fruit +trees, patches of low wood, and abundance of plantations and rice +grounds, all of which are, in tropical regions, a very desert for the +entomologist. The virgin forest that I was in search of, existed only +on the summits and on the steep rocky sides of the mountains a long way +off, and in inaccessible situations. In the suburbs of the village I +found a fair number of bees and wasps, and some small but interesting +beetles. Two or three new birds were obtained by my hunters, and by +incessant inquiries and promises I succeeded in getting the natives to +bring me some land shells, among which was a very fine and handsome +one, Helix pyrostoma. I was, however, completely wasting my time here +compared with what I might be doing in a good locality, and after a +week returned to Ternate, quite disappointed with my first attempts at +collecting in Gilolo. + +In the country round about Sahoe, and in the interior, there is a large +population of indigenes, numbers of whom came daily into the village, +bringing their produce for sale, while others were engaged as labourers +by the Chinese and Ternate traders. A careful examination convinced me +that these people are radically distinct from all the Malay races. Their +stature and their features, as well as their disposition and habits, +are almost the same as those of the Papuans; their hair is +semi-Papuan-neither straight, smooth, and glossy, like all true Malays', +nor so frizzly and woolly as the perfect Papuan type, but always crisp, +waved, and rough, such as often occurs among the true Papuans, but never +among the Malays. Their colour alone is often exactly that of the Malay, +or even lighter. Of course there has been intermixture, and there occur +occasionally individuals which it is difficult to classify; but in most +cases the large, somewhat aquiline nose, with elongated apex, the tall +stature, the waved hair, the bearded face, and hairy body, as well as +the less reserved manner and louder voice, unmistakeably proclaim the +Papuan type. Here then I had discovered the exact boundary lice between +the Malay and Papuan races, and at a spot where no other writer had +expected it. I was very much pleased at this determination, as it +gave me a clue to one of the most difficult problems in Ethnology, +and enabled me in many other places to separate the two races, and to +unravel their intermixtures. + +On my return from Waigiou in 1860, I stayed some days on the southern +extremity of Gilolo; but, beyond seeing something more of its structure +and general character, obtained very little additional information. +It is only in the northern peninsula that there are any indigenes, the +whole of the rest of the island, with Batchian and the other islands +westward, being exclusively inhabited by Malay tribes, allied to those +of Ternate and Tidore. This would seem to indicate that the Alfuros were +a comparatively recent immigration, and that they lead come from the +north or east, perhaps from some of the islands of the Pacific. It is +otherwise difficult to understand how so many fertile districts should +possess no true indigenes. + +Gilolo, or Halmaheira as it is called by the Malays and Dutch, seems +to have been recently modified by upheaval and subsidence. In 1673, a +mountain is said to stave been upheaved at Gamokonora on the northern +peninsula. All the parts that I have seen have either been volcanic +or coralline, and along the coast there are fringing coral reefs very +dangerous to navigation. At the same time, the character of its natural +history proves it to be a rather ancient land, since it possesses a +number of animals peculiar to itself or common to the small islands +around it, but almost always distinct from those of New Guinea on the +east, of Ceram on the south, and of Celebes and the Sula islands on the +west. + +The island of Morty, close to the north-eastern extremity of Gilolo, was +visited by my assistant Charles Allen, as well as by Dr. Bernstein; and +the collections obtained there present some curious differences from +those of the main island. About fifty-six species of land-birds are +known to inhabit this island, and of these, a kingfisher (Tanysiptera +Boris), a honey-sucker (Tropidorhynchus fuscicapillus), and a large +crow-like starling (Lycocorax morotensis), are quite distinct from +allied species found in Gilolo. The island is coralline and sandy, and +we must therefore believe it to have been separated from Gilolo at a +somewhat remote epoch; while we learn from its natural history that an +arm of the sea twenty-five miles wide serves to limit the range even of +birds of considerable powers of flight. + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. TERNATE TO THE KAIOA ISLANDS AND BATCHIAN. + +(OCTOBER 1858.) + +ON returning to Ternate from Sahoe, I at once began making preparations +for a journey to Batchian, an island which I had been constantly +recommended to visit since I had arrived in this part of the Moluccas. +After all was ready I found that I should have to hire a boat, as no +opportunity of obtaining a passage presented itself. I accordingly went +into the native town, and could only find two boats for hire, one much +larger than I required, and the other far smaller than I wished. I chose +the smaller one, chiefly because it would not cost me one-third as much +as the larger one, and also because in a coasting voyage a small vessel +can be more easily managed, and more readily got into a place of safety +during violent gales, than a large one. I took with me my Bornean lad +Ali, who was now very useful to me; Lahagi, a native of Ternate, a very +good steady man, and a fair shooter, who had been with me to New Guinea; +Lahi, a native of Gilolo, who could speak Malay, as woodcutter and +general assistant; and Garo, a boy who was to act as cook. As the boat +was so small that we had hardly room to stow ourselves away when all my +stores were on board, I only took one other man named Latchi, as pilot. +He was a Papuan slave, a tall, strong black fellow, but very civil and +careful. The boat I had hired from a Chinaman named Lau Keng Tong, for +five guilders a month. + +We started on the morning of October 9th, but had not got a hundred +yards from land, when a strong head wind sprung up, against which we +could not row, so we crept along shore to below the town, and waited +till the turn of the tide should enable us to cross over to the coast of +Tidore. About three in the afternoon we got off, and found that our boat +sailed well, and would keep pretty close to the wind. We got on a good +way before the wind fell and we had to take to our oars again. We landed +on a nice sandy beach to cook our suppers, just as the sun set behind +the rugged volcanic hills, to the south of the great cone of Tidore, +and soon after beheld the planet Venus shining in the twilight with the +brilliancy of a new moon, and casting a very distinct shadow. We left +again a little before seven, and as we got out from the shadow of the +mountain I observed a bright light over one part of the edge, and soon +after, what seemed a fire of remarkable whiteness on the very summit of +the hill. I called the attention of my men to it, and they too thought +it merely a fire; but a few minutes afterwards, as we got farther off +shore, the light rose clear up above the ridge of the hill, and some +faint clouds clearing away from it, discovered the magnificent comet +which was at the same time, astonishing all Europe. The nucleus +presented to the naked eye a distinct disc of brilliant white light, +from which the tail rose at an angle of about 30 deg. or 35 deg. with the +horizon, curving slightly downwards, and terminating in a broad brush +of faint light, the curvature of which diminished till it was nearly +straight at the end. The portion of the tail next the comet appeared +three or four tunes as bright as the most luminous portion of the milky +way, and what struck me as a singular feature was that its upper margin, +from the nucleus to very near the extremity, was clearly and almost +sharply defined, while the lower side gradually shaded off into +obscurity. Directly it rose above the ridge of the hill, I said to my +men, "See, it's not a fire, it's a bintang ber-ekor" ("tailed-star," the +Malay idiom for a comet). "So it is," said they; and all declared that +they had often heard tell of such, but had never seen one till now. I +had no telescope with me, nor any instrument at hand, but I estimated +the length of the tail at about 20 deg., and the width, towards the +extremity, about 4 deg. or 5 deg.. + +The whole of the next day we were obliged to stop near the village of +Tidore, owing to a strong wind right in our teeth. The country was all +cultivated, and I in vain searched for any insects worth capturing. One +of my men went out to shoot, but returned home without a single bird. At +sunset, the wind having dropped, we quitted Tidore, and reached the +next island, March, where we stayed till morning. The comet was again +visible, but not nearly so brilliant, being partly obscured by clouds; +and dimmed by the light of the new moon. We then rowed across to the +island of Motir, which is so surrounded with coral-reefs that it is +dangerous to approach. These are perfectly flat, and are only covered at +high water, ending in craggy vertical walls of coral in very deep water. +When there is a little wind, it is dangerous to come near these rocks; +but luckily it was quite smooth, so we moored to their edge, while the +men crawled over the reef to the land, to make; a fire and cook our +dinner-the boat having no accommodation for more than heating water for +my morning and evening coffee. We then rowed along the edge of the reef +to the end of the island, and were glad to get a nice westerly breeze, +which carried us over the strait to the island of Makian, where we +arrived about 8 P.M, The sky was quite clear, and though the moon shone +brightly, the comet appeared with quite as much splendour as when we +first saw it. + +The coasts of these small islands are very different according to their +geological formation. The volcanoes, active or extinct, have steep black +beaches of volcanic sand, or are fringed with rugged masses of lava and +basalt. Coral is generally absent, occurring only in small patches in +quiet bays, and rarely or never forming reefs. Ternate, Tidore, and +Makian belong to this class. Islands of volcanic origin, not themselves +volcanoes, but which have been probably recently upraised, are generally +more or less completely surrounded by fringing reefs of coral, and +have beaches of shining white coral sand. Their coasts present volcanic +conglomerates, basalt, and in some places a foundation of stratified +rocks, with patches of upraised coral. Mareh and Motir are of this +character, the outline of the latter giving it the appearance of having +been a true volcano, and it is said by Forrest to have thrown out +stones in 1778. The next day (Oct. 12th), we coasted along the island of +Makian, which consists of a single grand volcano. It was now quiescent, +but about two centuries ago (in 1646) there was a terrible eruption, +which blew up the whole top of the mountain, leaving the truncated +jagged summit and vast gloomy crater valley which at this time +distinguished it. It was said to have been as lofty as Tidore before +this catastrophe. [Soon after I' left the Archipelago, on the 29th of +December, 1862, another eruption of this mountain suddenly took place, +which caused great devastation in the island. All the villages and crops +were destroyed, and numbers of the inhabitants killed. The sand and +ashes fell so thick that the crops were partially destroyed fifty miles +off, at Ternate, where it was so dark the following day that lamps +had to be lighted at noon. For the position of this and the adjacent +islands, see the map in Chapter XXXVII.] + +I stayed some time at a place where I saw a new clearing on a very steep +part of the mountain, and obtained a few interesting insects. In the +evening we went on to the extreme southern point, to be ready to pass +across the fifteen-mile strait to the island of Kaioa. At five the next +morning we started, but the wind, which had hitherto been westerly, now +got to the south and southwest, and we had to row almost all the way +with a burning sun overhead. As we approached land a fine breeze sprang +up, and we went along at a great pace; yet after an hour we were no +nearer, and found we were in a violent current carrying us out to sea. +At length we overcame it, and got on shore just as the sun set, having +been exactly thirteen hours coming fifteen miles. We landed on a beach +of hard coralline rock, with rugged cliffs of the same, resembling those +of the Ke Islands (Chap. XXIX.) It was accompanied by a brilliancy and +luxuriance of the vegetation, very like what I had observed at those +islands, which so much pleased me that I resolved to stay a few days +at the chief village, and see if their animal productions were +correspondingly interesting. While searching for a secure anchorage for +the night we again saw the comet, still apparently as brilliant as at +first, but the tail had now risen to a higher angle. + +October 14th.--All this day we coasted along the Kaioa Islands, which +have much the appearance and outline of Ke on a small scale, with the +addition of flat swampy tracts along shore, and outlying coral reefs. +Contrary winds and currents had prevented our taking the proper course +to the west of them, and we had to go by a circuitous route round the +southern extremity of one island, often having to go far out to sea on +account of coral reefs. On trying to pass a channel through one of these +reefs we were grounded, and all had to get out into the water, which in +this shallow strait had been so heated by the sun as to be disagreeably +warm, and drag our vessel a considerable distance among weeds and +sponges, corals and prickly corallines. It was late at night when we +reached the little village harbour, and we were all pretty well knocked +up by hard work, and having had nothing but very brackish water to drink +all day-the best we could find at our last stopping-place. There was a +house close to the shore, built for the use of the Resident of Ternate +when he made his official visits, but now occupied by several native +travelling merchants, among whom I found a place to sleep. + +The next morning early I went to the village to find the "Kapala," or +head man. I informed him that I wanted to stay a few days in the house +at the landing, and begged him to have it made ready for me. He was very +civil, and came down at once to get it cleared, when we found that the +traders had already left, on hearing that I required it. There were no +doors to it, so I obtained the loan of a couple of hurdles to keep out +dogs and other animals. The land here was evidently sinking rapidly, +as shown by the number of trees standing in salt water dead and dying. +After breakfast I started for a walk to the forest-covered hill above +the village, with a couple of boys as guides. It was exceedingly hot and +dry, no rain having fallen for two months. When we reached an elevation +of about two hundred feet, the coralline rock which fringes the +shore was succeeded by a hard crystalline rock, a kind of metamorphic +sandstone. This would indicate flat there had been a recent elevation of +more than two hundred feet, which had still more recently clanged into +a movement of subsidence. The hill was very rugged, but among dry sticks +and fallen trees I found some good insects, mostly of forms and species +I was already acquainted with from Ternate and Gilolo. Finding no good +paths I returned, and explored the lower ground eastward of the village, +passing through a long range of plantain and tobacco grounds, encumbered +with felled and burnt logs, on which I found quantities of beetles of +the family Buprestidae of six different species, one of which was new +to me. I then reached a path in the swampy forest where I hoped to find +some butterflies, but was disappointed. Being now pretty well exhausted +by the intense heat, I thought it wise to return and reserve further +exploration for the next day. + +When I sat down in the afternoon to arrange my insects, the louse +was surrounded by men, women, and children, lost in amazement at my +unaccountable proceedings; and when, after pinning out the specimens, I +proceeded to write the name of the place on small circular tickets, and +attach one to each, even the old Kapala, the Mahometan priest, and some +Malay traders could not repress signs of astonishment. If they had +known a little more about the ways and opinions of white men, they +would probably have looked upon me as a fool or a madman, but in their +ignorance they accepted my operations as worthy of all respect, although +utterly beyond their comprehension. + +The next day (October 16th) I went beyond the swamp, and found a place +where a new clearing was being made in the virgin forest. It was a long +and hot walk, and the search among the fallen trunks and branches was +very fatiguing, but I was rewarded by obtaining about seventy distinct +species of beetles, of which at least a dozen were new to me, and many +others rare and interesting. I have never in my life seen beetles so +abundant as they were on this spot. Some dozen species of good-sized +golden Buprestidae, green rose-chafers (Lomaptera), and long-horned +weevils (Anthribidae), were so abundant that they rose up in swarms as I +walked along, filling the air with a loud buzzing hum. Along with these, +several fine Longicorns were almost equally common, forming such au +assemblage as for once to realize that idea of tropical luxuriance which +one obtains by looking over the drawers of a well-filled cabinet. On +the under sides of the trunks clung numbers of smaller or more sluggish +Longicorns, while on the branches at the edge of the clearing others +could be detected sitting with outstretched antenna ready to take flight +at the least alarm. It was a glorious spot, and one which will always +live in my memory as exhibiting the insect-life of the tropics in +unexampled luxuriance. For the three following days I continued to visit +this locality, adding each time many new species to my collection-the +following notes of which may be interesting to entomologists. October +15th, 33 species of beetles; 16th, 70 species; 17th, 47 species; 18th, +40 species; 19th, 56 species--in all about a hundred species, of which +forty were new to me. There were forty-four species of Longicorns among +them, and on the last day I took twenty-eight species of Longicorns, of +which five were new to me. + +My boys were less fortunate in shooting. The only birds at all common +were the great red parrot (Eclectus grandis), found in most of the +Moluccas, a crow, and a Megapodius, or mound-maker. A few of the pretty +racquet-tailed kingfishers were also obtained, but in very poor plumage. +They proved, however, to be of a different species from those found in +the other islands, and come nearest to the bird originally described by +Linnaeus under the name of Alcedo dea, and which came from Ternate. This +would indicate that the small chain of islands parallel to Gilolo have +a few peculiar species in common, a fact which certainly occurs in +insects. + +The people of Kaioa interested me much. They are evidently a mixed race, +having Malay and Papuan affinities, and are allied to the peoples +of Ternate and of Gilolo. They possess a peculiar language, somewhat +resembling those of the surrounding islands, but quite distinct. They +are now Mahometans, and are subject to Ternate, The only fruits seen +here were papaws and pine-apples, the rocky soil and dry climate being +unfavourable. Rice, maize, and plantains flourish well, except that +they suffer from occasional dry seasons like the present one. There is +a little cotton grown, from which the women weave sarongs (Malay +petticoats). There is only one well of good water on the islands, +situated close to the landing-place, to which all the inhabitants come +for drinking water. The men are good boat-builders, and they make a +regular trade of it and seem to be very well off. + +After five days at Kaioa we continued our journey, and soon got among +the narrow straits and islands which lead down to the town of Batchian. +In the evening we stayed at a settlement of Galela men. These are +natives of a district in the extreme north of Gilolo, and are great +wanderers over this part of the Archipelago. They build large and roomy +praus with outriggers, and settle on any coast or island they take a +fancy for. They hunt deer and wild pig, drying the meat; they catch +turtle and tripang; they cut down the forest and plant rice or maize, +and are altogether remarkably energetic and industrious. They are very +line people, of light complexion, tall, and with Papuan features, coming +nearer to the drawings and descriptions of the true Polynesians of +Tahiti and Owyhee than any I have seen. + +During this voyage I had several times had an opportunity of seeing my +men get fire by friction. A sharp-edged piece of bamboo is rubbed across +the convex surface of another piece, on which a small notch is first +cut. The rubbing is slow at first and gradually quicker, till it becomes +very rapid, and the fine powder rubbed off ignites and falls through the +hole which the rubbing has cut in the bamboo. This is done with great +quickness and certainty. The Ternate, people use bamboo in another way. +They strike its flinty surface with a bit of broken china, and produce a +spark, which they catch in some kind of tinder. + +On the evening of October 21st we reached our destination, having been +twelve days on the voyage. It had been tine weather all the time, and, +although very hot, I had enjoyed myself exceedingly, and had besides +obtained some experience in boat work among islands and coral reefs, +which enabled me afterwards to undertake much longer voyages of the same +kind. The village or town of Batchian is situated at the head of a wide +and deep bay, where a low isthmus connects the northern and southern +mountainous parts of the island. To the south is a fine range of +mountains, and I had noticed at several of our landing-places that the +geological formation of the island was very different from those around +it. Whenever rock was visible it was either sandstone in thin layers, +dipping south, or a pebbly conglomerate. Sometimes there was a little +coralline limestone, but no volcanic rocks. The forest had a dense +luxuriance and loftiness seldom found on the dry and porous lavas and +raised coral reefs of Ternate and Gilolo; and hoping for a corresponding +richness in the birds and insects, it was with much satisfaction and +with considerable expectation that I began my explorations in the +hitherto unknown island of Batchian. + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. BATCHIAN. + +(OCTOBER 1858 To APRIL 1859.) + +I LANDED opposite the house kept for the use of the Resident of Ternate, +and was met by a respectable middle-aged Malay, who told me he was +Secretary to the Sultan, and would receive the official letter with +which I had been provided. On giving it him, he at once informed me I +might have the use of the official residence which was empty. I soon got +my things on shore, but on looking about me found that the house would +never do to stay long in. There was no water except at a considerable +distance, and one of my men would be almost entirely occupied getting +water and firewood, and I should myself have to walk all through the +village every day to the forest, and live almost in public, a thing I +much dislike. The rooms were all boarded, and had ceilings, which are a +great nuisance, as there are no means of hanging anything up except +by driving nails, and not half the conveniences of a native bamboo +and thatch cottage. I accordingly inquired for a house outside of the +village on the road to the coal mines, and was informed by the Secretary +that there was a small one belonging to the Sultan, and that he would go +with me early next morning to see it. + +We had to pass one large river, by a rude but substantial bridge, and +to wade through another fine pebbly stream of clear water, just beyond +which the little but was situated. It was very small, not raised on +posts, but with the earth for a floor, and was built almost entirely +of the leaf-stems of the sago-palm, called here "gaba-gaba." Across the +river behind rose a forest-clad bank, and a good road close in front of +the horse led through cultivated grounds to the forest about half a mile +on, and thence to the coal mines tour miles further. These advantages at +once decided me, and I told the Secretary I would be very glad to +occupy the house. I therefore sent my two men immediately to buy "ataps" +(palm-leaf thatch) to repair the roof, and the next day, with the +assistance of eight of the Sultan's men, got all my stores and furniture +carried up and pretty comfortably arranged. A rough bamboo bedstead was +soon constructed, and a table made of boards which I had brought with +me, fixed under the window. Two bamboo chairs, an easy cane chair, and +hanging shelves suspended with insulating oil cups, so as to be safe +from ants, completed my furnishing arrangements. + +In the afternoon succeeding my arrival, the Secretary accompanied me +to visit the Sultan. We were kept waiting a few minutes in an outer +gate-house, and then ushered to the door of a rude, half-fortified +whitewashed house. A small table and three chairs were placed in a large +outer corridor, and an old dirty-faced man with grey hair and a grimy +beard, dressed in a speckled blue cotton jacket and loose red trousers, +came forward, shook hands, and asked me to be coated. After a quarter +of an hour's conversation on my pursuits, in which his Majesty seemed to +take great interest, tea and cakes-of rather better quality than usual +on such occasions-were brought in. I thanked him for the house, and +offered to show him my collections, which he promised to come and look +at. He then asked me to teach him to take views-to make maps-to get him +a small gun from England, and a milch-goat from Bengal; all of which +requests I evaded as skilfully as I was able, and we parted very good +friends. He seemed a sensible old man, and lamented the small population +of the island, which he assured me was rich in many valuable minerals, +including gold; but there were not people enough to look after them +and work them. I described to him the great rush of population on the +discovery of the Australian gold mines, and the huge nuggets found +there, with which he was much interested, and exclaimed, "Oh? if we had +but people like that, my country would be quite as rich." + +The morning after I had got into my new house, I sent my boys out to +shoot, and went myself to explore the road to the coal mines. In less +than half a mile it entered the virgin forest, at a place where some +magnificent trees formed a kind of natural avenue. The first part was +flat and swampy, but it soon rose a little, and ran alongside the fine +stream which passed behind my house, and which here rushed and gurgled +over a rocky or pebbly bed, sometimes leaving wide sandbanks on its +margins, and at other places flowing between high banks crowned with +a varied and magnificent forest vegetation. After about two miles, the +valley narrowed, and the road was carried along the steep hill-side +which rose abruptly from the water's edge. In some places the rock had +been cut away, but its surface was already covered with elegant ferns +and creepers. Gigantic tree-ferns were abundant, and the whole forest +had an air of luxuriance and rich variety which it never attains in +the dry volcanic soil to which I had been lately accustomed. A little +further the road passed to the other side of the valley by a bridge +across the stream at a place where a great mass of rock in the middle +offered an excellent support for it, and two miles more of most +picturesque and interesting road brought me to the mining establishment. + +This is situated in a large open space, at a spot where two tributaries +fall into the main stream. Several forest-paths and new clearings +offered fine collecting grounds, and I captured some new and interesting +insects; but as it was getting late I had to reserve a more thorough +exploration for future occasions. Coal had been discovered here some +years before, and the road was made in order to bring down a sufficient +quantity for a fair trial on the Dutch steamers. The quality, however, +was not thought sufficiently good, and the mines were abandoned. Quite +recently, works had been commenced in another spot, in Hopes of finding +a better vein. There ware about eighty men employed, chiefly convicts; +but this was far too small a number for mining operations in such a +country, where the mere keeping a few miles of road in repair requires +the constant work of several men. If coal of sufficiently good quality +should be found, a tramroad would be made, and would be very easily +worked, owing to the regular descent of the valley. + +Just as I got home I overtook Ali returning from shooting with some +birch hanging from his belt. He seemed much pleased, and said, "Look +here, sir, what a curious bird," holding out what at first completely +puzzled me. I saw a bird with a mass of splendid green feathers on +its breast, elongated into two glittering tufts; but, what I could not +understand was a pair of long white feathers, which stuck straight out +from each shoulder. Ali assured me that the bird stuck them out this way +itself, when fluttering its wings, and that they had remained so without +his touching them. I now saw that I had got a great prize, no less than +a completely new form of the Bird of Paradise, differing most remarkably +from every other known bird. The general plumage is very sober, being +a pure ashy olive, with a purplish tinge on the back; the crown of the +head is beautifully glossed with pale metallic violet, and the feathers +of the front extend as much over the beak as inmost of the family. The +neck and breast are scaled with fine metallic green, and the feathers on +the lower part are elongated on each side, so as to form a two-pointed +gorget, which can be folded beneath the wings, or partially erected and +spread out in the same way as the side plumes of most of the birds of +paradise. The four long white plumes which give the bird its altogether +unique character, spring from little tubercles close to the upper edge +of the shoulder or bend of the wing; they are narrow, gentle curved, and +equally webbed on both sides, of a pure creamy white colour. They are +about six inches long, equalling the wing, and can be raised at right +angles to it, or laid along the body at the pleasure of the bird. The +bill is horn colour, the legs yellow, and the iris pale olive. This +striking novelty has been named by Mr. G. R. Gray of the British Museum, +Semioptera Wallacei, or "Wallace's Standard wing." + +A few days later I obtained an exceedingly beautiful new butterfly, +allied to the fine blue Papilio Ulysses, but differing from it in the +colour being of a more intense tint, and in having a row of blue stripes +around the margin of the lower wings. This good beginning was, however, +rather deceptive, and I soon found that insects, and especially +butterflies, were somewhat scarce, and birds in tar less variety than +I had anticipated. Several of the fine Moluccan species were however +obtained. The handsome red lory with green wings and a yellow spot in +the back (Lorius garrulus), was not uncommon. When the Jambu, or rose +apple (Eugenic sp.), was in flower in the village, flocks of the little +lorikeet (Charmosyna placentis), already met with in Gilolo, came to +feed upon the nectar, and I obtained as many specimens as I desired. +Another beautiful bird of the parrot tribe was the Geoffroyus +cyanicollis, a green parrot with a red bill and head, which colour +shaded on the crown into azure blue, and thence into verditer blue +and the green of the back. Two large and handsome fruit pigeons, with +metallic green, ashy, and rufous plumage, were not uncommon; and I was +rewarded by finding a splendid deep blue roller (Eurystomus azureus); +a lovely golden-capped sunbird (Nectarinea auriceps), and a fine +racquet-tailed kingfisher (Tanysiptera isis), all of which were entirely +new to ornithologists. Of insects I obtained a considerable number of +interesting beetles, including many fine longicorns, among which was the +largest and handsomest species of the genus Glenea yet discovered. Among +butterflies the beautiful little Danis sebae was abundant, making the +forests gay with its delicate wings of white and the richest metallic +blue; while showy Papilios, and pretty Pieridae, and dark, rich +Euphaeas, many of them new, furnished a constant source of interest and +pleasing occupation. + +The island of Batchian possesses no really indigenous inhabitants, the +interior being altogether uninhabited; and there are only a few small +villages on various parts of the coast; yet I found here four distinct +races, which would wofully mislead an ethnological traveller unable +to obtain information as to their origin, first there are the Batchian +Malays, probably the earliest colonists, differing very little from +those of Ternate. Their language, however, seems to have more of +the Papuan element, with a mixture of pure Malay, showing that +the settlement is one of stragglers of various races, although now +sufficiently homogeneous. Then there are the "Orang Sirani," as at +Ternate and Amboyna. Many of these have the Portuguese physiognomy +strikingly preserved, but combined with a skin generally darker than +the Malays. Some national customs are retained, and the Malay, which +is their only language, contains a large number of Portuguese words +and idioms. The third race consists of the Galela men from the north of +Gilolo, a singular people, whom I have already described; and the fourth +is a colony from Tomore, in the eastern peninsula of Celebes. These +people were brought here at their own request a few years ago, to avoid +extermination by another tribe. They have a very light complexion, open +Tartar physiognomy, low stature, and a language of the Bugis type. +They are an industrious agricultural people, and supply the town with +vegetables. They make a good deal of bark cloth, similar to the tapa of +the Polynesians, by cutting down the proper trees and taping off large +cylinders of bark, which is beaten with mallets till it separates from +the wood. It is then soaked, and so continuously and regularly beaten +out that it becomes as thin and as tough as parchment. In this foam it +is much used for wrappers for clothes; and they also make jackets of it, +sewn neatly together and stained with the juice of another kind of bark, +which gives it a dark red colour and renders it nearly waterproof. + +Here are four very distinct kinds of people who may all be seen any +day in and about the town of Batchian. Now if we suppose a traveller +ignorant of Malay, picking up a word or two here and there of +the "Batchian language," and noting down the "physical and moral +peculiarities, manners, and customs of the Batchian people"--(for +there are travellers who do all this in four-and-twenty hours)--what an +accurate and instructive chapter we should have' what transitions would +be pointed out, what theories of the origin of races would be developed +while the next traveller might flatly contradict every statement and +arrive at exactly opposite conclusions. + +Soon after I arrived here the Dutch Government introduced a new copper +coinage of cents instead of doits (the 100th instead of the 120th part +of a guilder), and all the old coins were ordered to be sent to Ternate +to be changed. I sent a bag containing 6,000 doits, and duly received +the new money by return of the boat. Then Ali went to bring it, however, +the captain required a written order; so I waited to send again the next +day, and it was lucky I did so, for that night my house was entered, all +my boxes carried out and ransacked, and the various articles left on the +road about twenty yards off, where we found them at five in the morning, +when, on getting up and finding the house empty, we rushed out to +discover tracks of the thieves. Not being able to find the copper money +which they thought I had just received, they decamped, taking nothing +but a few yards of cotton cloth and a black coat and trousers, which +latter were picked up a few days afterwards hidden in the grass. There +was no doubt whatever who were the thieves. Convicts are employed to +guard the Government stores when the boat arrives from Ternate. Two of +them watch all night, and often take the opportunity to roam about and +commit robberies. + +The next day I received my money, and secured it well in a strong box +fastened under my bed. I took out five or six hundred cents for daily +expenses, and put them in a small japanned box, which always stood upon +my table. In the afternoon I went for a short walk, and on my return +this box and my keys, which I had carelessly left on the table, were +gone. Two of my boys were in the house, but had heard nothing. I +immediately gave information of the two robberies to the Director at the +mines and to the Commandant at the fort, and got for answer, that if +I caught the thief in the act I might shoot him. By inquiry in the +village, we afterwards found that one of the convicts who was on duty at +the Government rice-store in the village had quitted his guard, was +seen to pass over the bridge towards my house, was seen again within +two hundred yards of my house, and on returning over the bridge into +the village carried something under his arm, carefully covered with +his sarong. My box was stolen between the hours he was seen going +and returning, and it was so small as to be easily carried in the way +described. This seemed pretty clear circumstantial evidence. I accused +the man and brought the witnesses to the Commandant. The man was +examined, and confessed having gone to the river close to my house to +bathe; but said he had gone no farther, having climbed up a cocoa-nut +tree and brought home two nuts, which he had covered over, _because +he was ashamed to be seen carrying them!_ This explanation was thought +satisfactory, and he was acquitted. I lost my cash and my box, a seal +I much valued, with other small articles, and all my keys-the severest +loss by far. Luckily my large cash-box was left locked, but so were +others which I required to open immediately. There was, however, a very +clever blacksmith employed to do ironwork for the mines, and he picked +my locks for me when I required them, and in a few days made me new +keys, which I used all the time I was abroad. + +Towards the end of November the wet season set in, and we had daily and +almost incessant rains, with only about one or two hours' sunshine in +the morning. The flat parts of the forest became flooded, the roads +filled with mud, and insects and birds were scarcer than ever. On +December Lath, in the afternoon, we had a sharp earthquake shock, which +made the house and furniture shale and rattle for five minutes, and the +trees and shrubs wave as if a gust of wind had passed over them. About +the middle of December I removed to the village, in order more easily +to explore the district to the west of it, and to be near the sea when I +wished to return to Ternate. I obtained the use of a good-sized house in +the Campong Sirani (or Christian village), and at Christmas and the New +Year had to endure the incessant gun-firing, drum-beating, and fiddling +of the inhabitants. + +These people are very fond of music and dancing, and it would astonish +a European to visit one of their assemblies. We enter a gloomy palm-leaf +hut, in which two or three very dim lamps barely render darkness +visible. The floor is of black sandy earth, the roof hid in a smoky +impenetrable blackness; two or three benches stand against the walls, +and the orchestra consists of a fiddle, a fife, a drum, and a triangle. +There is plenty of company, consisting of young men and women, all very +neatly dressed in white and black--a true Portuguese habit. Quadrilles, +waltzes, polkas, and mazurkas are danced with great vigour and much +skill. The refreshments are muddy coffee and a few sweetmeats. Dancing +is kept up for hours, and all is conducted with much decorum and +propriety. A party of this kind meets about once a week, the principal +inhabitants taking it by turns, and all who please come in without much +ceremony. + +It is astonishing how little these people have altered in three hundred +years, although in that time they have changed their language and lost +all knowledge of their own nationality. They are still in manners and +appearance almost pure Portuguese, very similar to those with whom I had +become acquainted on the banks of the Amazon. They live very poorly as +regards their house and furniture, but preserve a semi-European dress, +and have almost all full suits of black for Sundays. They are nominally +Protestants, but Sunday evening is their grand day for music and +dancing. The men are often good hunters; and two or three times a week, +deer or wild pigs are brought to the village, which, with fish and +fowls, enables them to live well. They are almost the only people in +the Archipelago who eat the great fruit-eating bats called by us "flying +foxes." These ugly creatures are considered a great delicacy, and are +much sought after. At about the beginning of the year they come in large +flocks to eat fruit, and congregate during the day on some small islands +in the bay, hanging by thousands on the trees, especially on dead ones. +They can then be easily caught or knocked down with sticks, and are +brought home by basketsfull. They require to be carefully prepared, +as the skin and fur has a rank end powerful foxy odour; but they are +generally cooked with abundance of spices and condiments, and are really +very good eating, something like hare. The Orang Sirani are good cooks, +having a much greater variety of savoury dishes than the Malays. Here, +they live chiefly on sago as bread, with a little rice occasionally, and +abundance of vegetables and fruit. + +It is a curious fact that everywhere in the Past where the Portuguese +have mixed with the native races they leave become darker in colour than +either of the parent stocks. This is the case almost always with these +"Orang Sirani" in the Moluccas, and with the Portuguese of Malacca. +The reverse is the case in South America, where the mixture of the +Portuguese or Brazilian with the Indian produces the "Mameluco," who is +not unfrequently lighter than either parent, and always lighter than the +Indian. The women at Batchian, although generally fairer than the men, +are coarse in features, and very far inferior in beauty to the mixed +Dutch-Malay girls, or even to many pure Malays. + +The part of the village in which I resided was a grove of cocoa-nut +trees, and at night, when the dead leaves were sometimes collected +together and burnt, the effect was most magnificent--the tall stems, +the fine crowns of foliage, and the immense fruit-clusters, being +brilliantly illuminated against a dark sky, and appearing like a fairy +palace supported on a hundred columns, and groined over with leafy +arches. The cocoa-nut tree, when well grown, is certainly the prince of +palms both for beauty and utility. + +During my very first walk into the forest at Batchian, I had seen +sitting on a leaf out of reach, an immense butterfly of a dark colour +marked with white and yellow spots. I could not capture it as it flew +away high up into the forest, but I at once saw that it was a female of +a new species of Ornithoptera or "bird-winged butterfly," the pride of +the Eastern tropics. I was very anxious to get it and to find the +male, which in this genus is always of extreme beauty. During the two +succeeding months I only saw it once again, and shortly afterwards I saw +the male flying high in the air at the mining village. I had begun to +despair of ever getting a specimen, as it seemed so rare and wild; till +one day, about the beginning of January, I found a beautiful shrub with +large white leafy bracts and yellow flowers, a species of Mussaenda, and +saw one of these noble insects hovering over it, but it was too quick +for me, and flew away. The next clay I went again to the same shrub and +succeeded in catching a female, and the day after a fine male. I +found it to be as I had expected, a perfectly new and most magnificent +species, and one of the most gorgeously coloured butterflies in the +world. Fine specimens of the male are more than seven inches across +the wings, which are velvety black and fiery orange, the latter colour +replacing the green of the allied species. The beauty and brilliancy of +this insect are indescribable, and none but a naturalist can understand +the intense excitement I experienced when I at length captured it. On +taking it out of my net and opening the glorious wings, my heart began +to beat violently, the blood rushed to my head, and I felt much more +like fainting than I have done when in apprehension of immediate death. +I had a headache the rest of the day, so great was the excitement +produced by what will appear to most people a very inadequate cause. + +I had decided to return to Ternate in a week or two more, but this grand +capture determined me to stay on till I obtained a good series of +the new butterfly, which I have since named Ornithoptera croesus. The +Mussaenda bush was an admirable place, which I could visit every day +on my way to the forest; and as it was situated in a dense thicket of +shrubs and creepers, I set my man Lahi to clear a space all round it, so +that I could easily get at any insect that might visit it. Afterwards, +finding that it was often necessary to wait some time there, I had a +little seat put up under a tree by the side of it, where I came every +day to eat my lunch, and thus had half an hour's watching about noon, +besides a chance as I passed it in the morning. In this way I obtained +on an average one specimen a day for a long time, but more than half +of these were females, and more than half the remainder worn or broken +specimens, so that I should not have obtained many perfect males had I +not found another station for them. + +As soon as I had seen them come to flowers, I sent my man Lahi with a +net on purpose to search for them, as they had also been seen at some +flowering trees on the beach, and I promised him half a day's wages +extra for every good specimen he could catch. After a day or two he +brought me two very fair specimens, and told me he had caught them in +the bed of a large rocky stream that descends from the mountains to the +sea abort a mile below the village. They flew down this river, settling +occasionally on stones and rocks in the water, and he was obliged to +wade up it or jump from rock to rock to get at them. I went with him +one day, but found that the stream was far too rapid and the stones too +slippery for me to do anything, so I left it entirely to him, and all +the rest of the time we stayed in Batchian he used to be out all day, +generally bringing me one, and on good days two or three specimens. I +was thus able to bring away with me more than a hundred of both sexes, +including perhaps twenty very fine males, though not more than five or +six that were absolutely perfect. + +My daily walk now led me, first about half a mile along the sandy beach, +then through a sago swamp over a causeway of very shaky poles to the +village of the Tomore people. Beyond this was the forest with patches of +new clearing, shady paths, and a considerable quantity of felled timber. +I found this a very fair collecting ground, especially for beetles. +The fallen trunks in the clearings abounded with golden Buprestidae +and curious Brenthidae, and longicorns, while in the forest I found +abundance of the smaller Curculionidae, many longicorns, and some fine +green Carabidae. + +Butterflies were not abundant, but I obtained a few more of the fine +blue Papilio, and a number of beautiful little Lycaenidae, as well as a +single specimen of the very rare Papilio Wallacei, of which I had taken +the hitherto unique specimen in the Aru Islands. + +The most interesting birds I obtained here, were the beautiful blue +kingfisher, Todiramphus diops; the fine green and purple doves, +Ptilonopus superbus and P. iogaster, and several new birds of small +size. My shooters still brought me in specimens of the Semioptera +Wallacei, and I was greatly excited by the positive statements of +several of the native hunters that another species of this bird existed, +much handsomer and more remarkable. They declared that the plumage was +glossy black, with metallic green breast as in my species, but that the +white shoulder plumes were twice as long, and hung down far below the +body of the bird. They declared that when hunting pigs or deer far in +the forest they occasionally saw this bird, but that it was rare. I +immediately offered twelve guilders (a pound) for a specimen; but all in +vain, and I am to this day uncertain whether such a bird exists. Since +I left, the German naturalist, Dr. Bernstein, stayed many months in the +island with a large staff of hunters collecting for the Leyden Museum; +and as he was not more successful than myself, we must consider either +that the bird is very rare, or is altogether a myth. + +Batchian is remarkable as being the most eastern point on the globe +inhabited by any of the Quadrumana. A large black baboon-monkey +(Cynopithecus nigrescens) is abundant in some parts of the forest. This +animal has bare red callosities, and a rudimentary tail about an inch +long--a mere fleshy tubercle, which may be very easily overlooked. It is +the same species that is found all over the forests of Celebes, and +as none of the other Mammalia of that island extend into Batchian I am +inclined to suppose that this species has been accidentally introduced +by the roaming Malays, who often carry about with them tame monkeys +and other animals. This is rendered more probable by the fact that the +animal is not found in Gilolo, which is only separated from Batchian by +a very narrow strait. The introduction may have been very recent, as in +a fertile and unoccupied island such an animal would multiply rapidly. +The only other mammals obtained were an Eastern opossum, which Dr. Gray +has described as Cuscus ornatus; the little flying opossum, Belideus +ariel; a Civet cat, Viverra zebetha; and nice species of bats, most of +the smaller ones being caught in the dusk with my butterfly net as they +flew about before the house. + +After much delay, owing to bad weather and the illness of one of my men, +I determined to visit Kasserota (formerly the chief village), situated +up a small stream, on an island close to the north coast of Batchian; +where I was told that many rare birds were found. After my boat was +loaded and everything ready, three days of heavy squalls prevented our +starting, and it was not till the 21st of March that we got away. +Early next morning we entered the little river, and in about an hour we +reached the Sultan's house, which I had obtained permission to use. It +was situated on the bank of the river, and surrounded by a forest +of fruit trees, among which were some of the very loftiest and most +graceful cocoa-nut palms I have ever seen. It rained nearly all that +day, and I could do little but unload and unpack. Towards the afternoon +it cleared up, and I attempted to explore in various directions, but +found to my disgust that the only path was a perfect mud swamp, along +which it was almost impossible to walk, and the surrounding forest so +damp and dark as to promise little in the way of insects. I found too on +inquiry that the people here made no clearings, living entirely on sago, +fruit, fish, and game; and the path only led to a steep rocky mountain +equally impracticable and unproductive. The next day I sent my men to +this hill, hoping it might produce some good birds; but they returned +with only two common species, and I myself had been able to get nothing; +every little track I had attempted to follow leading to a dense sago +swamp. I saw that I should waste time by staying here, and determined to +leave the following day. + +This is one of those spots so hard for the European naturalist to +conceive, where with all the riches of a tropical vegetation, and partly +perhaps from the very luxuriance of that vegetation, insects are +as scarce as in the most barren parts of Europe, and hardly more +conspicuous. In temperate climates there is a tolerable uniformity in +the distribution of insects over those parts of a country in which there +is a similarity in the vegetation, any deficiency being easily accounted +for by the absence of wood or uniformity of surface. The traveller +hastily passing through such a country can at once pick out a collecting +ground which will afford him a fair notion of its entomology. Here the +case is different. There are certain requisites of a good collecting +ground which can only be ascertained to exist by some days' search in +the vicinity of each village. In some places there is no virgin forest, +as at Djilolo and Sahoe; in others there are no open pathways or +clearings, as here. At Batchian there are only two tolerable collecting +places,--the road to the coal mines, and the new clearings made by the +Tomore people, the latter being by far the most productive. I believe +the fact to be that insects are pretty uniformly distributed over these +countries (where the forests have not been cleared away), and are so +scarce in any one spot that searching for them is almost useless. If the +forest is all cleared away, almost all the insects disappear with it; +but when small clearings and paths are made, the fallen trees in various +stages of drying and decay, the rotting leaves, the loosening bark and +the fungoid growths upon it, together with the flowers that appear +in much greater abundance where the light is admitted, are so many +attractions to the insects for miles around, and cause a wonderful +accumulation of species and individuals. When the entomologist can +discover such a spot, he does more in a mouth than he could possibly do +by a year's search in the depths of the undisturbed forest. + +The next morning we left early, and reached the mouth of the little +river in about au hour. It flows through a perfectly flat alluvial +plain, but there are hills which approach it near the mouth. Towards the +lower part, in a swamp where the salt-water must enter at high tides, +were a number of elegant tree-ferns from eight to fifteen feet high. +These are generally considered to be mountain plants, and rarely to +occur on the equator at an elevation of less than one or two thousand +feet. In Borneo, in the Aru Islands, and on the banks of the Amazon, I +have observed them at the level of the sea, and think it probable that +the altitude supposed to be requisite for them may have been deduced +from facts observed in countries where the plains and lowlands are +largely cultivated, and most of the indigenous vegetation destroyed. +Such is the case in most parts of Java, India, Jamaica, and Brazil, +where the vegetation of the tropics has been most fully explored. + +Coming out to sea we turned northwards, and in about two hours' +sail reached a few huts, called Langundi, where some Galela men had +established themselves as collectors of gum-dammar, with which they made +torches for the supply of the Ternate market. About a hundred yards back +rises a rather steep hill, and a short walk having shown me that there +was a tolerable path up it, I determined to stay here for a few days. +Opposite us, and all along this coast of Batchian, stretches a row of +fine islands completely uninhabited. Whenever I asked the reason why +no one goes to live in them, the answer always was, "For fear of the +Magindano pirates." Every year these scourges of the Archipelago wander +in one direction or another, making their rendezvous on some uninhabited +island, and carrying devastation to all the small settlements around; +robbing, destroying, killing, or taking captive all they nee with. Their +long well-manned praus escape from the pursuit of any sailing vessel by +pulling away right in the wind's eye, and the warning smoke of a steamer +generally enables them to hide in some shallow bay, or narrow river, or +forest-covered inlet, till the danger is passed. The only effectual way +to put a stop to their depredations would be to attack them in their +strongholds and villages, and compel them to give up piracy, and submit +to strict surveillance. Sir James Brooke did this with the pirates of +the north-west coast of Borneo, and deserves the thanks of the whole +population of the Archipelago for having rid them of half their enemies. + +All along the beach here, and in the adjacent strip of sandy lowland, is +a remarkable display of Pandanaceae or Screw-pines. Some are like huge +branching candelabra, forty or fifty feet high, and bearing at the +end of each branch a tuft of immense sword-shaped leaves, six or eight +inches wide, and as many feet long. Others have a single unbranched +stem, six or seven feet high, the upper part clothed with the spirally +arranged leaves, and bearing a single terminal fruit ac large as a +swan's egg. Others of intermediate size have irregular clusters of rough +red fruits, and all have more or less spiny-edged leaves and ringed +stems. The young plants of the larger species have smooth glossy thick +leaves, sometimes ten feet long and eight inches wide, which are used +all over the Moluccas and New Guinea, to make "cocoyas" or sleeping +mats, which are often very prettily ornamented with coloured patterns. +Higher up on the bill is a forest of immense trees, among which those +producing the resin called dammar (Dammara sp.) are abundant. The +inhabitants of several small villages in Batchian are entirely engaged +in searching for this product, and making it into torches by pounding +it and filling it into tubes of palm leaves about a yard long, which +are the only lights used by many of the natives. Sometimes the dammar +accumulates in large masses of ten or twenty pounds weight, either +attached to the trunk, or found buried in the ground at the foot of the +trees. The most extraordinary trees of the forest are, however, a kind +of fig, the aerial roots of which form a pyramid near a hundred feet +high, terminating just where the tree branches out above, so that there +is no real trunk. This pyramid or cone is formed of roots of every size, +mostly descending in straight lines, but more or less obliquely-and so +crossing each other, and connected by cross branches, which grow from +one to another; as to form a dense and complicated network, to which +nothing but a photograph could do justice (see illustration at Vol. I. +page 130). The Kanary is also abundant in this forest, the nut of which +has a very agreeable flavour, and produces an excellent oil. The fleshy +outer covering of the nut is the favourite food of the great green +pigeons of these islands (Carpophaga, perspicillata), and their +hoarse copings and heavy flutterings among the branches can be almost +continually heard. + +After ten days at Langundi, finding it impossible to get the bird I was +particularly in search of (the Nicobar pigeon, or a new species allied +to it), and finding no new birds, and very few insects, I left early on +the morning of April 1st, and in the evening entered a river on the +main island of Batchian (Langundi, like Kasserota, being on a distinct +island), where some Malays and Galela men have a small village, and have +made extensive rice-fields and plantain grounds. Here we found a good +house near the river bank, where the water was fresh and clear, and the +owner, a respectable Batchian Malay, offered me sleeping room and the +use of the verandah if I liked to stay. Seeing forest all round within +a short distance, I accepted his offer, and the next morning before +breakfast walked out to explore, and on the skirts of the forest +captured a few interesting insects. + +Afterwards, I found a path which led for a mile or more through a very +fine forest, richer in palms than any I had seen in the Moluccas. One of +these especially attracted my attention from its elegance. The stein was +not thicker than my wrist, yet it was very lofty, and bore clusters +of bright red fruit. It was apparently a species of Areca. Another of +immense height closely resembled in appearance the Euterpes of South +America. Here also grew the fan-leafed palm, whose small, nearly +entire leaves are used to make the dammar torches, and to form the +water-buckets in universal use. During this walk I saw near a dozen +species of palms, as well as two or three Pandani different from those +of Langundi. There were also some very fine climbing ferns and true wild +Plantains (Musa), bearing an edible fruit not so large as one's thumb, +and consisting of a mass of seeds just covered with pulp and skin. +The people assured me they had tried the experiment of sowing and +cultivating this species, but could not improve it. They probably did +not grow it in sufficient quantity, and did not persevere sufficiently +long. + +Batchian is an island that would perhaps repay the researches of a +botanist better than any other in the whole Archipelago. It contains +a great variety of surface and of soil, abundance of large and small +streams, many of which are navigable for some distance, and there being +no savage inhabitants, every part of it can be visited with perfect +safety. It possesses gold, copper, and coal, hot springs and geysers, +sedimentary and volcanic rocks and coralline limestone, alluvial plains, +abrupt hills and lofty mountains, a moist climate, and a grand and +luxuriant forest vegetation. + +The few days I stayed here produced me several new insects, but scarcely +any birds. Butterflies and birds are in fact remarkably scarce in these +forests. One may walk a whole day and not see more than two or three +species of either. In everything but beetles, these eastern islands are +very deficient compared with the western (Java, Borneo, &c.), and much +more so if compared with the forests of South America, where twenty or +thirty species of butterflies may be caught every day, and on very +good days a hundred, a number we can hardly reach here in months of +unremitting search. In birds there is the same difference. In most +parts of tropical America we may always find some species of +woodpecker tanager, bush shrike, chatterer, trogon, toucan, cuckoo, +and tyrant-flycatcher; and a few days' active search will produce more +variety than can be here met with in as many months. Yet, along with +this poverty of individuals and of species, there are in almost every +class and order, some one, or two species of such extreme beauty or +singularity, as to vie with, or even surpass, anything that even South +America can produce. + +One afternoon when I was arranging my insects, and surrounded by a crowd +of wondering spectators, I showed one of them how to look at a small +insect with a hand-lens, which caused such evident wonder that all the +rest wanted to see it too. I therefore fixed the glass firmly to a piece +of soft wood at the proper focus, and put under it a little spiny +beetle of the genus Hispa, and then passed it round for examination. The +excitement was immense. Some declared it was a yard long; others were +frightened, and instantly dropped it, and all were as much astonished, +and made as much shouting and gesticulation, as children at a pantomime, +or at a Christmas exhibition of the oxyhydrogen microscope. And all +this excitement was produced by a little pocket lens, an inch and a half +focus, and therefore magnifying only four or five times, but which to +their unaccustomed eyes appeared to enlarge a hundred fold. + +On the last day of my stay here, one of my hunters succeeded in finding +and shooting the beautiful Nicobar pigeon, of which I had been so long +in search. None of the residents had ever seen it, which shows that it +is rare and slay. My specimen was a female in beautiful condition, and +the glassy coppery and green of its plumage, the snow-white tail +and beautiful pendent feathers of the neck, were greatly admired. I +subsequently obtained a specimen in New Guinea; and once saw it in the +Kaioa islands. It is found also in some small islands near Macassar, in +others near Borneo; and in the Nicobar islands, whence it receives its +name. It is a ground feeder, only going upon trees to roost, and is a +very heavy fleshy bird. This may account far the fact of its being +found chiefly on very small islands, while in the western half of the +Archipelago, it seems entirely absent from the larger ones. Being a +ground feeder it is subject to the attacks of carnivorous quadrupeds, +which are not found in the very small islands. Its wide distribution +over the whole length of the Archipelago; from extreme west to east, is +however very extraordinary, since, with the exception of a few of +the birds of prey, not a single land bird has so wide a range. +Ground-feeding birds are generally deficient in power of extended +flight, and this species is so bulky and heavy that it appears at first +sight quite unable to fly a mile. A closer examination shows, however, +that its wings are remarkably large, perhaps in proportion to its size +larger than those of any other pigeon, and its pectoral muscles +are immense. A fact communicated to me by the son of my friend Mr. +Duivenboden of Ternate, would show that, in accordance with these +peculiarities of structure, it possesses the power of flying long +distances. Mr. D. established an oil factory on a small coral island, a +hundred miles north of New Guinea, with no intervening land. After the +island had been settled a year, and traversed in every direction, his +son paid it a visit; and just as the schooner was coming to an anchor, +a bird was seen flying from seaward which fell into the water exhausted +before it could reach the shore. A boat was sent to pick it up, and it +was found to be a Nicobar pigeon, which must have come from New Guinea, +and flown a hundred miles, since no such bird previously inhabited the +island. + +This is certainly a very curious case of adaptation to an unusual and +exceptional necessity. The bird does not ordinarily require great powers +of flight, since it lives in the forest, feeds on fallen fruits, and +roosts in low trees like other ground pigeons. The majority of the +individuals, therefore, can never make full use of their enormously +powerful wings, till the exceptional case occurs of an individual +being blown out to sea, or driven to emigrate by the incursion of some +carnivorous animal, or the pressure of scarcity of food. A modification +exactly opposite to that which produced the wingless birds (the Apteryx, +Cassowary, and Dodo), appears to have here taken place; and it is +curious that in both cases an insular habitat should have been the +moving cause. The explanation is probably the same as that applied +by Mr. Darwin to the case of the Madeira beetles, many of which are +wingless, while some of the winged ones have the wings better developed +than the same species on the continent. It was advantageous to these +insects either never to fly at all, and thus not run the risk of being +blown out to sea, or to fly so well as to be able either to return to +land, or to migrate safely to the continent. Pad flying was worse +than not flying at all. So, while in such islands as New Zealand and +Mauritius far from all land, it was safer for a ground-feeding bird not +to fly at all, and the short-winged individuals continually surviving, +prepared the way for a wingless group of birds; in a vast Archipelago +thickly strewn with islands and islets it was advantageous to be able +occasionally to migrate, and thus the long and strong-winged varieties +maintained their existence longest, and ultimately supplanted all +others, and spread the race over the whole Archipelago. + +Besides this pigeon, the only new bird I obtained during the trip was +a rare goat-sucker (Batrachostomus crinifrons), the only species of the +genus yet found in the Moluccas. Among my insects the best were the rare +Pieris arum, of a rich chrome yellow colour, with a black border and +remarkable white antenna--perhaps the very finest butterfly of the +genus; and a large black wasp-like insect, with immense jaws like a +stag-beetle, which has been named Megachile Pluto by Mr. B. Smith. I +collected about a hundred species of beetles quite new to me, but mostly +very minute, and also many rare and handsome ones which I had already +found in Batchian. On the whole I was tolerably satisfied with my +seventeen days' excursion, which was a very agreeable one, and enabled +me to sea a good deal of the island. I had hired a roomy boat, and +brought with me a small table and my rattan chair. These were great +comforts, as, wherever there was a roof, I could immediately instal +myself, and work and eat at ease. When I could not find accommodation on +shore I slept in the boat, which was always drawn up on the beach if we +stayed for a few days at one spot. + +On my return to Batchian I packed up my collections, and prepared for +my return to Ternate. When I first came I had sent back my boat by the +pilot, with two or three other men who had been glad of the opportunity. +I now took advantage of a Government boat which had just arrived with +rice for the troops, and obtained permission to return in her, and +accordingly started on the 13th of April, having resided only a week +short of six months on the island of Batchian. The boat was one of +the kind called "Kora-kora," quite open, very low, and about four tons +burthen. It had outriggers of bamboo about five feet off each side, +which supported a bamboo platform extending the whole length of the +vessel. On the extreme outside of this sit the twenty rowers, while +within was a convenient passage fore and aft. The middle portion of the +boat was covered with a thatch-house, in which baggage and passengers +are stowed; the gunwale was not more than a foot above water, and from +the great top and side weight, and general clumsiness, these boats are +dangerous in heavy weather, and are not unfrequently lost. A triangle +mast and mat sail carried us on when the wind was favourable,--which +(as usual) it never was, although, according to the monsoon, it ought to +have been. Our water, carried in bamboos, would only last two days, and +as the voyage occupied seven, we had to touch at a great many places. +The captain was not very energetic, and the men rowed as little as they +pleased, or we might have reached Ternate in three days, having had fine +weather and little wind all the way. + +There were several passengers besides myself: three or four Javanese +soldiers, two convicts whose time had expired (one, curiously enough, +being the man who had stolen my cash-box and keys), the schoolmaster's +wife and a servant going on a visit to Ternate, and a Chinese trader +going to buy goods. We had to sleep all together in the cabin, packed +pretty close; but they very civilly allowed me plenty of room for my +mattrass, and we got on very well together. There was a little cookhouse +in the bows, where we could boil our rice and make our coffee, every one +of course bringing his own provisions, and arranging his meal-times as +he found most convenient. The passage would have been agreeable enough +but for the dreadful "tom-toms," or wooden drums, which are beaten +incessantly while the men are rowing. Two men were engaged constantly at +them, making a fearful din the whole voyage. The rowers are men sent by +the Sultan of Ternate. They get about threepence a day, and find their +own provisions. Each man had a strong wooden "betel" box, on which he +generally sat, a sleeping-mat, and a change of clothes--rowing naked, +with only a sarong or a waistcloth. They sleep in their places, covered +with their mat, which keeps out the rain pretty well. They chew betel +or smoke cigarettes incessantly; eat dry sago and a little salt fish; +seldom sing while rowing, except when excited and wanting to reach a +stopping-place, and do not talk a great deal. They are mostly Malays, +with a sprinkling of Alfuros from Gilolo, and Papuans from Guebe or +Waigiou. + +One afternoon we stayed at Makian; many of the men went on shore, and +a great deal of plantains, bananas, and other fruits were brought on +board. We then went on a little way, and in the evening anchored again. +When going to bed for the night, I put out my candle, there being still +a glimmering lamp burning, and, missing my handkerchief, thought I saw +it on a box which formed one side of my bed, and put out my hand to take +it. I quickly drew back on feeling something cool and very smooth, which +moved as I touched it. "Bring the light, quick," I cried; "here's a +snake." And there he was, sure enough, nicely coiled up, with his head +just raised to inquire who had disturbed him. It was mow necessary +to catch or kill him neatly, or he would escape among the piles of +miscellaneous luggage, and we should hardly sleep comfortably. One of +the ex-convicts volunteered to catch him with his hand wrapped up in a +cloth, but from the way he went about it I saw he was nervous and would +let the thing go, so I would mot allow him to make the attempt. I them +got a chopping-knife, and carefully moving my insect nets, which hung +just over the snake and prevented me getting a free blow, I cut him +quietly across the back, holding him down while my boy with another +knife crushed his head. On examination, I found he had large poison +fangs, and it is a wonder he did not bite me when I first touched him. + +Thinking it very unlikely that two snakes had got on board at the same +time, I turned in and went to sleep; but having all the time a vague +dreamy idea that I might put my hand on another one, I lay wonderfully +still, not turning over once all night, quite the reverse of my usual +habits. The next day we reached Ternate, and I ensconced myself in my +comfortable house, to examine all my treasures, and pack them securely +for the voyage home. + + + +CHAPTER XXV. CERAM, GORAM, AND THE MATABELLO ISLANDS. + +(OCTOBER 1859 To JUNE 1860.) + +I LEFT Amboyna for my first visit to Ceram at three o'clock in the +morning of October 29th, after having been delayed several days by the +boat's crew, who could not be got together. Captain Van der Beck, who +gave me a passage in his boat, had been running after them all day, and +at midnight we had to search for two of my men who had disappeared at +the last moment. One we found at supper in his own house, and rather +tipsy with his parting libations of arrack, but the other was gone +across the bay, and we were obliged to leave without him. We stayed some +hours at two villages near the east end of Amboyna, at one of which we +had to discharge some wood for the missionaries' house, and on the +third afternoon reached Captain Van der Beck's plantation, situated at +Hatosua, in that part of Ceram opposite to the island of Amboyna. This +was a clearing in flat and rather swampy forest, about twenty acres +in extent, and mostly planted with cacao and tobacco. Besides a small +cottage occupied by the workmen, there was a large shed for tobacco +drying, a corner of which was offered me; and thinking from the look of +the place that I should find good collecting ground here, I fitted up +temporary tables, benches, and beds, and made all preparations for +some weeks' stay. A few days, however, served to show that I should be +disappointed. Beetles were tolerably abundant, and I obtained plenty of +fine long-horned Anthribidae and pretty Longicorns, but they were mostly +the same species as I had found during my first short visit to Amboyna. +There were very few paths in the forest; which seemed poor in birds and +butterflies, and day after day my men brought me nothing worth notice. +I was therefore soon obliged to think about changing my locality, as I +could evidently obtain no proper notion of the productions of the almost +entirely unexplored island of Ceram by staying in this place. + +I rather regretted leaving, because my host was one of the most +remarkable men and most entertaining companions I had ever met with. +He was a Fleeting by birth, and, like so many of his countrymen, had a +wonderful talent for languages. When quite a youth he had accompanied a +Government official who was sent to report on the trade and commerce +of the Mediterranean, and had acquired the colloquial language of every +place they stayed a few weeks at. He had afterwards made voyages to +St. Petersburg, and to other parts of Europe, including a few weeks in +London, and had then come out to the past, where he had been for some +years trading and speculating in the various islands. He now spoke +Dutch, French, Malay, and Javanese, all equally well; English with +a very slight accent, but with perfect fluency, axed a most complete +knowledge of idiom, in which I often tried to puzzle him in vain. German +and Italian were also quite familiar to him, and his acquaintance +with European languages included Modern Greek, Turkish, Russian, and +colloquial Hebrew and Latin. As a test of his power, I may mention that +he had made a voyage to the out-of-the-way island of Salibaboo, and had +stayed there trading a few weeks. As I was collecting vocabularies, +he told me he thought he could remember some words, and dictated +considerable number. Some time after I met with a short list of words +taken down in those islands, and in every case they agreed with those +he had given me. He used to sing a Hebrew drinking-song, which he had +learned from some Jews with whom he had once travelled, and astonished +by joining in their conversation, and had a never-ending fund of tale +and anecdote about the people he had met and the places he had visited. + +In most of the villages of this part of Ceram are schools and native +schoolmasters, and the inhabitants have been long converted to +Christianity. In the larger villages there are European missionaries; +but there is little or no external difference between the Christian and +Alfuro villages, nor, as far as I have seen, in their inhabitants. The +people seem more decidedly Papuan than those of Gilolo. They are darker +in colour, and a number of them have the frizzly Papuan hair; their +features also are harsh and prominent, and the women in particular are +far less engaging than those of the Malay race. Captain Van der Beck was +never tired of abusing the inhabitants of these Christian villages as +thieves, liars, and drunkards, besides being incorrigibly lazy. In the +city of Amboyna my friends Doctors Mohnike and Doleschall, as well +as most of the European residents and traders, made exactly the same +complaint, and would rather have Mahometans for servants, even if +convicts, than any of the native Christians. One great cause of this +is the fact, that with the Mahometans temperance is a part of their +religion, and has become so much a habit that practically the rule is +never transgressed. One fertile source of want, and one great incentive +to idleness and crime, is thus present with the one class, but absent +in the other; but besides this the Christians look upon themselves as +nearly the equals of the Europeans, who profess the same religion, and +as far superior to the followers of Islam, and are therefore prone to +despise work, and to endeavour to live by trade, or by cultivating their +own land. It need hardly be said that with people in this low state of +civilization religion is almost wholly ceremonial, and that neither +are the doctrines of Christianity comprehended, nor its moral precepts +obeyed. At the same time, as far as my own experience goes, I have found +the better class of "Orang Sirani" as civil, obliging, and industrious +as the Malays, and only inferior to them from their tendency to get +intoxicated. + +Having written to the Assistant Resident of Saparua (who has +jurisdiction over the opposite part of the coast of Ceram) for a boat +to pursue my journey, I received one rather larger than necessary with a +crew of twenty men. I therefore bade adieu to my kind friend Captain Van +der Beck, and left on the evening after its arrival for the village of +Elpiputi, which we reached in two days. I had intended to stay here, but +not liking the appearance of the place, which seemed to have no virgin +forest near it, I determined to proceed about twelve miles further +up the bay of Amahay, to a village recently formed, and inhabited by +indigenes from the interior, and where some extensive cacao plantations +were being made by some gentlemen of Amboyna. I reached the place +(called Awaiya) the same afternoon, and with the assistance of Mr. +Peters (the manager of the plantations) and the native chief, obtained +a small house, got all my things on shore, and paid and discharged +my twenty boatmen, two of whom had almost driven me to distraction by +beating tom-toms the whole voyage. + +I found the people here very nearly in a state of nature, and going +almost naked. The men wear their frizzly hair gathered into a flat +circular knot over the left temple, which has a very knowing look, and +in their ears cylinders of wood as thick as one's finger, and coloured +red at the ends. Armlets and anklets of woven grass or of silver, with +necklaces of beads or of small fruits, complete their attire. The women +wear similar ornaments, but have their hair loose. All are tall, with a +dark brown skin, and well marked Papuan physiognomy. There is an Amboyna +schoolmaster in the village, and a good number of children attend school +every morning. Such of the inhabitants as have become Christians may be +known by their wearing their hair loose, and adopting to some extent the +native Christian dress-trousers and a loose shirt. Very few speak Malay, +all these coast villages having been recently formed by inducing natives +to leave the inaccessible interior. In all the central part of Ceram +there new remains only one populous village in the mountains. Towards +the east and the extreme west are a few others, with which exceptions +all the inhabitants of Ceram are collected on the coast. In the northern +and eastern districts they are mostly Mahometans, while on the southwest +coast, nearest Amboyna, they are nominal Christians. In all this part of +the Archipelago the Dutch make very praiseworthy efforts to improve +the condition of the aborigines by establishing schoolmasters in every +village (who are mostly natives of Amboyna or Saparua, who have; been +instructed by the resident missionaries), and by employing native +vaccinators to prevent the ravages of smallpox. They also encourage the +settlement of Europeans, and the formation of new plantations of cacao +and coffee, one of the best means of raising the condition of the +natives, who thus obtain work at fair wages, and have the opportunity of +acquiring something of European tastes and habits. + +My collections here did not progress much better than at my former +station, except that butterflies were a little more plentiful, and some +very fine species were to be found in the morning on the sea-beach, +sitting so quietly on the wet sand that they could be caught with the +fingers. In this way I had many fine specimens of Papilios brought me +by the children. Beetles, however, were scarce, and birds still more +so, and I began to think that the handsome species which I had so often +heard were found in Ceram must be entirely confined to the eastern +extremity of the island. + +A few miles further worth, at the head of the Bay of Amahay, is situated +the village of Makariki, from whence there is a native path quite +across the island to the north coast. My friend Mr. Rosenberg, whose +acquaintance I had made at New Guinea, and who was now the Government +superintendent of all this part of Ceram, returned from Wahai, on the +north coast, after I had been three weeks at Awaiya, and showed me +some fine butterflies he had obtained on the mountain streams in the +interior. He indicated a spot about the centre of the island where he +thought I might advantageously stay a few days. I accordingly visited +Makariki with him the next day, and he instructed the chief of the +village to furnish me with men to carry my baggage, and accompany me +on my excursion. As the people of the village wanted to be at home on +Christmas-day, it was necessary to start as soon as possible; so we +agreed that the men should be ready in two days, and I returned to make +my arrangements. + +I put up the smallest quantity of baggage possible for a six days' +trip, and on the morning of December 18th we left Makariki, with six men +carrying my baggage and their own provisions, and a lad from Awaiya, +who was accustomed to catch butterflies for me. My two Amboyna hunters +I left behind to shoot and skin what birds they could while I was away. +Quitting the village, we first walked briskly for an hour through a +dense tangled undergrowth, dripping wet from a storm of the previous +night, and full of mud holes. After crossing several small streams we +reached one of the largest rivers in Ceram, called Ruatan, which it was +necessary to cross. It was both deep and rapid. The baggage was first +taken over, parcel by parcel, on the men's heads, the water reaching +nearly up to their armpits, and then two men returned to assist me. The +water was above my waist, and so strong that I should certainly have +been carried off my feet had I attempted to cross alone; and it was a +matter of astonishment to me how the men could give me any assistance, +since I found the greatest difficulty in getting my foot down again when +I had once moved it off the bottom. The greater strength and grasping +power of their feet, from going always barefoot, no doubt gave them a +surer footing in the rapid water. + +After well wringing out our wet clothes and putting them on, we again +proceeded along a similar narrow forest track as before, choked with +rotten leaves and dead trees, and in the more open parts overgrown with +tangled vegetation. Another hour brought us to a smaller stream flowing +in a wide gravelly bed, up which our road lay. Here w e stayed half an +hour to breakfast, and then went on, continually crossing the stream, or +walking on its stony and gravelly banks, till about noon, when it became +rocky and enclosed by low hills. A little further we entered a regular +mountain-gorge, and had to clamber over rocks, and every moment cross +and recross the water, or take short cuts through the forest. This +was fatiguing work; and about three in the afternoon, the sky being +overcast, and thunder in the mountains indicating an approaching storm, +we had to loon out for a camping place, and soon after reached one +of Mr. Rosenberg's old ones. The skeleton of his little sleeping-hut +remained, and my men cut leaves and made a hasty roof just as the +rain commenced. The baggage was covered over with leaves, and the men +sheltered themselves as they could till the storm was over, by which +time a flood came down the river, which effectually stopped our further +march, even had we wished to proceed. We then lighted fires; I made some +coffee, and my men roasted their fish and plantains, and as soon as it +was dark, we made ourselves comfortable for the night. + +Starting at six the next morning, we had three hours of the same kind +of walking, during which we crossed the river at least thirty or forty +times, the water being generally knee-deep. This brought us to a place +where the road left the stream, and here we stopped to breakfast. We +then had a long walk over the mountain, by a tolerable path, which +reached an elevation of about fifteen hundred feet above the sea. Here I +noticed one of the smallest and most elegant tree ferns I had ever seen, +the stem being scarcely thicker than my thumb, yet reaching a height +of fifteen or twenty feet. I also caught a new butterfly of the genus +Pieris, and a magnificent female specimen of Papilio gambrisius, of +which I had hitherto only found the males, which are smaller and very +different in colour. Descending the other side of the ridge, by a very +steep path, we reached another river at a spot which is about the centre +of the island, and which was to be our resting place for two or three +days. In a couple of hour my men had built a little sleeping-shed +for me, about eight feet by four, with a bench of split poles, they +themselves occupying two or three smaller ones, which had been put up by +former passengers. + +The river here was about twenty yards wide, running over a pebbly and +sometimes a rocky bed, and bordered by steep hills with occasionally +flat swampy spots between their base and the stream. The whole country +was one dense, Unbroken, and very damp and gloomy virgin forest. Just at +our resting-place there was a little bush-covered island in the middle +of the channel, so that the opening in the forest made by the river was +wider than usual, and allowed a few gleams of sunshine to penetrate. +Here there were several handsome butterflies flying about, the finest of +which, however, escaped me, and I never saw it again during my stay. In +the two days and a half which we remained here, I wandered almost all +day up and down the stream, searching after butterflies, of which I got, +in all, fifty or sixty specimens, with several species quite new to +me. There were many others which I saw only once, and did not capture, +causing me to regret that there was no village in these interior valleys +where I could stay a month. In the early part of each morning I went out +with my gun in search of birds, and two of my men were out almost all +day after deer; but we were all equally unsuccessful, getting absolutely +nothing the whole time we were in the forest. The only good bird seen +was the fine Amboyna lory, but these were always too high to shoot; +besides this, the great Moluccan hornbill, which I did not want, was +almost the only bird met with. I saw not a single ground-thrush, or +kingfisher, or pigeon; and, in fact, have never been in a forest so +utterly desert of animal life as this appeared to be. Even in all other +groups of insects, except butterflies, there was the same poverty. I +bad hoped to find some rare tiger beetles, as I had done in similar +situations in Celebes; but, though I searched closely in forest, +river-bed, and mountain-brook, I could find nothing but the two common +Amboyna species. Other beetles there were absolutely none. + +The constant walking in water, and over rocks and pebbles, quite +destroyed the two pair of shoes I brought with me, so that, on my +return, they actually fell to pieces, and the last day I had to walk +in my stockings very painfully, and reached home quite lame. On our way +back from Makariki, as on our way there, we had storm and rain at sea, +and we arrived at Awaiya late in the evening, with all our baggage +drenched, and ourselves thoroughly uncomfortable. All the time I had +been in Ceram I had suffered much from the irritating bites of an +invisible acarus, which is worse than mosquitoes, ants, and every other +pest, because it is impossible to guard against them. This last journey +in the forest left me covered from head to foot with inflamed lumps, +which, after my return to Amboyna, produced a serious disease, confining +me to the house for nearly two months, a not very pleasant memento of my +first visit to Ceram, which terminated with the year 1859. + +It was not till the 24th of February, 1860, that I started again, +intending to pass from village to village along the coast, staying where +I found a suitable locality. I had a letter from the Governor of the +Moluccas, requesting all the chiefs to supply me with boats and men to +carry me on my journey. The first boat took me in two days to Amahay, +on the opposite side of the bay to Awaiya. The chief here, wonderful to +relate, did not make any excuses for delay, but immediately ordered out +the boat which was to carry me on, put my baggage on hoard, set up mast +and sails after dark, and had the men ready that nigh; so that we were +actually on our way at five the next morning,--a display of energy +and activity I scarcely ever saw before in a native chief on such an +occasion. We touched at Cepa, and stayed for the night at Tamilan, the +first two Mahometan villages on the south coast of Ceram. The next day, +about noon, we reached Hoya, which was as Far as my present boat and +crew were going to take me. The anchorage is about a mile east of the +village, which is faced by coral reefs, and we had to wait for the +evening tide to move up and unload the boat into the strange rotten +wooden pavilion kept for visitors. + +There was no boat here large enough to take my baggage; and although +two would have done very well, the Rajah insisted upon sending four. The +reason of this I found was, that there were four small villages under +his rule, and by sending a boat from each he would avoid the difficult +task of choosing two and letting off the others. I was told that at the +next village of Teluti there were plenty of Alfuros, and that I could +get abundance of Tories and other birds. The Rajah declared that +black and yellow Tories and black cockatoos were found there; but I am +inclined to think he knew very well he was telling me lies, and that +it was only a scheme to satisfy me with his plan of taking me to that +village, instead of a day's journey further on, as I desired. Here, as +at most of the villages, I was asked for spirits, the people being mere +nominal Mahometans, who confine their religion almost entirely to a +disgust at pork, and a few other forbidden articles of food. The next +morning, after much trouble, we got our cargoes loaded, and had a +delightful row across the deep bay of Teluti, with a view of the grand +central mountain-range of Ceram. Our four boats were rowed by sixty +men, with flags flying and tom-toms beating, as well as very vigorous +shouting and singing to keep up their spirits. The sea way smooth, the +morning bright, and the whole scene very exhilarating. On landing, the +Orang-kaya and several of the chief men, in gorgeous silk jackets, +were waiting to receive us, and conducted me to a house prepared for my +reception, where I determined to stay a few days, and see if the country +round produced anything new. + +My first inquiries were about the lories, but I could get very little +satisfactory information. The only kinds known were the ring-necked lory +and the common red and green lorikeet, both common at Amboyna. Black +Tories and cockatoos were quite unknown. The Alfuros resided in the +mountains five or six days' journey away, and there were only one or +two live birds to be found in the village, and these were worthless. My +hunters could get nothing but a few common birds; and notwithstanding +fine mountains, luxuriant forests, and a locality a hundred miles +eastward, I could find no new insects, and extremely few even of the +common species of Amboyna and West Ceram. It was evidently no use +stopping at such a place, and I was determined to move on as soon as +possible. + +The village of Teluti is populous, but straggling and very dirty. Sago +trees here cover the mountain side, instead of growing as usual in low +swamps; but a closer examination shows that they grow in swampy patches, +which have formed among the loose rocks that cover the ground, and which +are kept constantly full of moisture by the rains, and by the abundance +of rills which trickle down among them. This sago forms almost the whole +subsistence of the inhabitants, who appear to cultivate nothing but +a few small patches of maize and sweet potatoes. Hence, as before +explained, the scarcity of insects. The Orang-kaya has fine clothes, +handsome lamps, and other expensive European goods, yet lives every day +on sago and fish as miserably as the rest. + +After three days in this barren place I left on the morning of March +6th, in two boats of the same size as those which had brought me to +Teluti. With some difficulty I had obtained permission to take these +boats on to Tobo, where I intended to stay a while, and therefore got on +pretty quickly, changing men at the village of Laiemu, and arriving in a +heavy rain at Ahtiago. As there was a good deal of surf here, and likely +to be more if the wind blew hard during the night, our boats were +pulled up on the beach; and after supping at the Orang-kaya's house, and +writing down a vocabulary of the language of the Alfuros, who live in +the mountains inland, I returned to sleep in the boat. Next morning we +proceeded, changing men at Warenama, and again at Hatometen, at both of +which places there was much surf and no harbour, so that the men had to +go on shore and come on board by swimming. Arriving in the evening of +March 7th at Batuassa, the first village belonging to the Rajah of Tobo, +and under the government of Banda, the surf was very heavy, owing to a +strong westward swell. We therefore rounded the rocky point on which the +village was situated, but found it very little better on the other side. +We were obliged, however, to go on shore here; and waiting till the +people on the beach had made preparations, by placing a row of logs from +the water's edge on which to pull up our boats, we rowed as quickly as +we could straight on to them, after watching till the heaviest surfs +had passed. The moment we touched ground our men all jumped out, and, +assisted by those on shore, attempted to haul up the boat high and dry, +but not having sufficient hands, the surf repeatedly broke into the +stern. The steepness of the beach, however, prevented any damage being +done, and the other boat having both crews to haul at it, was got up +without difficulty. + +The next morning, the water being low, the breakers were at some +distance from shore, and we had to watch for a smooth moment after +bringing the boats to the water's edge, and so got safely out to sea. At +the two next villages, Tobo and Ossong, we also took in fresh men, who +came swimming through the surf; and at the latter place the Rajah came +on board and accompanied me to Kissalaut, where he has a house which +he lent me during my stay. Here again was a heavy surf, and it was with +great difficulty we got the boats safely hauled up. At Amboyna I had +been promised at this season a calm sea and the wind off shore, but in +this case, as in every other, I had been unable to obtain any reliable +information as to the winds and seasons of places distant two or three +days' journey. It appears, however, that owing to the general direction +of the island of Ceram (E.S.E. and W.N.W.), there is a heavy surf and +scarcely any shelter on the south coast during the west monsoon, when +alone a journey to the eastward can be safely made; while during the +east monsoon, when I proposed to return along the north coast to Wahai, +I should probably find that equally exposed and dangerous. But although +the general direction of the west monsoon in the Banda sea causes a +heavy swell, with bad surf on the coast, yet we had little advantage of +the wind; for, owing I suppose to the numerous bays and headlands, we +had contrary south-east or even due east winds all the way, and had to +make almost the whole distance from Amboyna by force of rowing. We had +therefore all the disadvantages, and none of the advantages, of this +west monsoon, which I was told would insure me a quick and pleasant +journey. + +I was delayed at Kissa-laut just four weeks, although after the first +three days I saw that it would be quite useless for me to stay, and +begged the Rajah to give me a prau and men to carry me on to Goram. But +instead of getting one close at hand, he insisted on sending several +miles off; and when after many delays it at length arrived, it was +altogether unsuitable and too small to carry my baggage. Another was +then ordered to be brought immediately, and was promised in three days, +but doable that time elapsed and none appeared, and we were obliged at +length to get one at the adjoining village, where it might have been +so much more easily obtained at first. Then came caulking and covering +over, and quarrels between the owner and the Rajah's men, which +occupied more than another ten days, during all which time I was getting +absolutely nothing, finding this part of Ceram a perfect desert in +zoology, although a most beautiful country, and with a very luxuriant +vegetation. It was a complete puzzle, which to this day I have not been +able to understand; the only thing I obtained worth notice during my +month's stay here being a few good land shells. + +At length, on April 4th, we succeeded in getting away in our little +boat of about four tons burthen, in which my numerous boxes were with +difficulty packed so as to leave sleeping and cooling room. The craft +could not boast an ounce of iron or a foot of rope in any part of its +construction, nor a morsel of pitch or paint in its decoration. The +planks were fastened together in the usual ingenious way with pegs +and rattans. The mast was a bamboo triangle, requiring no shrouds, +and carrying a long mat sail; two rudders were hung on the quarters by +rattans, the anchor was of wood, and a long and thick rattan; served as +a cable. Our crew consisted of four men, whose pole accommodation was +about three feet by four in the bows and stern, with the sloping thatch +roof to stretch themselves upon for a change. We had nearly a hundred +miles to go, fully exposed to the swell of the Banda sea, which is +sometimes very considerable; but we luckily had it calm and smooth, so +that we made the voyage in comparative comfort. + +On the second day we passed the eastern extremity of Ceram, formed of +a group of hummocky limestone hills; and, sailing by the islands of +Kwammer and Keffing, both thickly inhabited, came in sight of the little +town of Kilwaru, which appears to rise out of the sea like a rustic +Venice. This place has really a most extraordinary appearance, as not a +particle of land or vegetation can be seen, but a long way out at sea a +large village seems to float upon the water. There is of course a small +island of several acres in extent; but the houses are built so closely +all round it upon piles in the water, that it is completely hidden. It +is a place of great traffic, being the emporium for much of the produce +of these Eastern seas, and is the residence of many Bugis and Ceramese +traders, and appears to have been chosen on account of its being close +to the only deep channel between the extensive shoals of Ceram-laut and +those bordering the east end of Ceram. We now had contrary east winds, +and were obliged to pole over the shallow coral reefs of Ceram-laut +for nearly thirty miles. The only danger of our voyage was just at its +termination, for as we were rowing towards Manowolko, the largest of +the Goram group, we were carried out so rapidly by a strong westerly +current, that I was almost certain at one time we should pass clear +of the island; in which case our situation would have been both +disagreeable and dangerous, as, with the east wind which had just set +in, we might have been unable to return for many days, and we had not +a day's water on board. At the critical moment I served out some strong +spirits to my men, which put fresh vigour into their arms, and carried +us out of the influence of the current before it was too late. + +MANOWOLKO, GORAM GROUP. + +On arriving at Manowolko, we found the Rajah was at the opposite island +of Goram; but he was immediately sent for, and in the meantime a large +shed was given for our accommodation. At night the Rajah came, and the +next day I had a visit from him, and found, as I expected, that I had +already made his acquaintance three years before at Aru. He was very +friendly, and we had a long talk; but when I begged for a boat and +men to take me on to Ke, he made a host of difficulties. There were no +praus, as all had gone to Ke or Aim; and even if one were found, there +were no men, as it was the season when all were away trading. But he +promised to see about it, and I was obliged to wait. For the next two or +three days there was more talking and more difficulties were raised, and +I had time to make an examination of the island and the people. + +Manowolko is about fifteen miles long, and is a mere; upraised +coral-reef. Two or three hundred yards inland rise cliffs of coral rock, +in many parts perpendicular, and one or two hundred feet high; and this, +I was informed, is characteristic of the whole island, in which there is +no other kind of rock, and no stream of water. A few cracks and chasms +furnish paths to the top of these cliffs, where there is an open +undulating country, in which the chief vegetable grounds of the +inhabitants are situated. + +The people here--at least the chief men--were of a much purer Malay race +than the Mahometans of the mainland of Ceram, which is perhaps due to +there having been no indigenes on these small islands when the +first settlers arrived. In Ceram, the Alfuros of Papuan race are the +predominant type, the Malay physiognomy being seldom well marked; +whereas here the reverse is the case, and a slight infusion of Papuan +on a mixture of Malay and Bugis has produced a very good-looking set of +people. The lower class of the population consist almost entirely of +the indigenes of the adjacent island. They are a fine race, with +strongly-marked Papuan features, frizzly hair, and brown complexions. +The Goram language is spoken also at the east end of Ceram, and in +the adjacent islands. It has a general resemblance to the languages of +Ceram, but possesses a peculiar element which I have not met with in +other languages of the Archipelago. + +After great delay, considering the importance of every day at this +time of year, a miserable boat and five men were found, and with +some difficulty I stowed away in it such baggage as it was absolutely +necessary for me to take, leaving scarcely sitting or sleeping room. +The sailing qualities of the boat were highly vaunted, and I was assured +that at this season a small one was much more likely to succeed in +making the journey. We first coasted along the island, reaching its +eastern extremity the following morning (April 11th), and found a +strong W. S.W. wind blowing, which just allowed us to lay across to the +Matabello Islands, a distance little short of twenty miles. I did not +much like the look of the heavy sky and rather rough sea, and my men +were very unwilling to make the attempt; but as we could scarcely hope +for a better chance, I insisted upon trying. The pitching and jerking of +our little boat, soon reduced me to a state of miserable helplessness, +and I lay down, resigned to whatever might happen. After three or four +hours, I was told we were nearly over; but when I got up, two hours +later, just as the sun was setting, I found we were still a good +distance from the point, owing to a strong current which had been for +some time against us. Night closed in, and the wind drew more ahead, +so we had to take in sail. Then came a calm, and we rowed and sailed +as occasion offered; and it was four in the morning when we reached the +village of Kisslwoi, not having made more than three miles in the last +twelve hours. + +MATABELLO ISLANDS. + +At daylight I found we were; in a beautiful little harbour, formed by a +coral reef about two hundred yards from shore, and perfectly secure in +every wind. Having eaten nothing since the previous morning, we cooked +our breakfast comfortably on shore, and left about noon, coasting along +the two islands of this group, which lie in the same line, and are +separated by a narrow channel. Both seem entirely formed of raised +coral rock; but them has been a subsequent subsidence, as shaven by the +barrier reef which extends all along them at varying distances from the +shore, This reef is sometimes only marked by a. line of breakers when +there is a little swell on the sea; in other places there is a ridge +of dead coral above the water, which is here and there high enough to +support a few low bushes. This was the first example I had met with of a +true barrier reef due to subsidence, as has been so clearly shown by Mr. +Darwin. In a sheltered archipelago they will seldom be distinguishable, +from the absence of those huge rolling waves and breakers which in +the wide ocean throw up a barrier of broken coral far above the usual +high-water mark, while here they rarely rise to the surface. + +On reaching the end of the southern island, called Uta, we were kept +waiting two days for a wind that would enable us to pass over to the +next island, Teor, and I began to despair of ever reaching Ke, and +determined on returning. We left with a south wind, which suddenly +changed to north-east, and induced me to turn again southward in the +hopes that this was the commencement of a few days' favourable weather. +We sailed on very well in the direction of Teor for about an hour, +after which the wind shifted to WSW., and we were driven much out of our +course, and at nightfall found ourselves in the open sea, and full +ten miles to leeward of our destination. My men were now all very much +frightened, for if we went on we might be a. week at sea in our little +open boat, laden almost to the water's edge; or we might drift on to +the coast of New Guinea, in which case we should most likely all be +murdered. I could not deny these probabilities, and although I showed +them that we could not get back to our starting-point with the wind +as it was, they insisted upon returning. We accordingly put about, and +found that we could lay no nearer to Uta than to Teor; however, by great +good luck, about ten o'clock we hit upon a little coral island, and lay +under its lee till morning, when a favourable change of wind brought us +back to Uta, and by evening (April 18th) we reached our first anchorage +in Matabello, where I resolved to stay a few days, and then return to +Goram. It way with much regret that I gave up my trip to Ke and the +intervening islands, which I had looked forward to as likely to make up +for my disappointment in Ceram, since my short visit on my voyage to Aru +had produced me so many rare and beautiful insects. + +The natives of Matabello are almost entirely occupied in making cocoanut +oil, which they sell to the Bugis and Goram traders, who carry it to +Banda and Amboyna. The rugged coral rock seems very favourable to the +growth of the cocoa-nut palm, which abounds over the whole island to the +very highest points, and produces fruit all the year round. Along with +it are great numbers of the areca or betel-nut palm, the nuts of which +are sliced, dried, and ground into a paste, which is much used by the +betel-chewing Malays and Papuans. All the little children here even +such as can just run alone, carried between their lips a mass of the +nasty-looking red paste, which is even more disgusting than to see them +at the same age smoking cigars, which is very common even before they +are weaned. Cocoa-nuts, sweet potatoes, an occasional sago cake, and the +refuse nut after the oil has been extracted by boiling, form the chief +sustenance of these people; and the effect of this poor and unwholesome +diet is seen in the frequency of eruptions and scurfy skin diseases, and +the numerous sores that disfigure the faces of the children. + +The villages are situated on high and rugged coral peaks, only +accessible by steep narrow paths, with ladders and bridges over yawning +chasms. They are filthy with rotten husks and oil refuse, and the huts +are dark, greasy, and dirty in the extreme. The people are wretched +ugly dirty savages, clothed in unchanged rags, and living in the most +miserable manner, and as every drop of fresh water has to be brought +up from the beach, washing is never thought of; yet they are actually +wealthy, and have the means of purchasing all the necessaries and +luxuries of life. Fowls are abundant, and eggs were given me whenever +I visited the villages, but these are never eaten, being looked upon +as pets or as merchandise. Almost all of the women wear massive gold +earrings, and in every village there are dozens of small bronze cannon +lying about on the ground, although they have cost on the average +perhaps L10 a piece. The chief men of each village came to visit me, +clothed in robes of silk and flowered satin, though their houses and +their daily fare are no better than those of the ether inhabitants. What +a contrast between these people and such savages as the best tribes of +bill. Dyaks in Borneo, or the Indians of the Uaupes in South America, +living on the banks of clear streams, clean in their persons and their +houses, with abundance of wholesome food, and exhibiting its effect in +healthy shins and beauty of form and feature! There is in fact almost +as much difference: between the various races of savage as of civilized +peoples, and we may safely affirm that the better specimens of the +former are much superior to the lower examples of the latter class. + +One of the few luxuries of Matabello is the palm wine; which is the +fermented sap from the flower stains of the cocoa-net. It is really a +very mice drink, more like cyder than beer, though quite as intoxicating +as the latter. Young cocoa-nuts are also very abundant, so that anywhere +in the island it is only necessary to go a few yards to find a delicious +beverage by climbing up a tree for it. It is the water of the young +fruit that is drunk, before the pulp has hardened; it is then more +abundant, clear, and refreshing, and the thin coating of gelatinous pulp +is thought a treat luxury. The water of full-brown cocoa-nuts is always +thrown away as undrinkable, although it is delicious in comparison with +that of the old dry nuts which alone we obtain in this country. The +cocoa-nut pulp I did not like at first; but fruits are so scarce, except +at particular seasons, that one soon learns to appreciate anything of a +fruity nature. + +Many persons in Europe are under the impression that fruits of delicious +flavour abound in the tropical forests, and they will no doubt be +surprised to learn that the truly wild fruits of this brand and +luxuriant archipelago, the vegetation of which will vie with that of any +part of the world, are in almost every island inferior in abundance and +duality to those of Britain. Wild strawberries and raspberries are found +in some places, but they are such poor tasteless things as to be hardly +worth eating, and there is nothing to compare with our blackberries and +whortleberries. The kanary-nut may be considered equal to a hazel-nut, +but I have met with nothing else superior to our crabs, oar haws, +beech-nuts, wild plums, and acorns; fruits which would be highly +esteemed by the natives of these islands, and would form an important +part of their sustenance. All the fine tropical fruits are as much +cultivated productions as our apples, peaches, and plums, and their wild +prototypes, when found, are generally either tasteless or uneatable. + +The people of Matabello, like those of most of the Mahometan villages of +East Ceram and Goram, amused me much by their strange ideas concerning +the Russian war. They believe that the Russians were not only most +thoroughly beaten by the Turks, but were absolutely conquered, and all +converted to Islamism! And they can hardly be convinced that such is +not the case, and that had it not been for the assistance of France and +England, the poor Sultan world have fared ill. Another of their motions +is, that the Turks are the largest and strongest people in the world--in +fact a race of giants; that they eat enormous quantities of meat, and +are a most ferocious and irresistible nation. Whence such strangely +incorrect opinions could have arisen it is difficult to understand, +unless they are derived from Arab priests, or hadjis returned from +Mecca, who may have heard of the ancient prowess of the Turkish armies +when they made all Europe tremble, and suppose that their character and +warlike capacity must be the same at the present time. + +GORAM + +A steady south-east wind having set in, we returned to Manowolko on +the 25th of April, and the day after crossed over to Ondor, the chief +village of Goram. + +Around this island extends, with few interruptions, an encircling coral +reef about a quarter of a mile from the shore, visible as a stripe of +pale green water, but only at very lowest ebb-tides showing any rock +above the surface. There are several deep entrances through this reef, +and inside it there is hood anchorage in all weathers. The land rises +gradually to a moderate height, and numerous small streams descend on +all sides. The mere existence of these streams would prove that the +island was not entirely coralline, as in that case all the water would +sink through the porous rock as it does at Manowolko and Matabello; but +we have more positive proof in the pebbles and stones of their beds, +which exhibit a variety of stratified crystalline rocks. About a hundred +yards from the beach rises a wall of coral rock, ten or twenty feet +high, above which is an undulating surface of rugged coral, which slopes +downward towards the interior, and then after a slight ascent is bounded +by a second wall of coral. Similar walls occur higher up, and coral is +found on the highest part of the island. + +This peculiar structure teaches us that before the coral was formed land +existed in this spot; that this land sunk gradually beneath the waters, +but with intervals of rest, during which encircling reef's were formed +around it at different elevations; that it then rose to above its +present elevation, and is now again sinking. We infer this, because +encircling reefs are a proof of subsidence; and if the island were again +elevated about a hundred feet, what is now the reef and the shallow sea +within it would form a wall of coral rock, and an undulating coralline +plain, exactly similar to those that still exist at various altitudes up +to the summit of the island. We learn also that these changes have taken +place at a comparatively recent epoch, for the surface of the coral +has scarcely suffered from the action of the weather, and hundreds of +sea-shells, exactly resembling those still found upon the beach, and +many of them retaining their gloss and even their colour, are scattered +over the surface of the island to near its summit. + +Whether the Goram group formed originally part of New Guinea or of Ceram +it is scarcely possible to determine, and its productions will throw +little light upon the question, if, as I suppose, the islands have been +entirely submerged within the epoch of existing species of animals, +as in that case it must owe its present fauna and flora to recent +immigration from surrounding lands; and with this view its poverty in +species very well agrees. It possesses much in common with East Ceram, +but at the same time has a good deal of resemblance to the Ke Islands +and Banda. The fine pigeon, Carpophaga concinna, inhabits Ke, Banda, +Il-Iatabello, and Goram, and is replaced by a distinct species, C. +neglecta, in Ceram. The insects of these four islands have also a common +facies--facts which seem to indicate that some more extensive land has +recently disappeared from the area they now occupy, and has supplied +them with a few of its peculiar productions. + +The Goram people (among whom I stayed a month) are a race of traders. +Every year they visit the Tenimber, Ke, and Aru Islands, the whole +north-west coast of New Guinea from Oetanata to Salwatty, and the island +of Waigiou and Mysol. They also extend their voyages to Tidore and +Ternate, as well as to Banda and Amboyna, Their praus are all made by +that wonderful race of boatbuilders, the Ke islanders, who annually +turn out some hundreds of boats, large and small, which can hardly be +surpassed for beauty of form and goodness of workmanship, They trade +chiefly in tripang, the medicinal mussoi bark, wild nutmegs, and +tortoiseshell, which they sell to the Bugis traders at Ceram-laut or +Aru, few of them caring to take their products to any other market. In +other respects they are a lazy race, living very poorly, and much given +to opium smoking. The only native manufactures are sail-matting, coarse +cotton cloth, and pandanus-leaf boxes, prettily stained and ornamented +with shell-work. + +In the island of Goram, only eight or ten miles long, there are about a +dozen Rajahs, scarcely better off than the rest of the inhabitants, and +exercising a mere nominal sway, except when any order is received from +the Dutch Government, when, being backed by a higher power, they show +a little more strict authority. My friend the Rajah of Ammer (commonly +called Rajah of Goram) told me that a few years ago, before the Dutch +had interfered in the affairs of the island, the trade was not carried +on so peaceably as at present, rival praus often fighting when on the +way to the same locality, or trafficking in the same village. Now such a +thing is never thought of-one of the good effects of the superintendence +of a civilized government. Disputes between villages are still, however, +sometimes settled by fighting, and I one day saw about fifty men, +carrying long guns and heavy cartridge-belts, march through the village. +They had come from the other side of the island on some question +of trespass or boundary, and were prepared for war if peaceable +negotiations should fail. + +While at Manowolko I had purchased for 100 florins (L9.) a small prau, +which was brought over the next day, as I was informed it was more +easy to have the necessary alterations made in Goram, where several Ke +workmen were settled. + +As soon as we began getting my prau ready I was obliged to give up +collecting, as I found that unless I was constantly on the spot myself +very little work would be clone. As I proposed making some long voyages +in this boat, I determined to fit it up conveniently, and was obliged to +do all the inside work myself, assisted by my two Amboynese boys. I +had plenty of visitors, surprised to see a white man at work, and much +astonished at the novel arrangements I was making in one of their native +vessels. Luckily I had a few tools of my own, including a small saw and +some chisels, and these were now severely tried, cutting and fitting +heavy iron-wood planks for the flooring and the posts that support the +triangular mast. Being of the best London make, they stood the work +well, and without them it would have been impossible for me to have +finished my boat with half the neatness, or in double the time. I had +a Ke workman to put in new ribs, for which I bought nails of a Bugis +trader, at 8d. a pound. My gimlets were, however, too small; and having +no augers we were obliged to bore all the holes with hot irons, a most +tedious and unsatisfactory operation. + +Five men had engaged to work at the prau till finished, and then go with +me to Mysol, Waigiou, and Ternate. Their ideas of work were, however, +very different from mine, and I had immense difficulty with them; seldom +more than two or three coming together, and a hundred excuses being +given for working only half a day when they did come. Yet they were +constantly begging advances of money, saying they had nothing to eat. +When I gave it them they were sure to stay away the next day, and when I +refused any further advances some of them declined working any more. As +the boat approached completion my difficulties with the men increased. +The uncle of one had commenced a war, or sort of faction fight, and +wanted his assistance; another's wife was ill, and would not let him +come; a third had fever and ague, and pains in his head and back; and +a fourth had an inexorable creditor who would not let him go out of his +sight. They had all received a month's wages in advance; and though the +amount was not large, it was necessary to make them pay it back, or I +should get any men at all. I therefore sent the village constable +after two, and kept them in custody a day, when they returned about +three-fourths of what they owed me. The sick man also paid, and the +steersman found a substitute who was willing to take his debt, and +receive only the balance of his wages. + +About this time we had a striking proof of the dangers of New Guinea +trading. Six men arrived at the village in a small boat almost starved, +having escaped out of two praus, the remainder of whose crews (fourteen +in number) had been murdered by the natives of New Guinea. The praus had +left this village a few months before, and among the murdered men were +the Rajah's son, and the relation or slaves of many of the inhabitants. +The cry of lamentation that arose when the news arrived was most +distressing. A score of women, who had lost husbands, brothers, sons, +or more distant relatives, set up at once the most dismal shrieks and +groans and wailings, which continued at intervals till late at night; +and as the chief houses in the village were crowded together round that +which I occupied, our situation was anything but agreeable. + +It seems that the village where the attack took place (nearly opposite +the small island of Lakahia) is known to be dangerous, and the vessels +had only gone there a few days before to buy some tripang. The crew were +living on shore, the praus being in a small river close by, and they +were attacked and murdered in the day-time while bargaining with the +Papuans. The six men who survived were on board the praus, and escaped +by at once setting into the small boat and rowing out to sea. + +This south-west part of New Guinea, known to the native traders as +"Papua Kowiyee" and "Papua Onen," is inhabited by the most treacherous +and bloodthirsty tribes. It is in these districts that the commanders +and portions of the crews of many of the early discovery ships were +murdered, and scarcely a year now passes but some lives are lost. The +Goram and Ceram traders are themselves generally inoffensive; they are +well acquainted with the character of these natives, and are not likely +to provoke an attack by any insults or open attempt at robbery or +imposition. They are accustomed to visit the same places every year, and +the natives can have no fear of them, as may be alleged in excuse for +their attacks on Europeans. In other extensive districts inhabited by +the same Papuan races, such as Mysol, Salwatty, Waigiou, and some +parts of the adjacent coast, the people have taken the first step in +civilization, owing probably to the settlement of traders of mixed breed +among them, and for many years no such attacks have taken place. On the +south-west coast, and in the large island of Jobie, however, the natives +are in a very barbarous condition, and tale every opportunity of robbery +and murder,--a habit which is confirmed by the impunity they experience, +owing to the vast extent of wild mountain and forest country forbidding +all pursuit or attempt at punishment. In the very same village, four +years before, more than fifty Goram men were murdered; and as +these savages obtain an immense booty in the praus and all their +appurtenances, it is to be feared that such attacks will continue to be +made at intervals as long as traders visit the same spots and attempt no +retaliation. Punishment could only be inflicted on these people by +very arbitrary measures, such as by obtaining possession of some of the +chiefs by stratagem, and rendering them responsible for the capture of +the murderers at the peril of their own heads. But anything of this kind +would be done contrary to the system adopted by the Dutch Government in +its dealings with natives. + +GORAM TO WAHAI IN CERAM. + +When my boat was at length launched and loaded, I got my men together, +and actually set sail the next day (May 27th), much to the astonishment +of the Goram people, to whom such punctuality was a novelty. I had a +crew of three men and a boy, besides my two Amboyna lads; which was +sufficient for sailing, though rather too few if obliged to row much. +The next day was very wet, with squalls, calms, and contrary winds, and +with some difficulty we reached Kilwaru, the metropolis of the Bugis +traders in the far East. As I wanted to make some purchases, I stayed +here two days, and sent two of my boxes of specimens by a Macassar prau +to be forwarded to Ternate, thus relieving myself of a considerable +incumbrance. I bought knives, basins, and handkerchiefs for barter, +which with the choppers, cloth, and beads I had brought with me, made +a pretty good assortment. I also bought two tower muskets to satisfy my +crew, who insisted on the necessity of being armed against attacks +of pirates; and with spices and a few articles of food for the voyage +nearly my last doit was expended. + +The little island of Kilwaru is a mere sandbank, just large enough to +contain a small village, and situated between the islands of Ceram-laut, +and Kissa--straits about a third of a mile wide separating it from each +of them. It is surrounded by coral reefs, and offers good anchorage in +both monsoons. Though not more than fifty yards across, and not elevated +more than three or four feet above the highest tides, it has wells of +excellent drinking water--a singular phenomenon, which would seem +to imply deep-seated subterranean channels connecting it with other +islands. These advantages, with its situation in the centre of the +Papuan trading district, lead to its being so much frequented by the +Bugis traders. Here the Goram men bring the produce of their little +voyages, which they exchange for cloth, sago cakes, and opium; and +the inhabitants of all the surrounding islands visit it with the game +object. It is the rendezvous of the praus trading to various parts of +New Guinea, which here assort and dry their cargoes, and refit for the +voyage home. Tripang and mussoi bark are the most bulky articles of +produce brought here, with wild nutmegs, tortoiseshell, pearls, and +birds of Paradise; in smaller quantities. The villagers of the mainland +of Ceram bring their sago, which is thus distributed to the islands +farther east, while rice from Bali and Macassar can also be purchased at +a moderate price. The Goram men come here for their supplies of opium, +both for their own consumption and for barter in Mysol and Waigiou, +where they have introduced it, and where the chiefs and wealthy men are +passionately fond of it. Schooners from Bali come to buy Papuan slaves, +while the sea-wandering Bugis arrive from distant Singapore in their +lumbering praus, bringing thence the produce of the Chinamen's +workshops and Kling's bazaar, as well as of the looms of Lancashire and +Massachusetts. + +One of the Bugis traders who had arrived a few days before from Mysol, +brought me news of my assistant Charles Allen, with whom he was well +acquainted, and who, he assured me; was making large collections of +birds and insects, although he had not obtained any birds of Paradise; +Silinta, where he was staying, not being a good place for them. This +was on the whole satisfactory, and I was anxious to reach him as soon as +possible. + +Leaving Kilwaru early in the morning of June 1st, with a strong east +wind we doubled the point of Ceram about noon, the heavy sea causing my +prau to roll abort a good deal, to the damage of our crockery. As bad +weather seemed coming on, we got inside the reefs and anchored opposite +the village of Warns-warns to wait for a change. + +The night was very squally, and though in a good harbour we rolled and +jerked uneasily; but in the morning I had greater cause for uneasiness +in the discovery that our entire Goram crew had decamped, taking with +them all they possessed and a little more, and leaving us without any +small boat in which to land. I immediately told my Amboyna men to load +and fire the muskets as a signal of distress, which was soon answered +by the village chief sending off a boat, which took me on shore. I +requested that messengers should be immediately sent to the neighbouring +villages in quest of the fugitives, which was promptly done. My prau was +brought into a small creek, where it could securely rest in the mud at +low water, and part of a house was given me in which T could stay for +a while. I now found my progress again suddenly checked, just when I +thought I had overcome my chief difficulties. As I had treated my men +with the greatest kindness, and had given them almost everything they +had asked for, I can impute their running away only to their being +totally unaccustomed to the restraint of a European master, and to some +undefined dread of my ultimate intentions regarding them. The oldest man +was an opium smoker, and a reputed thief, but I had been obliged to take +him at the last moment as a substitute for another. I feel sure it was +he who induced the others to run away, and as they knew the country +well, and had several hours' start of us, there was little chance of +catching them. + +We were here in the great sago district of East Ceram which supplies +most of the surrounding islands with their daily bread, and during our +week's delay I had an opportunity of seeing the whole process of making +it, and obtaining some interesting statistics. The sago tree is a palm, +thicker and larger than the cocoa-nut tree, although rarely so tall, and +having immense pinnate spiny leaves, which completely cover the trunk +till it is many years old. It has a creeping root-stem like the Nipa +palm, and when about ten or fifteen years of age sends up an immense +terminal spike of flowers, after which the tree dies. It grows in +swamps, or in swampy hollows on the rocky slopes of hills, where it +seems to thrive equally well as when exposed to the influx of salt or +brackish water. The midribs of the immense leaves form one of the most +useful articles in these lands, supplying the place of bamboo, to which +for many purposes they are superior. They are twelve or fifteen feet +long, and, when very fine, as thick in the lower part as a man's leg. +They are very light, consisting entirely of a firm pith covered with +a hard thin rind or bark. Entire houses are built of these; they form +admirable roofing-poles for thatch; split and well-supported, they do +for flooring; and when chosen of equal size, and pegged together side +by side to fill up the panels of framed wooden horses, they have a very +neat appearance, and make better walls and partitions than boards, as +they do not shrink, require no paint or varnish, and are not a quarter +the expense. When carefully split and shaved smooth they are formed into +light boards with pegs of the bark itself, and are the foundation of the +leaf-covered boxes of Goram. All the insect-boxes I used in the Moluccas +were thus made at Amboyna, and when covered with stout paper inside and +out, are strong, light, and secure the insect-pins remarkably well. The +leaflet of the sago folded and tied side by side on the smaller midribs +form the "atap" or thatch in universal use, while the product of the +trunk is the staple food of some= hundred thousands of men. + +When sago is to be made, a full-grown tree is selected just before it +is going to flower. It is cut down close to the ground, the leaves and +leafstalks cleared away, and a broad strip of the bark taken off the +upper side of the trunk. This exposes the pithy matter, which is of +a rusty colour near the bottom of the tree, but higher up pure white, +about as hard as a dry apple, but with woody fibre running through it +about a quarter of an inch apart. This pith is cut or broken down into a +coarse powder by means of a tool constructed for the purpose--a club of +hard and heavy wood, having a piece of sharp quartz rock firmly imbedded +into its blunt end, and projecting about half an inch. By successive +blows of this, narrow strips of the pith are cut away, and fall down +into the cylinder formed by the bark. Proceeding steadily on, the whole +trunk is cleared out, leaving a skin not more than half an inch in +thickness. This material is carried away (in baskets made of +the sheathing bases of the leaves) to the nearest water, where a +washing-machine is put up, which is composed almost entirely of the saga +tree itself. The large sheathing bases of the leaves form the troughs, +and the fibrous covering from the leaf-stalks of the young cocoa-nut +the strainer. Water is poured on the mass of pith, which is kneaded and +pressed against the strainer till the starch is all dissolved and has +passed through, when the fibrous refuse is thrown away, and a fresh +basketful put in its place. The water charged with sago starch passes +on to a trough, with a depression in the centre, where the sediment is +deposited, the surplus water trickling off by a shallow outlet. When the +trough is nearly full, the mass of starch, which has a slight reddish +tinge, is made into cylinders of about thirty pounds' weight, and neatly +covered with sago leaves, and in this state is sold as raw sago. + +Boiled with water this forms a thick glutinous mass, with a rather +astringent taste, and is eaten with salt, limes, and chilies. Sago-bread +is made in large quantities, by baking it into cakes in a small +clay oven containing six or eight slits side by side, each about +three-quarters of an inch wide, and six or eight inches square. The raw +sago is broken up, dried in the sun, powdered, and finely sifted. The +oven is heated over a clear fire of embers, and is lightly filled with +the sago-powder. The openings are then covered with a flat piece of sago +bark, and in about five minutes the cakes are turned out sufficiently +baked. The hot cakes are very nice with butter, and when made with the +addition of a little sugar and grated cocoa-nut are quite a delicacy. +They are soft, and something like corn-flour cakes, but leave a slight +characteristic flavour which is lost in the refined sago we use in this +country. When not wanted for immediate use, they are dried for several +days in the sun, and tied up in bundles of twenty. They will then keep +for years; they are very hard, and very rough and dry, but the people +are used to them from infancy, and little children may be seen gnawing +at them as contentedly as ours with their bread-and-butter. If dipped in +water and then toasted, they become almost as good as when fresh baked; +and thus treated they were my daily substitute for bread with my coffee. +Soaked and boiled they make a very good pudding or vegetable, and served +well to economize our rice, which is sometimes difficult to get so far +east. + +It is truly an extraordinary sight to witness a whole tree-trunk, +perhaps twenty feet long and four or five in circumference, converted +into food with so little labour and preparation. A good-sized tree will +produce thirty tomans or bundles of thirty pounds each, and each toman +will make sixty cakes of three to the pound. Two of these cakes are as +much as a man can eat at one meal, and five are considered a full day's +allowance; so that, reckoning a tree to produce 1,800 cakes, weighing +600 pounds, it will supply a man with food for a whole year. The labour +to produce this is very moderate. Two men will finish a tree in five +days, and two women will bake the whole into cakes in five days more; +but the raw sago will keep very well, and can be baked as wanted, so +that we may estimate that in ten days a man may produce food for the +whole year. This is on the supposition that he possesses sago trees of +his own, for they are now all private property. If he does not, he has +to pay about seven and sixpence for one; and as labour here is five +pence a day, the total cost of a year's food for one man is about +twelve shillings. The effect of this cheapness of food is decidedly +prejudicial, for the inhabitants of the sago countries are never so +well off as those where rice is cultivated. Many of the people here have +neither vegetables nor fruit, but live almost entirely on sago and a +little fish. Having few occupations at home, they wander about on petty +trading or fishing expeditions to the neighbouring islands; and as far +as the comforts of life are concerned, are much inferior to the wild +hill-Dyaks of Borneo, or to many of the more barbarous tribes of the +Archipelago. + +The country round Warus-warus is low and swampy, and owing to the +absence of cultivation there were scarcely any paths leading into the +forest. I was therefore unable to collect much during my enforced stay, +and found no rare birds or insects to improve my opinion of Ceram as +a collecting ground. Finding it quite impossible to get men here to +accompany me on the whole voyage, I was obliged to be content with a +crew to take me as far as Wahai, on the middle of the north coast of +Ceram, and the chief Dutch station in the island. The journey took +us five days, owing to calms and light winds, and no incident of any +interest occurred on it, nor did I obtain at our stopping places a +single addition to my collections worth naming. At Wahai, which I +reached on the 15th of June, I was hospitably received by the Commandant +and my old friend Herr Rosenberg, who was now on an official visit here. +He lent me some money to pay my men, and I was lucky enough to obtain +three others willing to make the voyage with me to Ternate, and one more +who was to return from Mysol. One of my Amboyna lads, however, left me, +so that I was still rather short of hands. + +I found here a letter from Charles Allen, who was at Silinta in Mysol, +anxiously expecting me, as he was out of rice and other necessaries, and +was short of insect-pins. He was also ill, and if I did not soon come +would return to Wahai. + +As my voyage from this place to Waigiou was among islands inhabited by +the Papuan race, and was an eventful and disastrous one, I will narrate +its chief incidents in a separate chapter in that division of my work +devoted to the Papuan Islands. I now have to pass over a year spent in +Waigiou and Timor, in order to describe my visit to the island of Bouru, +which concluded my explorations of the Moluccas. + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. BOURU. + +MAY AND JUNE 1861. + +I HAD long wished to visit the large island of Bouru, which lies due +west of Ceram, and of which scarcely anything appeared to be known +to naturalists, except that it contained a babirusa very like that of +Celebes. I therefore made arrangements for staying there two months +after leaving Timor Delli in 1861. This I could conveniently do by means +of the Dutch mail-steamers, which make a monthly round of the Moluccas. + +We arrived at the harbour of Cajeli on the 4th of May; a gun was fired, +the Commandant of the fort came alongside in a native boat to receive +the post-packet, and took me and my baggage on shore, the steamer going +off again without coming to an anchor. We went to the horse of the +Opzeiner, or overseer, a native of Amboyna--Bouru being too poor a place +to deserve even an Assistant Resident; yet the appearance of the village +was very far superior to that of Delli, which possesses "His Excellency +the Governor," and the little fort, in perfect order, surrounded by neat +brass-plots and straight walks, although manned by only a dozen Javanese +soldiers with an Adjutant for commander, was a very Sebastopol in +comparison with the miserable mud enclosure at Delli, with its numerous +staff of Lieutenants, Captain, and Major. Yet this, as well as most +of the forts in the Moluccas, was originally built by the Portuguese +themselves. Oh! Lusitania, how art thou fallen! + +While the Opzeiner was reading his letters, I took a walk round +the village with a guide in search of a horse. The whole place was +dreadfully damp and muddy, being built in a swamp with not a spot of +ground raised a foot above it, and surrounded by swamps on every side. +The houses were mostly well built, of wooden framework filled in with +gaba-gaba (leaf-stems of the sago-palm), but as they had no whitewash, +and the floors were of bare black earth like the roads, and generally on +the same level, they were extremely damp and gloomy. At length I found +one with the floor raised about a foot, and succeeded in making a +bargain with the owner to turn out immediately, so that by night I had +installed myself comfortably. The chairs and tables were left for me; +and as the whole of the remaining furniture in the house consisted of a +little crockery and a few clothes-boxes, it was not much trouble for the +owners to move into the house of some relatives, and thus obtain a +few silver rupees very easily. Every foot of ground between the homes +throughout the village is crammed with fruit trees, so that the sun and +air have no chance of penetrating. This must be very cool and pleasant +in the dry season, but makes it damp and unhealthy at other times of the +year. Unfortunately I had come two months too soon, for the rains were +not yet over, and mud and water were the prominent features of the +country. + +About a mile behind and to the east of the village the hills commence, +but they are very barren, being covered with scanty coarse grass and +scattered trees of the Melaleuca cajuputi, from the leaves of which the +celebrated cajeput oil is made. Such districts are absolutely destitute +of interest for the zoologist. A few miles further on rose higher +mountains, apparently well covered with forest, but they were entirely +uninhabited and trackless, and practically inaccessible to a traveller +with limited time and means. It became evident, therefore, that I must +leave Cajeli for some better collecting ground, and finding a man who +was going a few miles eastward to a village on the coast where he said +there were hills and forest, I sent my boy Ali with him to explore and +report on the capabilities of the district. At the same time I arranged +to go myself on a little excursion up a river which flows into the bay +about five miles north of the town, to a village of the Alfuros, or +indigenes, where I thought I might perhaps find a good collecting +ground. + +The Rajah of Cajeli, a good-tempered old man, offered to accompany me, +as the village was under his government; and we started one morning +early, in a long narrow boat with eight rowers. In about two hours +we entered the river, and commenced our inland journey against a very +powerful current. The stream was about a hundred yards wide, and +was generally bordered with high grass, and occasionally bushes and +palm-trees. The country round was flat and more or less swampy, with +scattered trees and shrubs. At every bend we crossed the river to avoid +the strength of the current, and arrived at our landing-place about +four o'clock in a torrent of rain. Here we waited for an hour, crouching +under a leaky mat till the Alfuros arrived who had been sent for from +the village to carry my baggage, when we set off along a path of whose +extreme muddiness I had been warned before starting. + +I turned up my trousers as high as possible, grasped a stoat stick to +prevent awkward falls, and then boldly plunged into the first mud-hole, +which was immediately succeeded by another and another. The marl or mud +and water was knee-deep with little intervals of firmer ground between, +making progression exceedingly difficult. The path was bordered with +high rigid grass, brewing in dense clumps separated by water, so that +nothing was to be gained by leaving the beaten track, and we were +obliged to go floundering on, never knowing where our feet would rest, +as the mud was now a few inches, now two feet deep, and the bottom +very uneven, so that the foot slid down to the lowest part, and made +it difficult to keep one's balance. One step would be upon a concealed +stick or log, almost dislocating the ankle, while the next would plunge +into soft mud above the knee. It rained all the way, and the long grass, +six feet high, met over the path; so that we could not see a step of the +way ahead, and received a double drenching. Before we got to the village +it was dark, and we had to cross over a small but deep and swollen +stream by a narrow log of wood, which was more than a foot under water. +There was a slender shaking stick for a handrail, and it was nervous +work feeling in the dark in the rushing water for a safe place on which +to place the advanced foot. After au hour of this most disagreeable +and fatiguing walk we reached the village, followed by the men with +our guns, ammunition, boxes, and bedding all more or less soaked. We +consoled ourselves with some hot tea and cold fowl, and went early to +bed. + +The next morning was clear and fine, and I set out soon after sunrise to +explore the neighbourhood. The village had evidently been newly formed, +and consisted of a single straight street of very miserable huts totally +deficient in every comfort, and as bare and cheerless inside as out. It +was situated on a little elevated patch of coarse gravelly soil, covered +with the usual high rigid grass, which came up close to the backs of +the houses. At a short distance in several directions were patches of +forest, but all on low and swampy ground. I made one attempt along the +only path I could find, but soon came upon a deep mud-hole, and found +that I must walk barefoot if at all; so I returned and deferred further +exploration till after breakfast. I then went on into the jungle and +found patches of sago-palms and a low forest vegetation, but the paths +were everywhere full of mud-holes, and intersected by muddy streams +and tracts of swamp, so that walking was not pleasurable, and too much +attention to one's steps was not favourable to insect catching, which +requires above everything freedom of motion. I shot a few birds, +and caught a few butterflies, but all were the same as I had already +obtained about Cajeli. + +On my return to the village I was told that the same kind of ground +extended for many miles in every direction, and I at once decided that +Wayapo was not a suitable place to stay at. The next morning early we +waded back again through the mud and long wet grass to our boat, and +by mid-day reached Cajeli, where I waited Ali's return to decide on my +future movements. He came the following day, and gave a very bad account +of Pelah, where he had been. There was a little brush and trees along +the beach, and hills inland covered with high grass and cajuputi +trees--my dread and abhorrence. On inquiring who could give me +trustworthy information, I was referred to the Lieutenant of the +Burghers, who had travelled all round the island, and was a very +intelligent fellow. I asked him to tell me if he knew of any part of +Bouru where there was no "kusu-kusu," as the coarse grass of the country +is called. He assured me that a good deal of the south coast was forest +land, while along the north was almost entirely swamp and grassy hills. +After minute inquiries, I found that the forest country commenced at a +place called Waypoti, only a few miles beyond Pelah, but that, as the +coast beyond that place was exposed to the east monsoon and dangerous +for praus, it was necessary to walk. I immediately went to the Opzeiner, +and he called the Rajah. We had a consultation, and arranged for a boat +to take me the next evening but one, to Pelah, whence I was to proceed +on foot, the Orang-kaya going the day before to call the Alfuros to +carry my baggage. + +The journey was made as arranged, and on May 19th we arrived at Waypoti, +having walked about ten miles along the beach, and through stony forest +bordering the sea, with occasional plunges of a mile or two into the +interior. We found no village, but scattered houses and plantations, +with hilly country pretty well covered with forest, and looking rather +promising. A low hut with a very rotten roof, showing the sky through in +several places, was the only one I could obtain. Luckily it did not rain +that night, and the next day we pulled down some of the walls to repair +the roof, which was of immediate importance, especially over our beds +and table. + +About half a mile from the house was a fine mountain stream, running +swiftly over a bed of rocks and pebbles, and beyond this was a hill +covered with fine forest. By carefully picking my way I could wade +across this river without getting much above my knees, although I would +sometimes slip off a rock and go into a hole up to my waist, and +about twice a week I went across it in order to explore the forest. +Unfortunately there were no paths here of any extent, and it did +not prove very productive either in insects or birds. To add to my +difficulties I had stupidly left my only pair of strong hoots on board +the steamer, and my others were by this time all dropping to pieces, +so that I was obliged to walk about barefooted, and in constant fear of +hurting my feet, and causing a wound which might lay me up for weeks, +as had happened in Borneo, Are, and Dorey. Although there were numerous +plantations of maize and plantains, there were no new clearings; and as +without these it is almost impossible to find many of the best kinds +of insects, I determined to make one myself, and with much difficulty +engaged two men to clear a patch of forest, from which I hoped to obtain +many fine beetles before I left. + +During the whole of my stay, however, insects never became plentiful. My +clearing produced me a few fine, longicorns and Buprestidae, different +from any I had before seen, together with several of the Amboyna +species, but by no means so numerous or, so beautiful as I had found in +that small island. For example, I collected only 210 different kinds +of beetles during my two months' stay at Bourn, while in three weeks +at Amboyna, in 1857, I found more than 300 species: One of the finest +insects found at Bouru was a large Cerambyx, of a deep shining chestnut +colour, and with very long antennae. It varied greatly in size, the +largest specimens being three inches long, while the smallest were only +an inch, the antenna varying from one and a half to five inches. + +One day my boy Ali came home with a story of a big snake. He was walking +through some high grass, and stepped on something which he took for a +small fallen tree, but it felt cold and yielding to his feet, and far +to the right and left there was a waving and rustling of the herbage. He +jumped back in affright and prepared to shoot, but could not get a good +vies of the creature, and it passed away, he said, like a tree being +dragged along through the grass. As he lead several times already shot +large snakes, which he declared were all as nothing compared with +this, I am inclined to believe it must really have been a monster. Such +creatures are rather plentiful here, for a man living close by showed +me on his thigh the marks where he had been seized by one close to his +house. It was big enough to take the man's thigh in its mouth, and he +would probably have been killed and devoured by it had not his cries +brought out his neighbours, who destroyed it with their choppers. As +far as I could make out it was about twenty feet long, but Ali's was +probably much larger. + +It sometimes amuses me to observe how, a few days after I have taken +possession of it, a native hut seems quite a comfortable home. My house +at Waypoti was a bare shed, with a large bamboo platform at one side. At +one end of this platform, which was elevated about three feet, I fixed +up my mosquito curtain, and partly enclosed it with a large Scotch +plaid, making a comfortable little sleeping apartment. I put up a +rude table on legs buried in the earthen floor, and had my comfortable +rattan-chair for a seat. A line across one corner carried my +daily-washed cotton clothing, and on a bamboo shelf was arranged my +small stock of crockery and hardware: Boxes were ranged against the +thatch walls, and hanging shelves, to preserve my collections from ants +while drying, were suspended both without and within the house. On my +table lay books, penknives, scissors, pliers, and pins, with insect and +bird labels, all of which were unsolved mysteries to the native mind. + +Most of the people here had never seen a pin, and the better +informed took a pride in teaching their more ignorant companions the +peculiarities and uses of that strange European production--a needle +with a head, but no eye! Even paper, which we throw away hourly as +rubbish, was to them a curiosity; and I often saw them picking up little +scraps which had been swept out of the house, and carefully putting +them away in their betel-pouch. Then when I took my morning coffee and +evening tea, how many were the strange things displayed to them! Teapot, +teacups, teaspoons, were all more or less curious in their eyes; tea, +sugar, biscuit, and butter, were articles of human consumption seen +by many of them for the first time. One asks if that whitish powder is +"gula passir" (sand-sugar), so called to distinguish it from the coarse +lump palm-sugar or molasses of native manufacture; and the biscuit is +considered a sort of European sago-cake, which the inhabitants of those +remote regions are obliged to use in the absence of the genuine article. +My pursuit, were of course utterly beyond their comprehension. They +continually asked me what white people did with the birds and insects I +tools so much care to preserve. If I only kept what was beautiful, they +might perhaps comprehend it; but to see ants and files and small ugly +insects put away so carefully was a great puzzle to them, and they were +convinced that there must be some medical or magical use for them +which I kept a profound secret. These people were in fact as completely +unacquainted with civilized life as the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, +or the savages of Central Africa--yet a steamship, that highest triumph +of human ingenuity, with its little floating epitome of European +civilization, touches monthly at Cajeli, twenty miles off; while at +Amboyna, only sixty miles distant, a European population and government +have been established for more than three hundred years. + +Having seen a good many of the natives of Bouru from different villages, +and from distant parts of the island, I feel convinced that they consist +of two distinct races now partially amalgamated. The larger portion are +Malays of the Celebes type, often exactly similar to the Tomore +people of East Celebes, whom I found settled in Batchian; while others +altogether resemble the Alfuros of Ceram. + +The influx of two races can easily be accounted for. The Sula Islands, +which are closely connected with East Celebes, approach to within forty +miles of the north coast of Bouru, while the island of Manipa offers an +easy point of departure for the people of Ceram. I was confirmed in +this view by finding that the languages of Bouru possessed distinct +resemblances to that of Sula, as well as to those of Ceram. + +Soon after we had arrived at Waypoti, Ali had seen a beautiful little +bird of the genus Pitta, which I was very anxious to obtain, as in +almost every island the species are different, and none were yet known +from Bourn. He and my other hunter continued to see it two or three +times a week, and to hear its peculiar note much oftener, but could +never get a specimen, owing to its always frequenting the most dense +thorny thickets, where only hasty glimpses of it could be obtained, and +at so short a distance that it would be difficult to avoid blowing +the bird to pieces. Ali was very much annoyed that he could not get a +specimen of this bird, in going after which he had already severely, +wounded his feet with thorns; and when we had only two days more to +stay, he went of his own accord one evening to sleep at a little but +in the forest some miles off, in order to have a last try for it at +daybreak, when many birds come out to feed, and are very intent on their +morning meal. The next evening he brought me home two specimens, one +with the head blown completely off, and otherwise too much injured to +preserve, the other in very good order, and which I at once saw to be +a new species, very like the Pitta celebensis, but ornamented with a +square patch of bright red on the nape of the neck. + +The next day after securing this prize we returned to Cajeli, and +packing up my collections left Bouru by the steamer. During our two +days' stay at Ternate, I took on board what baggage I had left there, +and bade adieu to all my friends. We then crossed over to Menado, on +our way to Macassar and Java, and I finally quitted the Moluccas, among +whose luxuriant and beautiful islands I had wandered for more than three +years. + +My collections in Bouru, though not extensive, were of considerable +interest; for out of sixty-six species of birds which I collected there, +no less than seventeen were new, or had not been previously found in any +island of the Moluccas. Among these were two kingfishers, Tanysiptera +acis and Ceyx Cajeli; a beautiful sunbird, Nectarines proserpina; a +handsome little black and white flycatcher, Monarcha loricata, whose +swelling throat was beautifully scaled with metallic blue; and several +of less interest. I also obtained a skull of the babirusa, one specimen +of which was killed by native hunters during my residence at Cajeli. + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MOLUCCAS. + +THE Moluccas consist of three large islands, Gilolo, Ceram, and Bouru, +the two former being each about two hundred miles long; and a great +number of smaller isles and islets, the most important of which are +Batchian, Morty, Obi, Ke, Timor-Laut, and Amboyna; and among the smaller +ones, Ternate, Tidore, Kaioa, and Banda. They occupy a space of ten +degrees of latitude by eight of longitude, and they are connected by +groups of small islets to New Guinea on the east, the Philippines on the +north, Celebes on the west, and Timor on the south. It will be as well +to bear in mind these main features of extent and geographical position, +while we survey their animal productions and discuss their relations +to the countries which surround them on every side in almost equal +proximity. + +We will first consider the Mammalia or warm-blooded quadrupeds, +which present us with some singular anomalies. The land mammals are +exceedingly few in number, only ten being yet known from the entire +group. The bats or aerial mammals, on the other hand, are numerous--not +less than twenty-five species being already known. But even this +exceeding poverty of terrestrial mammals does not at all represent the +real poverty of the Moluccas in this class of animals; for, as we shall +soon see, there is good reason to believe that several of the species +have been introduced by man, either purposely or by accident. + +The only quadrumanous animal in the group is the curious baboon-monkey, +Cynopithecus nigrescens, already described as being one of the +characteristic animals of Celebes. This is found only in the island of +Batchian; and it seems so much out of place there as it is difficult +to imagine how it could have reached the island by any natural means +of dispersal, and yet not have passed by the same means over the narrow +strait to Gilolo--that it seems more likely to have originated from +some individuals which had escaped from confinement, these and similar +animals being often kept as pets by the Malays, and carried about in +their praus. + +Of all the carnivorous animals of the Archipelago the only one found in +the Moluccas is the Viverra tangalunga, which inhabits both Batchian and +Bouru, and probably come of the other islands. I am inclined to think +that this also may have been introduced accidentally, for it is often +made captive by the Malays, who procure civet from it, and it is an +animal very restless and untameable, and therefore likely to escape. +This view is rendered still more probable by what Antonio de Morga tells +us was the custom in the Philippines in 1602. He says that "the natives +of Mindanao carry about civet-cats in cages, and sell them in the +islands; and they take the civet from them, and let them go again." The +same species is common in the Philippines and in all the large islands +of the Indo-Malay region. + +The only Moluccan ruminant is a deer, which was once supposed to be a +distinct species, but is now generally considered to be a slight variety +of the Rusa hippelaphus of Java. Deer are often tamed and petted, and +their flesh is so much esteemed by all Malays, that it is very natural +they should endeavour to introduce them into the remote islands in which +they settled, and whose luxuriant forests seem so well adapted for their +subsistence. + +The strange babirusa of Celebes is also found in Bouru; but in no other +Moluccan island, and it is somewhat difficult to imagine how it got +there. It is true that there is some approximation between the birds of +the Sula Islands (where the babirusa is also found) and those of Bouru, +which seems to indicate that these islands have recently been closer +together, or that some intervening land has disappeared. At this time +the babirusa may have entered Bouru, since it probably swims as well as +its allies the pigs. These are spread all over the Archipelago, even +to several of the smaller islands, and in many cases the species are +peculiar. It is evident, therefore, that they have some natural means +of dispersal. There is a popular idea that pigs cannot swim, but Sir +Charles Lyell has shown that this is a mistake. In his "Principles of +Geology" (10th Edit. vol. ii p. 355) he adduces evidence to show that +pigs have swum many miles at sea, and are able to swim with great ease +and swiftness. I have myself seen a wild pig swimming across the arm of +the sea that separates Singapore from the Peninsula of Malacca, and we +thus have explained the curious fact, that of all the large mammals of +the Indian region, pigs alone extend beyond the Moluccas and as far as +New Guinea, although it is somewhat curious that they have not found +their way to Australia. + +The little shrew, Sorex myosurus, which is common in Sumatra, Borneo, +and Java, is also found in the larger islands of the Moluccas, to which +it may have been accidentally conveyed in native praus. + +This completes the list of the placental mammals which are so +characteristic of the Indian region; and we see that, with the single +exception of the pig, all may very probably have been introduced by +man, since all except the pig are of species identical with those now +abounding in the great Malay islands, or in Celebes. + +The four remaining mammals are Marsupials, an order of the class +Mammalia, which is very characteristic of the Australian fauna; and +these are probably true natives of the Moluccas, since they are either +of peculiar species, or if found elsewhere are natives only of New +Guinea or North Australia. The first is the small flying opossum, +Belideus ariel, a beautiful little animal, exactly line a small flying +squirrel in appearance, but belonging to the marsupial order. The other +three are species of the curious genus Cuscus, which is peculiar to +the Austro-Malayan region. These are opossum-like animals, with a long +prehensile tail, of which the terminal half is generally bare. They have +small heads, large eyes, and a dense covering of woolly fur, which is +often pure white with irregular black spots or blotches, or sometimes +ashy brown with or without white spots. They live in trees, feeding +upon the leaves, of which they devour large quantities, they move about +slowly, and are difficult to kill, owing to the thickness of their fur, +and their tenacity of life. A heavy charge of shot will often lodge in +the slain and do them no harm, and even breaking the spine or piercing +the brain will not kill them for some hours. The natives everywhere +eat their flesh, and as their motions are so slow, easily catch them by +climbing; so that it is wonderful they have not been exterminated. It +may be, however, that their dense woolly fur protects them from birds of +prey, and the islands they live in are too thinly inhabited for man to +be able to exterminate them. The figure represents Cuscus ornatus, a new +species discovered by me in Batchian, and which also inhabits Ternate. +It is peculiar to the Moluccas, while the two other species which +inhabit Ceram are found also in New Guinea and Waigiou. + +In place of the excessive poverty of mammals which characterises the +Moluccas, we have a very rich display of the feathered tribes. The +number of species of birds at present known from the various islands of +the Molluccan group is 265, but of these only 70 belong to the usually +abundant tribes of the waders and swimmers, indicating that these are +very imperfectly known. As they are also pre-eminently wanderers, and +are thus little fitted for illustrating the geographical distribution of +life in a limited area, we will here leave them out of consideration and +confine our attention only to the 195 land birds. + +When we consider that all Europe, with its varied climate and +vegetation, with every mile of its surface explored, and with the +immense extent of temperate Asia and Africa, which serve as storehouses, +from which it is continually recruited, only supports 251 species of +land birds as residents or regular immigrants, we must look upon the +numbers already procured in the small and comparatively unknown islands +of the Moluccas as indicating a fauna of fully average richness in this +department. But when we come to examine the family groups which go to +make up this number, we find the most curious deficiencies in some, +balanced by equally striking redundancy in other. Thus if we compare +the birds of the Moluccas with those of India, as given in Mr. Jerdon's +work, we find that the three groups of the parrots, kingfishers, and +pigeons, form nearly _one-third_ of the whole land-birds in the former, +while they amount to only _one-twentieth_ in the latter country. On +the other hand, such wide-spread groups as the thrushes, warblers, and +finches, which in India form nearly _one-third_ of all the land-birds, +dwindle down in the Moluccas to _one-fourteenth._ + +The reason of these peculiarities appears to be, that the Moluccan +fauna has been almost entirely derived from that of New Guinea, in which +country the same deficiency and the same luxuriance is to be observed. +Out of the seventy-eight genera in which the Moluccan land-birds may be +classed, no less than seventy are characteristic of Yew Guinea, while +only six belong specially to the Indo-Malay islands. But this close +resemblance to New Guinea genera does not extend to the species, for +no less than 140 out of the 195 land-birds are peculiar to the Moluccan +islands, while 32 are found also in New Guinea, and 15 in the Indo-Malay +islands. These facts teach us, that though the birds of this group have +evidently been derived mainly from New Guinea, yet the immigration has +not been a recent one, since there has been time for the greater portion +of the species to have become changed. We find, also, that many very +characteristic New Guinea forms lave not entered the Moluccas at all, +while others found in Ceram and Gilolo do not extend so far west as +Bouru. Considering, further, the absence of most of the New Guinea +mammals from the Moluccas, we are led to the conclusion that these +islands are not fragments which have been separated from New Guinea, but +form a distinct insular region, which has been upheaved independently at +a rather remote epoch, and during all the mutations it has undergone +has been constantly receiving immigrants from that great and productive +island. The considerable length of time the Moluccas have remained +isolated is further indicated by the occurrence of two peculiar genera +of birds, Semioptera and Lycocorax, which are found nowhere else. + +We are able to divide this small archipelago into two well marked +groups--that of Ceram, including also Bouru. Amboyna, Banda, and Ke; and +that of Gilolo, including Morty, Batchian, Obi, Ternate, and other small +islands. These divisions have each a considerable number of peculiar +species, no less than fifty-five being found in the Ceram group only; +and besides this, most of the separate islands have some species +peculiar to themselves. Thus Morty island has a peculiar kingfisher, +honeysucker, and starling; Ternate has a ground-thrush (Pitta) and +a flycatcher; Banda has a pigeon, a shrike, and a Pitta; Ke has two +flycatchers, a Zosterops, a shrike, a king-crow and a cuckoo; and the +remote Timor-Laut, which should probably come into the Moluccan group, +has a cockatoo and lory as its only known birds, and both are of +peculiar species. + +The Moluccas are especially rich in the parrot tribe, no less than +twenty-two species, belonging to ten genera, inhabiting them. Among +these is the large red-crested cockatoo, so commonly seen alive in +Europe, two handsome red parrots of the genus Eclectus, and five of the +beautiful crimson lories, which are almost exclusively confined to these +islands and the New Guinea group. The pigeons are hardly less abundant +or beautiful, twenty-one species being known, including twelve of the +beautiful green fruit pigeons, the smaller kinds of which are +ornamented with the most brilliant patches of colour on the head and +the under-surface. Next to these come the kingfishers, including sixteen +species, almost all of which are beautiful, end many are among the most +brilliantly-coloured birds that exist. + +One of the most curious groups of birds, the Megapodii, or mound-makers, +is very abundant in the Moluccas. They are gallinaceous birds, about the +size of a small fowl, and generally of a dark ashy or sooty colour, +and they have remarkably large and strong feet and long claws. They are +allied to the "Maleo" of Celebes, of which an account has already been +given, but they differ in habits, most of these birds frequenting the +scrubby jungles along the sea-shore, where the soil is sandy, and there +is a considerable quantity of debris, consisting of sticks, shells, +seaweed, leaves, &c. Of this rubbish the Megapodius forms immense +mounds, often six or eight feet high and twenty or thirty feet in +diameter, which they are enabled to do with comparative ease, by means +of their large feet, with which they can grasp and throw backwards a +quantity of material. In the centre of this mound, at a depth of two or +three feet, the eggs are deposited, and are hatched by the gentle heat +produced by the fermentation of the vegetable matter of the mound. +When I first saw these mounds in the island of Lombock, I could hardly +believe that they were made by such small birds, but I afterwards met +with them frequently, and have once or twice come upon the birds engaged +in making them. They run a few steps backwards, grasping a quantity of +loose material in one foot, and throw it a long way behind them. When +once properly buried the eggs seem to be no more cared for, the young +birds working their way up through the heap of rubbish, and running off +at once into the forest. They come out of the egg covered with thick +downy feathers, and have no tail, although the wings are full developed. + +I was so fortunate as to discover a new species (Megapodius wallacei), +which inhibits Gilolo, Ternate, and Bouru. It is the handsomest bird of +the genus, being richly banded with reddish brown on the back and wings; +and it differs from the other species in its habits. It frequents the +forests of the interior, and comes down to the sea-beach to deposit its +eggs, but instead of making a mound, or scratching a hole to receive +them, it burrows into the sand to the depth of about three feet +obliquely downwards, and deposits its eggs at the bottom. It then +loosely covers up the mouth of the hole, and is said by the natives to +obliterate and disguise its own footmarks leading to and from the hole, +by making many other tracks and scratches in the neighbourhood. It lays +its eggs only at night, and at Bouru a bird was caught early one morning +as it was coming out of its hole, in which several eggs were found. All +these birds seem to be semi-nocturnal, for their loud wailing cries may +be constantly heard late into the night and long before daybreak in the +morning. The eggs are all of a rusty red colour, and very large for the +size of the bird, being generally three or three and a quarter inches +long, by two or two and a quarter wide. They are very good eating, and +are much sought after by the natives. + +Another large and extraordinary bird is the Cassowary, which inhabits +the island of Ceram only. It is a stout and strong bird, standing five +or six feet high, and covered with long coarse black hair-like feathers. +The head is ornamented with a large horny calque or helmet, and the bare +skin of the neck is conspicuous with bright blue and red colours. The +wings are quite absent, and are replaced by a group of horny black +spines like blunt porcupine quills. + +These birds wander about the vast mountainous forests that cover the +island of Ceram, feeding chiefly on fallen fruits, and on insects or +crustacea. The female lays from three to five large and beautifully +shagreened green eggs upon a bed of leaves, the male and female sitting +upon them alternately for about a month. This bird is the helmeted +cassowary (Casuarius galeatus) of naturalists, and was for a long time +the only species known. Others have since been discovered in New Guinea, +New Britain, and North Australia. + +It was in the Moluccas that I first discovered undoubted cases of +"mimicry" among birds, and these are so curious that I must briefly +describe them. It will be as well, however, first to explain what is +meant by mimicry in natural history. At page 205 of the first volume of +this work, I have described a butterfly which, when at rest, so closely +resembles a dead leaf, that it thereby escape the attacks of its +enemies. This is termed a "protective resemblance." If however the +butterfly, being itself savoury morsel to birds, had closely resembled +another butterfly which was disagreeable to birds, and therefore never +eaten by them, it would be as well protected as if it resembled a leaf; +and this is what has been happily termed "mimicry" by Mr. Bates, who +first discovered the object of these curious external imitations of one +insect by another belonging to a distinct genus or family, and sometimes +even to a distinct order. The clear-winged moth which resemble wasps and +hornets are the best examples of "mimicry" in our own country. + +For a long time all the known cases of exact resemblance of one creature +to quite a different one were confined to insects, and it was therefore +with great pleasure that I discovered in the island of Bouru two birds +which I constantly mistook for each other, and which yet belonged to two +distinct and somewhat distant families. One of these is a honeysucker +named Tropidorhynchus bouruensis, and the other a kind of oriole, which +has been called Mimeta bouruensis. The oriole resembles the honeysucker +in the following particulars: the upper and under surfaces of the +two birds are exactly of the same tints of dark and light brown; the +Tropidorhynchus has a large bare black patch round the eyes; this is +copied in the Mimeta by a patch of black feathers. The top of the +head of the Tropidorhynchus has a scaly appearance from the narrow +scale-formed feathers, which are imitated by the broader feathers of +the Mimeta having a dusky line down each. The Tropidorhynchus has a pale +ruff formed of curious recurved feathers on the nape (which has given +the whole genus the name of Friar birds); this is represented in the +Mimeta by a pale band in the same position. Lastly, the bill of the +Tropidorhynchus is raised into a protuberant keel at the base, and the +Mimeta has the same character, although it is not a common one in the +genus. The result is, that on a superficial examination the birds are +identical, although they leave important structural differences, and +cannot be placed near each other in any natural arrangement. + +In the adjacent island of Ceram we find very distinct species of both +these genera, and, strange to say, these resemble each other quite as +closely as do those of Bouru The Tropidorhynchus subcornutus is of an +earthy brown colour, washed with ochreish yellow, with bare orbits, +dusky: cheeks, and the usual recurved nape-ruff: The Mimeta forsteni +which accompanies it, is absolutely identical in the tints of every +part of the body, and the details are copied just as minutely as in the +former species. + +We have two kinds of evidence to tell us which bird in this case is the +model, and which the copy. The honeysuckers are coloured in a manner +which is very general in the whole family to which they belong, while +the orioles seem to have departed from the gay yellow tints so common +among their allies. We should therefore conclude that it is the latter +who mimic the former. If so, however, they must derive some advantage +from the imitation, and as they are certainly weak birds, with small +feet and claws, they may require it. Now the Tropidorhynchi are very +strong and active birds, having powerful grasping claws, and long, +curved, sharp beaks. They assemble together in groups and small flocks, +and they haw a very loud bawling note which can be heard at a great +distance, and serves to collect a number together in time of danger. +They are very plentiful and very pugnacious, frequently driving away +crows and even hawks, which perch on a tree where a few of them are +assembled. It is very probable, therefore, that the smaller birds of +prey have learnt to respect these birds and leave them alone, and it may +thus be a great advantage for the weaker and less courageous Mimetas +to be mistaken for them. This being case, the laws of Variation and +Survival of the Fittest, will suffice to explain how the resemblance has +been brought about, without supposing any voluntary action on the part +of the birds themselves; and those who have read Mr. Darwin's "Origin of +Species" will have no difficulty in comprehending the whole process. + +The insects of the Moluccas are pre-eminently beautiful, even when +compared with the varied and beautiful productions of other parts of the +Archipelago. The grand bird-winged butterflies (Ornithoptera) here reach +their maximum of size and beauty, and many of the Papilios, Pieridae +Danaidae, and Nymphalidae are equally preeminent. There is, perhaps, no +island in the world so small as Amboyna where so many grand insects are +to be found. Here are three of the very finest Ornithopterae--priamus, +helena, and remiss; three of the handsomest and largest +Papilios--ulysses, deiphobus, and gambrisius; one of the handsomest +Pieridae, Iphias leucippe; the largest of the Danaidae, Hestia idea; +and two unusually large and handsome Nymphalidae--Diadema pandarus, +and Charaxes euryalus. Among its beetles are the extraordinary Euchirus +longimanus, whose enormous legs spread over a space of eight inches, +and an unusual number of large and handsome Longicorns, Anthribidae, and +Buprestidae. + +The beetles figured on the plate as characteristic of the Moluccas are: +1. A small specimen of the Euchirus longimanus, or Long-armed Chafer, +which has been already mentioned in the account of my residence at +Amboyna (Chapter XX.). The female has the fore legs of moderate length. +2. A fine weevil, (an undescribed species of Eupholus,) of rich blue and +emerald green colours, banded with black. It is a native of Ceram and +Goram, and is found on foliage. 3. A female of Xenocerus semiluctuosus, +one of the Anthribidae of delicate silky white and black colours. It +is abundant on fallen trunks and stumps in Ceram and Amboyna. 4. An +undescribed species of Xenocerus; a male, with very long and curious +antenna, and elegant black and white markings. It is found on fallen +trunks in Batchian. 5. An undescribed species of Arachnobas, a curious +genus of weevils peculiar to the Moluccas and New Guinea, and remarkable +for their long legs, and their habit of often sitting on leaves, and +turning rapidly round the edge to the under-surface when disturbed. It +was found in Gilolo. All these insects are represented of the natural +size. + +Like the birds, the insects of the Moluccas show a decided affinity +with those of New Guinea rather than with the productions of the great +western islands of the Archipelago, but the difference in form and +structure between the productions of the east and west is not nearly +so marked here as in birds. This is probably due to the more immediate +dependence of insects on climate and vegetation, and the greater +facilities for their distribution in the varied stages of egg, pupa, and +perfect insect. This has led to a general uniformity in the insect-life +of the whole Archipelago, in accordance with the general uniformity +of its climate and vegetation; while on the other hand the great +susceptibility of the insect organization to the action of external +conditions has led to infinite detailed modifications of form and +colour, which have in many cases given a considerable diversity to the +productions of adjacent islands. + +Owing to the great preponderance among the birds, of parrots, pigeons, +kingfishers, and sunbirds, almost all of gay or delicate colours, and +many adorned with the most gorgeous plumage, and to the numbers of very +large and showy butterflies which are almost everywhere to be met with, +the forests of the Moluccas offer to the naturalist a very striking +example of the luxuriance and beauty of animal life in the tropics. Yet +the almost entire absence of Mammalia, and of such wide-spread groups of +birds as woodpeckers, thrushes, jays, tits, and pheasants, must convince +him that he is in a part of the world which has, in reality but little +in common with the great Asiatic continent, although an unbroken chain +of islands seems to link them to it. + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS IN A NATIVE PRAU. + +(DECEMBER, 1856.) + +IT was the beginning of December, and the rainy season at Macassar had +just set in. For nearly three months had beheld the sun rise daily above +the palm-groves, mount to the zenith, and descend like a globe of fire +into the ocean, unobscured for a single moment of his course. Now dark +leaden clouds had gathered over the whole heavens, and seemed to have +rendered him permanently invisible. The strong east winds, warm and dry +and dust-laden, which had hitherto blown as certainly as the sun had +risen, were now replaced by variable gusty breezes and heavy rains, +often continuous for three days and nights together; and the parched +and fissured rice stubbles which during the dry weather had extended in +every direction for miles around the town, were already so flooded as +to be only passable by boats, or by means of a labyrinth of paths on the +top of the narrow banks which divided the separate properties. + +Five months of this kind of weather might be expected in Southern +Celebes, and I therefore determined to seek some more favourable climate +for collecting in during that period, and to return in the next dry +season to complete my exploration of the district. Fortunately for me +I was in one of the treat emporiums of the native trade of the +archipelago. Rattans from Borneo, sandal-wood and bees'-was from Flores +and Timor, tripang from the Gulf of Carpentaria, cajputi-oil from Bouru, +wild nutmegs and mussoi-bark from New Guinea, are all to be found in the +stores of the Chinese and Bugis merchants of Macassar, along with the +rice and coffee which are the chief products of the surrounding country. +More important than all these however is the trade to Aru, a group of +islands situated on the south-west coast of New Guinea, and of which +almost the whole produce comes to Macassar in native vessels. These +islands are quite out of the track of all European trade, and are +inhabited only by black mop-headed savages, who yet contribute to the +luxurious tastes of the most civilized races. Pearls, mother-of-pearl, +and tortoiseshell find their way to Europe, while edible birds' nests +and "tripang" or sea-slug are obtained by shiploads for the gastronomic +enjoyment of the Chinese. + +The trade to these islands has existed from very early times, and it +is from them that Birds of Paradise, of the two kinds known to Linnaeus +were first brought The native vessels can only make the voyage once a +year, owing to the monsoons. They leave Macassar in December or January +at the beginning of the west monsoon, and return in July or August +with the full strength of the east monsoon. Even by the Macassar people +themselves, the voyage to the Aru Islands is looked upon as a rather +wild and romantic expedition, fall of novel sights and strange +adventures. He who has made it is looked up to as an authority, and it +remains with many the unachieved ambition of their lives. I myself had +hoped rather than expected ever to reach this "Ultima Thule" of the +East: and when I found that I really could do so now, had I but courage +to trust myself for a thousand miles' voyage in a Bugis prau, and for +six or seven months among lawless traders and ferocious savages, I felt +somewhat as I did when, a schoolboy, I was for the first time allowed +to travel outside the stage-coach, to visit that scene of all that is +strange and new and wonderful to young imaginations-London! + +By the help of some kind friends I was introduced to the owner of one +of the large praus which was to sail in a few days. He was a Javanese +half-caste, intelligent, mild, and gentlemanly in his manners, and had +a young and pretty Dutch wife, whom he was going to leave behind during +his absence. When we talked about passage money he would fix no sum, but +insisted on leaving it entirely to me to pay on my return exactly what +I liked. "And then," said he, "whether you give me one dollar or a +hundred, I shall be satisfied, and shall ask no more." + +The remainder of my stay was fully occupied in laying in stores, +engaging servants, and making every other preparation for an absence of +seven months from even the outskirts of civilization. On the morning of +December 13th, when we went on board at daybreak, it was raining hard. +We set sail and it came on to blow. Our boat was lost astern, our sails +damaged, and the evening found us hack again in Macassar harbour. We +remained there four days longer, owing to its raining all the time, thus +rendering it impossible to dry and repair the huge mat sails. All these +dreary days I remained on board, and during the rare intervals when it +didn't rain, made myself acquainted with our outlandish craft, some of +the peculiarities of which I will now endeavour to describe. + +It was a vessel of about seventy tons burthen, and shaped something like +a Chinese junk. The deck sloped considerably downward to the bows, which +are thus the lowest part of the ship. There were two large rudders, +but instead of being planed astern they were hung on the quarters from +strong cross beams, which projected out two or three feet on each side, +and to which extent the deck overhung the sides of the vessel amidships. +The rudders were not hinged but hung with slings of rattan, the friction +of which keeps them in any position in which they are placed, and thus +perhaps facilitates steering. The tillers were not on deck, but entered +the vessel through two square openings into a lower or half deck about +three feet high, in which sit the two steersmen. In the after part of +the vessel was a low poop, about three and a half feet high, which +forms the captain's cabin, its furniture consisting of boxes, mats, and +pillows. In front of the poop and mainmast was a little thatched house +on deck, about four feet high to the ridge; and one compartment of this, +forming a cabin six and a half feet long by five and a half wide, I had +all to myself, and it was the snuggest and most comfortable little place +I ever enjoyed at sea. It was entered by a low sliding door of thatch +on one side, and had a very small window on the other. The floor was of +split bamboo, pleasantly elastic, raised six inches above the deck, +so as to be quite dry. It was covered with fine cane mats, for the +manufacture of which Macassar is celebrated; against the further wall +were arranged my guncase, insect-boxes, clothes, and books; my mattress +occupied the middle, and next the door were my canteen, lamp, and little +store of luxuries for the voyage; while guns, revolver, and hunting +knife hung conveniently from the roof. During these four miserable days +I was quite jolly in this little snuggery more so than I should have +been if confined the same time to the gilded and uncomfortable saloon of +a first-class steamer. Then, how comparatively sweet was everything +on board--no paint, no tar, no new rope, (vilest of smells to the +qualmish!) no grease, or oil, or varnish; but instead of these, bamboo +and rattan, and coir rope and palm thatch; pure vegetable fibres, which +smell pleasantly if they smell at all, and recall quiet scenes in the +green and shady forest. + +Our ship had two masts, if masts they can be called c which were great +moveable triangles. If in an ordinary ship you replace the shrouds and +backstay by strong timbers, and take away the mast altogether, you have +the arrangement adopted on board a prau. Above my cabin, and resting on +cross-beams attached to the masts, was a wilderness of yards and spars, +mostly formed of bamboo. The mainyard, an immense affair nearly a +hundred feet long, was formed of many pieces of wood and bamboo bound +together with rattans in an ingenious manner. The sail carried by this +was of an oblong shape, and was hung out of the centre, so that when the +short end was hauled down on deck the long end mounted high in the air, +making up for the lowness of the mast itself. The foresail was of the +same shape, but smaller. Both these were of matting, and, with two jibs +and a fore and aft sail astern of cotton canvas, completed our rig. + +The crew consisted of about thirty men, natives of Macassar and the +adjacent coasts and islands. They were mostly young, and were short, +broad-faced, good-humoured looking fellows. Their dress consisted +generally of a pair of trousers only, when at work, and a handkerchief +twisted round the head, to which in the evening they would add a thin +cotton jacket. Four of the elder men were "jurumudis," or steersmen, who +had to squat (two at a time) in the little steerage before described, +changing every six hours. Then there was an old man, the "juragan," +or captain, but who was really what we should call the first mate; he +occupied the other half of the little house on deck. There were about +ten respectable men, Chinese or Bugis, whom our owner used to call "his +own people." He treated them very well, shared his meals with them, and +spoke to them always with perfect politeness; yet they were most of them +a kind of slave debtors, bound over by the police magistrate to work +for him at mere nominal wages for a term of years till their debts were +liquidated. This is a Dutch institution in this part of the world, and +seems to work well. It is a great boon to traders, who can do nothing +in these thinly-populated regions without trusting goods to agents +and petty dealers, who frequently squander them away in gambling and +debauchery. The lower classes are almost all in a chronic state of debt. +The merchant trusts them again and again, till the amount is something +serious, when he brings them to court and has their services allotted to +him for its liquidation. The debtors seem to think this no disgrace, but +rather enjoy their freedom from responsibility, and the dignity of their +position under a wealthy and well-known merchant. They trade a little on +their own account, and both parties seem to get on very well together. +The plan seems a more sensible one than that which we adopt, of +effectually preventing a man from earning anything towards paying his +debts by shutting him up in a jail. + +My own servants were three in number. Ali, the Malay boy whom I had +picked up in Borneo, was my head man. He had already been with me a +year, could turn his hand to anything, and was quite attentive and +trustworthy. He was a good shot, and fond of shooting, and I had taught +him to skin birds very well. The second, named Baderoon, was a Macassar +lad; also a pretty good boy, but a desperate gambler. Under pretence of +buying a house for his mother, and clothes, for himself, he had received +four months' wages about a week before we sailed, and in a day or two +gambled away every dollar of it. He had come on board with no clothes, +no betel, or tobacco, or salt fish, all which necessary articles I was +obliged to send Ali to buy for him. These two lads were about sixteen, I +should suppose; the third was younger, a sharp little rascal named Baso, +who had been with me a month or two, and had learnt to cook tolerably. +He was to fulfil the important office of cook and housekeeper, for +I could not get any regular servants to go to such a terribly remote +country; one might as well ask a chef de cuisine to go to Patagonia. + +On the fifth day that I had spent on board (Dec. 15th) the rain ceased, +and final preparations were made for starting. Sails were dried and +furled, boats were constantly coming and going, and stores for the +voyage, fruit, vegetables, fish, and palm sugar, were taken on board. +In the afternoon two women arrived with a large party of friends and +relations, and at parting there was a general noserubbing (the Malay +kiss), and some tears shed. These were promising symptoms for our +getting off the next day; and accordingly, at three in the morning, the +owner came on board, the anchor was immediately weighed, and by four we +set sail. Just as we were fairly off and clear of the other praus, the +old juragan repeated some prayers, all around responding with "Allah il +Allah," and a few strokes on a gong as an accompaniment, concluding with +all wishing each other "Salaamat jalan," a safe and happy journey. +We had a light breeze, a calm sea, and a fine morning, a prosperous +commencement of our voyage of about a thousand miles to the far-famed +Aru Islands. + +The wind continued light and variable all day, with a calm in the +evening before the land breeze sprang up, were then passing the island +of "Tanakaki" (foot of the land), at the extreme south of this part of +Celebes. There are some dangerous rocks here, and as I was standing by +the bulwarks, I happened to spit over the side; one of the men begged I +would not do so just now, but spit on deck, as they were much afraid +of this place. Not quite comprehending, I made him repeat his request, +when, seeing he was in earnest, I said, "Very well, I suppose there are +'hantus' (spirits) here." "Yes," said he, "and they don't like anything +to be thrown overboard; many a prau has been lost by doing it." Upon +which I promised to be very careful. At sunset the good Mahometans +on board all repeated a few words of prayer with a general chorus, +reminding me of the pleasing and impressive "Ave. Maria" of Catholic +countries. + +Dec. 20th.-At sunrise we were opposite the Bontyne mountain, said to be +one of the highest in Celebes. In the afternoon we passed the Salayer +Straits and had a little squall, which obliged us to lower our huge +mast, sails, and heavy yards. The rest of the evening we had a fine west +wind, which carried us on at near five knots an hour, as much as our +lumbering old tub can possibly go. + +Dec. 21st.-A heavy swell from the south-west rolling us about most +uncomfortably. A steady wind was blowing however, and we got on very +well. + +Dec. 22d.-The swell had gone down. We passed Boutong, a large island, +high, woody, and populous, the native place of some of our crew. A small +prau returning from Bali to the island of Goram overtook us. The nakoda +(captain) was known to our owner. They had been two years away, but were +full of people, with several black Papuans on board. At 6 P.M. we passed +Wangiwangi, low but not flat, inhabited and subject to Boutong. We had +now fairly entered the Molucca Sea. After dark it was a beautiful +sight to look down on our rudders, from which rushed eddying streams of +phosphoric light gemmed with whirling sparks of fire. It resembled (more +nearly than anything else to which I can compare it) one of the large +irregular nebulous star-clusters seen through a good telescope, with the +additional attraction of ever-changing form and dancing motion. + +Dec. 23d.-Fine red sunrise; the island we left last evening barely +visible behind us. The Goram prau about a mile south of us. They have +no compass, yet they have kept a very true course during the night. +Our owner tells me they do it by the swell of the sea, the direction of +which they notice at sunset, and sail by it during the night. In these +seas they are never (in fine weather) more than two days without seeing +land. Of course adverse winds or currents sometimes carry them away, +but they soon fall in with some island, and there are always some old +sailors on board who know it, and thence take a new course. Last night +a shark about five feet long was caught, and this morning it was cut up +and cooked. In the afternoon they got another, and I had a little fried, +and found it firm and dry, but very palatable. In the evening the sun +set in a heavy bank of clouds, which, as darkness came on, assumed a +fearfully black appearance. According to custom, when strong wind or +rain is expected, our large sails-were furled, and with their yards let +down on deck, and a small square foresail alone kept up. The great mat +sails are most awkward things to manage in rough weather. The yards +which support them are seventy feet long, and of course very heavy, and +the only way to furl them being to roll up the sail on the boom, it is +a very dangerous thing to have them standing when overtaken by a squall. +Our crew; though numerous enough for a vessel of 700 instead of one of +70 tons, have it very much their own way, and there seems to be seldom +more than a dozen at work at a time. When anything important is to +be done, however, all start up willingly enough, but then all think +themselves at liberty to give their opinion, and half a dozen voices are +heard giving orders, and there is such a shrieking and confusion that it +seems wonderful anything gets done at all. + +Considering we have fifty men of several tribes and tongues onboard, +wild, half-savage looking fellows, and few of them feeling any of the +restraints of morality or education, we get on wonderfully well. There +is no fighting or quarrelling, as there would certainly be among the +same number of Europeans with as little restraint upon their actions, +and there is scarcely any of that noise and excitement which might be +expected. In fine weather the greater part of them are quietly enjoying +themselves--some are sleeping under the shadow of the sails; others, +in little groups of three or four, are talking or chewing betel; one is +making a new handle to his chopping-knife, another is stitching away +at a new pair of trousers or a shirt, and all are as quiet and +well-conducted as on board the best-ordered English merchantman. Two or +three take it by turns to watch in the bows and see after the braces +and halyards of the great sails; the two steersmen are below in the +steerage; our captain, or the juragan, gives the course, guided partly +by the compass and partly by the direction of the wind, and a watch of +two or three on the poop look after the trimming of the sails and call +out the hours by the water-clock. This is a very ingenious contrivance, +which measures time well in both rough weather and fine. It is simply +a bucket half filled with water, in which floats the half of a +well-scraped cocoa-nut shell. In the bottom of this shell is a very +small hole, so that when placed to float in the bucket a fine thread of +water squirts up into it. This gradually fills the shell, and the size +of the hole is so adjusted to the capacity of the vessel that, exactly +at the end of an hour, plump it goes to the bottom. The watch then cries +out the number of hours from sunrise and sets the shell afloat again +empty. This is a very good measurer of time. I tested it with my watch +and found that it hardly varied a minute from one hour to another, nor +did the motion of the vessel have any effect upon it, as the water in +the bucket of course kept level. It has a great advantage for a rude +people in being easily understood, in being rather bulky and easy +to see, and in the final submergence being accompanied with a little +bubbling and commotion of the water, which calls the attention to it. It +is also quickly replaced if lost while in harbour. + +Our captain and owner I find to be a quiet, good-tempered man, who seems +to get on very well with all about him. When at sea he drinks no wine or +spirits, but indulges only in coffee and cakes, morning and afternoon, +in company with his supercargo and assistants. He is a man of some +little education, can read and write well both Dutch and Malay, uses a +compass, and has a chart. He has been a trader to Aru for many years, +and is well known to both Europeans and natives in this part of the +world. + +Dec. 24th.-Fine, and little wind. No land in sight for the first time +since we left Macassar. At noon calm, with heavy showers, in which our +crew wash their clothes, anti in the afternoon the prau is covered with +shirts, trousers, and sarongs of various gay colours. I made a discovery +to-day which at first rather alarmed me. The two ports, or openings, +through which the tillers enter from the lateral rudders are not more +than three or four feet above the surface of the water, which thus has +a free entrance into the vessel. I of course had imagined that this +open space from one side to the other was separated from the hold by +a water-tight bulkhead, so that a sea entering might wash out at the +further side, and do no more harm than give the steersmen a drenching. +To my surprise end dismay, however, I find that it is completely open to +the hold, so that half-a-dozen seas rolling in on a stormy night would +nearly, or quite, swamp us. Think of a vessel going to sea for a month +with two holes, each a yard square, into the hold, at three feet above +the water-line,-holes, too, which cannot possibly be closed! But our +captain says all praus are so; and though he acknowledges the danger, +"he does not know how to alter it--the people are used to it; he does +not understand praus so well as they do, and if such a great alteration +were made, he should be sure to have difficulty in getting a crew!" This +proves at all events that praus must be good sea-boats, for the captain +has been continually making voyages in them for the last ten years, and +says he has never known water enough enter to do any harm. + +Dec.25th.-Christmas-day dawned upon us with gusts of wind, driving rain, +thunder and lightning, added to which a short confused sea made our +queer vessel pitch and roll very uncomfortably. About nine o'clock, +however, it cleared up, and we then saw ahead of us the fine island of +Bouru, perhaps forty or fifty miles distant, its mountains wreathed with +clouds, while its lower lands were still invisible. The afternoon was +fine, and the wind got round again to the west; but although this is +really the west monsoon, there is no regularity or steadiness about it, +calms and breezes from every point of the compass continually occurring. +The captain, though nominally a Protestant, seemed to have no idea of +Christmas-day as a festival. Our dinner was of rice and curry as usual, +and an extra glass of wine was all I could do to celebrate it. + +Dec. 26th.--Fine view of the mountains of Bouru, which we have now +approached considerably. Our crew seem rather a clumsy lot. They do not +walk the deck with the easy swing of English sailors, but hesitate +and stagger like landsmen. In the night the lower boom of our mainsail +broke, and they were all the morning repairing it. It consisted of two +bamboos lashed together, thick end to thin, and was about seventy feet +long. The rigging and arrangement of these praus contrasts strangely +with that of European vessels, in which the various ropes and spars, +though much more numerous, are placed so as not to interfere with each +other's action. Here the case is quite different; for though there are +no shrouds or stays to complicate the matter, yet scarcely anything can +be done without first clearing something else out of the way. The large +sails cannot be shifted round to go on the other tack without first +hauling down the jibs, and the booms of the fore and aft sails have to +be lowered and completely detached to perform the same operation. Then +there are always a lot of ropes foul of each other, and all the sails +can never be set (though they are so few) without a good part of their +surface having the wind kept out of them by others. Yet praus are much +liked even by those who have had European vessels, because of their +cheapness both in first cost and in keeping up; almost all repairs can +be done by the crew, and very few European stores are required. + +Dec. 28th.--This day we saw the Banda group, the volcano first +appearing,--a perfect cone, having very much the outline of the Egyptian +pyramids, and looking almost as regular. In the evening the smoke rested +over its summit like a small stationary cloud. This was my first view +of an active volcano, but pictures and panoramas have so impressed +such things on one's mind, that when we at length behold them they seem +nothing extraordinary. + +Dec. 30th.--Passed the island of Teor, and a group near it, which are +very incorrectly marked on the charts. Flying-fish were numerous to-day. +It is a smaller species than that of the Atlantic, and more active and +elegant in its motions. As they skim along the surface they turn on +their sides, so as fully to display their beautiful fins, taking a +flight of about a hundred yards, rising and falling in a most graceful +manner. At a little distance they exactly resemble swallows, and no one +who sees them can doubt that they really do fly, not merely descend in +an oblique direction from the height they gain by their first spring. In +the evening an aquatic bird, a species of booby (Sula fiber.) rested on +our hen-coop, and was caught by the neck by one of my boys. + +Dec. 31st--At daybreak the Ke Islands (pronounced Kay) were in sight, +where we are to stay a few days. About noon we rounded the northern +point, and endeavoured to coast along to the anchorage; but being now +on the leeward side of the island, the wind came in violent irregular +gusts, and then leaving us altogether, we were carried back by a strong +current. Just then two boats-load of natives appeared, and our owner +having agreed with them to tow us into harbour, they tried to do so, +assisted by our own boat, but could make no way. We were therefore +obliged to anchor in a very dangerous place on a rocky bottom, and we +were engaged till nearly dark getting hawsers secured to some rocks +under water. The coast of Ke along which we had passed was very +picturesque. Light coloured limestone rocks rose abruptly from the water +to the height of several hundred feet, everywhere broken into jutting +peaks and pinnacles, weather-worn into sharp points and honeycombed +surfaces, and clothed throughout with a most varied and luxuriant +vegetation. The cliffs above the sea offered to our view screw-pines +and arborescent Liliaceae of strange forms, mingled with shrubs and +creepers; while the higher slopes supported a dense growth of forest +trees. Here and there little bays and inlets presented beaches of +dazzling whiteness. The water was transparent as crystal, and tinged +the rock-strewn slope which plunged steeply into its unfathomable depths +with colours varying from emerald to lapis-lazuli. The sea was calm as a +lake, and the glorious sun of the tropics threw a flood of golden light +over all. The scene was to me inexpressibly delightful. I was in a new +world, and could dream of the wonderful productions hid in those rocky +forests, and in those azure abysses. But few European feet had ever +trodden the shores I gazed upon its plants, and animals, and men were +alike almost unknown, and I could not help speculating on what my +wanderings there for a few days might bring to light. + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. THE KE ISLANDS. + +(JANUARY 1857) + +THE native boats that had come to meet us were three or four in number, +containing in all about fifty men. + +They were long canoes, with the bow and stern rising up into a beak +six or night feet high, decorated with shells and waving plumes of +cassowaries hair. I now had my first view of Papuans in their own +country, and in less than five minutes was convinced that the opinion +already arrived at by the examination of a few Timor and New Guinea +slaves was substantially correct, and that the people I now had an +opportunity of comparing side by side belonged to two of the most +distinct and strongly marked races that the earth contains. Had I been +blind, I could have been certain that these islanders were not Malays. +The loud, rapid, eager tones, the incessant motion, the intense vital +activity manifested in speech and action, are the very antipodes of the +quiet, unimpulsive, unanimated Malay These Ke men came up singing and +shouting, dipping their paddles deep in the water and throwing up clouds +of spray; as they approached nearer they stood up in their canoes and +increased their noise and gesticulations; and on coming alongside, +without asking leave, and without a moment's hesitation, the greater +part of them scrambled up on our deck just as if they were come to take +possession of a captured vessel. Then commenced a scene of indescribable +confusion. These forty black, naked, mop-headed savages seemed +intoxicated with joy and excitement. Not one of them could remain still +for a moment. Every individual of our crew was in turn surrounded and +examined, asked for tobacco or arrack, grinned at and deserted for +another. All talked at once, and our captain was regularly mobbed by +the chief men, who wanted to be employed to tow us in, and who begged +vociferously to be paid in advance. A few presents of tobacco made their +eyes glisten; they would express their satisfaction by grins and shouts, +by rolling on deck, or by a headlong leap overboard. Schoolboys on an +unexpected holiday, Irishmen at a fair, or mid-shipmen on shore, would +give but a faint idea of the exuberant animal enjoyment of these people. + +Under similar circumstances Malays could not behave as these Papuans +did. If they came on board a vessel (after asking permission), not a +word would be at first spoken, except a few compliments, and only after +some time, and very cautiously, world any approach be made to business. +One would speak at a time, with a low voice and great deliberation, +and the mode of making a bargain would be by quietly refusing all your +offers, or even going away without saying another word about the matter, +unless advanced your price to what they were willing to accept. +Our crew, many of whom had not made the voyage before, seemed quite +scandalized at such unprecedented bad manners, and only very gradually +made any approach to fraternization with the black fellows. They +reminded me of a party of demure and well-behaved children suddenly +broken in upon by a lot of wild romping, riotous boys, whose conduct +seems most extraordinary and very naughty. These moral features are +more striking and more conclusive of absolute diversity than oven +the physical contrast presented by the two races, though that is +sufficiently remarkable. The sooty blackness of the skin, the mop-like +head of frizzly hair, and, most important of all, the marked form of +countenance of quite a different type from that of the Malay, are +what we cannot believe to result from mere climatal or other modifying +influences on one and the same race. The Malay face is of the Mongolian +type, broad and somewhat flat. The brows are depressed, the mouth wide, +but not projecting, and the nose small and well formed but for the great +dilatation of the nostrils. The face is smooth, and rarely develops the +trace of a beard; the hair black, coarse, and perfectly straight. The +Papuan, on the other hand, has a face which we may say is compressed and +projecting. The brows are protuberant and overhanging, the mouth +large and prominent, while the nose is very large, the apex elongated +downwards, the ridge thick, and the nostrils large. It is an obtrusive +and remarkable feature in the countenance, the very reverse of what +obtains in the Malay face. The twisted beard and frizzly hair complete +this remarkable contrast. Hero then I had reached a new world, inhabited +by a strange people. Between the Malayan tribes, among whom I had for +some years been living, and the Papuan races, whose country I had now +entered, we may fairly say that there is as much difference, both +moral and physical, as between the red Indians of South America and the +negroes of Guinea on the opposite side of the Atlantic. + +Jan. 1st, 1857.-This has been a day of thorough enjoyment. I have +wandered in the forests of an island rarely seen by Europeans. Before +daybreak we left our anchorage, and in an hour reached the village of +Har, where we were to stay three or four days. The range of hills here +receded so as to form a small bay, and they were broken up into peaks +and hummocks with intervening flats and hollows. A broad beach of +the whitest sand lined the inner part of the bay, backed by a mass of +cocoa-nut palms, among which the huts were concealed, and surmounted by +a dense and varied growth of timber. Canoes and boats of various sizes +were drawn up on the beach and one or two idlers, with a few children +and a dog, gazed at our prau as we came to an anchor. + +When we went on shore the first thing that attracted us was a large and +well-constructed shed, under which a long boat was being built, while +others in various stages of completion were placed at intervals along +the beach. Our captain, who wanted two of moderate size for the trade +among the islands at Aru, immediately began bargaining for them, and in +a short tine had arranged the nuns number of brass guns, gongs, sarongs, +handkerchiefs, axes, white plates, tobacco, and arrack, which he was to +give for a hair which could be got ready in four days. We then went +to the village, which consisted only of three or four huts, situated +immediately above the beach on an irregular rocky piece of ground +overshadowed with cocoa-nuts, palms, bananas, and other fruit trees. +The houses were very rude, black, and half rotten, raised a few feet on +posts with low sides of bamboo or planks, and high thatched roofs. They +had small doors and no windows, an opening under the projecting gables +letting the smoke out and a little light in. The floors were of strips +of bamboo, thin, slippery, and elastic, and so weak that my feet were +in danger of plunging through at every step. Native boxes of +pandanus-leaves and slabs of palm pith, very neatly constructed, mats +of the same, jars and cooking pots of native pottery, and a few European +plates and basins, were the whole furniture, and the interior was +throughout dark and smoke-blackened, and dismal in the extreme. + +Accompanied by Ali and Baderoon, I now attempted to make some +explorations, and we were followed by a train of boys eager to see what +we were going to do. The most trodden path from the beach led us into a +shady hollow, where the trees were of immense height and the undergrowth +scanty. From the summits of these trees came at intervals a deep booming +sound, which at first puzzled us, but which we soon found to proceed +from some large pigeons. My boys shot at them, and after one or two +misses, brought one down. It was a magnificent bird twenty inches long, +of a bluish white colour, with the back wings and tail intense metallic +green, with golden, blue, and violet reflexions, the feet coral red, +and the eyes golden yellow. It is a rare species, which I have named +Carpophaga concinna, and is found only in a few small islands, where, +however, it abounds. It is the same species which in the island of Banda +is called the nutmeg-pigeon, from its habit of devouring the fruits, +the seed or nutmeg being thrown up entire and uninjured. Though these +pigeons have a narrow beak, yet their jaws and throat are so extensible +that they can swallow fruits of very large size. I had before shot a +species much smaller than this one, which had a number of hard globular +palm-fruits in its crop, each more than an inch in diameter. + +A little further the path divided into two, one leading along the beach, +and across mangrove and sago swamps the other rising to cultivated +grounds. We therefore returned, and taking a fresh departure from +the village, endeavoured to ascend the hills and penetrate into the +interior. The path, however, was a most trying one. Where there was +earth, it was a deposit of reddish clay overlying the rock, and was worn +so smooth by the attrition of naked feet that my shoes could obtain no +hold on the sloping surface. A little farther we came to the bare rock, +and this was worse, for it was so rugged and broken, and so honeycombed +and weatherworn into sharp points and angles, that my boys, who had +gone barefooted all their lives, could not stand it. Their feet began to +bleed, and I saw that if I did not want them completely lamed it would +be wise to turn lack. My own shoes, which were rather thin, were but a +poor protection, and would soon have been cut to pieces; yet our little +naked guides tripped along with the greatest ease and unconcern, and +seemed much astonished at our effeminacy in not being able to take a +walk which to them was a perfectly agreeable one. During the rest of our +stay in the island we were obliged to confine ourselves to the vicinity +of the shore and the cultivated grounds, and those more level portions +of the forest where a little soil had accumulated and the rock had been +less exposed to atmospheric action. + +The island of Ke (pronounced exactly as the letter K, but erroneously +spelt in our maps Key or Ki) is long and narrow, running in a north and +south direction, and consists almost entirely of rock and mountain. It +is everywhere covered with luxuriant forests, and in its bays and inlets +the sand is of dazzling whiteness, resulting from the decomposition of +the coralline limestone of which it is entirely composed. In all the +little swampy inlets and valleys sago trees abound, and these supply the +main subsistence of the natives, who grow no rice, and have scarcely any +other cultivated products but cocoa-nuts, plantains, and yams. From the +cocoa-nuts, which surround every hut, and which thrive exceedingly on +the porous limestone soil and under the influence of salt breezes, oil +is made which is sold at a good price to the Aru traders, who all touch +here to lay in their stuck of this article, as well as to purchase boats +and native crockery. Wooden bowls, pans, and trays are also largely made +here, hewn out of solid blocks of wood with knife and adze; and these +are carried to all parts of the Moluccas. But the art in which the +natives of Ke pre-eminently excel is that of boat building. Their +forests supply abundance of fine timber, though, probably not more +so than many other islands, and from some unknown causes these remote +savages have come to excel in what seems a very difficult art. Their +small canoes are beautifully formed, broad and low in the centre, but +rising at each end, where they terminate in high-pointed beaks more +or less carved, and ornamented with a plume of feathers. They are not +hollowed out of a tree, but are regularly built of planks running from +ego to end, and so accurately fitted that it is often difficult to find +a place where a knife-blade can be inserted between the joints. The +larger ones are from 20 to 30 tons burthen, and are finished ready for +sea without a nail or particle of iron being used, and with no other +tools than axe, adze, and auger. These vessels are handsome to look at, +good sailers, and admirable sea-boats, and will make long voyages with +perfect safety, traversing the whole Archipelago from New Guinea to +Singapore in seas which, as every one who has sailed much in them can +testify, are not so smooth and tempest-free as word-painting travellers +love to represent them. + +The forests of Ke produce magnificent timber, tall, straight, and +durable, of various qualities, some of which are said to be superior +to the best Indian teak. To make each pair of planks used in the +construction of the larger boats an entire tree is consumed. It is +felled, often miles away from the shore, cut across to the proper +length, and then hewn longitudinally into two equal portions. Each of +these forms a plank by cutting down with the axe to a uniform thickness +of three or four inches, leaving at first a solid block at each end to +prevent splitting. Along the centre of each plank a series of projecting +pieces are left, standing up three or four inches, about the same width, +and a foot long; these are of great importance in the construction of +the vessel. When a sufficient number of planks have been made, they are +laboriously dragged through the forest by three or four men each to the +beach, where the boat is to be built. A foundation piece, broad in the +middle and rising considerably at each end, is first laid on blocks and +properly shored up. The edges of this are worked true and smooth with +the adze, and a plank, properly curved and tapering at each end, is held +firmly up against it, while a line is struck along it which allows it to +be cut so as to fit exactly. A series of auger holes, about as large as +one's finger, are then bored along the opposite edges, and pins of very +hard wood are fitted to these, so that the two planks are held firmly, +and can be driven into the closest contact; and difficult as this seems +to do without any other aid than rude practical skill in forming each +edge to the true corresponding curves, and in poring the holes so as +exactly to match both in position and direction, yet so well is it +done that the best European shipwright cannot produce sounder or +closer-fitting joints. The boat is built up in this way by fitting plank +to plank till the proper height and width are obtained. We have now a +skin held together entirely by the hardwood pins connecting the edges of +the planks, very strong and elastic, but having nothing but the adhesion +of these pins to prevent the planks gaping. In the smaller boats seats, +in the larger ones cross-beams, are now fixed. They are sprung into +slight notches cut to receive them, and are further secured to the +projecting pieces of the plank below by a strong lashing of rattan. Ribs +are now formed of single pieces of tough wood chosen and trimmed so as +exactly to fit on to the projections from each plank, being slightly +notched to receive them, and securely bound to them by rattans passed +through a hole in each projecting piece close to the surface of the +plank. The ends are closed against the vertical prow and stern posts, +and further secured with pegs and rattans, and then the boat is +complete; and when fitted with rudders, masts, and thatched covering, +is ready to do battle with, the waves. A careful consideration of the +principle of this mode of construction, and allowing for the strength +and binding qualities of rattan (which resembles in these respects wire +rather than cordage), makes me believe that a vessel carefully built +in this manner is actually stronger and safer than one fastened in the +ordinary way with nails. + +During our stay here we were all very busy. Our captain was daily +superintending the completion of his two small praus. All day long +native boats were coming with fish, cocoa-nuts, parrots and lories, +earthen pans, sirip leaf, wooden bowls, and trays, &c. &e., which every +one of the fifty inhabitants of our prau seemed to be buying on his own +account, till all available and most unavailable space of our vessel +was occupied with these miscellaneous articles: for every man on board +a prau considers himself at liberty to trade, and to carry with him +whatever he can afford to buy. + +Money is unknown and valueless here--knives, cloth, and arrack forming +the only medium of exchange, with tobacco for small coin. Every +transaction is the subject of a special bargain, and the cause of much +talking. It is absolutely necessary to offer very little, as the natives +are never satisfied till you add a little more. They are then far better +pleased than if you had given them twice the amount at first and refused +to increase it. + +I, too, was doing a little business, having persuaded some of the +natives to collect insects for me; and when they really found that I +gave them most fragrant tobacco for worthless black and green beetles, I +soon had scores of visitors, men, women, and children, bringing bamboos +full of creeping things, which, alas! too frequently had eaten each +other into fragments during the tedium of a day's confinement. Of one +grand new beetle, glittering with ruby and emerald tints, I got a large +quantity, having first detected one of its wing-cases ornamenting the +outside of a native's tobacco pouch. It was quite a new species, and had +not been found elsewhere than on this little island. It is one of the +Buprestidae, and has been named Cyphogastra calepyga. + +Each morning after an early breakfast I wandered by myself into the +forest, where I found delightful occupation in capturing the large and +handsome butterflies, which were tolerably abundant, and most of them +new to me; for I was now upon the confines of the Moluccas and New +Guinea,--a region the productions of which were then among the most +precious and rare in the cabinets of Europe. Here my eyes were feasted +for the first time with splendid scarlet lories on the wing, as well +as by the sight of that most imperial butterfly, the "Priamus" of +collectors, or a closely allied species, but flying so high that I did +not succeed in capturing a specimen. One of them was brought me in a +bamboo, bored up with a lot of beetles, and of course torn to pieces. +The principal drawback of the place for a collector is the want of good +paths, and the dreadfully rugged character of the surface, requiring +the attention to be so continually directed to securing a footing, as to +make it very difficult to capture active winged things, who pass out of +reach while one is glancing to see that the next step may not plunge one +into a chasm or over a precipice. Another inconvenience is that there +are no running streams, the rock being of so porous a nature that the +surface-water everywhere penetrates its fissures; at least such is the +character of the neighbourhood we visited, the only water being small +springs trickling out close to the sea-beach. + +In the forests of Ke, arboreal Liliaceae and Pandanaceae abound, and +give a character to the vegetation in the more exposed rocky places. +Flowers were scarce, and there were not many orchids, but I noticed +the fine white butterfly-orchis, Phalaenopsis grandiflora, or a species +closely allied to it. The freshness and vigour of the vegetation was +very pleasing, and on such an arid rocky surface was a sure indication +of a perpetually humid climate. Tall clean trunks, many of them +buttressed, and immense trees of the fig family, with aerial roots +stretching out and interlacing and matted together for fifty or a +hundred feet above the ground, were the characteristic features; and +there was an absence of thorny shrubs and prickly rattans, which would +have made these wilds very pleasant to roam in, had it not been for +the sharp honeycombed rocks already alluded to. In damp places a fine +undergrowth of broadleaved herbaceous plants was found, about which +swarmed little green lizards, with tails of the most "heavenly blue," +twisting in and out among the stalks and foliage so actively that I +often caught glimpses of their tails only, when they startled me by +their resemblance to small snakes. Almost the only sounds in these +primeval woods proceeded from two birds, the red lories, who utter +shrill screams like most of the parrot tribe, and the large green +nutmeg-pigeon, whose voice is either a loud and deep boom, like two +notes struck upon a very large gong, or sometimes a harsh toad-like +croak, altogether peculiar and remarkable. Only two quadrupeds are +said by the natives to inhabit the island--a wild pig and a Cuscus, or +Eastern opossum, of neither of which could I obtain specimens. + +The insects were more abundant, and very interesting. Of butterflies +I caught thirty-five species, most of them new to me, and many quite +unknown in European collections. Among them was the fine yellow and +black Papilio euchenor, of which but few specimens had been previously +captured, and several other handsome butterflies of large size, as well +as some beautiful little "blues," and some brilliant dayflying moths. +The beetle tribe were less abundant, yet I obtained some very fine and +rare species. On the leaves of a slender shrub in an old clearing I +found several fine blue and black beetles of the genus Eupholus, which +almost rival in beauty the diamond beetles of South America. Some +cocoa-nut palms in blossom on the beach were frequented by a fine green +floral beetle (Lomaptera) which, when the flowers were shaken, flew off +like a small swarm of bees. I got one of our crew to climb up the +tree, and he brought me a good number in his hand; and seeing they were +valuable, I sent him up again with my net to shake the flowers into, and +thus secured a large quantity. My best capture, however, was the +superb insect of the Buprestis family, already mentioned as having been +obtained from the natives, who told me they found it in rotten trees in +the mountains. + +In the forest itself the only common and conspicuous coleoptera were +two tiger beetles. One, Therates labiata, was much larger than our green +tiger beetle, of a purple black colour, with green metallic glosses, +and the broad upper lip of a bright yellow. It was always found upon +foliage, generally of broad-leaned herbaceous plants, and in damp and +gloomy situations, taking frequent short flights from leaf to leaf, and +preserving an alert attitude, as if always looking out for its prey. Its +vicinity could be immediately ascertained, often before it was seen, +by a very pleasant odour, like otto of roses, which it seems to emit +continually, and which may probably be attractive to the small insects +on which it feeds. The other, Tricondyla aptera, is one of the +most curious forms in the family of the Cicindelidae, and is almost +exclusively confined to the Malay islands. In shape it resembles a very +large ant, more than an inch long, and of a purple black colour. Like an +ant also it is wingless, and is generally found ascending trees, passing +around the trunks in a spiral direction when approached, to avoid +capture, so that it requires a sudden run and active fingers to secure +a specimen. This species emits the usual fetid odour of the ground +beetles. My collections during our four days' stay at Ke were as +follow:--Birds, 13 species; insects, 194 species; and 3 kinds of +land-shells. + +There are two kinds of people inhabiting these islands--the indigenes, +who have the Papuan characters strongly marked, and who are pagans; and +a mixed race, who are nominally Mahometans, and wear cotton clothing, +while the former use only a waist cloth of cotton or bark. These +Mahometans are said to have been driven out of Banda by the early +European settlers. They were probably a brown race, more allied to the +Malays, and their mixed descendants here exhibit great variations of +colour, hair, and features, graduating between the Malay and Papuan +types. It is interesting to observe the influence of the early +Portuguese trade with these countries in the words of their language, +which still remain in use even among these remote and savage islanders. +"Lenco" for handkerchief, and "faca" for knife, are here used to the +exclusion of the proper Malay terms. The Portuguese and Spaniards were +truly wonderful conquerors and colonizers. They effected more rapid +changes in the countries they conquered than any other nations of modern +times, resembling the Romans in their power of impressing their own +language, religion, and manners on rode and barbarous tribes. + +The striking contrast of character between these people and the Malays +is exemplified in many little traits. One day when I was rambling in the +forest, an old man stopped to look at me catching an insect. He stood +very quiet till I had pinned and put it away in my collecting box, when +he could contain himself no longer, but bent almost double, and enjoyed +a hearty roar of laughter. Every one will recognise this as a true negro +trait. A Malay would have stared, and asked with a tone of bewilderment +what I was doing, for it is but little in his nature to laugh, never +heartily, and still less at or in the presence of a stranger, to whom, +however, his disdainful glances or whispered remarks are less agreeable +than the most boisterous open expression of merriment. The women here +were not so much frightened at strangers, or made to keep themselves so +much secluded as among the Malay races; the children were more merry and +had the "nigger grin," while the noisy confusion of tongues among the +men, and their excitement on very ordinary occasions, are altogether +removed from the general taciturnity and reserve of the Malay. + +The language of the Ke people consists of words of one, two, or three +syllables in about equal proportions, and has many aspirated and a +few guttural sounds. The different villages have slight differences of +dialect, but they are mutually intelligible, and, except in words +that have evidently been introduced during a long-continued commercial +intercourse, seem to have no affinity whatever with the Malay languages. + +Jan. 6th.-The small boats being finished, we sailed for Aru at 4 P.M., +and as we left the shores of Ke had a line view of its rugged and +mountainous character; ranges of hills, three or four thousand feet +high, stretching southwards as far as the eye could reach, everywhere +covered with a lofty, dense, and unbroken forest. We had very light +winds, and it therefore took us thirty hours to make the passage of +sixty miles to the low, or flat, but equally forest-covered Aru Islands, +where we anchored in the harbour of Dobbo at nine in the evening of the +next day. + +My first voyage in a prau being thus satisfactorily terminated, I must, +before taking leave of it for some months, bear testimony to the merits +of the queer old-world vessel. Setting aside all ideas of danger, which +is probably, after all, not more than in any other craft, I must declare +that I have never, either before or since, made a twenty days' voyage +so pleasantly, or perhaps, more correctly speaking, with so little +discomfort. This I attribute chiefly to having my small cabin on deck, +and entirely to myself, to having my own servants to wait upon me, and +to the absence of all those marine-store smells of paint, pitch, tallow, +and new cordage, which are to me insupportable. Something is also to be +put down to freedom from all restraint of dress, hours of meals, &c., +and to the civility and obliging disposition of the captain. I had +agreed to have my meals with him, but whenever I wished it I had them in +my own berth, and at what hours I felt inclined. The crew were all civil +and good-tempered, and with very little discipline everything went on +smoothly, and the vessel was kept very clean and in pretty good order, +so that on the whole I was much delighted with the trip, and was +inclined to rate the luxuries of the semi-barbarous prau as surpassing +those of the most magnificent screw-steamer, that highest result of our +civilisation. + + + +CHAPTER XXX. THE ARU ISLANDS--RESIDENCE IN DOBBO + +(JANUARY TO MARCH 1857.) + +On the 8th of January, 1857, I landed at Dobbo, the trading settlement +of the Bugis and Chinese, who annually visit the Aru Islands. It +is situated on the small island of Wamma, upon a spit of sand which +projects out to the north, and is just wide enough to contain three rows +of houses. Though at first sight a most strange and desolate-looking +place to build a village on, it has many advantages. There is a clear +entrance from the west among the coral reefs that border the land, and +there is good anchorage for vessels, on one side of the village or the +other, in both the east and west monsoons. Being fully exposed to the +sea-breezes in three directions it is healthy, and the soft sandy heath +offers great facilities for hauling up the praus, in order to secure +them from sea-worms and prepare them for the homeward voyage. At its +southern extremity the sand-bank merges in the beach of the island, +and is backed by a luxuriant growth of lofty forest. The houses are of +various sizes, but are all built after one pattern, being merely large +thatched sheds, a small portion of which, next the entrance, is used as +a dwelling, while the rest is parted oft; and often divided by one or +two floors, in order better to stow away merchandise and native produce. + +As we had arrived early in the season, most of the houses were +empty, and the place looked desolate in the extreme--the whole of +the inhabitants who received us on our landing amounting to about +half-a-dozen Bugis and Chinese. Our captain, Herr Warzbergen, had +promised to obtain a house for me, but unforeseen difficulties presented +themselves. One which was to let had no roof; and the owner, who was +building it on speculation, could not promise to finish it in less +than a month. Another, of which the owner was dead, and which I might +therefore take undisputed possession of as the first comer, wanted +considerable repairs, and no one could be found to do the work, +although about four times its value was offered. The captain, therefore, +recommended me to take possession of a pretty good house near his own, +whose owner was not expected for some weeks; and as I was anxious to be +on shore, I immediately had it cleared out, and by evening had all my +things housed, and was regularly installed as an inhabitant of Dobbo. +I had brought with me a cane chair, and a few light boards, which were +soon rigged up into a table and shelves. A broad bamboo bench served as +sofa and bedstead, my boxes were conveniently arranged, my mats spread +on the floor, a window cut in the palm-leaf wall to light my table, +and though the place was as miserable and gloomy a shed as could be +imagined, I felt as contented as if I had obtained a well-furnished +mansion, and looked forward to a month's residence in it with unmixed +satisfaction. + +The next morning, after an early breakfast, I set off to explore +the virgin forests of Aru, anxious to set my mind at rest as to the +treasures they were likely to yield, and the probable success of my +long-meditated expedition. A little native imp was our guide, seduced by +the gift of a German knife, value three-halfpence, and my Macassar boy +Baderoon brought his chopper to clear the path if necessary. + +We had to walk about half a mile along the beach, the ground behind the +village being mostly swampy, and then turned into the forest along a +path which leads to the native village of Wamma, about three miles off +on the other side of the island. The path was a narrow one, and very +little used, often swampy and obstructed by fallen trees, so that after +about a mile we lost it altogether, our guide having turned back, and we +were obliged to follow his example. In the meantime, however, I had not +been idle, and my day's captures determined the success of my journey +in an entomological point of view. I had taken about thirty species of +butterflies, more than I had ever captured in a day since leaving the +prolific banks of the Amazon, and among them were many most rare and +beautiful insects, hitherto only known by a few specimens from New +Guinea. The large and handsome spectre butterfly, Hestia durvillei; the +pale-winged peacock butterfly, Drusilla catops; and the most brilliant +and wonderful of the clear-winged moths, Cocytia durvillei, were +especially interesting, as well, as several little "blues," equalling in +brilliancy and beauty anything the butterfly world can produce. In the +other groups of insects I was not so successful, but this was not to +be wondered at in a mere exploring ramble, when only what is most +conspicuous and novel attracts the attention. Several pretty beetles, a +superb "bug," and a few nice land-shells were obtained, and I returned +in the afternoon well satisfied with my first trial of the promised +land. + +The next two days were so wet and windy that there was no going out; but +on the succeeding one the sun shone brightly, and I had the good fortune +to capture one of the most magnificent insects the world contains, the +great bird-winged butterfly, Ornithoptera Poseidon. I trembled with +excitement as I saw it coming majestically towards me, and could hardly +believe I had really succeeded in my stroke till I had taken it out +of the net and was gazing, lost in admiration, at the velvet black and +brilliant green of its wings, seven inches across, its bolder body, and +crimson breast. It is true I had seen similar insects in cabinets at +home, but it is quite another thing to capture such oneself-to feel it +struggling between one's fingers, and to gaze upon its fresh and living +beauty, a bright gem shirring out amid the silent gloom of a dark and +tangled forest. The village of Dobbo held that evening at least one +contented man. + +Jan. 26th.--Having now been here a fortnight, I began to understand a +little of the place and its peculiarities. Praus continually arrived, +and the merchant population increased almost daily. Every two or three +days a fresh house was opened, and the necessary repairs made. In every +direction men were bringing in poles, bamboos, rattans, and the leaves +of the nipa palm to construct or repair the walls, thatch, doors, and +shutters of their houses, which they do with great celerity. Some of the +arrivals were Macassar men or Bugis, but more from the small island of +Goram, at the east end of Ceram, whose inhabitants are the petty traders +of the far East. Then the natives of Aru come in from the other side of +the islands (called here "blakang tana," or "back of the country") with +the produce they have collected during the preceding six months, and +which they now sell to the traders, to some of whom they are most likely +in debt. + +Almost all, or I may safely say all, the new arrivals pay me a visit, +to see with their own eyes the unheard-of phenomenon of a person come to +stay at Dobbo who does not trade! They have their own ideas of the uses +that may possibly be made of stuffed birds, beetles, and shells which +are not the right shells--that is, "mother-of-pearl." They every day +bring me dead and broken shells, such as I can pick up by hundreds on +the beach, and seem quite puzzled and distressed when I decline them. +If, however, there are any snail shells among a lot, I take them, and +ask for more--a principle of selection so utterly unintelligible to +them, that they give it up in despair, or solve the problem by imputing +hidden medical virtue to those which they see me preserve so carefully. + +These traders are all of the Malay race, or a mixture of which Malay is +the chef ingredient, with the exception of a few Chinese. The natives of +Aru, on the other hand, are, Papuans, with black or sooty brown skims, +woolly or frizzly hair, thick-ridged prominent noses, and rather slender +limbs. Most of them wear nothing but a waist-cloth, and a few of them +may be seen all day long wandering about the half-deserted streets of +Dobbo offering their little bit of merchandise for sale. + +Living in a trader's house everything is brought to me as well as to +the rest,--bundles of smoked tripang, or "beche de mer," looking like +sausages which have been rolled in mud and then thrown up the chimney; +dried sharks' fins, mother-of-pearl shells, as well as birds of +Paradise, which, however, are so dirty and so badly preserved that I +have as yet found no specimens worth purchasing. When I hardly look at +the articles, and make no offer for them, they seem incredulous, and, +as if fearing they have misunderstood me, again offer them, and declare +what they want in return--knives, or tobacco, or sago, or handkerchiefs. +I then have to endeavour to explain, through any interpreter who may be +at hand, that neither tripang nor pearl oyster shells have any charms +for me, and that I even decline to speculate in tortoiseshell, but that +anything eatable I will buy--fish, or turtle, or vegetables of any sort. +Almost the only food, however, that we can obtain with any regularity, +are fish and cockles of very good quality, and to supply our daily +wants it is absolutely necessary to be always provided with four +articles--tobacco, knives, sago-cakes, and Dutch copper doits--because +when the particular thing asked for is not forthcoming, the fish pass +on to the next house, and we may go that day without a dinner. It +is curious to see the baskets and buckets used here. The cockles are +brought in large volute shells, probably the Cymbium ducale, while +gigantic helmet-shells, a species of Cassis, suspended by a rattan +handle, form the vessels in which fresh water is daily carried past my +door. It is painful to a naturalist to see these splendid shells with +their inner whorls ruthlessly broken away to fit them for their ignoble +use. + +My collections, however, got on but slowly, owing to the unexpectedly +bad weather, violent winds with heavy showers having been so continuous +as only to give me four good collecting days out of the first sixteen I +spent here. Yet enough had been collected to show me that with time and +fine weather I might expect to do something good. From the natives I +obtained some very fine insects and a few pretty land-shells; and of +the small number of birds yet shot more than half were known New Guinea +species, and therefore certainly rare in European collections, while the +remainder were probably new. In one respect my hopes seemed doomed to +be disappointed. I had anticipated the pleasure of myself preparing fine +specimens of the Birds of Paradise, but I now learnt that they are all +at this season out of plumage, and that it is in September and October +that they have the long plumes of yellow silky feathers in full +perfection. As all the praus return in July, I should not be able to +spend that season in Aru without remaining another whole year, which +was out of the question. I was informed, however, that the small +red species, the "King Bird of Paradise," retains its plumage at all +seasons, and this I might therefore hope to get. + +As I became familiar with the forest scenery of the island, I perceived +it to possess some characteristic features that distinguished it +from that of Borneo and Malacca, while, what is very singular and +interesting, it recalled to my mind the half-forgotten impressions of +the forests of Equatorial America. For example, the palms were much more +abundant than I had generally found them in the East, more generally +mingled with the other vegetation, more varied in form and aspect, +and presenting some of those lofty and majestic smooth-stemmed, +pinnate-leaved species which recall the Uauassu (Attalea speciosa) of +the Amazon, but which I had hitherto rarely met with in the Malayan +islands. + +In animal life the immense number and variety of spiders and of lizards +were circumstances that recalled the prolific regions of south America, +more especially the abundance and varied colours of the little jumping +spiders which abound on flowers and foliage, and are often perfect gems +of beauty. The web-spinning species were also more numerous than I had +ever seen them, and were a great annoyance, stretching their nets +across the footpaths just about the height of my face; and the threads +composing these are so strong and glutinous as to require much trouble +to free oneself from them. Then their inhabitants, great yellow-spotted +monsters with bodies two inches long, and legs in proportion, are +not pleasant to o run one's nose against while pursuing some gorgeous +butterfly, or gazing aloft in search of some strange-voiced bird. I soon +found it necessary not only to brush away the web, but also to destroy +the spinner; for at first, having cleared the path one day, I found the +next morning that the industrious insects had spread their nets again in +the very same places. + +The lizards were equally striking by their numbers, variety, and the +situations in which they were found. The beautiful blue-tailed species +so abundant in Ke was not seen here. The Aru lizards are more varied +but more sombre in their colours--shades of green, grey, brown, and even +black, being very frequently seen. Every shrub and herbaceous plant was +alive with them, every rotten trunk or dead branch served as a station +for some of these active little insect-hunters, who, I fear, to satisfy +their gross appetites, destroy many gems of the insect world, which +would feast the eyes and delight the heart of our more discriminating +entomologists. Another curious feature of the jungle here was the +multitude of sea-shells everywhere met with on the ground and high up on +the branches and foliage, all inhabited by hermit-crabs, who forsake the +beach to wander in the forest. I lave actually seen a spider carrying +away a good-sized shell and devouring its (probably juvenile) tenant. On +the beach, which I had to walls along every morning to reach the forest, +these creatures swarmed by thousands. Every dead shell, from the largest +to the most minute, was appropriated by them. They formed small social +parties of ten or twenty around bits of stick or seaweed, but dispersed +hurriedly at the sound of approaching footsteps. After a windy night, +that nasty-looking Chinese delicacy the sea-slug was sometimes thrown +up on the beach, which was at such times thickly strewn with some of the +most beautiful shells that adorn our cabinets, along with fragments +and masses of coral and strange sponges, of which I picked up more than +twenty different sorts. In many cases sponge and coral are so much +alike that it is only on touching them that they can be distinguished. +Quantities of seaweed, too, are thrown up; but strange as it may seem, +these are far less beautiful and less varied than may be found on any +favourable part of our own coasts. + +The natives here, even those who seem to be of pare Papuan race, were +much more reserved and taciturn than those of Ke. This is probably +because I only saw them as yet among strangers and in small parties, +One must see the savage at home to know what he really is. Even here, +however, the Papuan character sometimes breaks out. Little boys sing +cheerfully as they walk along, or talk aloud to themselves (quite a +negro characteristic); and try all they can, the men cannot conceal +their emotions in the true Malay fashion. A number of them were one day +in my house, and having a fancy to try what sort of eating tripang would +be, I bought a couple, paying for them with such an extravagant quantity +of tobacco that the seller saw I was a green customer. He could not, +however, conceal his delight, but as he smelt the fragrant weed, and +exhibited the large handful to his companions, he grinned and twisted +and gave silent chuckles in a most expressive pantomime. I had often +before made the same mistake in paying a Malay for some trifle. In no +case, however, was his pleasure visible on his countenance--a dull and +stupid hesitation only showing his surprise, which would be exhibited +exactly in the same way whether he was over or under paid. These little +moral traits are of the greatest interest when taken in connexion with +physical features. They do not admit of the same ready explanation by +external causes which is so frequently applied to the latter. Writers +on the races of mankind have too often to trust to the information of +travellers who pass rapidly from country to country, and thus have few +opportunities of becoming acquainted with peculiarities of national +character, or even of ascertaining what is really the average physical +conformation of the people. Such are exceedingly apt to be deceived +in places where two races have long, intermingled, by looking on +intermediate forms and mixed habits as evidences of a natural transition +from one race to the other, instead of an artificial mixture of two +distinct peoples; and they will be the more readily led into this error +if, as in the present case, writers on the subject should have been in +the habit of classing these races as mere varieties of one stock, as +closely related in physical conformation as from their geographical +proximity one might suppose they ought to be. So far as I have yet seen, +the Malay and Papuan appear to be as widely separated as any two human +races that exist, being distinguished by physical, mental, and moral +characteristics, all of the most marked and striking kind. + +Feb 5th.--I took advantage of a very fine calm day to pay a visit to the +island of Wokan, which is about a mile from us, and forms part of the +"canna busar," or mainland of Aru. This is a large island, extending +from north to south about a hundred miles, but so low in many parts as +to be intersected by several creeks, which run completely through it, +offering a passage for good-sized vessels. On the west side, where we +are, there are only a few outlying islands, of which ours (Wamma) is +the principal; but on the east coast are a great number of islands, +extending some miles beyond the mainland, and forming the "blakang +tang," or "back country," of the traders, being the principal seat of +the pearl, tripang, and tortoiseshell fisheries. To the mainland many of +the birds and animals of the country are altogether confined; the +Birds of paradise, the black cockatoo, the great brush-turkey, and +the cassowary, are none of them found on Wamma or any of the detached +islands. I did not, however, expect in this excursion to see any decided +difference in the forest or its productions, and was therefore agreeably +surprised. The beach was overhung with the drooping branches of lame +trees, loaded with Orchideae, ferns, and other epiphytal plants. In the +forest there was more variety, some parts being dry, and with trees of +a lower growth, while in others there were some of the most beautiful +palms I have ever seen, with a perfectly straight, smooth, slender stem, +a hundred feet high, and a crown of handsome drooping leaves. But +the greatest novelty and most striking feature to my eyes were the +tree-ferns, which, after seven years spent in the tropics, I now saw in +perfection for the first time. All I had hitherto met with were slender +species, not more than twelve feet high, and they gave not the least +idea of the supreme beauty of trees bearing their elegant heads +of fronds more than thirty feet in the air, like those which were +plentifully scattered about this forest. There is nothing in tropical +vegetation so perfectly beautiful. + +My boys shot five sorts of birds, none of which we had obtained during +a month's shooting in Wamma. Two were very pretty flycatchers, already +known from New Guinea; one of them (Monarcha chrysomela), of brilliant +black and bright orange colours, is by some authors considered to be the +most beautiful of all flycatchers; the other is pure white and velvety +black, with a broad fleshy ring round the eye of are azure blue colour; +it is named the "spectacled flycatcher" (Monarcha telescopthalma), +and was first found in New Guinea, along with the other, by the French +naturalists during the voyage of the discovery-ship Coquille. + +Feb. 18th.--Before leaving Macassar, I had written to the Governor of +Amboyna requesting him to assist me with the native chiefs of Aru. I now +received by a vessel which had arrived from Amboyna a very polite answer +informing me that orders had been sent to give me every assistance that +I might require; and I was just congratulating myself on being at +length able to get a boat and men to go to the mainland and explore +the interior, when a sudden check came in the form of a piratical +incursion. A small prau arrived which had been attacked by pirates and +had a man wounded. They were said to have five boats, but more were +expected to be behind and the traders were all in consternation, fearing +that their small vessels sent trading to the "blakang tana" would be +plundered. The Aru natives were of course dreadfully alarmed, as these +marauders attack their villages, burn and murder, and carry away women +and children for slaves. Not a man will stir from his village for some +time, and I must remain still a prisoner in Dobbo. The Governor of +Amboyna, out of pure kindness, has told the chiefs that they are to be +responsible for my safety, so that they have au excellent excuse for +refusing to stir. + +Several praus went out in search of the pirates, sentinels were +appointed, and watch-fires lighted on the beach to guard against the +possibility of a night attack, though it was hardly thought they would +be bold enough to attempt to plunder Dobbo. The next day the praus +returned, and we had positive information that these scourges of the +Eastern seas were really among us. One of Herr Warzbergen's small praus +also arrived in a sad plight. It had been attacked six days before, just +as it was returning, from the "blakang tana." The crew escaped in +their small boat and hid in the jungle, while the pirates came up +and plundered the vessel. They took away everything but the cargo of +mother-of-pearl shell, which was too bulky for them. All the clothes and +boxes of the men, and the sails and cordage of the prau, were cleared +off. They had four large war boats, and fired a volley of musketry as +they came up, and sent off their small boats to the attack. After they +had left, our men observed from their concealment that three had stayed +behind with a small boat; and being driven to desperation by the sight +of the plundering, one brave fellow swam off armed only with his parang, +or chopping-knife, and coming on them unawares made a desperate attack, +killing one and wounding the other two, receiving himself numbers of +slight wounds, and then swimming off again when almost exhausted. Two +other prams were also plundered, and the crew of one of them murdered to +a man. They are said to be Sooloo pirates, but have Bugis among them. +On their way here they have devastated one of the small islands east of +Ceram. It is now eleven years since they have visited Aru, and by thus +making their attacks at long and uncertain intervals the alarm +dies away, and they find a population for the most part unarmed and +unsuspicious of danger. None of the small trading vessels now carry +arms, though they did so for a year or two after the last attack, which +was just the time when there was the least occasion for it. A week later +one of the smaller pirate boats was captured in the "blakang tana." +Seven men were killed and three taken prisoners. The larger vessels have +been often seen but cannot be caught, as they have very strong crews, +and can always escape by rowing out to sea in the eye of the wind, +returning at night. They will thus remain among the innumerable islands +and channels, till the change of the monsoon enables them to sail +westward. + +March 9th.-For four or five days we have had a continual gale of wind, +with occasional gusts of great fury, which seem as if they would send +Dobbo into the sea. Rain accompanies it almost every alternate hour, so +that it is not a pleasant time. During such weather I can do little, but +am busy getting ready a boat I have purchased, for an excursion into +the interior. There is immense difficulty about men, but I believe the +"Orang-kaya," or head man of Wamma, will accompany me to see that I +don't run into danger. + +Having become quite an old inhabitant of Dobbo, I will endeavour to +sketch the sights and sounds that pervade it, and the manners and +customs of its inhabitants. The place is now pretty full, and the +streets present a far more cheerful aspect than when we first arrived. +Every house is a store, where the natives barter their produce for +what they are most in need of. Knives, choppers, swords, guns, tobacco, +gambier, plates, basins, handkerchiefs, sarongs, calicoes, and arrack, +are the principal articles wanted by the natives; but some of the stores +contain also tea, coffee, sugar, wine, biscuits, &c., for the supply +of the traders; and others are full of fancy goods, china ornaments, +looking-glasses, razors, umbrellas, pipes, and purses, which take the +fancy of the wealthier natives. Every fine day mats are spread before +the doors and the tripang is put out to dry, as well as sugar, +salt, biscuit, tea, cloths, and other things that get injured by +an excessively moist atmosphere. In the morning and evening, spruce +Chinamen stroll about or chat at each other's doors, in blue trousers, +white jacket, and a queue into which red silk is plaited till it reaches +almost to their heels. An old Bugis hadji regularly takes an evening +stroll in all the dignity of flowing green silk robe and gay turban, +followed by two small boys carrying his sirih and betel boxes. + +In every vacant space new houses are being built, and all sorts of odd +little cooking-sheds are erected against the old ones, while in some +out-of-the-way corners, massive log pigsties are tenanted by growing +porkers; for how can the Chinamen exist six months without one feast of +pig? + +Here and there are stalls where bananas are sold, and every morning +two little boys go about with trays of sweet rice and crated cocoa-nut, +fried fish, or fried plantains; and whichever it may be, they have +but one cry, and that is "Chocolat-t--t!" This must be a Spanish or +Portuguese cry, handed down for centuries, while its meaning has been +lost. The Bugis sailors, while hoisting the main sail, cry out, "Vela a +vela,--vela, vela, vela!" repeated in an everlasting chorus. As "vela" +is Portuguese a sail, I supposed I had discovered the origin of this, +but I found afterwards they used the same cry when heaving anchor, and +often chanted it to "hela," which is so much an universal expression +of exertion and hard breathing that it is most probably a mere +interjectional cry. + +I daresay there are now near five hundred people in Dobbo of various +races, all met in this remote corner of the East, as they express it, +"to look for their fortune;" to get money any way they can. They are +most of them people who have the very worst reputation for honesty as +well as every other form of morality,--Chinese, Bugis, Ceramese, and +half-caste Javanese, with a sprinkling of half-wild Papuans from Timor, +Babber, and other islands, yet all goes on as yet very quietly. This +motley, ignorant, bloodthirsty, thievish population live here without +the shadow of a government, with no police, no courts, and no lawyers; +yet they do not cut each other's throats, do not plunder each other day +and night, do not fall into the anarchy such a state of things might be +supposed to lead to. It is very extraordinary! It puts strange thoughts +into one's head about the mountain-load of government under which people +exist in Europe, and suggests the idea that we may be over-governed. +Think of the hundred Acts of Parliament annually enacted to prevent us, +the people of England, from cutting each other's throats, or from doing +to our neighbour as we would not be done by. Think of the thousands of +lawyers and barristers whose whole lives are spent in telling us what +the hundred Acts of Parliament mean, and one would be led to infer that +if Dobbo has too little law England has too much. + +Here we may behold in its simplest form the genius of Commerce at the +work of Civilization. Trade is the magic that keeps all at peace, and +unites these discordant elements into a well-behaved community. All +are traders, and know that peace and order are essential to successful +trade, and thus a public opinion is created which puts down all +lawlessness. Often in former year, when strolling along the Campong Glam +in Singapore, I have thought how wild and ferocious the Bugis sailors +looked, and how little should like to trust myself among them. But now I +find them to be very decent, well-behaved fellows; I walk daily unarmed +in the jungle, where I meet them continually; I sleep in a palm-leaf +hut, which any one may enter, with as little fear and as little +danger of thieves or murder as if I were under the protection of the +Metropolitan police. It is true the Dutch influence is felt here. The +islands are nominally under the government of the Moluccas, which the +native chiefs acknowledge; and in most years a commissioner arrives from +Amboyna, who makes the tour of the islands, hears complaints, settle +disputes, and carries away prisoner any heinous offender. This year he +is not expected to come, as no orders have yet been received to prepare +for him; so the people of Dobbo will probably be left to their own +devices. One day a man was caught in the act of stealing a piece of +iron from Herr Warzbergen's house, which he had entered by making a hole +through the thatch wall. In the evening the chief traders of the place, +Bugis and Chinese, assembled, the offender was tried and found guilty, +and sentenced to receive twenty lashes on the spot. They were given +with a small rattan in the middle of the street, not very severely, +the executioner appeared to sympathise a little with the culprit. The +disgrace seemed to be thought as much of as the pain; for though any +amount of clever cheating is thought rather meritorious than otherwise, +open robbery and housebreaking meet with universal reprobation. + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. THE ARU ISLANDS.--JOURNEY AND RESIDENCE IN THE INTERIOR. + +(MARCH TO MAY 1857.) + +MY boat was at length ready, and having obtained two men besides my own +servants, after an enormous amount of talk and trouble, we left Dobbo on +the morning of March 13th, for the mainland of Aru. By noon we reached +the mouth of a small river or creek, which we ascended, winding among +mangrove, swamps, with here and there a glimpse of dry land. In two +hours we reached a house, or rather small shed, of the most miserable +description, which our steersman, the "Orang-kaya" of Wamma, said was +the place we were to stay at, and where he had assured me we could get +every kind of bird and beast to be found in Aru. The shed was occupied +by about a dozen men, women, and children; two cooking fires were +burning in it, and there seemed little prospect of my obtaining +any accommodation. I however deferred inquiry till I had seen the +neighbouring forest, and immediately started off with two men, net, and +guns, along a path at the back of the house. In an hour's walk I saw +enough to make me determine to give the place a trial, and on my return, +finding the "Orang-kaya" was in a strong fever-fit and unable to do +anything, I entered into negotiations with the owner of the house for +the use of a slip at one end of it about five feet wide, for a week, +and agreed to pay as rent one "parang," or chopping-knife. I then +immediately got my boxes and bedding out of the boat, hung up a shelf +for my bird-skins and insects, and got all ready for work next morning. +My own boys slept in the boat to guard the remainder of my property; a +cooking place sheltered by a few mats was arranged under a tree close +by, and I felt that degree of satisfaction and enjoyment which I always +experience when, after much trouble and delay, I am on the point of +beginning work in a new locality. + +One of my first objects was to inquire for the people who are accustomed +to shoot the Paradise birds. They lived at some distance in the jungle, +and a man was sent to call them. When they arrived, we had a talk by +means of the "Orang-kaya" as interpreter, and they said they thought +they could get some. They explained that they shoot the birds with a bow +and arrow, the arrow having a conical wooden cap fitted to the end as +large as a teacup, so as to kill the bird by the violence of the blow +without making any wound or shedding any blood. The trees frequented +by the birds are very lofty; it is therefore necessary to erect a small +leafy covering or hut among the branches, to which the hunter mounts +before daylight in the morning and remains the whole day, and whenever +a bird alights they are almost sure of securing it. (See Frontispiece.) +They returned to their homes the same evening, and I never saw anything +more of them, owing, as I afterwards found, to its being too early to +obtain birds in good plumage. + +The first two or three days of our stay here were very wet, and I +obtained but few insects or birds, but at length, when I was beginning +to despair, my boy Baderoon returned one day with a specimen which +repaid me for months of delay and expectation. It was a small bird a +little less than a thrush. The greater part of its plumage was of an +intense cinnabar red, with a gloss as of spun glass. On the head the +feathers became short and velvety, and shaded into rich orange. Beneath, +from the breast downwards, was pure white, with the softness and gloss +of silk, and across the breast a band of deep metallic green separated +this colour from the red of the throat. Above each eye was a round spot +of the same metallic green; the bill was yellow, and the feet and legs +were of a fine cobalt oille, strikingly contrasting with all the other +parts of the body. Merely in arrangement of colours and texture of +plumage this little bird was a gem of the first water, yet there +comprised only half its strange beauty. Springing from each side of +the breast, and ordinarily lying concealed under the wings, were little +tufts of greyish feathers about two inches long, and each terminated by +a broad band of intense emerald green. These plumes can be raised at the +will of the bird, and spread out into a pair of elegant fans when the +wings are elevated. But this is not the only ornament. The two middle +feathers of the tail are in the form of slender wires about five inches +long, and which diverge in a beautiful double curve. About half an inch +of the end of this wire is webbed on the outer side only, awe coloured +of a fine metallic green, and being curled spirally inwards form a pair +of elegant glittering buttons, hanging five inches below the body, and +the same distance apart. These two ornaments, the breast fans and the +spiral tipped tail wires, are altogether unique, not occurring on any +other species of the eight thousand different birds that are known to +exist upon the earth; and, combined with the most exquisite beauty of +plumage, render this one of the most perfectly lovely of the many lovely +productions of nature. My transports of admiration and delight quite +amused my Aru hosts, who saw nothing more in the "Burong raja" than we +do in the robin of the goldfinch. + +Thus one of my objects in coming to the far fast was accomplished. I +had obtained a specimen of the King Bird of Paradise (Paradisea regia), +which had been described by Linnaeus from skins preserved in a mutilated +state by the natives. I knew how few Europeans had ever beheld the +perfect little organism I now gazed upon, and how very imperfectly +it was still known in Europe. The emotions excited in the minds of a +naturalist, who has long desired to see the actual thing which he has +hitherto known only by description, drawing, or badly-preserved external +covering--especially when that thing is of surpassing rarity and beauty, +require the poetic faculty fully to express them. The remote island in +which I found myself situated, in an almost unvisited sea, far from +the tracks of merchant fleets and navies; the wild luxuriant tropical +forest, which stretched far away on every side; the rude uncultured +savages who gathered round me,--all had their influence in determining +the emotions with which I gazed upon this "thing of beauty." I thought +of the long ages of the past, during which the successive generations of +this little creature had run their course--year by year being born, and +living and dying amid these dark and gloomy woods, with no intelligent +eye to gaze upon their loveliness; to all appearance such a wanton waste +of beauty. Such ideas excite a feeling of melancholy. It seems sad, that +on the one hand such exquisite creatures should live out their lives and +exhibit their charms only in these wild inhospitable regions, doomed for +ages yet to come to hopeless barbarism; while on the other hand, +should civilized man ever reach these distant lands, and bring moral, +intellectual, and physical light into the recesses of these virgin +forests, we may be sure that he will so disturb the nicely-balanced +relations of organic and inorganic nature as to cause the disappearance, +and finally the extinction, of these very beings whose wonderful +structure and beauty he alone is fitted to appreciate and enjoy. This +consideration must surely tell us that all living things were _not_ +made for man. Many of them have no relation to him. The cycle of their +existence has gone on independently of his, and is disturbed or broken +by every advance in man's intellectual development; and their happiness +and enjoyment, their loves and hates, their struggles for existence, +their vigorous life and early death, would seem to be immediately +related to their own well-being and perpetuation alone, limited only by +the equal well-being and perpetuation of the numberless other organisms +with which each is more or less intimately connected. + +After the first king-bird was obtained, I went with my men into the +forest, and we were not only rewarded with another in equally perfect +plumage, but I was enabled to see a little of the habits of both it +and the larger species. It frequents the lower trees of the less dense +forests: and is very active, flying strongly with a whirring sound, +and continually hopping or flying from branch to branch. It eats hard +stone-bearing fruits as large as a gooseberry, and often flutters its +wings after the manner of the South American manakins, at which time +it elevates and expands the beautiful fans with which its breast is +adorned. The natives of Aru call it "Goby-goby." + +One day I get under a tree where a number of the Great Paradise birds +were assembled, but they were high up in the thickest of the foliage, +and flying and jumping about so continually that I could get no good +view of them. At length I shot one, but it was a young specimen, and was +entirely of a rich chocolate-brown colour, without either the metallic +green throat or yellow plumes of the full-grown bird. All that I had yet +seen resembled this, and the natives told me that it would be about +two months before any would be found in full plumage. I still hoped, +therefore, to get some. Their voice is most extraordinary. At early +morn, before the sun has risen, we hear a loud cry of "Wawk-wawk-wawk, +wok-wok-wok," which resounds through the forest, changing its direction +continually. This is the Great Bird of Paradise going to seek his +breakfast. Others soon follow his example; lories and parroquets cry +shrilly, cockatoos scream, king-hunters croak and bark, and the various +smaller birds chirp and whistle their morning song. As I lie listening +to these interesting sounds, I realize my position as the first European +who has ever lived for months together in the Aru islands, a place which +I had hoped rather than expected ever to visit. I think how many besides +my self have longed to reach these almost fairy realms, and to see with +their own eyes the many wonderful and beautiful things which I am daily +encountering. But now Ali and Baderoon are up and getting ready their +guns and ammunition, and little Brio has his fire lighted and is boiling +my coffee, and I remember that I had a black cockatoo brought in late +last night, which I must skin immediately, and so I jump up and begin my +day's work very happily. + +This cockatoo is the first I have seen, and is a great prize. It has +a rather small and weak body, long weak legs, large wings, and an +enormously developed head, ornamented with a magnificent crest, and +armed with a sharp-pointed hoofed bill of immense size and strength. The +plumage is entirely black, but has all over it the curious powdery white +secretion characteristic of cockatoo. The cheeks are bare, and of an +intense blood-red colour. Instead of the harsh scream of the white +cockatoos, its voice is a somewhat plaintive whistle. The tongue is a +curious organ, being a slender fleshy cylinder of a deep red colour, +terminated by a horny black plate, furrowed across and somewhat +prehensile. The whole tongue has a considerable extensile power. I will +here relate something of the habits of this bird, with which I have +since become acquainted. It frequents the lower parts of the forest, and +is seen singly, or at most two or three together. It flies slowly and +noiselessly, and may be killed by a comparatively slight wound. It eats +various fruits and seeds, but seems more particularly attached to the +kernel of the kanary-nut, which grows on a lofty forest tree (Canarium +commune), abundant in the islands where this bird is found; and the +manner in which it gets at these seeds shows a correlation of structure +and habits, which would point out the "kanary" as its special food. The +shell of this nut is so excessively hard that only a heavy hammer will +crack it; it is somewhat triangular, and the outside is quite smooth. +The manner in which the bird opens these nuts is very curious. Taking +one endways in its bill and keeping it firm by a pressure of the tongue, +it cuts a transverse notch by a lateral sawing motion of the sharp-edged +lower mandible. This done, it takes hold of the nut with its foot, and +biting off a piece of leaf retains it in the deep notch of the upper +mandible, and again seizing the nut, which is prevented from slipping by +the elastic tissue of the leaf, fixes the edge of the lower mandible in +the notch, and by a powerful nip breaks of a piece of the shell, again +taking the nut in its claws, it inserts the very long and sharp point +of the bill and picks out the kernel, which is seized hold of, morsel +by morsel, by the extensible tongue. Thus every detail of form and +structure in the extraordinary bill of this bird seems to have its use, +and we may easily conceive that the black cockatoos have maintained +themselves in competition with their more active and more numerous white +allies, by their power of existing on a kind of food which no other bird +is able to extract from its stony shell. The species is the Microglossum +aterrimum of naturalists. + +During the two weeks which I spent in this little settlement, I had good +opportunities of observing the natives at their own home, and living in +their usual manner. There is a great monotony and uniformity in everyday +savage life, and it seemed to me a more miserable existence than when it +had the charm of novelty. To begin with the most important fact in +the existence of uncivilized peoples--their food--the Aru men have no +regular supply, no staff of life, such as bread, rice, mandiocca, maize, +or sago, which are the daily food of a large proportion of mankind. +They have, however, many sorts of vegetables, plantains, yams, sweet +potatoes, and raw sago; and they chew up vast quantities of sugar-cane, +as well as betel-nuts, gambir, and tobacco. Those who live on the coast +have plenty of fish; but when inland, as we are here, they only go to +the sea occasionally, and then bring home cockles and other shell-fish +by the boatload. Now and then they get wild pig or kangaroo, but too +rarely to form anything like a regular part of their diet, which is +essentially vegetable; and what is of more importance, as affecting +their health, green, watery vegetables, imperfectly cooked, and even +these in varying and often in sufficient quantities. To this diet may be +attributed the prevalence of skin diseases, and ulcers on the legs and +joints. The scurfy skin disease so common among savages has a close +connexion with the poorness and irregularity of their living. The +Malays, who are never without their daily rice, are generally free from +it; the hill-Dyaks of Borneo, who grow rice and live well, are clean +skinned while the less industrious and less cleanly tribes, who live for +a portion of the year on fruits and vegetables only, are very subject to +this malady. It seems clear that in this, as in other respects, man +is not able to make a beast of himself with impunity, feeding like the +cattle on the herbs and fruits of the earth, and taking no thought of +the morrow. To maintain his health and beauty he must labour to prepare +some farinaceous product capable of being stored and accumulated, so as +to give him a regular supply of wholesome food. When this is obtained, +he may add vegetables, fruits, and meat with advantage. + +The chief luxury of the Aru people, besides betel and tobacco, is arrack +(Java rum), which the traders bring in great quantities and sell very +cheap. A day's fishing or rattan cutting will purchase at least a +half-gallon bottle; and when the tripang or birds' nests collected +during a season are sold, they get whole boxes, each containing fifteen +such bottles, which the inmates of a house will sit round day and night +till they have finished. They themselves tell me that at such bouts they +often tear to pieces the house they are in, break and destroy everything +they can lay their hands on, and make such an infernal riot as is +alarming to behold. + +The houses and furniture are on a par with the food. A rude shed, +supported on rough and slender sticks rather than posts, no walls, +but the floor raised to within a foot of the eaves, is the style of +architecture they usually adopt. Inside there are partition walls of +thatch, forming little boxes or sleeping places, to accommodate the +two or three separate families that usually live together. A few mats, +baskets, and cooking vessels, with plates and basins purchased from the +Macassar traders, constitute their whole furniture; spears and bows +are their weapons; a sarong or mat forms the clothing of the women, a +waistcloth of the men. For hours or even for days they sit idle in their +houses, the women bringing in the vegetables or sago which form their +food. Sometimes they hunt or fish a little, or work at their houses or +canoes, but they seem to enjoy pure idleness, and work as little as they +can. They have little to vary the monotony of life, little that can be +called pleasure, except idleness and conversation. And they certainly +do talk! Every evening there is a little Babel around me: but as I +understand not a word of it, I go on with my book or work undisturbed. +Now and then they scream and shout, or laugh frantically for variety; +and this goes on alternately with vociferous talking of men, women, and +children, till long after I am in my mosquito curtain and sound asleep. + +At this place I obtained some light on the complicated mixture of +races in Aru, which would utterly confound an ethnologist. Many of the +natives, though equally dark with the others, have little of the Papuan +physiognomy, but have more delicate features of the European type, with +more glossy, curling hair: These at first quite puzzled me, for they +have no more resemblance to Malay than to Papuan, and the darkness of +skin and hair would forbid the idea of Dutch intermixture. Listening to +their conversation, however, I detected some words that were familiar +to me. "Accabo" was one; and to be sure that it was not an accidental +resemblance, I asked the speaker in Malay what "accabo" meant, and +was told it meant "done or finished," a true Portuguese word, with its +meaning retained. Again, I heard the word "jafui" often repeated, and +could see, without inquiry, that its meaning was "he's gone," as in +Portuguese. "Porco," too, seems a common name, though the people have no +idea of its European meaning. This cleared up the difficulty. I at once +understood that some early Portuguese traders had penetrated to these +islands, and mixed with the natives, influencing their language, +and leaving in their descendants for many generations the visible +characteristics of their race. If to this we add the occasional mixture +of Malay, Dutch, and Chinese with the indigenous Papuans, we have +no reason to wonder at the curious varieties of form and feature +occasionally to be met with in Aru. In this very house there was a +Macassar man, with an Aru wife and a family of mixed children. In Dobbo +I saw a Javanese and an Amboyna man, each with an Aru wife and family; +and as this kind of mixture has been going on for at least three hundred +years, and probably much longer, it has produced a decided effect on the +physical characteristics of a considerable portion of the population of +the islands, more especially in Dobbo and the parts nearest to it. + +March 28th.--The "Orang-kaya" being very ill with fever had begged to go +home, and had arranged with one of the men of the house to go on with me +as his substitute. Now that I wanted to move, the bugbear of the pirates +was brought up, and it was pronounced unsafe to go further than the next +small river. This world not suit me, as I had determined to traverse the +channel called Watelai to the "blakang-tana;" but my guide was firm +in his dread of pirates, of which I knew there was now no danger, as +several vessels had gone in search of them, as well as a Dutch gunboat +which had arrived since I left Dobbo. I had, fortunately, by this time +heard that the Dutch "Commissie" had really arrived, and therefore +threatened that if my guide did not go with me immediately, I would +appeal to the authorities, and he would certainly be obliged to gig +a back the cloth which the "Orang-kaya" had transferred to him in +prepayment. This had the desired effect; matters were soon arranged, and +we started the next morning. The wind, however, was dead against us, +and after rowing hard till midday we put in to a small river where +there were few huts, to cook our dinners. The place did not look very +promising, but as we could not reach our destination, the Watelai river, +owing to the contrary wind, I thought we might as well wait here a day +or two. I therefore paid a chopper for the use of a small shed, and +got my bed and some boxes on shore. In the evening, after dark, we were +suddenly alarmed by the cry of "Bajak! bajak!" (Pirates!) The men all +seized their bows and spears, and rushed down to the beach; we got hold +of our guns and prepared for action, but in a few minutes all came back +laughing and chattering, for it had proved to be only a small boat and +some of their own comrades returned from fishing. When all was quiet +again, one of the men, who could speak a little Malay, came to me and +begged me not to sleep too hard. "Why?" said I. "Perhaps the pirates may +really come," said he very seriously, which made me laugh and assure him +I should sleep as hard as I could. + +Two days were spent here, but the place was unproductive of insects or +birds of interest, so we made another attempt to get on. As soon as we +got a little away from the land we had a fair wind, and in six hours' +sailing reached the entrance of the Watelai channel, which divides the +most northerly from the middle portion of Aru. At its mouth this was +about half a mile wide, but soon narrowed, and a mile or two on it +assumed entirely the aspect of a river about the width of the Thames at +London, winding among low but undulating and often hilly country. +The scene was exactly such as might be expected in the interior of +a continent. The channel continued of a uniform average width, with +reaches and sinuous bends, one bank being often precipitous, or even +forming vertical cliffs, while the other was flat and apparently +alluvial; and it was only the pure salt-water, and the absence of any +stream but the slight flux and reflux of the tide, that would enable a +person to tell that he was navigating a strait and not a river. The +wind was fair, and carried us along, with occasional assistance from our +oars, till about three in the afternoon, when we landed where a little +brook formed two or three basins in the coral rock, and then fell in a +miniature cascade into the salt water river. Here we bathed and cooked +our dinner, and enjoyed ourselves lazily till sunset, when we pursued +our way for two hours snore, and then moored our little vessel to an +overhanging tree for the night. + +At five the next morning we started again, and in an hour overtook four +large praus containing the "Commissie," who had come from Dobbo to make +their official tour round the islands, and had passed us in the eight. I +paid a visit to the Dutchmen, one of whom spoke a little English, but +we found that we could get on much better with Malay. They told me that +they had been delayed going after the pirates to one of the northern +islands, and had seen three of their vessels but could not catch them, +because on being pursued they rowed out in the wind's eye, which they +are enabled to do by having about fifty oars to each boat. Having had +some tea with thorn, I bade them adieu, and turned up a narrow channel +which our pilot said would take us to the village of Watelai, on the +west side of Are. After going some miles we found the channel nearly +blocked up with coral, so that our boat grated along the bottom, +crunching what may truly be called the living rock. Sometimes all hands +had to get out and wade, to lighten the vessel and lift it over the +shallowest places; but at length we overcame all obstacles and reached a +wide bay or estuary studded with little rocks and islets, and opening +to the western sea and the numerous islands of the "blakang-tuna." I now +found that the village we were going to was miles away; that we should +have to go out to sea, and round a rocky point. A squall seemed coming +on, and as I have a horror of small boats at sea, and from all I could +learn Watelai village was not a place to stop at (no birds of Paradise +being found there), I determined to return and go to a village I had +heard of up a tributary of the Watelai river, and situated nearly in the +centre of the mainland of Aru. The people there were said to be good, +and to be accustomed to hunting and bird-catching, being too far inland +to get any part of their food from the sea. While I was deciding this +point the squall burst upon us, and soon raised a rolling sea in the +shallow water, which upset an oil bottle and a lamp, broke some of my +crockery, and threw us all into confusion. Rowing hard we managed to get +back into the main river by dusk, and looked out for a place to cook +our suppers. It happened to be high water, and a very high tide, so that +every piece of sand or beach was covered, and it was with the greatest +difficulty, and after much groping in the dark, that we discovered a +little sloping piece of rock about two feet square on which to make a +fire and cook some rice. The next day we continued our way back, and +on the following day entered a stream on the south side of the Watelai +river, and ascending to where navigation ceased found the little village +of Wanumbai, consisting of two large houses surrounded by plantations, +amid the virgin forests of Aru. + +As I liked the look of the place, and was desirous of staying some time, +I sent my pilot to try and make a bargain for house accommodation. The +owner and chief man of the place made many excuses. First, he was afraid +I would not like his house, and then was doubtful whether his son, +who was away, would like his admitting me. I had a long talk with him +myself, and tried to explain what I was doing, and how many things I +would buy of them, and showed him my stock of heads, and knives, and +cloth, and tobacco, all of which I would spend with his family and +friends if he would give me house-room. He seemed a little staggered at +this, and said he, would talk to his wife, and in the meantime I went +for a little walk to see the neighbourhood. When I came back, I again +sent my pilot, saying that I would go away if he would not dive me part +of his house. In about half an hour he returned with a demand for about +half the cost of building a house, for the rent of a small portion of it +for a few weeks. As the only difficulty now was a pecuniary one, I got +out about ten yards of cloth, an axe, with a few beads and some tobacco, +and sent them as my final offer for the part of the house which I had +before pointed out. This was accepted after a little more talk, and I +immediately proceeded to take possession. + +The house was a good large one, raised as usual about seven feet on +posts, the walls about three or four feet more, with a high-pitched +roof. The floor was of bamboo laths, and in the sloping roof way an +immense shutter, which could be lifted and propped up to admit light +and air. At the end where this was situated the floor was raised about a +foot, and this piece, about ten feet wide by twenty long, quite open to +the rest of the house, was the portion I was to occupy. At one end of +this piece, separated by a thatch partition, was a cooking place, with +a clay floor and shelves for crockery. At the opposite end I had my +mosquito curtain hung, and round the walls we arranged my boxes and +other stores, fated up a table and seat, and with a little cleaning and +dusting made the place look quite comfortable. My boat was then hauled +up on shore, and covered with palm-leaves, the sails and oars brought +indoors, a hanging-stage for drying my specimens erected outside the +house and another inside, and my boys were set to clean their gnus and +get all ready for beginning work. + +The next day I occupied myself in exploring the paths in the immediate +neighbourhood. The small river up which we had ascended ceases to be +navigable at this point, above which it is a little rocky brook, which +quite dries up in the hot season. There was now, however, a fair stream +of water in it; and a path which was partly in and partly by the side of +the water, promised well for insects, as I here saw the magnificent +blue butterfly, Papilio ulysses, as well as several other fine species, +flopping lazily along, sometimes resting high up on the foliage which +drooped over the water, at others settling down on the damp rock or on +the edges of muddy pools. A little way on several paths branched off +through patches of second-growth forest to cane-fields, gardens, and +scattered houses, beyond which again the dark wall of verdure striped +with tree-trunks, marked out the limits of the primeval forests. The +voices of many birds promised good shooting, and on my return I found +that my boys had already obtained two or three kinds I had not seen +before; and in the evening a native brought me a rare and beautiful +species of ground-thrush (Pitta novaeguinaeae) hitherto only known from +New Guinea. + +As I improved my acquaintance with them I became much interested in +these people, who are a fair sample of the true savage inhabitants of +the Aru Islands, tolerably free from foreign admixture. The house I +lived in contained four or five families, and there were generally +from six to a dozen visitors besides. They kept up a continual row +from morning till night--talking, laughing, shouting, without +intermission--not very pleasant, but interesting as a study of national +character. My boy Ali said to me, "Banyak quot bitchara Orang Aru" (The +Aru people are very strong talkers), never having been accustomed to +such eloquence either in his own or any other country he had hitherto +visited. Of an evening the men, having got over their first shyness, +began to talk to me a little, asking about my country, &c., and in +return I questioned them about any traditions they had of their own +origin. I had, however, very little success, for I could not possibly +make them understand the simple question of where the Aru people first +came from. I put it in every possible way to them, but it was a subject +quite beyond their speculations; they had evidently never thought of +anything of the kind, and were unable to conceive a thing so remote and +so unnecessary to be thought about, as their own origin. Finding this +hopeless, I asked if they knew when the trade with Aru first began, when +the Bugis and Chinese and Macassar men first came in their praus to buy +tripang and tortoise-shell, and birds' nests, and Paradise birds? + +This they comprehended, but replied that there had always been the same +trade as long as they or their fathers recollected, but that this was +the first time a real white man had come among them, and, said they, +"You see how the people come every day from all the villages round to +look at you." This was very flattering, and accounted for the great +concourse of visitors which I had at first imagined was accidental. A +few years before I had been one of the gazers at the Zoolus, and the +Aztecs in London. Now the tables were turned upon me, for I was to these +people a new and strange variety of man, and had the honour of affording +to them, in my own person, an attractive exhibition, gratis. + +All the men and boys of Aru are expert archers, never stirring without +their bows and arrows. They shoot all sorts of birds, as well as pigs +and kangaroos occasionally, and thus have a tolerably good supply of +meat to eat with their vegetables. The result of this better living is +superior healthiness, well-made bodies, and generally clear skins. They +brought me numbers of small birds in exchange for beads or tobacco, but +mauled them terribly, notwithstanding my repeated instructions. When +they got a bird alive they would often tie a string to its leg, and keep +it a day or two, till its plumage was so draggled and dirtied as to be +almost worthless. One of the first things I got from there was a living +specimen of the curious and beautiful racquet-tailed kingfisher. Seeing +how much I admired it, they afterwards brought me several more, which +wore all caught before daybreak, sleeping in cavities of the rocky banks +of the stream. My hunters also shot a few specimens, and almost all +of them had the red bill more or less clogged with mud and earth. This +indicates the habits of the bird, which, though popularly a king-fisher, +never catches fish, but lives on insects and minute shells, which it +picks up in the forest, darting down upon them from its perch on some +low branch. The genus Tanysiptera, to which this bird belongs, is +remarkable for the enormously lengthened tail, which in all other +kingfishers is small and short. Linnaeus named the species known to +him "the goddess kingfisher" (Alcedo dea), from its extreme grace and +beauty, the plumage being brilliant blue and white, with the bill red, +like coral. Several species of these interesting birds are now known, +all confined within the very limited area which comprises the Moluccas, +New Guinea, and the extreme North of Australia. They resemble each other +so closely that several of them can only be distinguished by careful +comparison. One of the rarest, however, which inhabits New Guinea, is +very distinct from the rest, being bright red beneath instead of white. +That which I now obtained was a new one, and has been named Tanysiptera +hydrocharis, but in general form and coloration it is exactly similar to +the larger species found in Amboyna, and figured at page 468 of my first +volume. + +New and interesting birds were continually brought in, either by my own +boys or by the natives, and at the end of a week Ali arrived triumphant +one afternoon with a fine specimen of the Great Bird of Paradise. +The ornamental plumes had not yet attained their full growth, but the +richness of their glossy orange colouring, and the exquisite delicacy +of the loosely waving feathers, were unsurpassable. At the same time a +great black cockatoo was brought in, as well as a fine fruit-pigeon and +several small birds, so that we were all kept hard at work skinning +till sunset. Just as we had cleared away and packed up for the night, +a strange beast was brought, which had been shot by the natives. It +resembled in size, and in its white woolly covering, a small fat +lamb, but had short legs, hand-like feet with large claws, and a long +prehensile tail. It was a Cuscus (C. maculatus), one of the curious +marsupial animals of the Papuan region, and I was very desirous to +obtain the skin. The owners, however, said they wanted to eat it; and +though I offered them a good price, and promised to give them all the +meat, there was grout hesitation. Suspecting the reason, I offered, +though it was night, to set to work immediately and get out the body for +them, to which they agreed. The creature was much hacked about, and the +two hind feet almost cut off; but it was the largest and finest specimen +of the kind I had seen; and after an hour's hard work I handed over the +body to the owners, who immediately cut it up and roasted it for supper. + +As this was a very good place for birds, I determined to remain a month +longer, and took the opportunity of a native boat going to Dobbo, to +send Ali for a fresh supply of ammunition and provisions. They started +on the 10th of April, and the house was crowded with about a hundred +men, boys, women, and girls, bringing their loads of sugar-cane, +plantains, sirih-leaf, yams, &c.; one lad going from each house to sell +the produce and make purchases. The noise was indescribable. At least +fifty of the hundred were always talking at once, and that not in the +low measured tones of the apathetically polite Malay, but with loud +voices, shouts, and screaming laughter, in which the women and children +were even more conspicuous than the men. It was only while gazing at me +that their tongues were moderately quiet, because their eyes were fully +occupied. The black vegetable soil here overlying the coral rock is very +rich, and the sugar-cane was finer than any I had ever seen. The canes +brought to the boat were often ten and even twelve feet long, and thick +in proportion, with short joints throughout, swelling between the knots +with the abundance of the rich juice. At Dobbo they get a high price +for it, 1d. to 3d. a stick, and there is an insatiable demand among the +crews of the praus and the Baba fishermen. Here they eat it continually. +They half live on it, and sometimes feed their pigs with it. Near every +house are great heaps of the refuse cane; and large wicker-baskets +to contain this refuse as it is produced form a regular part of the +furniture of a house. Whatever time of the day you enter, you are sure +to find three or four people with a yard of cane in one hand, a knife +in the other, and a basket between their legs, hacking, paring, chewing, +and basket-filling, with a persevering assiduity which reminds one of a +hungry cow grazing, or of a caterpillar eating up a leaf. + +After five days' absence the boats returned from Dobbo, bringing Ali and +all the things I had sent for quite safe. A large party had assembled to +be ready to carry home the goods brought, among which were a good many +cocoa-nut, which are a great luxury here. It seems strange that they +should never plant them; but the reason simply is, that they cannot +bring their hearts to bury a good nut for the prospective advantage of +a crop twelve years hence. There is also the chance of the fruits being +dug up and eaten unless watched night and day. Among the things I had +sent for was a box of arrack, and I was now of course besieged with +requests for a little drop. I gave them a flask (about two bottles), +which was very soon finished, and I was assured that there were many +present who had not had a taste. As I feared my box would very soon be +emptied if I supplied all their demands, I told them I had given them +one, but the second they must pay for, and that afterwards I must have +a Paradise bird for each flask. They immediately sent round to all the +neighbouring houses, and mustered up a rupee in Dutch copper money, got +their second flask, and drunk it as quickly as the first, and were then +very talkative, but less noisy and importunate than I had expected. Two +or three of them got round me and begged me for the twentieth time to +tell them the name of my country. Then, as they could not pronounce it +satisfactorily, they insisted that I was deceiving them, and that it +was a name of my own invention. One funny old man, who bore a ludicrous +resemblance, to a friend of mine at home, was almost indignant. +"Ung-lung! "said he, "who ever heard of such a name?--ang +lang--anger-lung--that can't be the name of your country; you are +playing with us." Then he tried to give a convincing illustration. "My +country is Wanumbai--anybody can say Wanumbai. I'm an orang-Wanumbai; +but, N-glung! who ever heard of such a name? Do tell us the real name of +your country, and then when you are gone we shall know how to talk about +you." To this luminous argument and remonstrance I could oppose nothing +but assertion, and the whole party remained firmly convinced that I +was for some reason or other deceiving them. They then attacked me on +another point--what all the animals and birds and insects and shells +were preserved so carefully for. They had often asked me this before, +and I had tried to explain to them that they would be stuffed, and made +to look as if alive, and people in my country would go to look at them. +But this was not satisfying; in my country there must be many better +things to look at, and they could not believe I would take so much +trouble with their birds and beasts just for people to look at. They did +not want to look at them; and we, who made calico and glass and knives, +and all sorts of wonderful things, could not want things from Aru to +look at. They had evidently been thinking about it, and had at length +got what seemed a very satisfactory theory; for the same old man said to +me, in a low, mysterious voice, "What becomes of them when you go on to +the sea?" "Why, they are all packed up in boxes," said I "What did you +think became of them?" "They all come to life again, don't they?" said +he; and though I tried to joke it off, and said if they did we should +have plenty to eat at sea, he stuck to his opinion, and kept repeating, +with an air of deep conviction, "Yes, they all come to life again, +that's what they do--they all come to life again." + +After a little while, and a good deal of talking among themselves, he +began again--"I know all about it--oh yes! Before you came we had rain +every day--very wet indeed; now, ever since you have been here, it is +fine hot weather. Oh, yes! I know all about it; you can't deceive me." +And so I was set down as a conjurer, and was unable to repel the charge. +But the conjurer was completely puzzled by the next question: "What," +said the old man, "is the great ship, where the Bugis and Chinamen go to +sell their things? It is always in the great sea--its name is Jong; tell +us all about it." In vain I inquired what they knew about it; they knew +nothing but that it was called "Jong," and was always in the sea, +and was a very great ship, and concluded with, "Perhaps that is your +country?" Finding that I could not or would not tell them anything about +"Jong," there came more regrets that I would not tell them the real name +of my country; and then a long string of compliments, to the effect that +I was a much better sort of a person than the Bugis and Chinese, who +sometimes came to trade with them, for I gave them things for nothing, +and did not try to cheat them. How long would I stop? was the next +earnest inquiry. Would I stay two or three months? They would get me +plenty of birds and animals, and I might soon finish all the goods I had +brought, and then, said the old spokesman, "Don't go away, but send for +more things from Dobbo, and stay here a year or two." And then again the +old story, "Do tell us the name of your country. We know the Bugis men, +and the Macassar men, and the Java men, and the China men; only you, +we don't know from what country you come. Ung-lung! it can't be; I know +that is not the name of your country." Seeing no end to this long talk, +I said I was tired, and wanted to go to sleep; so after begging--one a +little bit of dry fish for his supper, and another a little salt to eat +with his sago--they went off very quietly, and I went outside and took +a stroll round the house by moonlight, thinking of the simple people +and the strange productions of Aru, and then turned in under my mosquito +curtain; to sleep with a sense of perfect security in the midst of these +good-natured savages. + +We now had seven or eight days of hot and dry weather, which reduced the +little river to a succession of shallow pools connected by the smallest +possible thread of trickling water. If there were a dry season like that +of Macassar, the Aru Islands would be uninhabitable, as there is no part +of them much above a hundred feet high; and the whole being a mass of +porous coralline rock, allows the surface water rapidly to escape. +The only dry season they have is for a month or two about September +or October, and there is then an excessive scarcity of water, so that +sometimes hundreds of birds and other animals die of drought. The +natives then remove to houses near the sources of the small streams, +where, in the shady depths of the forest, a small quantity of water +still remains. Even then many of them have to go miles for their water, +which they keep in large bamboos and use very sparingly. They assure +me that they catch and kill game of all kinds, by watching at the water +holes or setting snares around them. That would be the time for me +to make my collections; but the want of water would be a terrible +annoyance, and the impossibility of getting away before another whole +year had passed made it out of the question. + +Ever since leaving Dobbo I had suffered terribly from insects, who +seemed here bent upon revenging my long-continued persecution of their +race. At our first stopping-place sand-flies were very abundant at +night, penetrating to every part of the body, and producing a more +lasting irritation than mosquitoes. My feet and ankles especially +suffered, and were completely covered with little red swollen specks, +which tormented me horribly. On arriving here we were delighted to find +the house free from sand-flies or mosquitoes, but in the plantations +where my daily walks led me, the day-biting mosquitoes swarmed, and +seemed especially to delight in attaching my poor feet. After a month's +incessant punishment, those useful members rebelled against such +treatment and broke into open insurrection, throwing out numerous +inflamed ulcers, which were very painful, and stopped me from walking. +So I found myself confined to the house, and with no immediate prospect +of leaving it. Wounds or sores in the feet are especially difficult to +heal in hot climates, and I therefore dreaded them more than any other +illness. The confinement was very annoying, as the fine hot weather was +excellent for insects, of which I had every promise of obtaining a fine +collection; and it is only by daily and unremitting search that the +smaller kinds, and the rarer and more interesting specimens, can be +obtained. When I crawled down to the river-side to bathe, I often +saw the blue-winged Papilio ulysses, or some other equally rare and +beautiful insect; but there was nothing for it but patience, and +to return quietly to my bird-skinning, or whatever other work I had +indoors. The stings and bites and ceaseless irritation caused by these +pests of the tropical forests, would be borne uncomplainingly; but to be +kept prisoner by them in so rich and unexplored a country where rare and +beautiful creatures are to be met with in every forest ramble--a country +reached by such a long and tedious voyage, and which might not in the +present century be again visited for the same purpose--is a punishment +too severe for a naturalist to pass over in silence. + +I had, however, some consolation in the birds my boys brought home +daily, more especially the Paradiseas, which they at length obtained in +full plumage. It was quite a relief to my mind to get these, for I could +hardly have torn myself away from Aru had I not obtained specimens. + +But what I valued almost as much as the birds themselves was the +knowledge of their habits, which I was daily obtaining both from the +accounts of my hunters, and from the conversation of the natives. The +birds had now commenced what the people here call their "sacaleli," or +dancing-parties, in certain trees in the forest, which are not fruit +trees as I at first imagined, but which have an immense tread of +spreading branches and large but scattered leaves, giving a clear space +for the birds to play and exhibit their plumes. On one of these trees +a dozen or twenty full-plumaged male birds assemble together, raise +up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite +plumes, keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly +across from branch to branch in great excitement, so that the whole tree +is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion. +(See Frontispiece.) The bird itself is nearly as large as a crow, and +is of a rich coffee brown colour. The head and neck is of a pure straw +yellow above and rich metallic green beneath. The long plumy tufts of +golden orange feathers spring from the sides beneath each wing, and when +the bird is in repose are partly concealed by them. At the time of its +excitement, however, the wings are raised vertically over the back, the +head is bent down and stretched out, and the long plumes are raised up +and expanded till they form two magnificent golden fans, striped with +deep red at the base, and fading off into the pale brown tint of +the finely divided and softly waving points. The whole bird is then +overshadowed by them, the crouching body, yellow head, and emerald green +throat forming but the foundation and setting to the golden glory which +waves above. When seen in this attitude, the Bird of Paradise really +deserves its name, and must be ranked as one of the most beautiful and +most wonderful of living things. I continued also to get specimens +of the lovely little king-bird occasionally, as well as numbers of +brilliant pigeons, sweet little parroquets, and many curious small +birds, most nearly resembling those of Australia and New Guinea. + +Here, as among most savage people I have dwelt among, I was delighted +with the beauty of the human form-a beauty of which stay-at-home +civilized people can scarcely have any conception. What are the finest +Grecian statues to the living, moving, breathing men I saw daily around +me? The unrestrained grace of the naked savage as he goes about +his daily occupations, or lounges at his ease, must be seen to be +understood; and a youth bending his bow is the perfection of manly +beauty. The women, however, except in extreme youth, are by no means so +pleasant to look at as the men. Their strongly-marked features are very +unfeminine, and hard work, privations, and very early marriages soon +destroy whatever of beauty or grace they may for a short time possess. +Their toilet is very simple, but also, I am sorry to say, very coarse, +and disgusting. It consists solely of a mat of plaited strips of palm +leaves, worn tight round the body, and reaching from the hips to the +knees. It seems not to be changed till worn out, is seldom washed, and +is generally very dirty. This is the universal dress, except in a few +cases where Malay "sarongs" have come into use. Their frizzly hair is +tied in a bench at the back of the head. They delight in combing, or +rather forking it, using for that purpose a large wooden fork with four +diverging prongs, which answers the purpose of separating and arranging +the long tangled, frizzly mass of cranial vegetation much better than +any comb could do. The only ornaments of the women are earrings and +necklaces, which they arrange in various tasteful ways. The ends of a +necklace are often attached to the earrings, and then looped on to +the hair-knot behind. This has really an elegant appearance, the beads +hanging gracefully on each side of the head, and by establishing a +connexion with the earrings give an appearance of utility to those +barbarous ornaments. We recommend this style to the consideration of +those of the fair sex who still bore holes in their ears and hang rings +thereto. Another style of necklace among these Papuan belles is to wear +two, each hanging on one side of the neck and under the opposite arm, so +as to cross each other. This has a very pretty appearance, in part due +to the contrast of the white beads or kangaroo teeth of which they are +composed with the dark glossy skin. The earrings themselves are formed +of a bar of copper or silver, twisted so that the ends cross. The men, +as usual among savages, adorn themselves more than the women. They wear +necklaces, earrings, and finger rings, and delight in a band of plaited +grass tight round the arm just below the shoulder, to which they attach +a bunch of hair or bright coloured feathers by way of ornament. The +teeth of small animals, either alone, or alternately with black or white +beads, form their necklaces, and sometimes bracelets also. For +these latter, however, they prefer brass wire, or the black, horny, +wing-spines of the cassowary, which they consider a charm. Anklets of +brass or shell, and tight plaited garters below the knee, complete their +ordinary decorations. + +Some natives of Kobror from further south, and who are reckoned the +worst and least civilized of the Aru tribes, came one day to visit us. +They have a rather more than usually savage appearance, owing to the +greater amount of ornaments they use--the most conspicuous being a +large horseshoe-shaped comb which they wear over the forehead, the ends +resting on the temples. The back of the comb is fastened into a piece of +wood, which is plated with tin in front, and above is attached a plume +of feathers from a cock's tail. In other respects they scarcely differed +from the people I was living with. They brought me a couple of birds, +some shells and insects; showing that the report of the white man and +his doing had reached their country. There was probably hardly a man in +Aru who had not by this time heard of me. + +Besides the domestic utensils already mentioned, the moveable property +of a native is very scanty. He has a good supply of spears and bows +and arrows for hunting, a parang, or chopping-knife, and an axe-for the +stone age has passed away here, owing to the commercial enterprise of +the Bugis and other Malay races. Attached to a belt, or hung across +his shoulder, he carries a little skin pouch and an ornamented +bamboo, containing betel-nut, tobacco, and lime, and a small German +wooden-handled knife is generally stuck between his waist-cloth of bark +and his bare shin. Each man also possesses a "cadjan," or sleeping-mat, +made of the broad leaves of a pandanus neatly sewn together in three +layers. This mat is abort four feet square, and when folded has one end +sewn up, so that it forms a kind of sack open at one side. In the closed +corner the head or feet can be placed, or by carrying it on the head +in a shower it forms both coat and umbrella. It doubles up ix a small +compass for convenient carriage, and then forms a light and elastic +cushion, so that on a journey it becomes clothing, house, bedding, and +furniture, all in one. + +The only ornaments in an Aru horse are trophies of the chase--jaws of +wild pigs, the heads and backbones of cassowaries, and plumes made from +the feathers of the Bird of Paradise, cassowary, and domestic fowl. +The spears, shields, knife-handles, and other utensils are more or less +carved in fanciful designs, and the mats and leaf boxes are painted or +plaited in neat patterns of red, black, and yellow colours. I must not +forget these boxes, which are most ingeniously made of the pith of +a balm leaf pegged together, lined inside with pandanus leaves, and +outside with the same, or with plaited grass. All the joints and angles +are coffered with strips of split rattan sewn neatly on. The lid is +covered with the brown leathery spathe of the Areca palm, which is +impervious to water, and the whole box is neat, strong, and well +finished. They are made from a few inches to two or three feet long, and +being much esteemed by the Malay as clothes-boxes, are a regular article +of export from Aru. The natives use the smaller ones for tobacco or +betel-nut, but seldom have clothes enough to require the larger ones, +which are only made for sale. + +Among the domestic animals which may generally be seen in native houses, +are gaudy parrots, green, red, and blue, a few domestic fowls, which +have baskets hung for them to lay in under the eaves, and who sleep on +the ridge, and several half-starved wolfish-baking dogs. Instead of rats +and mice there are curious little marsupial animals about the same size, +which run about at night and nibble anything eatable that may be left +uncovered. Four or five different kinds of ants attack everything not +isolated by water, and one kind even swims across that; great spiders +lurk in baskets and boxes, or hide in the folds of my mosquito curtain; +centipedes and millepedes are found everywhere. I have caught them under +my pillow and on my bead; while in every box, and under every hoard +which has lain for some days undisturbed, little scorpions are sure to +be found snugly ensconced, with their formidable tails quickly turned +up ready for attack or defence. Such companions seem very alarming +and dangerous, but all combined are not so bad as the irritation of +mosquitoes, or of the insect pests often found at home. These latter are +a constant and unceasing source of torment and disgust, whereas you +may live a long time among scorpions, spiders, and centipedes, ugly and +venomous though they are, and get no harm from them. After living twelve +years in the tropics, I have never yet been bitten or stung by either. + +The lean and hungry dogs before mentioned were my greatest enemies, +and kept me constantly on the watch. If my boys left the bird they +were skinning for an instant, it was sure to be carried off. Everything +eatable had to be hung up to the roof, to be out of their reach. Ali +had just finished skinning a fine King Bird of Paradise one day, when +he dropped the skin. Before he could stoop to pick it up, one of this +famished race had seized upon it, and he only succeeded in rescuing +it from its fangs after it was torn to tatters. Two skins of the +large Paradisea, which were quite dry and ready to pack away, were +incautiously left on my table for the night, wrapped up in paper. The +next morning they were gone, and only a few scattered feathers indicated +their fate. My hanging shelf was out of their reach; but having stupidly +left a box which served as a step, a full-plumaged Paradise bird was +next morning missing; and a dog below the house was to be seen still +mumbling over the fragments, with the fine golden plumes all trampled +in the mud. Every night, as soon as I was in bed, I could hear them +searching about for what they could devour, under my table, and all +about my boxes and baskets, keeping me in a state of suspense till +morning, lest something of value might incautiously have been left +within their read. They would drink the oil of my floating lamp and eat +the wick, and upset or break my crockery if my lazy boys had neglected +to wash away even the smell of anything eatable. Bad, however, as they +are here, they were worse in a Dyak's house in Borneo where I was once +staying, for there they gnawed off the tops of my waterproof boots, +ate a large piece out of an old leather game-bag, besides devouring a +portion of my mosquito curtain! + +April 28th.--Last evening we had a grand consultation, which had +evidently been arranged and discussed beforehand. A number of the +natives gathered round me, and said they wanted to talk. Two of the best +Malay scholars helped each other, the rest putting in hints and ideas +in their own language. They told me a long rambling story; but, partly +owing to their imperfect knowledge of Malay, partly through my ignorance +of local terms, and partly through the incoherence of their narrative, I +could not make it out very clearly. It was, however, a tradition, and +I was glad to find they had anything of the kind. A long time ago, they +said, some strangers came to Aru, and came here to Wanumbai, and the +chief of the Wanumbai people did not like them, and wanted them to go +away, but they would not go, and so it came to fighting, and many Aru +men were killed, and some, along with the chief, were taken prisoners, +and carried away by the strangers. Some of the speakers, however, said +that he was not carried away, but went away in his own boat to escape +from the foreigners, and went to the sea and never came back again. But +they all believe that the chief and the people that went with him still +live in some foreign country; and if they could but find out where, they +would send for them to come back again. Now having some vague idea that +white men must know every country beyond the sea, they wanted to know +if I had met their people in my country or in the sea. They thought they +must be there, for they could not imagine where else they could be. They +had sought for them everywhere, they said--on the land and in the sea, +in the forest and on the mountains, in the air and in the sky, and could +not find them; therefore, they must be in my country, and they begged +me to tell them, for I must surely know, as I came from across the +great sea. I tried to explain to them that their friends could not have +reached my country in small boats; and that there were plenty of islands +like Aru all about the sea, which they would be sure to find. Besides, +as it was so long ago, the chief and all the people must be dead. But +they quite laughed at this idea, and said they were sure they were +alive, for they had proof of it. And then they told me that a good many +years ago, when the speakers were boys, some Wokan men who were out +fishing met these lost people in the sea, and spoke to them; and the +chief gave the Wokan men a hundred fathoms of cloth to bring to the men +of Wanumbai, to show that they were alive and would soon come back to +them, but the Wokan men were thieves, and kept the cloth, and they only +heard of it afterwards; and when they spoke about it, the Wokan men +denied it, and pretended they had not received the cloth;--so they were +quite sure their friends were at that time alive and somewhere in the +sea. And again, not many years ago, a report came to them that some +Bugis traders had brought some children of their lost people; so they +went to Dobbo to see about it, and the owner of the house, who was now +speaking to me, was one who went; but the Bugis man would not let them +see the children, and threatened to kill them if they came into his +house. He kept the children shut up in a large box, and when he went +away he took them with him. And at the end of each of these stories, +they begged me in an imploring tone to tell them if I knew where their +chief and their people now were. + +By dint of questioning, I got some account of the strangers who had +taken away their people. They said they were wonderfully strong, and +each one could kill a great many Aru men; and when they were wounded, +however badly, they spit upon the place, and it immediately became well. +And they made a great net of rattans, and entangled their prisoners in +it, and sunk them in the water; and the next day, when they pulled +the net up on shore, they made the drowned men come to life again, and +carried them away. + +Much more of the same kind was told me, but in so confused and rambling +a manner that I could make nothing out of it, till I inquired how long +ago it was that all this happened, when they told me that after their +people were taken away the Bugis came in their praus to trade in Aru, +and to buy tripang and birds' nests. It is not impossible that something +similar to what they related to me really happened when the early +Portuguese discoverers first came to Aru, and has formed the foundation +for a continually increasing accumulation of legend and fable. I have +no doubt that to the next generation, or even before, I myself shall be +transformed into a magician or a demigod, a worker of miracles, and +a being of supernatural knowledge. They already believe that all the +animals I preserve will come to life again; and to their children it +will be related that they actually did so. An unusual spell of fine +weather setting in just at my arrival has made them believe I can +control the seasons; and the simple circumstance of my always walking +alone in the forest is a wonder and a mystery to them, as well as my +asking them about birds and animals I have not yet seen, and showing +an acquaintance with their form, colours, and habits. These facts are +brought against me when I disclaim knowledge of what they wish me to +tell them. "You must know," say they; "you know everything: you make the +fine weather for your men to shoot, and you know all about our birds and +our animals as well as we do; and you go alone into the forest and +are not afraid." Therefore every confession of ignorance on my part is +thought to be a blind, a mere excuse to avoid telling them too much. My +very writing materials and books are to them weird things; and were I to +choose to mystify them by a few simple experiments with lens and magnet, +miracles without end would in a few years cluster about me; and future +travellers, penetrating to Wanumbai, world h hardly believe that a poor +English naturalist, who had resided a few months among them, could have +been the original of the supernatural being to whom so many marvels were +attributed. + +Far some days I had noticed a good deal of excitement, and many +strangers came and went armed with spears and cutlasses, bows and +shields. I now found there was war near us--two neighbouring villages +having a quarrel about some matter of local politics that I could not +understand. They told me it was quite a common thing, and that they are +rarely without fighting somewhere near. Individual quarrels are taken up +by villages and tribes, and the nonpayment of the stipulated price for a +wife is one of the most frequent causes of bitterness and bloodshed. One +of the war shields was brought me to look at. It was made of rattans +and covered with cotton twist, so as to be both light, strong, and very +tough. I should think it would resist any ordinary bullet. Abort the +middle there was au arm-hole with a shutter or flap over it. This +enables the arm to be put through and the bow drawn, while the body +and face, up to the eyes, remain protected, which cannot be done if +the shield is carried on the arm by loops attached at the back in the +ordinary way. A few of the young men from our house went to help their +friends, but I could not bear that any of them were hurt, or that there +was much hard fighting. + +May 8th.-I had now been six weeks at Wanumbai, but for more than half +the time was laid up in the house with ulcerated feet. My stores being +nearly exhausted, and my bird and insect boxes full, and having no +immediate prospect of getting the use of my legs again, I determined +on returning to Dobbo. Birds had lately become rather scarce, and the +Paradise birds had not yet become as plentiful as the natives assured me +they would be in another month. The Wanumbai people seemed very sorry +at my departure; and well they might be, for the shells and insects they +picked up on the way to and from their plantations, and the birds the +little boys shot with their bows and arrows, kept them all well supplied +with tobacco and gambir, besides enabling them to accumulate a stock +of beads and coppers for future expenses. The owner of the house was +supplied gratis with a little rice, fish, or salt, whenever he asked for +it, which I must say was not very often. On parting, I distributed among +them my remnant stock of salt and tobacco, and gave my host a flask +of arrack, and believe that on the whole my stay with these simple +and good-natured people was productive of pleasure and profit to +both parties. I fully intended to come back; and had I known that +circumstances would have prevented my doing so, shoed have felt some +sorrow in leaving a place where I had first seen so many rare and +beautiful living things, and bad so fully enjoyed the pleasure which +fills the heart of the naturalist when he is so fortunate as to discover +a district hitherto unexplored, and where every day brings forth new and +unexpected treasures. We loaded our boat in the afternoon, and, starting +before daybreak, by the help of a fair wind reached Dobbo late the same +evening. + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. THE ARU ISLANDS.--SECOND RESIDENCE AT DOBBO. + +(MAY AND JUNE 1857.) + +DOBBO was full to overflowing, and I was obliged to occupy the +court-house where the Commissioners hold their sittings. They had now +left the island, and I found the situation agreeable, as it was at the +end of the village, with a view down the principal street. It was a mere +shed, but half of it had a roughly boarded floor, and by putting up a +partition and opening a window I made it a very pleasant abode. In one +of the boxes I had left in charge of Herr Warzbergen, a colony of small +ants had settled and deposited millions of eggs. It was luckily a fine +hot day, and by carrying the box some distance from the house, and +placing every article in the sunshine for an hour or two, I got rid of +them without damage, as they were fortunately a harmless species. + +Dobbo now presented an animated appearance. Five or six new houses +had been added to the street; the praus were all brought round to the +western side of the point, where they were hauled up on the beach, and +were being caulked and covered with a thick white lime-plaster for the +homeward voyage, making them the brightest and cleanest looking +things in the place. Most of the small boats had returned from the +"blakang-tana" (back country), as the side of the islands towards New +Guinea is called. Piles of firewood were being heaped up behind the +houses; sail-makers and carpenters were busy at work; mother-of-pearl +shell was being tied up in bundles, and the black and ugly smoked +tripang was having a last exposure to the sun before loading. The spare +portion of the crews were employed cutting and squaring timber, and +boats from Ceram and Goram were constantly unloading their cargoes of +sago-cake for the traders' homeward voyage. The fowls, ducks, and goats +all looked fat and thriving on the refuse food of a dense population, +and the Chinamen's pigs were in a state of obesity that foreboded early +death. Parrots and Tories and cockatoos, of a dozen different binds, +were suspended on bamboo perches at the doors of the houses, with +metallic green or white fruit-pigeons which cooed musically at noon and +eventide. Young cassowaries, strangely striped with black and brown, +wandered about the houses or gambolled with the playfulness of kittens +in the hot sunshine, with sometimes a pretty little kangaroo, caught in +the Aru forests, but already tame and graceful as a petted fawn. + +Of an evening there were more signs of life than at the time of my +former residence. Tom-toms, jews'-harps, and even fiddles were to be +heard, and the melancholy Malay songs sounded not unpleasantly far into +the night. Almost every day there was a cock-fight in the street. The +spectators make a ring, and after the long steel spurs are tied on, +and the poor animals are set down to gash and kill each other, the +excitement is immense. Those who lave made bets scream and yell and jump +frantically, if they think they are going to win or lose, but in a very +few minutes it is all over; there is a hurrah from the winners, the +owners seize their cocks, the winning bird is caressed and admired, the +loser is generally dead or very badly wounded, and his master may often +be seen plucking out his feathers as he walks away, preparing him for +the cooking pot while the poor bird is still alive. + +A game at foot-ball, which generally took place at sunset, was, however, +much more interesting to me. The ball used is a rather small one, and is +made of rattan, hollow, light, and elastic. The player keeps it dancing +a little while on his foot, then occasionally on his arm or thigh, till +suddenly he gives it a good blow with the hollow of the foot, and sends +it flying high in the air. Another player runs to meet it, and at its +first bound catches it on his foot and plays in his turn. The ball must +never be touched with the hand; but the arm, shoulder, knee, or +thigh are used at pleasure to rest the foot. Two or three played very +skilfully, keeping the ball continually flying about, but the place was +too confined to show off the game to advantage. One evening a quarrel +arose from some dispute in the game, and there was a great row, and +it was feared there would be a fight about it--not two men only, but a +party of a dozen or twenty on each side, a regular battle with knives +and krisses; but after a large amount of talk it passed off quietly, and +we heard nothing about it afterwards. + +Most Europeans being gifted by nature with a luxuriant growth of hair +upon their faces, think it disfigures them, and keep up a continual +struggle against her by mowing down every morning the crop which has +sprouted up flaring the preceding twenty-four hours. Now the men of +Mongolian race are, naturally, just as many of us want to he. They +mostly pass their lives with faces as smooth and beardless as an +infant's. But shaving seems an instinct of the human race; for many of +these people, having no hair to take off their faces, shave their heads. +Others, however, set resolutely to work to force nature to give them a +beard. One of the chief cock-fighters at Dobbo was a Javanese, a sort of +master of the ceremonies of the ring, who tied on the spars and acted as +backer-up to one of the combatants. This man had succeeded, by assiduous +cultivation, in raising a pair of moustaches which were a triumph of +art, for they each contained about a dozen hairs more than three inches +long, and which, being well greased and twisted, were distinctly visible +(when not too far off) as a black thread hanging down on each side of +his mouth. But the beard to match was the difficulty, for nature had +cruelly refused to give him a rudiment of hair on his chin, and the most +talented gardener could not do much if he had nothing to cultivate. +But true genius triumphs over difficulties. Although there was no hair +proper on the chin; there happened to be, rather on one side of it, a +small mole or freckle which contained (as such things frequently do) a +few stray hairs. These had been made the most of. They had reached four +or five inches in length, and formed another black thread dangling +from the left angle of the chin. The owner carried this as if it +were something remarkable (as it certainly was); he often felt it +affectionately, passed it between his fingers, and was evidently +extremely proud of his moustaches and beard! + +One of the most surprising things connected with Aru was the excessive +cheapness of all articles of European or native manufacture. We +were here two thousand miles beyond Singapore and Batavia, which are +themselves emporiums of the "far east," in a place unvisited by, and +almost unknown to, European traders; everything reached us through at +least two or three hands, often many more; yet English calicoes and +American cotton cloths could be bought for 8s. the piece, muskets for +15s., common scissors and German knives at three-halfpence each, and +other cutlery, cotton goods, and earthenware in the same proportion. +The natives of this out-of-the-way country can, in fact, buy all these +things at about the same money price as our workmen at home, but in +reality very much cheaper, for the produce of a few hours' labour +enables the savage to purchase in abundance what are to him luxuries, +while to the European they are necessaries of life. The barbarian is no +happier and no better off for this cheapness. On the contrary, it has +a most injurious effect on him. He wants the stimulus of necessity to +force him to labour; and if iron were as dear as silver, and calico as +costly as satin, the effect would be beneficial to him. As it is, he +has more idle hours, gets a more constant supply of tobacco, and can +intoxicate himself with arrack more frequently and more thoroughly; for +your Aru man scorns to get half drunk-a tumbler full of arrack is but a +slight stimulus, and nothing less than half a gallon of spirit will make +him tipsy to his own satisfaction. + +It is not agreeable to reflect on this state of things. At least half +of the vast multitudes of uncivilized peoples, on whom our gigantic +manufacturing system, enormous capital, and intense competition force +the produce of our looms and workshops, would be not a whit worse off +physically, and would certainly be improved morally, if all the articles +with which w e supply them were double or treble their present prices. +If at the same time the difference of cost, or a large portion of +it, could find its way into the pockets of the manufacturing workmen, +thousands would be raised from want to comfort, from starvation to +health, and would be removed from one of the chief incentives to crime. +It is difficult for an Englishman to avoid contemplating with pride our +gigantic and ever-increasing manufactures and commerce, and thinking +everything good that renders their progress still more rapid, either +by lowering the price at which the articles can be produced, or by +discovering new markets to which they may be sent. If, however, the +question that is so frequently asked of the votaries of the less popular +sciences were put here--"Cui bono?"--it would be found more difficult to +answer than had been imagined. The advantages, even to the few who reap +them, would be seen to be mostly physical, while the wide-spread moral +and intellectual evils resulting from unceasing labour, low wages, +crowded dwellings, and monotonous occupations, to perhaps as large a +number as those who gain any real advantage, might be held to show +a balance of evil so great, as to lead the greatest admirers of our +manufactures and commerce to doubt the advisability of their further +development. It will be said: "We cannot stop it; capital must be +employed; our population must be kept at work; if we hesitate a moment, +other nations now hard pressing us will get ahead, and national ruin +will follow." Some of this is true, some fallacious. It is undoubtedly a +difficult problem which we have to solve; and I am inclined to think it +is this difficulty that makes men conclude that what seems a necessary +and unalterable state of things must be good-that its benefits must be +greater than its evils. This was the feeling of the American advocates +of slavery; they could not see an easy, comfortable way out of it. In +our own case, however, it is to be hoped, that if a fair consideration +of the matter in all its hearings shows that a preponderance of evil +arises from the immensity of our manufactures and commerce-evil which +must go on increasing with their increase-there is enough both of +political wisdom and true philanthropy in Englishmen, to induce them to +turn their superabundant wealth into other channels. The fact that has +led to these remarks is surely a striking one: that in one of the most +remote corners of the earth savages can buy clothing cheaper than the +people of the country where it is made; that the weaver's child should +shiver in the wintry wind, unable to purchase articles attainable by the +wild natives of a tropical climate, where clothing is mere ornament or +luxury, should make us pause ere we regard with unmixed admiration the +system which has led to such a result, and cause us to look with some +suspicion on the further extension of that system. It must be remembered +too that our commerce is not a purely natural growth. It has been ever +fostered by the legislature, and forced to an unnatural luxuriance by +the protection of our fleets and armies. The wisdom and the justice of +this policy have been already doubted. So soon, therefore, as it is seen +that the further extension of our manufactures and commerce would be an +evil, the remedy is not far to seek. + +After six weeks' confinement to the house I was at length well, and +could resume my daily walks in the forest. I did not, however, find it +so productive as when I had first arrived at Dobbo. There was a damp +stagnation about the paths, and insects were very scarce. In some of my +best collecting places I now found a mass of rotting wood, mingled with +young shoots, and overgrown with climbers, yet I always managed to +add something daily to my extensive collections. I one day met with +a curious example of failure of instinct, which, by showing it to be +fallible, renders it very doubtful whether it is anything more than +hereditary habit, dependent on delicate modifications of sensation. Some +sailors cut down a good-sized tree, and, as is always my practice, I +visited it daily for some time in search of insects. Among other +beetles came swarms of the little cylindrical woodborers (Platypus, +Tesserocerus, &c.), and commenced making holes in the bark. After a day +or two I was surprised to find hundreds of them sticking in the holes +they had bored, and on examination discovered that the milky sap of the +tree was of the nature of gutta-percha, hardening rapidly on exposure to +the air, and glueing the little animals in self-dug graves. The habit +of boring holes in trees in which to deposit their eggs, was not +accompanied by a sufficient instinctive knowledge of which trees were +suitable, and which destructive to them. If, as is very probable, these +trees have an attractive odour to certain species of borers, it might +very likely lead to their becoming extinct; while other species, to whom +the same odour was disagreeable, and who therefore avoided the dangerous +trees, would survive, and would be credited by us with an instinct, +whereas they would really be guided by a simple sensation. + +Those curious little beetles, the Brenthidae, were very abundant in Aru. +The females have a pointed rostrum, with which they bore deep holes in +the bark of dead trees, often burying the rostrum up to the eyes, and +in these holes deposit their eggs. The males are larger, and have the +rostrum dilated at the end, and sometimes terminating in a good-sized +pair of jaws. I once saw two males fighting together; each had a +fore-leg laid across the neck of the other, and the rostrum bent quite +in an attitude of defiance, and looking most ridiculous. Another time, +two were fighting for a female, who stood close by busy at her boring. +They pushed at each other with their rostra, and clawed and thumped, +apparently in the greatest rage, although their coats of mail must +have saved both from injury. The small one, however, soon ran away, +acknowledging himself vanquished. In most Coleoptera the female is +larger than the male, and it is therefore interesting, as bearing on the +question of sexual selection, that in this case, as in the stag-beetles +where the males fight together, they should be not only better armed, +but also much larger than the females. Just as we were going away, a +handsome tree, allied to Erythrina, was in blossom, showing its masses +of large crimson flowers scattered here and there about the forest. +Could it have been seen from an elevation, it would have had a fine +effect; from below I could only catch sight of masses of gorgeous colour +in clusters and festoons overhead, about which flocks of blue and orange +lories were fluttering and screaming. + +A good many people died at Dobbo this season; I believe about twenty. +They were buried in a little grove of Casuarinas behind my house. Among +the traders was a. Mahometan priest, who superintended the funerals, +which were very simple. The body was wrapped up in new white cotton +cloth, and was carried on a bier to the grave. All the spectators sat +down on the ground, and the priest chanted some verses from the Koran. +The graves were fenced round with a slight bamboo railing, and a little +carved wooden head-post was put to mark the spot. There was also in the +village a small mosque, where every Friday the faithful went to pray. +This is probably more remote from Mecca than any other mosque in +the world, and marks the farthest eastern extension of the Mahometan +religion. The Chinese here, as elsewhere, showed their superior wealth +and civilization by tombstones of solid granite brought from Singapore, +with deeply-cut inscriptions, the characters of which are painted in +red, blue, and gold. No people have more respect for the graves of +their relations and friends than this strange, ubiquitous, money-getting +people. + +Soon after we had returned to Dobbo, my Macassar boy, Baderoon, took his +wages and left me, because I scolded him for laziness. He then occupied +himself in gambling, and at first had some luck, and bought ornaments, +and had plenty of money. Then his luck turned; he lost everything, +borrowed money and lost that, and was obliged to become the slave of his +creditor till he had worked out the debt. He was a quick and active lad +when he pleased, but was apt to be idle, and had such an incorrigible +propensity for gambling, that it will very likely lead to his becoming a +slave for life. + +The end of June was now approaching, the east monsoon had set +in steadily, and in another week or two Dobbo would be deserted. +Preparations for departure were everywhere visible, and every sunny day +(rather rare now) the streets were as crowded and as busy as +beehives. Heaps of tripang were finally dried and packed up in sacks; +mother-of-pearl shell, tied up with rattans into convenient bundles, was +all day long being carried to the beach to be loaded; water-casks were +filled, and cloths and mat-sails mended and strengthened for the run +home before the strong east wind. Almost every day groups of natives +arrived from the most distant parts of the islands, with cargoes of +bananas and sugar-cane to exchange for tobacco, sago, bread, and other +luxuries, before the general departure. The Chinamen killed their fat +pig and made their parting feast, and kindly sent me some pork, and a +basin of birds' nest stew, which had very little more taste than a dish +of vermicelli. My boy Ali returned from Wanumbai, where I had sent him +alone for a fortnight to buy Paradise birds and prepare the skins; he +brought me sixteen glorious specimens, and had he not been very ill with +fever and ague might have obtained twice the number. He had lived +with the people whose house I had occupied, and it is a proof of their +goodness, if fairly treated, that although he took with him a quantity +of silver dollars to pay for the birds they caught, no attempt was made +to rob him, which might have been done with the most perfect impunity. +He was kindly treated when ill, and was brought back to me with the +balance of the dollars he had not spent. + +The Wanumbai people, like almost all the inhabitants of the Aru Islands, +are perfect savages, and I saw no signs of any religion. There are, +however, three or four villages on the coast where schoolmasters from +Amboyna reside, and the people are nominally Christians, and are to some +extent educated and civilized. I could not get much real knowledge of +the customs of the Aru people during the short time I was among them, +but they have evidently been considerably influenced by their long +association with Mahometan traders. They often bury their dead, although +the national custom is to expose the body an a raised stage till it +decomposes. Though there is no limit to the number of wives a man may +have, they seldom exceed one or two. A wife is regularly purchased from +the parents, the price being a large assortment of articles, always +including gongs, crockery, and cloth. They told me that some of the +tribes kill the old men and women when they can no longer work, but I +saw many very old and decrepid people, who seemed pretty well attended +to. No doubt all who have much intercourse with the Bugis and Ceramese +traders gradually lose many of their native customs, especially as these +people often settle in their villages and marry native women. + +The trade carried on at Dobbo is very considerable. This year there were +fifteen large praus from Macassar, and perhaps a hundred small boats +from Ceram, Goram, and Ke. The Macassar cargoes are worth about L1,000. +each, and the other boats take away perhaps about L3,000, worth, so that +the whole exports may be estimated at L18,000. per annum. The largest +and most bulky items are pearl-shell and tripang, or "beche-de-mer," +with smaller quantities of tortoise-shell, edible birds' nests, pearls, +ornamental woods, timber, and Birds of Paradise. These are purchased +with a variety of goods. Of arrack, about equal in strength to ordinary +West India rum, 3,000 boxes, each containing fifteen half-gallon +bottles, are consumed annually. Native cloth from Celebes is much +esteemed for its durability, and large quantities are sold, as well as +white English calico and American unbleached cottons, common crockery, +coarse cutlery, muskets, gunpowder, gongs, small brass cannon, and +elephants' tusks. These three last articles constitute the wealth of the +Aru people, with which they pay for their wives, or which they hoard +up as "real property." Tobacco is in immense demand for chewing, and +it must be very strong, or an Aru man will not look at it. Knowing +how little these people generally work, the mass of produce obtained +annually shows that the islands must be pretty thickly inhabited, +especially along the coasts, as nine-tenths of the whole are marine +productions. + +It was on the 2d of July that we left Aru, followed by all the Macassar +praus, fifteen in number, who had agreed to sail in company. We passed +south of Banda, and then steered due west, not seeing land for three +days, till we sighted some low islands west of Bouton. We had a strong +and steady south-east wind day and night, which carried us on at about +five knots an hour, where a clipper ship would have made twelve. The sky +was continually cloudy, dark, and threatening, with occasional drizzling +showers, till we were west of Bouru, when it cleared up and we enjoyed +the bright sunny skies of the dry season for the rest of our voyage. +It is about here, therefore that the seasons of the eastern and western +regions of the Archipelago are divided. West of this line from June to +December is generally fine, and often very dry, the rest of the year +being the wet season. East of it the weather is exceedingly uncertain, +each island, and each side of an island, having its own peculiarities. +The difference seems to consist not so much in the distribution of the +rainfall as in that of the clouds and the moistness of the atmosphere. +In Aru, for example, when we left, the little streams were all dried up, +although the weather was gloomy; while in January, February, and March, +when we had the hottest sunshine and the finest days, they were always +flowing. The driest time of all the year in Aru occurs in September and +October, just as it does in Java and Celebes. The rainy seasons agree, +therefore, with those of the western islands, although the weather is +very different. The Molucca sea is of a very deep blue colour, quite +distinct from the clear light blue of the Atlantic. In cloudy and dull +weather it looks absolutely black, and when crested with foam has a +stern and angry aspect. The wind continued fair and strong during our +whole voyage, and we reached Macassar in perfect safety on the evening +of the 11th of July, having made the passage from Aru (more than a +thousand miles) in nine and a half days. + +My expedition to the Aru Islands had been eminently successful. Although +I had been for months confined to the house by illness, and had lost +much time by the want of the means of locomotion, and by missing the +right season at the right place, I brought away with me more than nine +thousand specimens of natural objects, of about sixteen hundred distinct +species. I had made the acquaintance of a strange and little-known race +of men; I had become familiar with the traders of the far East; I had +revelled in the delights of exploring a new fauna and flora, one of the +most remarkable and most beautiful and least-known in the world; and +I had succeeded in the main object for which I had undertaken the +journey-namely, to obtain fine specimens of the magnificent Birds of +Paradise, and to be enabled to observe them in their native forests. By +this success I was stimulated to continue my researches in the Moluccas +and New Guinea for nearly five years longer, and it is still the portion +of my travels to which I look back with the most complete satisfaction. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. THE ARU ISLANDS--PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ASPECTS OF +NATURE. + +IN this chapter I propose to give a general sketch of the physical +geography of the Aru Islands, and of their relation to the surrounding +countries; and shall thus be able to incorporate the information +obtained from traders, and from the works of other naturalists with +my own observations in these exceedingly interesting and little-known +regions. + +The Aru group may be said to consist of one very large central island +with a number of small ones scattered round it. The great island is +called by the natives and traders "Tang-busar" (great or mainland), to +distinguish it as a whole from Dobbo, or any of the detached islands. It +is of an irregular oblong form, about eighty miles from north to south, +and forty or fifty from east to west, in which direction it is traversed +by three narrow channels, dividing it into four portions. These channels +are always called rivers by the traders, which puzzled me much till I +passed through one of them, and saw how exceedingly applicable the +name was. The northern channel, called the river of Watelai, is about +a quarter of a mile wide at its entrance, but soon narrows to abort the +eighth of a mile, which width it retains, with little variation, during +its whole, length of nearly fifty miles, till it again widens at its +eastern mouth. Its course is moderately winding, and the hanks are +generally dry and somewhat elevated. In many places there are low cliffs +of hard coralline limestone, more or less worn by the action of water; +while sometimes level spaces extend from the banks to low ranges of +hills a little inland. A few small streams enter it from right and left, +at the mouths of which are some little rocky islands. The depth is +very regular, being from ten to fifteen fathoms, and it has thus every +feature of a true river, but for the salt water and the absence of a +current. The other two rivers, whose names are Vorkai and Maykor, are +said to be very similar in general character; but they are rather near +together, and have a number of cross channels intersecting the flat +tract between them. On the south side of Maykor the banks are +very rocky, and from thence to the southern extremity of Aru is +an uninterrupted extent of rather elevated and very rocky country, +penetrated by numerous small streams, in the high limestone cliffs +bordering which the edible birds' nests of Aru are chiefly obtained. +All my informants stated that the two southern rivers are larger than +Watelai. + +The whole of Aru is low, but by no means so flat as it has been +represented, or as it appears from the sea. Most of it is dry rocky +ground, with a somewhat undulating surface, rising here and there +into abrupt hillocks, or cut into steep and narrow ravines. Except the +patches of swamp which are found at the mouths of most of the small +rivers, there is no absolutely level ground, although the greatest +elevation is probably not more than two hundred feet. The rock which +everywhere appears in the ravines and brooks is a coralline limestone, +in some places soft and pliable, in others so hard and crystalline as to +resemble our mountain limestone. + +The small islands which surround the central mass are very numerous; +but most of them are on the east side, where they form a fringe, often +extending ten or fifteen miles from the main islands. On the west there +are very few, Wamma and Palo Pabi being the chief, with Ougia, and +Wassia at the north-west extremity. On the east side the sea is +everywhere shallow, and full of coral; and it is here that the +pearl-shells are found which form one of the chief staples of Aru trade. +All the islands are covered with a dense and very lofty forest. + +The physical features here described are of peculiar interest, and, as +far as I am aware, are to some extent unique; for I have been unable +to find any other record of an island of the size of Aru crossed +by channels which exactly resemble true rivers. How these channels +originated were a complete puzzle to me, till, after a long +consideration of the whole of the natural phenomena presented by +these islands, I arrived at a conclusion which I will now endeavour to +explain. There are three ways in which we may conceive islands which +are not volcanic to have been formed, or to have been reduced to their +present condition, by elevation, by subsidence, or by separation from +a continent or larger island. The existence of coral rock, or of raised +beaches far inland, indicates recent elevation; lagoon coral-islands, +and such as have barrier or encircling reefs, have suffered subsidence; +while our own islands, whose productions are entirely those of the +adjacent continent, have been separated from it. Now the Aru Islands are +all coral rock, and the adjacent sea is shallow and full of coral, it is +therefore evident that they have been elevated from beneath the ocean +at a not very distant epoch. But if we suppose that elevation to be the +first and only cause of their present condition, we shall find ourselves +quite unable to explain the curious river-channels which divide them. +Fissures during upheaval would not produce the regular width, the +regular depth, or the winding curves which characterise them; and the +action of tides and currents during their elevation might form straits +of irregular width and depth, but not the river-like channels which +actually exist. If, again, we suppose the last movement to have been +one of subsidence, reducing the size of the islands, these channels +are quite as inexplicable; for subsidence would necessarily lead to +the flooding of all low tracts on the banks of the old rivers, and thus +obliterate their courses; whereas these remain perfect, and of nearly +uniform width from end to end. + +Now if these channels have ever been rivers they must have flowed from +some higher regions, and this must have been to the east, because on the +north and west the sea-bottom sinks down at a short distance from the +shore to an unfathomable depth; whereas on the east, a shallow sea, +nowhere exceeding fifty fathoms, extends quite across to New Guinea, a +distance of about a hundred and fifty miles. An elevation of only three +hundred feet would convert the whole of this sea into moderately high +land, and make the Aru Islands a portion of New Guinea; and the rivers +which have their mouths at Utanata and Wamuka, might then have flowed on +across Aru, in the channels which are now occupied by salt water. +Then the intervening land sunk down, we must suppose the land that +now constitutes Aru to have remained nearly stationary, a not very +improbable supposition, when we consider the great extent of the +shallow sea, and the very small amount of depression the land need have +undergone to produce it. + +But the fact of the Aru Islands having once been connected with New +Guinea does not rest on this evidence alone. There is such a striking +resemblance between the productions of the two countries as only exists +between portions of a common territory. I collected one hundred species +of land-birds in the Aru Islands, and about eighty of them, have been +found on the mainland of New Guinea. Among these are the great wingless +cassowary, two species of heavy brush turkeys, and two of short winged +thrushes; which could certainly not have passed over the 150 miles of +open sea to the coast of New Guinea. This barrier is equally effectual +in the case of many other birds which live only in the depths of the +forest, as the kinghunters (Dacelo gaudichaudi), the fly-catching wrens +(Todopsis), the great crown pigeon (Goura coronata), and the small wood +doves (Ptilonopus perlatus, P. aurantiifrons, and P. coronulatus). +Now, to show the real effect of such barrier, let us take the island of +Ceram, which is exactly the same distance from New Guinea, but separated +from it by a deep sea. Cut of about seventy land-birds inhabiting Ceram, +only fifteen are found in New Guinea, and none of these are terrestrial +or forest-haunting species. The cassowary is distinct; the kingfishers, +parrots, pigeons, flycatchers, honeysuckers, thrushes, and cuckoos, are +almost always quite distinct species. More than this, at least twenty +genera, which are common to New Guinea and Aru, do not extend into +Ceram, indicating with a force which every naturalist will appreciate, +that the two latter countries have received their faunas in a radically +different manner. Again, a true kangaroo is found in Aru, and the same +species occurs in Mysol, which is equally Papuan in its productions, +while either the same, or one closely allied to it, inhabits New Guinea; +but no such animal is found in Ceram, which is only sixty miles from +Mysol. Another small marsupial animal (Perameles doreyanus) is common +to Aru and New Guinea. The insects show exactly the same results. The +butterflies of Aru are all either New Guinea species, or very slightly +modified forms; whereas those of Ceram are more distinct than are the +birds of the two countries. + +It is now generally admitted that we may safely reason on such facts +as those, which supply a link in the defective geological record. The +upward and downward movements which any country has undergone, and the +succession of such movements, can be determined with much accuracy; +but geology alone can tell us nothing of lands which have entirely +disappeared beneath the ocean. Here physical geography and the +distribution of animals and plants are of the greatest service. By +ascertaining the depth of the seas separating one country from another, +we can form some judgment of the changes which are taking place. If +there are other evidences of subsidence, a shallow sea implies a former +connexion of the adjacent lands; but if this evidence is wanting, or if +there is reason to suspect a rising of the land, then the shallow +sea may be the result of that rising, and may indicate that the two +countries will be joined at some future time, but not that they have +previously been so. The nature of the animals and plants inhabiting +these countries will, however, almost always enable us to determine this +question. Mr. Darwin has shown us how we may determine in almost every +case, whether an island has ever been connected with a continent or +larger land, by the presence or absence of terrestrial Mammalia and +reptiles. What he terms "oceanic islands" possess neither of these +groups of animals, though they may have a luxuriant vegetation, and a +fair number of birds, insects, and landshells; and we therefore conclude +that they have originated in mid-ocean, and have never been connected +with the nearest masses of land. St. Helena, Madeira, and New Zealand +are examples of oceanic islands. They possess all other classes of life, +because these have means of dispersion over wide spaces of sea, which +terrestrial mammals and birds have not, as is fully explained in Sir +Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology," and Mr. Darwin's "Origin of +Species." On the other hand, an island may never have been actually +connected with the adjacent continents or islands, and yet may possess +representatives of all classes of animals, because many terrestrial +mammals and some reptiles have the means of passing over short distances +of sea. But in these cases the number of species that have thus migrated +will be very small, and there will be great deficiencies even in birds +and flying insects, which we should imagine could easily cross over. +The island of Timor (as I have already shown in Chapter XIII) bears this +relation to Australia; for while it contains several birds and insects +of Australian forms, no Australian mammal or reptile is found in it, +and a great number of the most abundant and characteristic forms of +Australian birds and insects are entirely absent. Contrast this with the +British Islands, in, which a large proportion of the plants, insects, +reptiles, and Mammalia of the adjacent parts of the continent are fully +represented, while there are no remarkable deficiencies of extensive +groups, such as always occur when there is reason to believe there has +been no such connexion. The case of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, and the +Asiatic continent is equally clear; many large Mammalia, terrestrial +birds, and reptiles being common to all, while a large number more +are of closely allied forms. Now, geology has taught us that this +representation by allied forms in the same locality implies lapse of +time, and we therefore infer that in Great Britain, where almost +every species is absolutely identical with those on the Continent, the +separation has been very recent; while in Sumatra and Java, where a +considerable number of the continental species are represented by allied +forms, the separation was more remote. + +From these examples we may see how important a supplement to geological +evidence is the study of the geographical distribution of animals and +plants, in determining the former condition of the earth's surface; and +how impossible it is to understand the former without taking the latter +into account. The productions of the Aru Islands offer the strangest +evidence, that at no very distant epoch they formed a part of New +Guinea; and the peculiar physical features which I have described, +indicate that they must have stood at very nearly the same level then as +they do now, having been separated by the subsidence of the great plain +which formerly connected them with it. + +Persons who have formed the usual ideas of the vegetation of the tropics +who picture to themselves the abundance and brilliancy of the flowers, +and the magnificent appearance of hundreds of forest trees covered with +masses of coloured blossoms, will be surprised to hear, that though +vegetation in Aru is highly luxuriant and varied, and would afford +abundance of fine and curious plants to adorn our hothouses, yet bright +and showy flowers are, as a general rule, altogether absent, or so very +scarce as to produce no effect whatever on the general scenery. To give +particulars: I have visited five distinct localities in the islands, I +have wandered daily in the forests, and have passed along upwards of a +hundred miles of coast and river during a period of six months, much of +it very fine weather, and till just as I was about to leave, I never saw +a single plant of striking brilliancy or beauty, hardly a shrub equal to +a hawthorn, or a climber equal to a honeysuckle! It cannot be said that +the flowering season had not arrived, for I saw many herbs, shrubs, +and forest trees in flower, but all had blossoms of a green or +greenish-white tint, not superior to our lime-trees. Here and there on +the river banks and coasts are a few Convolvulaceae, not equal to our +garden Ipomaeas, and in the deepest shades of the forest some fine +scarlet and purple Zingiberaceae, but so few and scattered as to be +nothing amid the mass of green and flowerless vegetation. Yet the noble +Cycadaceae and screw-pines, thirty or forty feet high, the elegant tree +ferns, the lofty palms, and the variety of beautiful and curious plants +which everywhere meet the eye, attest the warmth and moisture of the +tropics, and the fertility of the soil. + +It is true that Aru seemed to me exceptionally poor in flowers, but +this is only an exaggeration of a general tropical feature; for my +whole experience in the equatorial regions of the west and the east has +convinced me, that in the most luxuriant parts of the tropics, flowers +are less abundant, on the average less showy, and are far less effective +in adding colour to the landscape than in temperate climates. I have +never seen in the tropics such brilliant masses of colour as even +England can show in her furze-clad commons, her heathery mountain-sides, +her glades of wild hyacinths, her fields of poppies, her meadows of +buttercups and orchises--carpets of yellow, purple, azure-blue, and +fiery crimson, which the tropics can rarely exhibit. We, have smaller +masses of colour in our hawthorn and crab trees, our holly and +mountain-ash, our boom; foxgloves, primroses, and purple vetches, which +clothe with gay colours the whole length and breadth of our land, These +beauties are all common. They are characteristic of the country and the +climate; they have not to be sought for, but they gladden the eye at +every step. In the regions of the equator, on the other hand, whether it +be forest or savannah, a sombre green clothes universal nature. You may +journey for hours, and even for days, and meet with nothing to break the +monotony. Flowers are everywhere rare, and anything at all striking is +only to be met with at very distant intervals. + +The idea that nature exhibits gay colours in the tropics, and that the +general aspect of nature is there more bright and varied in hue than +with us, has even been made the foundation of theories of art, and we +have been forbidden to use bright colours in our garments, and in the +decorations of our dwellings, because it was supposed that we should be +thereby acting in opposition to the teachings of nature. The argument +itself is a very poor one, since it might with equal justice be +maintained, that as we possess faculties for the appreciation of +colours, we should make up for the deficiencies of nature and use the +gayest tints in those regions where the landscape is most monotonous. +But the assumption on which the argument is founded is totally false, +so that even if the reasoning were valid, we need not be afraid of +outraging nature, by decorating our houses and our persons with +all those gay hues which are so lavishly spread over our fields and +mountains, our hedges, woods, and meadows. + +It is very easy to see what has led to this erroneous view of the nature +of tropical vegetation. In our hothouses and at our flower-shows we +gather together the finest flowering plants from the most distant +regions of the earth, and exhibit them in a proximity to each other +which never occurs in nature. A hundred distinct plants, all with +bright, or strange, or gorgeous flowers, make a wonderful show when +brought together; but perhaps no two of these plants could ever be seen +together in a state of nature, each inhabiting a distant region or a +different station. Again, all moderately warm extra-European countries +are mixed up with the tropics in general estimation, and a vague idea +is formed that whatever is preeminently beautiful must come from +the hottest parts of the earth. But the fact is quite the contrary. +Rhododendrons and azaleas are plants of temperate regions, the grandest +lilies are from temperate Japan, and a large proportion of our most +showy flowering plants are natives of the Himalayas, of the Cape, of the +United States, of Chili, or of China and Japan, all temperate regions. +True, there are a great number of grand and gorgeous flowers in the +tropics, but the proportion they bear to the mass of the vegetation is +exceedingly small; so that what appears an anomaly is nevertheless a +fact, and the effect of flowers on the general aspect of nature is far +less in the equatorial than in the temperate regions of the earth. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. NEW GUINEA.--DOREY. + +(MARCH TO JULY 1858.) + +AFTER my return from Gilolo to Ternate, in March 1858, I made +arrangements for my long-wished-for voyage to the mainland of New +Guinea, where I anticipated that my collections would surpass those +which I had formed at the Aru Islands. The poverty of Ternate in +articles used by Europeans was shown, by my searching in vain +through all the stores for such common things as flour, metal spoons, +wide-mouthed phials, beeswax, a penknife, and a stone or metal pestle +and mortar. I took with me four servants: my head man Ali, and a Ternate +lad named Jumaat (Friday), to shoot; Lahagi, a steady middle-aged man, +to cut timber and assist me in insect-collecting; and Loisa, a Javanese +cook. As I knew I should have to build a house at Dorey, where I was +going, I took with me eighty cadjans, or waterproof mats, made of +pandanus leaves, to cover over my baggage on first landing, and to help +to roof my house afterwards. + +We started on the 25th of March in the schooner Hester Helena, belonging +to my friend Mr. Duivenboden, and bound on a trading voyage along the +north coast of New Guinea. Having calms and light airs, we were three +days reaching Gane, near the south end of Gilolo, where we stayed to +fill up our water-casks and buy a few provisions. We obtained fowls, +eggs, sago, plantains, sweet potatoes, yellow pumpkins, chilies, fish, +and dried deer's meat; and on the afternoon of the 29th proceeded on our +voyage to Dorey harbour. We found it, however, by no means easy to get +along; for so near to the equator the monsoons entirely fail of their +regularity, and after passing the southern point of Gilolo we had calms, +light puffs of wind, and contrary currents, which kept us for five days +in sight of the same islands between it and Poppa. A squall them +brought us on to the entrance of Dampier's Straits, where we were again +becalmed, and were three more days creeping through them. Several native +canoes now came off to us from Waigiou on one side, and Batanta on the +other, bringing a few common shells, palm-leaf mats, cocoa-nuts, and +pumpkins. They were very extravagant in their demands, being accustomed +to sell their trifles to whalers and China ships, whose crews will +purchase anything at ten times its value. My only purchases were a float +belonging to a turtle-spear, carved to resemble a bird, and a very well +made palm-leaf box, for which articles I gave a copper ring and a yard +of calico. The canoes were very narrow and furnished with an outrigger, +and in some of them there was only one man, who seemed to think nothing +of coming out alone eight or ten miles from shore. The people were +Papuans, much resembling the natives of Aru. + +When we had got out of the Straits, and were fairly in the great Pacific +Ocean, we had a steady wind for the first time since leaving Ternate, +but unfortunately it was dead ahead, and we had to beat against it, +tacking on and off the coast of New Guinea. I looked with intense +interest on those rugged mountains, retreating ridge behind ridge into +the interior, where the foot of civilized man had never trod. There +was the country of the cassowary and the tree-kangaroo, and those dark +forests produced the most extraordinary and the most beautiful of the +feathered inhabitants of the earth--the varied species of Birds of +Paradise. A few days more and I hoped to be in pursuit of these, and of +the scarcely less beautiful insects which accompany them. We had still, +however, for several days only calms and light head-winds, and it was +not till the 10th of April that a fine westerly breeze set in, followed +by a squally night, which kept us off the entrance of Dorey harbour. +The next morning we entered, and came to anchor off the small island +of Mansinam, on which dwelt two German missionaries, Messrs. Otto and +Geisler. The former immediately came on board to give us welcome, +and invited us to go on shore and breakfast with him. We were then +introduced to his companion who was suffering dreadfully from an abscess +on the heel, which had confined him to the house for six months--and +to his wife, a young German woman, who had been out only three months. +Unfortunately she could speak no Malay or English, and had to guess at +our compliments on her excellent breakfast by the justice we did to it. + +These missionaries were working men, and had been sent out, as being +more useful among savages than persons of a higher class. They had +been here about two years, and Mr. Otto had already learnt to speak the +Papuan language with fluency, and had begun translating some portions of +the Bible. The language, however, is so poor that a considerable number +of Malay words have to be used; and it is very questionable whether it +is possible to convey any idea of such a book, to a people in so low a +state of civilization. The only nominal converts yet made are a few of +the women; and some few of the children attend school, and are being +taught to read, but they make little progress. There is one feature of +this mission which I believe will materially interfere with its moral +effect. The missionaries are allowed to trade to eke out the very small +salaries granted them from Europe, and of course are obliged to carry +out the trade principle of buying cheap and selling dear, in order to +make a profit. Like all savages the natives are quite careless of the +future, and when their small rice crops are gathered they bring a large +portion of it to the missionaries, and sell it for knives, beads, axes, +tobacco, or any other articles they may require. A few months later, in +the wet season, when food is scarce, they come to buy it back again, and +give in exchange tortoiseshell, tripang, wild nutmegs, or other produce. +Of course the rice is sold at a much higher rate than it was bought, as +is perfectly fair and just--and the operation is on the whole thoroughly +beneficial to the natives, who would otherwise consume and waste their +food when it was abundant, and then starve--yet I cannot imagine that +the natives see it in this light. They must look upon the trading +missionaries with some suspicion, and cannot feel so sure of their +teachings being disinterested, as would be the case if they acted like +the Jesuits in Singapore. The first thing to be done by the missionary +in attempting to improve savages, is to convince them by his actions +that lie comes among them for their benefit only, and not for any +private ends of his own. To do this he must act in a different way from +other men, not trading and taking advantage of the necessities of those +who want to sell, but rather giving to those who are in distress. It +would be well if he conformed himself in some degree to native customs, +and then endeavoured to show how these customs might be gradually +modified, so as to be more healthful and more agreeable. A few energetic +and devoted men acting in this way might probably effect a decided moral +improvement on the lowest savage tribes, whereas trading missionaries, +teaching what Jesus said, but not doing as He did, can scarcely be +expected to do more than give them a very little of the superficial +varnish of religion. + +Dorey harbour is in a fine bay, at one extremity of which an elevated +point juts out, and, with two or three small islands, forms a sheltered +anchorage. The only vessel it contained when we arrived was a Dutch +brig, laden with coals for the use of a war-steamer, which was expected +daily, on an exploring expedition along the coasts of New Guinea, for +the purpose of fixing on a locality for a colony. In the evening we paid +it a visit, and landed at the village of Dorey, to look out for a place +where I could build my house. Mr. Otto also made arrangements for me +with some of the native chiefs, to send men to cut wood, rattans, and +bamboo the next day. + +The villages of Mansinam and Dorey presented some features quite new +to me. The houses all stand completely in the water, and are reached by +long rude bridges. They are very low, with the roof shaped like a large +boat, bottom upwards. The posts which support the houses, bridges, and +platforms are small crooked sticks, placed without any regularity, and +looking as if they were tumbling down. The floors are also formed of +sticks, equally irregular, and so loose and far apart that I found it +almost impossible to walls on them. The walls consist of bits of boards, +old boats, rotten mats, attaps, and palm-leaves, stuck in anyhow here +and there, and having altogether the most wretched and dilapidated +appearance it is possible to conceive. Under the eaves of many of the +houses hang human skulls, the trophies of their battles with the +savage Arfaks of the interior, who often come to attack them. A large +boat-shaped council-house is supported on larger posts, each of which +is grossly carved to represent a naked male or female human figure, and +other carvings still more revolting are placed upon the platform before +the entrance. The view of an ancient lake-dweller's village, given as +the frontispiece of Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man," is chiefly +founded on a sketch of this very village of Dorey; but the extreme +regularity of the structures there depicted has no place in the +original, any more than it probably had in the actual lake-villages. + +The people who inhabit these miserable huts are very similar to the Ke +and Aru islanders, and many of them are very handsome, being tall and +well-made, with well-cut features and large aquiline noses. Their +colour is a deep brown, often approaching closely to black, and the fine +mop-like heads of frizzly hair appear to be more common than elsewhere, +and are considered a great ornament, a long six-pronged bamboo fork +being kept stuck in them to serve the purpose of a comb; and this is +assiduously used at idle moments to keep the densely growing mass from +becoming matted and tangled. The majority have short woolly hair, which +does not seem capable of an equally luxuriant development. A growth of +hair somewhat similar to this, and almost as abundant, is found among +the half-breeds between the Indian and Negro in South America. Can this +be an indication that the Papuans are a mixed race? + +For the first three days after our arrival I was fully occupied from +morning to night building a house, with the assistance of a dozen +Papuans and my own men. It was immense trouble to get our labourers to +work, as scarcely one of them could speak a word of Malay; and it was +only by the most energetic gesticulations, and going through a regular +pantomime of what was wanted, that we could get them to do anything. If +we made them understand that a few more poles were required, which two +could have easily cut, six or eight would insist upon going together, +although we needed their assistance in other things. One morning ten of +them came to work, bringing only one chopper between them, although they +knew I had none ready for use. + +I chose a place about two hundred yards from the beach, on an elevated +ground, by the side of the chief path from the village of Dorey to +the provision-grounds and the forest. Within twenty yards was a little +stream; which furnished us with excellent water and a nice place to +bathe. There was only low underwood to clear away, while some fine +forest trees stood at a short distance, and we cut down the wood for +about twenty yards round to give us light and air. The house, about +twenty feet by fifteen; was built entirely of wood, with a bamboo floor, +a single door of thatch, and a large window, looking over the sea, at +which I fixed my table, and close beside it my bed, within a little +partition. I bought a number of very large palm-leaf mats of the +natives, which made excellent walls; while the mats I had brought myself +were used on the roof, and were covered over with attaps as soon as we +could get them made. Outside, and rather behind, was a little hut, used +for cooking, and a bench, roofed over, where my men could sit to skin +birds and animals. When all was finished, I had my goods and stores +brought up, arranged them conveniently inside, and then paid my Papuans +with knives and choppers, and sent them away. The next day our schooner +left for the more eastern islands, and I found myself fairly established +as the only European inhabitant of the vast island of New Guinea. + +As we had some doubt about the natives, we slept at first with loaded +guns beside us and a watch set; but after a few days, finding the people +friendly, and feeling sure that they would not venture to attack five +well-armed men, we took no further precautions. We had still a day or +two's work in finishing up the house, stopping leaks, putting up our +hanging shelves for drying specimens inside and out, and making the path +down to the water, and a clear dry space in front of the horse. + +On the 17th, the steamer not having arrived, the coal-ship left, having +lain here a month, according to her contract; and on the same day +my hunters went out to shoot for the first time, and brought home a +magnificent crown pigeon and a few common birds. The next day they were +more successful, and I was delighted to see them return with a Bird +of Paradise in full plumage, a pair of the fine Papuan lories (Lorius +domicella), four other lories and parroquets, a grackle (Gracula +dumonti), a king-hunter (Dacelo gaudichaudi), a racquet-tailed +kingfisher (Tanysiptera galatea), and two or three other birds of less +beauty. + +I went myself to visit the native village on the hill behind Dorey, and +took with me a small present of cloth, knives, and beads, to secure the +good-will of the chief, and get him to send some men to catch or shoot +birds for me. The houses were scattered about among rudely cultivated +clearings. Two which I visited consisted of a central passage, on each +side of which opened short passages, admitting to two rooms, each of +which was a house accommodating a separate family. They were elevated at +least fifteen feet above the ground, on a complete forest of poles, +and were so rude and dilapidated that some of the small passages had +openings in the floor of loose sticks, through which a child might fall. +The inhabitants seemed rather uglier than those at Dorey village. They +are, no doubt, the true indigenes of this part of New Guinea, living in +the interior, and subsisting by cultivation and hunting. The Dorey men, +on the other hand, are shore-dwellers, fishers and traders in a small +way, and have thus the character of a colony who have migrated from +another district. These hillmen or "Arfaks" differed much in physical +features. They were generally black, but some were brown like Malays. +Their hair, though always more or less frizzly, was sometimes short and +matted, instead of being long, loose, and woolly; and this seemed to +be a constitutional difference, not the effect of care and cultivation. +Nearly half of them were afflicted with the scurfy skin-disease. The +old chief seemed much pleased with his present, and promised (through +an interpreter I brought with me) to protect my men when they came +there shooting, and also to procure me some birds and animals. While +conversing, they smoked tobacco of their own growing, in pipes cut from +a single piece of wood with a long upright handle. + +We had arrived at Dorey about the end of the wet season, when the whole +country was soaked with moisture The native paths were so neglected as +to be often mere tunnels closed over with vegetation, and in such places +there was always a fearful accumulation of mud. To the naked Papuan this +is no obstruction. He wades through it, and the next watercourse makes +him clean again; but to myself, wearing boots and trousers, it was a +most disagreeable thing to have to go up to my knees in a mud-hole every +morning. The man I brought with me to cut wood fell ill soon after +we arrived, or I would have set him to clear fresh paths in the worst +places. For the first ten days it generally rained every afternoon and +all night r but by going out every hour of fine weather, I managed to +get on tolerably with my collections of birds and insects, finding most +of those collected by Lesson during his visit in the Coquille, as well +as many new ones. It appears, however, that Dorey is not the place for +Birds of Paradise, none of the natives being accustomed to preserve +them. Those sold here are all brought from Amberbaki, about a hundred +miles west, where the Doreyans go to trade. + +The islands in the bay, with the low lands near the coast, seem to have +been formed by recently raised coral reef's, and are much strewn with +masses of coral but little altered. The ridge behind my house, which +runs out to the point, is also entirely coral rock, although there are +signs of a stratified foundation in the ravines, and the rock itself is +more compact and crystalline. It is therefore, probably older, a more +recent elevation having exposed the low grounds and islands. On the +other side of the bay rise the great mass of the Arfak mountains, +said by the French navigators to be about ten thousand feet high, and +inhabited by savage tribes. These are held in great dread by the Dorey +people, who have often been attacked and plundered by them, and have +some of their skulls hanging outside their houses. If I was seem going +into the forest anywhere in the direction of the mountains, the little +boys of the village would shout after me, "Arfaki! Arfaki?" just as they +did after Lesson nearly forty years before. + +On the 15th of May the Dutch war-steamer Etna arrived; but, as the coals +had gone, it was obliged to stay till they came back. The captain knew +when the coalship was to arrive, and how long it was chartered to stay +at Dorey, and could have been back in time, but supposed it would wait +for him, and so did not hurry himself. The steamer lay at anchor just +opposite my house, and I had the advantage of hearing the half-hourly +bells struck, which was very pleasant after the monotonous silence +of the forest. The captain, doctor, engineer, and some other of the +officers paid me visits; the servants came to the brook to wash clothes, +and the son of the Prince of Tidore, with one or two companions, to +bathe; otherwise I saw little of them, and was not disturbed by visitors +so much as I had expected to be. About this time the weather set in +pretty fine, but neither birds nor insects became much more abundant, +and new birds-were very scarce. None of the Birds of Paradise except the +common one were ever met with, and we were still searching in vain for +several of the fine birds which Lesson had obtained here. Insects were +tolerably abundant, but were not on the average so fine as those of +Amboyna, and I reluctantly came to the conclusion that Dorey was not a +good collecting locality. Butterflies were very scarce, and were mostly +the same as those which I had obtained at Aru. + +Among the insects of other orders, the most curious and novel were +a group of horned flies, of which I obtained four distinct species, +settling on fallen trees and decaying trunks. These remarkable insects, +which have been described by Mr. W. W. Saunders as a new genus, under +the name of Elaphomia or deer-flies, are about half an inch long, +slender-bodied, and with very long legs, which they draw together so as +to elevate their bodies high above the surface they are standing upon. +The front pair of legs are much shorter, and these are often stretched +directly forwards, so as to resemble antenna. The horns spring from +beneath the eye, and seem to be a prolongation of the lower part of +the orbit. In the largest and most singular species, named Elaphomia +cervicornis or the stag-horned deer-fly, these horns are nearly as +long as the body, having two branches, with two small snags near their +bifurcation, so as to resemble the horns of a stag. They are black, with +the tips pale, while the body and legs are yellowish brown, and the eyes +(when alive) violet and green. The next species (Elaphomia wallacei) is +of a dark brown colour, banded and spotted with yellow. The horns +are about one-third the length of the insect, broad, flat, and of an +elongated triangular foam. They are of a beautiful pink colour, edged +with black, and with a pale central stripe. The front part of the head +is also pink, and the eyes violet pink, with a green stripe across them, +giving the insect a very elegant and singular appearance. The third +species (Elaphomia alcicornis, the elk-horned deer-fly) is a little +smaller than the two already described, but resembling in colour +Elaphomia wallacei. The horns are very remarkable, being suddenly +dilated into a flat plate, strongly toothed round the outer margin, +and strikingly resembling the horns of the elk, after which it has been +named. They are of a yellowish colour, margined with brown, and tipped +with black on the three upper teeth. The fourth species (Elaphomia +brevicornis, the short-horned deer-fly) differs considerably from the +rest. It is stouter in form, of a nearly black colour, with a yellow +ring at the base of the abdomen; the wings have dusky stripes, and the +head is compressed and dilated laterally, with very small flat horns; +which are black with a pale centre, and look exactly like the rudiment +of the horns of the two preceding species. None of the females have any +trace of the horns, and Mr. Saunders places in the same genus a species +which has no horns in either sex (Elaphomia polita). It is of a shining +black colour, and resembles Elaphomia cervicornis in form, size, and +general appearance. The figures above given represent these insects of +their natural size and in characteristic attitudes. + +The natives seldom brought me anything. They are poor creatures, and, +rarely shoot a bird, pig, or kangaroo, or even the sluggish opossum-like +Cuscus. The tree-kangaroos are found here, but must be very scarce, +as my hunters, although out daily in the forest, never once saw them. +Cockatoos, lories, and parroquets were really the only common +birds. Even pigeons were scarce, and in little variety, although we +occasionally got the fine crown pigeon, which was always welcome as an +addition to our scantily furnished larder. + +Just before the steamer arrived I had wounded my ankle by clambering +among the trunks and branches of fallen trees (which formed my best +hunting grounds for insects), and, as usual with foot wounds in this +climate, it turned into an obstinate ulcer, keeping me in the house +for several days. When it healed up it was followed by an internal +inflammation of the foot, which by the doctor's advice I poulticed +incessantly for four or five days, bringing out a severe inflamed +swelling on the tendon above the heel. This had to be leeched, and +lanced, and doctored with ointments and poultices for several weeks, +till I was almost driven to despair,--for the weather was at length +fine, and I was tantalized by seeing grand butterflies flying past my +door, and thinking of the twenty or thirty new species of insects that +I ought to be getting every day. And this, too, in New Guinea--a country +which I might never visit again,--a country which no naturalist had ever +resided in before,--a country which contained more strange and new +and beautiful natural objects than any other part of the globe. The +naturalist will be able to appreciate my feelings, sitting from morning +to night in my little hut, unable to move without a crutch, and my only +solace the birds my hunters brought in every afternoon, and the few +insects caught by my Ternate man, Lahagi, who now went out daily in my +place, but who of course did not get a fourth part of what I should have +obtained. To add to my troubles all my men were more or less ill, some +with fever, others with dysentery or ague; at one time there were three +of them besides myself all helpless, the coon alone being well, and +having enough to do to wait upon us. The Prince of Tidore and the +Resident of Panda were both on board the steamer, and were seeking Birds +of Paradise, sending men round in every direction, so that there was +no chance of my getting even native skins of the rarer kinds; and any +birds, insects, or animals the Dorey people had to sell were taken on +board the steamer, where purchasers were found for everything, and where +a larger variety of articles were offered in exchange than I had to +show. + +After a month's close confinement in the house I was at length able to +go out a little, and about the same time I succeeded in getting a boat +and six natives to take Ali and Lahagi to Amberbaki, and to bring them +back at the end of a month. Ali was charged to buy all the Birds of +Paradise he could get, and to shoot and skin all other rare or new +birds; and Lahagi was to collect insects, which I hoped might be more +abundant than at Dorey. When I recommenced my daily walks in search +of insects, I found a great change in the neighbourhood, and one very +agreeable to me. All the time I had been laid up the ship's crew and the +Javanese soldiers who had been brought in a tender (a sailing ship +which had arrived soon after the Etna), had been employed cutting down, +sawing, and splitting large trees for firewood, to enable the steamer to +get back to Amboyna if the coal-ship did not return; and they had also +cleared a number of wide, straight paths through the forest in various +directions, greatly to the astonishment of the natives, who could not +make out what it all meant. I had now a variety of walks, and a good +deal of dead wood on which to search for insects; but notwithstanding +these advantages, they were not nearly so plentiful as I had found them +at Sarawak, or Amboyna, or Batchian, confirming my opinion that Dorey +was not a good locality. It is quite probable, however, that at a +station a few miles in the interior, away from the recently elevated +coralline rocks and the influence of the sea air, a much more abundant +harvest might be obtained. + +One afternoon I went on board the steamer to return the captain's visit, +and was shown some very nice sketches (by one of the lieutenants), made +on the south coast, and also at the Arfak mountain, to which they had +made an excursion. From these and the captain's description, it appeared +that the people of Arfak were similar to those of Dorey, and I could +hear nothing of the straight-haired race which Lesson says inhabits the +interior, but which no one has ever seen, and the account of which I +suspect has originated in some mistake. The captain told me he had made +a detailed survey of part of the south coast, and if the coal arrived +should go away at once to Humboldt Pay, in longitude 141 deg. east, which is +the line up to which the Dutch claim New Guinea. On board the tender +I found a brother naturalist, a German named Rosenberg, who was +draughtsman to the surveying staff. He had brought two men with him to +shoot and skin birds, and had been able to purchase a few rare skins +from the natives. Among these was a pair of the superb Paradise Pie +(Astrapia nigra) in tolerable preservation. They were brought from the +island of Jobie, which may be its native country, as it certainly is +of the rarer species of crown pigeon (Goura steursii), one of which was +brought alive and sold on board. Jobie, however, is a very dangerous +place, and sailors are often murdered there when on shore; sometimes the +vessels themselves being attacked. Wandammen, on the mainland opposite +Jobie, inhere there are said to be plenty of birds, is even worse, and +at either of these places my life would not have been worth a week's +purchase had I ventured to live alone and unprotected as at Dorey. On +board the steamer they had a pair of tree kangaroos alive. They differ +chiefly from the ground-kangaroo in having a more hairy tail, not +thickened at the base, and not used as a prop; and by the powerful claws +on the fore-feet, by which they grasp the bark and branches, and seize +the leaves on which they feed. They move along by short jumps on their +hind-feet, which do not seem particularly well adapted for climbing +trees. It has been supposed that these tree-kangaroos are a special +adaptation to the swampy, half-drowned forests of, New Guinea, in place +of the usual form of the group, which is adapted only to dry ground. Mr. +Windsor Earl makes much of this theory, but, unfortunately for it, +the tree-kangaroos are chiefly found in the northern peninsula of New +Guinea, which is entirely composed of hills and mountains with very +little flat land, while the kangaroo of the low flat Aru Islands +(Dorcopsis asiaticus) is a ground species. A more probable supposition +seems to lie, that the tree-kangaroo has been modified to enable it to +feed on foliage in the vast forests of New Guinea, as these form the +great natural feature which distinguishes that country from Australia. + +On June 5th, the coal-ship arrived, having been sent back from Amboyna, +with the addition of some fresh stores for the steamer. The wood, which +had been almost all taken on board, was now unladen again, the coal +taken in, and on the 17th both steamer and tender left for Humboldt Bay. +We were then a little quiet again, and got something to eat; for while +the vessels were here every bit of fish or vegetable was taken on board, +and I had often to make a small parroquet serve for two meals. My men +now returned from Amberbaki, but, alas brought me almost nothing. They +had visited several villages, and even went two days' journey into the +interior, but could find no skins of Birds of Paradise to purchase, +except the common kind, and very few even of those. The birds found +were the same as at Dorey, but were still scarcer. None of the natives +anywhere near the coast shoot or prepare Birds of Paradise, which come +from far in the interior over two or three ranges of mountains, passing +by barter from village to village till they reach the sea. There the +natives of Dorey buy them, and on their return home sell them to the +Bugis or Ternate traders. It is therefore hopeless for a traveller to go +to any particular place on the coast of New Guinea where rare Paradise +birds may have been bought, in hopes of obtaining freshly killed +specimens from the natives; and it also shows the scarcity of these +birds in any one locality, since from the Amberbaki district, a +celebrated place, where at least five or six species have been procured, +not one of the rarer ones has been obtained this year. The Prince of +Tidore, who would certainly have got them if any were to be had, was +obliged to put up with a few of the common yellow ones. I think it +probable that a longer residence at Dorey, a little farther in the +interior, might show that several of the rarer kinds were found there, +as I obtained a single female of the fine scale-breasted Ptiloris +magnificus. I was told at Ternate of a bird that is certainly not yet +known in Europe, a black King Paradise Bird, with the curled tail and +beautiful side plumes of the common species, but all the rest of the +plumage glossy black. The people of Dorey knew nothing about this, +although they recognised by description most of the otter species. + +When the steamer left, I was suffering from a severe attack of fever. In +about a week I got over this, but it was followed by such a soreness of +the whole inside of the mouth, tongue, and gums, that for many days +I could put nothing solid between my lips, but was obliged to subsist +entirely on slops, although in other respects very well. At the same +time two of my men again fell ill, one with fever, the other with +dysentery, and both got very bad. I did what I could for them with my +small stock of medicines, but they lingered on for some weeks, till +on June 26th poor Jumaat died. He was about eighteen years of age, a +native, I believe, of Bouton, and a quiet lad, not very active, but +doing his work pretty steadily, and as well as he was able. As my men +were all Mahometans, I let them bury him in their own fashion, giving +them some new cotton cloth for a shroud. + +On July 6th the steamer returned from the eastward. The weather was +still terribly wet, when, according to rule, it should have been fine +and dry. We had scarcely anything to eat, and were all of us ill. +Fevers, colds, and dysentery were continually attacking us, and made me +long I-o get away from New Guinea, as much as ever I had longed to +come there. The captain of the Etna paid me a visit, and gave me a very +interesting account of his trip. They had stayed at Humboldt Bay several +days, and found it a much more beautiful and more interesting place +than Dorey, as well as a better harbour. The natives were quite +unsophisticated, being rarely visited except by stray whalers, and they +were superior to the Dorey people, morally and physically. They went +quite naked. Their houses were some in the water and some inland, and +were all neatly and well built; their fields were well cultivated, +and the paths to them kept clear and open, in which respects Dorey is +abominable. They were shy at first, and opposed the boats with hostile +demonstrations, beading their bows, and intimating that they would shoot +if an attempt was made to land. Very judiciously the captain gave way, +but threw on shore a few presents, and after two or three trials they +were permitted to land, and to go about and see the country, and were +supplied with fruits and vegetables. All communication was carried on +with them by signs--the Dorey interpreter, who accompanied the steamer, +being unable to understand a word of their language. No new birds or +animals were obtained, but in their ornaments the feathers of Paradise +birds were seen, showing, as might be expected, that these birds range +far in this direction, and probably all over New Guinea. + +It is curious that a rudimental love of art should co-exist with such +a very low state of civilization. The people of Dorey are great carvers +and painters. The outsides of the houses, wherever there is a plank, are +covered with rude yet characteristic figures. The high-peaked prows of +their boats are ornamented with masses of open filagree work, cut out +of solid blocks of wood, and often of very tasteful design, As a +figurehead, or pinnacle, there is often a human figure, with a head +of cassowary feathers to imitate the Papuan "mop." The floats of their +fishing-lines, the wooden beaters used in tempering the clay for their +pottery, their tobacco-boxes, and other household articles, are covered +with carving of tasteful and often elegant design. Did we not already +know that such taste and skill are compatible with utter barbarism, we +could hardly believe that the same people are, in other matters, utterly +wanting in all sense of order, comfort, or decency. Yet such is the +case. They live in the most miserable, crazy, and filthy hovels, which +are utterly destitute of anything that can be called furniture; not a +stool, or bench, or board is seen in them, no brush seems to be known, +and the clothes they wear are often filthy bark, or rags, or sacking. +Along the paths where they daily pass to and from their provision +grounds, not an overhanging bough or straggling briar ever seems to be +cut, so that you have to brush through a rank vegetation, creep under +fallen trees and spiny creepers, and wade through pools of mud and mire, +which cannot dry up because the sun is not allowed to penetrate. Their +food is almost wholly roots and vegetables, with fish or game only as +an occasional luxury, and they are consequently very subject to various +skin diseases, the children especially being often miserable-looking +objects, blotched all over with eruptions and sores. If these people are +not savages, where shall we find any? Yet they have all a decided love +for the fine arts, and spend their leisure time in executing works whose +good taste and elegance would often be admired in our schools of design! + +During the latter part of my stay in New Guinea the weather was very +wet, my only shooter was ill, and birds became scarce, so that my only +resource was insect-hunting. I worked very hard every hour of fine +weather, and daily obtained a number of new species. Every dead tree +and fallen log was searched and searched again; and among the dry and +rotting leaves, which still hung on certain trees which had been cut +down, I found an abundant harvest of minute Coleoptera. Although I never +afterwards found so many large and handsome beetles as in Borneo, yet +I obtained here a great variety of species. For the first two or three +weeks, while I was searching out the best localities, I took about 30 +different kinds of beetles n day, besides about half that number of +butterflies, and a few of the other orders. But afterwards, up to the +very last week, I averaged 49 species a day. On the 31st of May, I took +78 distinct sorts, a larger number than I had ever captured before, +principally obtained among dead trees and under rotten bark. A good long +walk on a fine day up the hill, and to the plantations of the natives, +capturing everything not very common that came in my way, would produce +about 60 species; but on the last day of June I brought home no less +than 95 distinct kinds of beetles, a larger number than I ever obtained +in one day before or since. It was a fine hot day, and I devoted it to +a search among dead leaves, beating foliage, and hunting under rotten +bark, in all the best stations I had discovered during my walks. I was +out from ten in the morning till three in the afternoon, and it took +me six hours' work at home to pin and set out all the specimens, and +to separate the species. Although T had already been working this shot +daily for two months and a half, and had obtained over 800 species +of Coleoptera, this day's work added 32 new ones. Among these were 4 +Longicorns, 2 Caribidae, 7 Staphylinidae, 7 Curculionidae, 2 Copridae, 4 +Chrysomelidae, 3 Heteromera, 1 Elates, and 1 Buprestis. Even on the last +day I went out, I obtained 10 new species; so that although I collected +over a thousand distinct sorts of beetles in a space not much exceeding +a square mile during the three months of my residence at Dorey, I cannot +believe that this represents one half the species really inhabiting the +same spot, or a fourth of what might be obtained in an area extending +twenty miles in each direction. + +On the 22d of July the schooner Hester Helena arrived, and five days +afterwards we bade adieu to Dorey, without much regret, for in no place +which I have visited have I encountered more privations and annoyances. +Continual rain, continual sickness, little wholesome food, with a plague +of ants and files, surpassing anything I had before met with, required +all a naturalist's ardour to encounter; and when they were uncompensated +by great success in collecting, became all the more insupportable. This +long thought-of and much-desired voyage to New Guinea had realized none +of my expectations. Instead of being far better than the Aru Islands, it +was in almost everything much worse. Instead of producing several of +the rarer Paradise birds, I had not even seen one of them, and had +not obtained any one superlatively fine bird or insect. I cannot deny, +however, that Dorey was very rich in ants. One small black kind was +excessively abundant. Almost every shrub and tree was more or less +infested with it, and its large papery nests were everywhere to be seen. +They immediately took possession of my house, building a large nest +in the roof, and forming papery tunnels down almost every post. They +swarmed on my table as I was at work setting out my insects, carrying +them off from under my very nose, and even tearing them from the cards +on which they were gummed if I left them for an instant. They crawled +continually over my hands and face, got into my hair, and roamed at will +over my whole body, not producing much inconvenience till they began +to bite, which they would do on meeting with any obstruction to their +passage, and with a sharpness which made me jump again and rush to +undress and turn out the offender. They visited my bed also, so that +night brought no relief from their persecutions; and I verily believe +that during my three and a half months' residence at Dorey I was never +for a single hour entirely free from them. They were not nearly so +voracious as many other kinds, but their numbers and ubiquity rendered +it necessary to be constantly on guard against them. + +The flies that troubled me most were a large kind of blue-bottle or +blow-fly. These settled in swarms on my bird skins when first put out to +dry, filling their plumage with masses of eggs, which, if neglected, the +next day produced maggots. They would get under the wings or under the +body where it rested on the drying-board, sometimes actually raising it +up half an inch by the mass of eggs deposited in a few hours; and every +egg was so firmly glued to the fibres of the feathers, as to make it +a work of much time and patience to get them off without injuring the +bird. In no other locality have I ever been troubled with such a plague +as this. + +On the 29th we left Dorey, and expected a quick voyage home, as it was +the time of year when we ought to have had steady southerly and easterly +winds. Instead of these, however, we had calms and westerly breezes, +and it was seventeen days before we reached Ternate, a distance of five +hundred miles only, which, with average winds, could have been done in +five days. It was a great treat to me to find myself back again in my +comfortable house, enjoying milk to my tea and coffee, fresh bread and +butter, and fowl and fish daily for dinner. This New Guinea voyage had +used us all up, and I determined to stay and recruit before I commenced +any fresh expeditions. My succeeding journeys to Gilolo and Batchian +have already been narrated, and if; now only remains for me to give an +account of my residence in Waigiou, the last Papuan territory I visited +in search of Birds of Paradise. + + + +CHAPTER XXXV. VOYAGE FROM CERAM TO WAIGIOU. + +(JUNE AND JULY 1860.) + +IN my twenty-fifth chapter I have described my arrival at Wahai, on my +way to Mysol and Waigiou, islands which belong to the Papuan district, +and the account of which naturally follows after that of my visit to the +mainland of New Guinea. I now take up my narrative at my departure from +Wahai, with the intention of carrying various necessary stores to my +assistant, Mr. Allen, at Silinta, in Mysol, and then continuing my +journey to Waigiou. It will be remembered that I was travelling in a +small prau, which I had purchased and fitted up in Goram, and that, +having been deserted by my crew on the coast of Ceram, I had obtained +four men at Wahai, who, with my Amboynese hunter, constituted my crew. + +Between Ceram and Mysol there are sixty miles of open sea, and along +this wide channel the east monsoon blows strongly; so that with native +praus, which will not lay up to the wind, it requires some care in +crossing. In order to give ourselves sufficient leeway, we sailed back +from Wahai eastward, along the coast of Ceram, with the land-breeze; but +in the morning (June 18th) had not gone nearly so far as I expected. +My pilot, an old and experienced sailor, named Gurulampoko, assured me +there was a current setting to the eastward, and that we could easily +lay across to Silinta, in Mysol. As we got out from the land the wind +increased, and there was a considerable sea, which made my short little +vessel plunge and roll about violently. By sunset we had not got +halfway across, but could see Mysol distinctly. All night we went along +uneasily, and at daybreak, on looking out anxiously, I found that we had +fallen much to the westward during the night, owing, no doubt, to the +pilot being sleepy and not keeping the boat sufficiently close to the +wind. We could see the mountains distinctly, but it was clear we should +not reach Silinta, and should have some difficulty in getting to the +extreme westward point of the island. The sea was now very boisterous, +and our prau was continually beaten to leeward by the waves, and after +another weary day we found w e could not get to Mysol at all, but might +perhaps reach the island called Pulo Kanary, about ten miles to the +north-west. Thence we might await a favourable wind to reach Waigamma, +on the north side of the island, and visit Allen by means of a small +boat. + +About nine o'clock at night, greatly to my satisfaction, we got under +the lea of this island, into quite smooth water--for I had been very +sick and uncomfortable, and had eaten scarcely anything since the +preceding morning. We were slowly nearing the shore, which the smooth +dark water told us we could safely approach; and were congratulating +ourselves on soon being at anchor, with the prospect of hot coffee, a +good supper, and a sound sleep, when the wind completely dropped, and we +had to get out the oars to row. We were not more than two hundred yards +from the shore, when I noticed that we seemed to get no nearer although +the men were rowing hard, but drifted to the westward, and the prau +would not obey the helm, but continually fell off, and gave us much +trouble to bring her up again. Soon a laud ripple of water told us we +were seized by one of those treacherous currents which so frequently +frustrate all the efforts of the voyager in these seas; the men threw +down the oars in despair, and in a few minutes we drifted to leeward +of the island fairly out to sea again, and lost our last chance of ever +reaching Mysol! Hoisting our jib, we lay to, and in the morning found +ourselves only a few miles from the island, but wit, such a steady wind +blowing from its direction as to render it impossible for us to get back +to it. + +We now made sail to the northward, hoping soon to get a more southerly +wind. Towards noon the sea was much smoother, and with a S.S.E. wind we +were laying in the direction of Salwatty, which I hoped to reach, as +I could there easily get a boat to take provisions and stores to my +companion in Mysol. This wind did not, however, last long, but died away +into a calm; and a light west wind springing up, with a dark bank of +clouds, again gave us hopes of reaching Mysol. We were soon, however, +again disappointed. The E.S.E. wind began to blow again with violence, +and continued all night in irregular gusts, and with a short cross sea +tossed us about unmercifully, and so continually took our sails aback, +that we were at length forced to run before it with our jib only, to +escape being swamped by our heavy mainsail. After another miserable and +anxious night, we found that we had drifted westward of the island of +Poppa, and the wind being again a little southerly, we made all sail +in order to reach it. This we did not succeed in doing, passing to the +north-west, when the wind again blew hard from the E.S.E., and our last +hope of finding a refuge till better weather was frustrated. This was a +very serious matter to me, as I could not tell how Charles Allen might +act, if, after waiting in vain for me, he should return to Wahai, and +find that I had left there long before, and had not since been heard +of. Such an event as our missing an island forty miles long would hardly +occur to him, and he would conclude either that our boat had foundered, +or that my crew had murdered me and run away with her. However, as it +was physically impossible now for me to reach him, the only thing to be +done was to make the best of my way to Waigiou, and trust to our meeting +some traders, who might convey to him the news of my safety. + +Finding on my map a group of three small islands, twenty-five miles +north of Poppa, I resolved, if possible, to rest there a day or two. We +could lay our boat's head N.E. by N.; but a heavy sea from the eastward +so continually beat us off our course, and we made so much leeway, +that I found it would be as much as we could do to reach them. It was a +delicate point to keep our head in the best direction, neither so close +to the wind as to stop our way, or so free as to carry us too far to +leeward. I continually directed the steersman myself, and by incessant +vigilance succeeded, just at sunset, in bringing our boat to an anchor +under the lee of the southern point of one of the islands. The anchorage +was, however, by no means good, there being a fringing coral reef, dry +at low water, beyond which, on a bottom strewn with masses of coral, we +were obliged to anchor. We had now been incessantly tossing about for +four days in our small undecked boat, with constant disappointments +and anxiety, and it was a great comfort to have a night of quiet and +comparative safety. My old pilot had never left the helm for more than +an hour at a time, when one of the others would relieve him for a little +sleep; so I determined the next morning to look out for a secure and +convenient harbour, and rest on shore for a day. + +In the morning, finding it would be necessary for us to get round a +rocky point, I wanted my men to go on shore and cut jungle-rope, by +which to secure us from being again drafted away, as the wind was +directly off shore. I unfortunately, however, allowed myself to be +overruled by the pilot and crew, who all declared that it was the +easiest thing possible, and that they would row the boat round the point +in a few minutes. They accordingly got up the anchor, set the jib, and +began rowing; but, just as I had feared, we drifted rapidly off shore, +and had to drop anchor again in deeper water, and much farther off. The +two best men, a Papuan and a Malay now swam on shore, each carrying a +hatchet, and went into the jungle to seek creepers for rope. After +about an hour our anchor loosed hold, and began to drag. This alarmed +me greatly, and we let go our spare anchor, and, by running out all our +cable, appeared tolerably secure again. We were now most anxious for the +return of the men, and were going to fire our muskets to recall them, +when we observed them on the beach, some way off, and almost immediately +our anchors again slipped, and we drifted slowly away into deep water. +We instantly seized the oars, but found we could not counteract the wind +and current, and our frantic cries to the men were not heard till we had +got a long way off; as they seemed to be hunting for shell-fish on +the beach. Very soon, however, they stared at us, and in a few minutes +seemed to comprehend their situation; for they rushed down into the +water, as if to swim off, but again returned on shore, as if afraid to +make the attempt. We had drawn up our anchors at first not to check our +rowing; but now, finding we could do nothing, we let them both hang down +by the full length of the cables. This stopped our way very much, and we +drifted from shore very slowly, and hoped the men would hastily form a +raft, or cut down a soft-wood tree, and paddle out, to us, as we were +still not more than a third of a mile from shore. They seemed, however, +to have half lost their senses, gesticulating wildly to us, running +along the beach, then going unto the forest; and just when we thought +they had prepared some mode of making an attempt to reach us, we saw +the smoke of a fire they had made to cook their shell-fish! They had +evidently given up all idea of coming after us, and we were obliged to +look to our own position. + +We were now about a mile from shore, and midway between two of the +islands, but we were slowly drifting out, to sea to the westward, and +our only chance of yet saving the men was to reach the opposite shore. +We therefore sot our jib and rowed hard; but the wind failed, and we +drifted out so rapidly that we had some difficulty in reaching the +extreme westerly point of the island. Our only sailor left, then +swam ashore with a rope, and helped to tow us round the point into a +tolerably safe and secure anchorage, well sheltered from the wind, but +exposed to a little swell which jerked our anchor and made us rather +uneasy. We were now in a sad plight, having lost our two best men, and +being doubtful if we had strength left to hoist our mainsail. We had +only two days' water on board, and the small, rocky, volcanic island +did not promise us much chance of finding any. The conduct of the men on +shore was such as to render it doubtful if they would make any serious +attempt to reach us, though they might easily do so, having two good +choppers, with which in a day they could male a small outrigger raft on +which they could safely cross the two miles of smooth sea with the wind +right aft, if they started from the east end of the island, so as to +allow for the current. I could only hope they would be sensible enough +to make the attempt, and determined to stay as long as I could to give +them the chance. + +We passed an anxious night, fearful of again breaking our anchor or +rattan cable. In the morning (23d), finding all secure, I waded on shore +with my two men, leaving the old steersman and the cook on board, with +a loaded musketto recall us if needed. We first walked along the beach, +till stopped by the vertical cliffs at the east end of the island, +finding a place where meat had been smoked, a turtle-shell still greasy, +and some cut wood, the leaves of which were still green, showing that +some boat had been here very recently. We then entered the jungle, +cutting our way up to the top of the hill, but when we got there could +see nothing, owing to the thickness of the forest. Returning, we cut +some bamboos, and sharpened them to dig for water in a low spot where +some sago-trees were growing; when, just as we were going to begin, Hoi, +the Wahai man, called out to say he had found water. It was a deep hole +among the Sago trees, in stiff black clay, full of water, which was +fresh, but smelt horribly from the quantity of dead leaves and sago +refuse that had fallen in. Hastily concluding that it was a spring, or +that the water had filtered in, we baled it all out as well as a dozen +or twenty buckets of mud and rubbish, hoping by night to have a good +supply of clean water. I then went on board to breakfast, leaving my two +men to make a bamboo raft to carry us on shore and back without wading. +I had scarcely finished when our cable broke, and we bumped against +the rocks. Luckily it was smooth and calm, and no damage was done. We +searched for and got up our anchor, and found teat the cable had been +cut by grating all night upon the coral. Had it given way in the night, +we might have drifted out to sea without our anchor, or been seriously +damaged. In the evening we went to fetch water from the well, when, +greatly to our dismay, we found nothing but a little liquid mud at the +bottom, and it then became evident that the hole was one which had been +made to collect rain water, and would never fill again as long as the +present drought continued. As we did not know what we might suffer for +want of water, we filled our jar with this muddy stuff so that it might +settle. In the afternoon I crossed over to the other side of the island, +and made a large fire, in order that our men might see we were still +there. + +The next day (24th) I determined to have another search for water; and +when the tide was out rounded a rocky point and went to the extremity of +the island without finding any sign of the smallest stream. On our way +back, noticing a very small dry bed of a watercourse, I went up it to +explore, although everything was so dry that my men loudly declared it +was useless to expect water there; but a little way up I was rewarded by +finding a few pints in a small pool. We searched higher up in every hole +and channel where water marks appeared, but could find not a drop more. +Sending one of my men for a large jar and teacup, we searched along the +beach till we found signs of another dry watercourse, and on ascending +this were so fortunate as to discover two deep sheltered rock-holes +containing several gallons of water, enough to fill all our jars. When +the cup came we enjoyed a good drink of the cool pure water, and before +we left had carried away, I believe, every drop on the island. + +In the evening a good-sized prau appeared in sight, making apparently +for the island where our men were left, and we had some hopes they might +be seen and picked up, but it passed along mid-channel, and did not +notice the signals we tried to make. I was now, however, pretty easy as +to the fate of the men. There was plenty of sago on our rocky island, +and there world probably be some on the fiat one they were left on. They +had choppers, and could cut down a tree and make sago, and would most +likely find sufficient water by digging. Shell-fish were abundant, +and they would be able to manage very well till some boat should touch +there, or till I could send and fetch them. The next day we devoted to +cutting wood, filling up our jars with all the water we could find, +and making ready to sail in the evening. I shot a small lory closely +resembling a common species at Ternate, and a glossy starling +which differed from the allied birds of Ceram and Matabello. Large +wood-pigeons and crows were the only other birds I saw, but I did not +obtain specimens. + +About eight in the evening of June 25th we started, and found that with +all hands at work we could just haul up our mainsail. We had a fair wind +during the night and sailed north-east, finding ourselves in the morning +about twenty miles west of the extremity of Waigiou with a number of +islands intervening. About ten o'clock we ran full on to a coral reef, +which alarmed us a good deal, but luckily got safe off again. About two +in the afternoon we reached an extensive coral reef, and were sailing +close alongside of it, when the wind suddenly dropped, and we drifted on +to it before we could get in our heavy mainsail, which we were obliged +to let run down and fall partly overboard. We had much difficulty in +getting off, but at last got into deep water again, though with reefs +and islands all around us. At night we did not know what to do, as no +one on board could tell where we were or what dangers might surround us, +the only one of our crew who was acquainted with the coast of Waigiou +having been left on the island. We therefore took in all sail and +allowed ourselves to drift, as we were some miles from the nearest +land. A light breeze, however, sprang up, and about midnight we found +ourselves again bumping over a coral reef. As it was very dark, and we +knew nothing of our position, we could only guess how to get off again, +and had there been a little more wind we might have been knocked to +pieces. However, in about half an hour we did get off, and then thought +it best to anchor on the edge of the reef till morning. Soon after +daylight on the 7th, finding our prau had received no damage, we sailed +on with uncertain winds and squalls, threading our way among islands +and reefs, and guided only by a small map, which was very incorrect +and quite useless, and by a general notion of the direction we ought +to take. In the afternoon we found a tolerable anchorage under a small +island and stayed for the night, and I shot a large fruit-pigeon new to +me, which I have since named Carpophaga tumida. I also saw and shot at +the rare white-headed kingfisher (Halcyon saurophaga), but did not kill +it. The next morning we sailed on, and having a fair wind reached the +shores of the large island of Waigiou. On rounding a point we again ran +full on to a coral reef with our mainsail up, but luckily the wind had +almost died away, and with a good deal of exertion we managed get safely +off. + +We now had to search for the narrow channel among islands, which we knew +was somewhere hereabouts, and which leads to the villages on the south +side of Waigiou. Entering a deep bay which looked promising, we got to +the end of it, but it was then dusk, so we anchored for the night, and +having just finished all our water could cook no rice for supper. Next +morning early (29th) we went on shore among the mangroves, and a little +way inland found some water, which relieved our anxiety considerably, +and left us free to go along the coast in search of the opening, or of +some one who could direct us to it. During the three days we had now +been among the reefs and islands, we had only seen a single small canoe, +which had approached pretty near to us, and then, notwithstanding our +signals, went off in another direction. The shores seemed all desert; +not a house, or boat, or human being, or a puff of smoke was to be seen; +and as we could only go on the course that the ever-changing wind would +allow us (our hands being too few to row any distance), our prospects of +getting to our destination seemed rather remote and precarious. Having +gone to the eastward extremity of the deep bay we had entered, without +finding any sign of an opening, we turned westward; and towards evening +were so fortunate as to find a small village of seven miserable houses +built on piles in the water. Luckily the Orang-kaya, or head man, could +speak a little. Malay, and informed us that the entrance to the strait +was really in the bay we had examined, but that it was not to be seen +except when close inshore. He said the strait was often very narrow, and +wound among lakes and rocks and islands, and that it would take two days +to reach the large village of Muka, and three more to get to Waigiou. I +succeeded in hiring two men to go with us to Muka, bringing a small boat +in which to return; but we had to wait a day for our guides, so I took +my gun and made a little excursion info the forest. The day was wet and +drizzly, and I only succeeded in shooting two small birds, but I saw the +great black cockatoo, and had a glimpse of one or two Birds of Paradise, +whose loud screams we had heard on first approaching the coast. Leaving +the village the next morning (July 1st) with a light wind, it took us +all day to reach the entrance to the channel, which resembled a small +river, and was concealed by a projecting point, so that it was no wonder +we did not discover it amid the dense forest vegetation which everywhere +covers these islands to the water's edge. A little way inside it becomes +bounded by precipitous rocks, after winding among which for about two +miles, we emerged into what seemed a lake, but which was in fact a deep +gulf having a narrow entrance on the south coast. This gulf was studded +along its shores with numbers of rocky islets, mostly mushroom shaped, +from the `eater having worn away the lower part of the soluble coralline +limestone, leaving them overhanging from ten to twenty feet. Every islet +was covered will strange-looping shrubs and trees, and was generally +crowned by lofty and elegant palms, which also studded the ridges of +the mountainous shores, forming one of the most singular and picturesque +landscapes I have ever seen. The current which had brought us through +the narrow strait now ceased, and we were obliged to row, which with our +short and heavy prau was slow work. I went on shore several times, but +the rocks were so precipitous, sharp, and honeycombed, that I found +it impossible to get through the tangled thicket with which they were +everywhere clothed. It took us three days to get to the entrance of the +gulf, and then the wind was such as to prevent our going any further, +and we might have had to wait for days or weeps, when, much to my +surprise and gratification, a boat arrived from Muka with one of the +head men, who had in some mysterious manner heard I was on my way, +and had come to my assistance, bringing a present of cocoa-nuts and +vegetables. Being thoroughly acquainted with the coast, and having +several extra men to assist us, he managed to get the prau along by +rowing, poling, or sailing, and by night had brought us safely into +harbour, a great relief after our tedious and unhappy voyage. We had +been already eight days among the reefs and islands of Waigiou, coming +a distance of about fifty miles, and it was just forty days since we had +sailed from Goram. + +Immediately on our arrival at Muka, I engaged a small boat and three +natives to go in search of my lost men, and sent one of my own men with +them to make sure of their going to the right island. In ten days they +returned, but to my great regret and disappointment, without the men. +The weather had been very bad, and though they had reached an island +within sight of that in which the men were, they could get no further. +They had waited there six days for better weather, and then, having no +more provisions, and the man I had sent with them being very ill and +not expected to live, they returned. As they now knew the island, I was +determined they should make another trial, and (by a liberal payment of +knives, handkerchiefs, and tobacco, with plenty of provisions) persuaded +them to start back immediately, and make another attempt. They did not +return again till the 29th of July, having stayed a few days at their +own village of Bessir on the way; but this time they had succeeded and +brought with them my two lost men, in tolerable health, though thin and +weak. They had lived exactly a month on the island had found water, +and had subsisted on the roots and tender flower-stalks of a species of +Bromelia, on shell-fish and on a few turtles' eggs. Having swum to the +island, they had only a pair of trousers and a shirt between them, but +had made a hut of palm-leaves, and had altogether got on very well. They +saw that I waited for them three days at the opposite island, but had +been afraid to cross, lest the current should have carried them out to +sea, when they would have been inevitably lost. They had felt sure I +would send for them on the first opportunity, and appeared more grateful +than natives usually are for my having done so; while I felt much +relieved that my voyage, though sufficiently unfortunate, had not +involved loss of life. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. WAIGIOU. + +(JULY TO SEPTEMBER 1860.) + +THE village of Muka, on the south coast of Waigiou, consists of a number +of poor huts, partly in the water and partly on shore, and scattered +irregularly over a space of about half a mile in a shallow bay. Around +it are a few cultivated patches, and a good deal of second-growth woody +vegetation; while behind, at the distance of about half a mile, rises +the virgin forest, through which are a few paths to some houses and +plantations a mile or two inland. The country round is rather flat, +and in places swampy, and there are one or two small streams which run +behind the village into the sea below it. Finding that no house could +be had suitable to my purpose, and hawing so often experienced the +advantages of living close to or just within the forest, I obtained the +assistance of half-a-dozen men; and having selected a spot near the path +and the stream, and close to a fine fig-tree, which stood just within +the forest, we cleared the ground and set to building a house. As I did +not expect to stay here so long as I had done at Dorey, I built a long, +low, narrow shed, about seven feet high on one side and four on the +other, which required but little wood, and was put up very rapidly. Our +sails, with a few old attaps from a deserted but in the village, formed +the walls, and a quantity of "cadjans," or palm-leaf mats, covered in +the roof. On the third day my house was finished, and all my things put +in and comfortably arranged to begin work, and I was quite pleased at +having got established so quickly and in such a nice situation. + +It had been so far fine weather, but in the night it rained hard, and we +found our mat roof would not keep out water. It first began to drop, +and then to stream over everything. I had to get up in the middle of the +night to secure my insect-boxes, rice, and other perishable articles, +and to find a dry place to sleep in, for my bed was soaked. Fresh leaks +kept forming as the rain continued, and w e all passed a very miserable +and sleepless night. In the morning the sun shone brightly, and +everything was put out to dry. We tried to find out why the mats leaked, +and thought we had discovered that they had been laid on upside down. +Having shifted there all, and got everything dry and comfortable by the +evening, we again went to bed, and before midnight were again awaked by +torrent of rain and leaks streaming in upon us as bad as ever. There +was no more sleep for us that night, and the next day our roof was again +taken to pieces, and we came to the conclusion that the fault was a want +of slope enough in the roof for mats, although it would be sufficient +for the usual attap thatch. I therefore purchased a few new and some old +attaps, and in the parts these would not cover we put the mats double, +and then at last had the satisfaction of finding our roof tolerably +water-tight. + +I was now able to begin working at the natural history of the island. +When I first arrived I was surprised at being told that there were no +Paradise Birds at Muka, although there were plenty at Bessir, a place +where the natives caught them and prepared the skins. I assured the +people I had heard the cry of these birds close to the village, but they +world not believe that I could know their cry. However, the very first +time I went into the forest I not only heard but saw them, and was +convinced there were plenty about; but they were very shy, and it was +some time before we got any. My hunter first shot a female, and I one +day got very close to a fine male. He was, as I expected, the rare red +species, Paradisea rubra, which alone inhabits this island, and is found +nowhere else. He was quite low down, running along a bough searching +for insects, almost like a woodpecker, and the long black riband-like +filaments in his tail hung down in the most graceful double curve +imaginable. I covered him with my gun, and was going to use the barrel +which had a very small charge of powder and number eight shot, so as +not to injure his plumage, but the gun missed fire, and he was off in an +instant among the thickest jungle. Another day we saw no less than eight +fine males at different times, and fired four times at them; but though +other birds at the same distance almost always dropped, these all got +away, and I began to think we were not to get this magnificent species. +At length the fruit ripened on the fig-tree close by my house, and many +birds came to feed on it; and one morning, as I was taking my coffee, a +male Paradise Bird was seen to settle on its top. I seized my gun, ran +under the tree, and, gazing up, could see it flying across from branch +to branch, seizing a fruit here and another there, and then, before I +could get a sufficient aim to shoot at such a height (for it was one of +the loftiest trees of the tropics), it was away into the forest. They +now visited the tree every morning; but they stayed so short a time, +their motions were so rapid, and it was so difficult to see them, owing +to the lower trees, which impeded the view, that it was only after +several days' watching, and one or two misses, that I brought down my +bird--a male in the most magnificent plumage. + +This bird differs very much from the two large species which I had +already obtained, and, although it wants the grace imparted by their +long golden trains, is in many respects more remarkable and more +beautiful. The head, back, and shoulders are clothed with a richer +yellow, the deep metallic green colour of the throat extends further +over the head, and the feathers are elongated on the forehead into two +little erectile crests. The side plumes are shorter, but are of a +rich red colour, terminating in delicate white points, and the middle +tail-feathers are represented by two long rigid glossy ribands, which +are black, thin, and semi-cylindrical, and droop gracefully in a +spiral curve. Several other interesting birds were obtained, and about +half-a-dozen quite new ones; but none of any remarkable beauty, except +the lovely little dove, Ptilonopus pulchellus, which with several +other pigeons I shot on the same fig-tree close to my house. It is of +a beautiful green colour above, with a forehead of the richest crimson, +while beneath it is ashy white and rich yellow, banded with violet red. + +On the evening of our arrival at Muka I observed what appeared like a +display of Aurora Borealis, though I could hardly believe that this was +possible at a point a little south of the equator. The night was clear +and calm, and the northern sky presented a diffused light, with a +constant succession of faint vertical flashings or flickerings, exactly +similar to an ordinary aurora in England. The next day was fine, but +after that the weather was unprecedentedly bad, considering that it +ought to have been the dry monsoon. For near a month we had wet weather; +the sun either not appearing at all, or only for an hour or two about +noon. Morning and evening, as well as nearly all night, it rained or +drizzled, and boisterous winds, with dark clouds, formed the daily +programme. With the exception that it was never cold, it was just such +weather as a very bad English November or February. + +The people of Waigiou are not truly indigenes of the island, which +possesses no "Alfuros," or aboriginal inhabitants. They appear to be +a mixed race, partly from Gilolo, partly from New Guinea. Malays and +Alfuros from the former island have probably settled here, and many of +them have taken Papuan wives from Salwatty or Dorey, while the influx of +people from those places, and of slaves, has led to the formation of a +tribe exhibiting almost all the transitions from a nearly pure Malayan +to an entirely Papuan type. The language spoken by them is entirely +Papuan, being that which is used on all the coasts of Mysol, Salwatty, +the north-west of New Guinea, and the islands in the great Geelvink +Bay,--a fact which indicates the way in which the coast settlements have +been formed. The fact that so many of the islands between New Guinea and +the Moluccas--such as Waigiou, Guebe, Poppa, Obi, Batchian, as well as +the south and east peninsulas of Gilolo--possess no aboriginal tribes, +but are inhabited by people who are evidently mongrels and wanderers, is +a remarkable corroborative proof of the distinctness of the Malayan and +Papuan races, and the separation of the geographical areas they inhabit. +If these two great races were direct modifications, the one of +the other, we should expect to find in the intervening region some +homogeneous indigenous race presenting intermediate characters. For +example, between the whitest inhabitants of Europe and the black Klings +of South India, there are in the intervening districts homogeneous races +which form a gradual transition from one to the other; while in America, +although there is a perfect transition from the Anglo-Saxon to the +negro, and from the Spaniard to the Indian, there is no homogeneous +race forming a natural transition from one to the other. In the Malay +Archipelago we have an excellent example of two absolutely distinct +races, which appear to have approached each other, and intermingled in +an unoccupied territory at a very recent epoch in the history of man; +and I feel satisfied that no unprejudiced person could study them on +the spot without being convinced that this is the true solution of the +problem, rather than the almost universally accepted view that they are +but modifications of one and the same race. + +The people of Muka live in that abject state of poverty that is almost +always found where the sago-tree is abundant. Very few of them take the +trouble to plant any vegetables or fruit, but live almost entirely on +sago and fish, selling a little tripang or tortoiseshell to buy the +scanty clothing they require. Almost all of them, however, possess one +or more Papuan slaves, on whose labour they live in almost absolute +idleness, just going out on little fishing or trading excursions, as an +excitement in their monotonous existence. They are under the rule of the +Sultan of Tidore, and every year have to pay a small tribute of Paradise +birds, tortoiseshell, or sago. To obtain these, they go in the fine +season on a trading voyage to the mainland of New Guinea, and getting a +few goods on credit from some Ceram or Bugis trader, make hard bargains +with the natives, and gain enough to pay their tribute, and leave a +little profit for themselves. + +Such a country is not a very pleasant one to live in, for as there are +no superfluities, there is nothing to sell; and had it not been for a +trader from Ceram who was residing there during my stay, who had a small +vegetable garden, and whose men occasionally got a few spare fish, I +should often have had nothing to eat. Fowls, fruit, and vegetables are +luxuries very rarely to be purchased at Muka; and even cocoa-nuts, so +indispensable for eastern cookery, are not to be obtained; for though +there are some hundreds of trees in the village, all the fruit is eaten +green, to supply the place of the vegetables the people are too lazy +to cultivate. Without eggs, cocoa-nuts, or plantains, we had very short +commons, and the boisterous weather being unpropitious for fishing, we +had to live on what few eatable birds we could shoot, with an occasional +cuscus, or eastern opossum, the only quadruped, except pigs, inhabiting +the island. + +I had only shot two male Paradiseas on my tree when they ceased visiting +it, either owing to the fruit becoming scarce, or that they were wise +enough to know there was danger. We continued to hear and see them in +the forest, but after a month had not succeeded in shooting any more; +and as my chief object in visiting Waigiou was to get these birds, I +determined to go to Bessir, where there are a number of Papuans who +catch and preserve them. I hired a small outrigger boat for this +journey, and left one of my men to guard my house and goods. We had +to wait several days for fine weather, and at length started early +one morning, and arrived late at night, after a rough and disagreeable +passage. The village of Bessir was built in the water at the point of +a small island. The chief food of the people was evidently shell-fish, +since great heaps of the shells had accumulated in the shallow water +between the houses and the land, forming a regular "kitchen-midden" for +the exploration of some future archeologist. We spent the night in the +chief's house, and the next morning went over to the mainland to look +out for a place where I could reside. This part of Waigiou is really +another island to the south of the narrow channel we had passed through +in coming to Muka. It appears to consist almost entirely of raised +coral, whereas the northern island contains hard crystalline rocks. The +shores were a range of low limestone cliffs, worn out by the water, so +that the upper part generally overhung. At distant intervals were little +coves and openings, where small streams came down from the interior; and +in one of these we landed, pulling our boat up on a patch of white sandy +beach. Immediately above was a large newly-made plantation of yams and +plantains, and a small hot, which the chief said we might have the use +of, if it would do for me. It was quite a dwarf's house, just eight feet +square, raised on posts so that the floor was four and a half feet above +the ground, and the highest part of the ridge only five feet above the +flour. As I am six feet and an inch in my stockings, I looked at this +with some dismay; but finding that the other houses were much further +from water, were dreadfully dirty, and were crowded with people, I at +once accepted the little one, and determined to make the best of it. +At first I thought of taking out the floor, which would leave it high +enough to walk in and out without stooping; but then there would not be +room enough, so I left it just as it was, had it thoroughly cleaned out, +and brought up my baggage. The upper story I used for sleeping in, and +for a store-room. In the lower part (which was quite open all round) I +fixed up a small table, arranged my boxes, put up hanging-shelves, laid +a mat on the ground with my wicker-chair upon it, hung up another mat on +the windward side, and then found that, by bending double and carefully +creeping in, I could sit on my chair with my head just clear of the +ceiling. Here I lived pretty comfortably for six weeks, taking all my +meals and doing all my work at my little table, to and from which I had +to creep in a semi-horizontal position a dozen times a day; and, after +a few severe knocks on the head by suddenly rising from my chair, learnt +to accommodate myself to circumstances. We put up a little sloping +cooking-but outside, and a bench on which my lads could skin their +birds. At night I went up to my little loft, they spread their mats on +the floor below, and we none of us grumbled at our lodgings. + +My first business was to send for the men who were accustomed to catch +the Birds of Paradise. Several came, and I showed them my hatchets, +beads, knives, and handkerchiefs; and explained to them, as well as I +could by signs, the price I would give for fresh-killed specimens. It is +the universal custom to pay for everything in advance; but only one man +ventured on this occasion to take goods to the value of two birds. The +rest were suspicious, and wanted to see the result of the first bargain +with the strange white man, the only one who had ever come to their +island. After three days, my man brought me the first bird--a very fine +specimen, and alive, but tied up in a small bag, and consequently its +tail and wing feathers very much crushed and injured. I tried to explain +to him, and to the others that came with him, that I wanted them as +perfect as possible, and that they should either kill them, or keep +them on a perch with a string to their leg. As they were now apparently +satisfied that all was fair, and that I had no ulterior designs upon +them, six others took away goods; some for one bird, some for more, and +one for as many as six. They said they had to go a long way for them, +and that they would come back as soon as they caught any. At intervals +of a few days or a week, some of them would return, bringing me one or +more birds; but though they did not bring any more in bags, there was +not much improvement in their condition. As they caught them a long way +off in the forest, they would scarcely ever come with one, but would +tie it by the leg to a stick, and put it in their house till they caught +another. The poor creature would make violent efforts to escape, would +get among the ashes, or hang suspended by the leg till the limb was +swollen and half-putrefied, and sometimes die of starvation and worry. +One had its beautiful head all defiled by pitch from a dammar torch; +another had been so long dead that its stomach was turning green. +Luckily, however, the skin and plumage of these birds is so firm and +strong, that they bear washing and cleaning better than almost any other +sort; and I was generally able to clean them so well that they did not +perceptibly differ from those I had shot myself. + +Some few were brought me the same day they were caught, and I had an +opportunity of examining them in all their beauty and vivacity. As soon +as I found they were generally brought alive, I set one of my men to +make a large bamboo cage with troughs for food and water, hoping to be +able to keep some of them. I got the natives to bring me branches of +a fruit they were very fond of, and I was pleased to find they ate it +greedily, and would also take any number of live grasshoppers I gave +them, stripping off the legs and wings, and then swallowing them. They +drank plenty of water, and were in constant motion, jumping about the +cage from perch to perch, clinging on the top and sides, and rarely +resting a moment the first day till nightfall. The second day they were +always less active, although they would eat as freely as before; and on +the morning of the third day they were almost always found dead at the +bottom of the cage, without any apparent cause. Some of them ate boiled +rice as well as fruit and insects; but after trying many in succession, +not one out of ten lived more than three days. The second or third +day they would be dull, and in several cases they were seized with +convulsions, and fell off the perch, dying a few hours afterwards. +I tried immature as well as full-plumaged birds, but with no better +success, and at length gave it up as a hopeless task, and confined my +attention to preserving specimens in as good a condition as possible. + +The Red Birds of Paradise are not shot with blunt arrows, as in the Aru +Islands and some parts of New Guinea, but are snared in a very ingenious +manner. A large climbing Arum bears a red reticulated fruit, of which +the birds are very fond. The hunters fasten this fruit on a stout forked +stick, and provide themselves with a fine but strong cord. They then +seep out some tree in the forest on which these birds are accustomed to +perch, and climbing up it fasten the stick to a branch and arrange the +cord in a noose so ingeniously, that when the bird comes to eat the +fruit its legs are caught, and by pulling the end of the cord, which +hangs down to the ground, it comes free from the branch and brings down +the bird. Sometimes, when food is abundant elsewhere, the hunter sits +from morning till night under his tree with the cord in his hand, and +even for two or three whole days in succession, without even getting a +bite; while, on the other hand, if very lucky, he may get two or three +birds in a day. There are only eight or ten men at Bessir who practise +this art, which is unknown anywhere else in the island. I determined, +therefore, to stay as long as possible, as my only chance of getting a +good series of specimens; and although I was nearly starved, everything +eatable by civilized man being scarce or altogether absent, I finally +succeeded. + +The vegetables and fruit in the plantations around us did not suffice +for the wants of the inhabitants, and were almost always dug up or +gathered before they were ripe. It was very rarely we could purchase +a little fish; fowls there were none; and we were reduced to live upon +tough pigeons and cockatoos, with our rice and sago, and sometimes we +could not get these. Having been already eight months on this voyage, my +stock of all condiments, spices and butter, was exhausted, and I found +it impossible to eat sufficient of my tasteless and unpalatable food +to support health. I got very thin and weak, and had a curious disease +known (I have since heard) as brow-ague. Directly after breakfast every +morning an intense pain set in on a small spot on the right temple. It +was a severe burning ache, as bad as the worst toothache, and lasted +about two hours, generally going off at noon. When this finally ceased, +I had an attack of fever, which left me so weak and so unable to eat our +regular food, that I feel sure my life was saved by a couple of tins of +soup which I had long reserved for some such extremity. I used often to +go out searching after vegetables, and found a great treasure in a lot +of tomato plants run wild, and bearing little fruits about the size of +gooseberries. I also boiled up the tops of pumpkin plants and of ferns, +by way of greens, and occasionally got a few green papaws. The natives, +when hard up for food, live upon a fleshy seaweed, which they boil till +it is tender. I tried this also, but found it too salt and bitter to be +endured. + +Towards the end of September it became absolutely necessary for me to +return, in order to make our homeward voyage before the end of the east +monsoon. Most of the men who had taken payment from me had brought the +birds they had agreed for. One poor fellow had been so unfortunate +as not to get one, and he very honestly brought back the axe he had +received in advance; another, who had agreed for six, brought me the +fifth two days before I was to start, and went off immediately to the +forest again to get the other. He did not return, however, and we loaded +our boat, and were just on the point of starting, when he came running +down after us holding up a bird, which he handed to me, saying with +great satisfaction, "Now I owe you nothing." These were remarkable and +quite unexpected instances of honesty among savages, where it would have +been very easy for them to have been dishonest without fear of detection +or punishment. + +The country round about Bessir was very hilly and rugged, bristling with +jagged and honey-combed coralline rocks, and with curious little chasms +and ravines. The paths often passed through these rocky clefts, which in +the depths of the forest were gloomy and dark in the extreme, and +often full of fine-leaved herbaceous plants and curious blue-foliaged +Lycopodiaceae. It was in such places as these that I obtained many of +my most beautiful small butterflies, such as Sospita statira and Taxila +pulchra, the gorgeous blue Amblypodia hercules, and many others. On the +skirts of the plantations I found the handsome blue Deudorix despoena, +and in the shady woods the lovely Lycaena wallacei. Here, too, I +obtained the beautiful Thyca aruna, of the richest orange on the upper +side; while below it is intense crimson and glossy black; and a superb +specimen of a green Ornithoptera, absolutely fresh and perfect, and +which still remains one of the glories of my cabinet. + +My collection of birds, though not very rich in number of species, was +yet very interesting. I got another specimen of the rare New Guinea +kite (Henicopernis longicauda), a large new goatsucker (Podargus +superciliaris), and a most curious ground-pigeon of an entirely new +genus, and remarkable for its long and powerful bill. It has been named +Henicophaps albifrons. I was also much pleased to obtain a fine series +of a large fruit-pigeon with a protuberance on the bill (Carpophaga +tumida), and to ascertain that this was not, as had been hitherto +supposed, a sexual character, but was found equally in male and female +birds. I collected only seventy-three species of birds in Waigiou, but +twelve of them were entirely new, and many others very rare; and as I +brought away with me twenty-four fine specimens of the Paradisea rubra, +I did not regret my visit to the island, although it had by no means +answered my expectations. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII. VOYAGE FROM WAIGIOU TO TERNATE. + +(SEPTEMBER 29 To NOVEMBER 5, 1860.) + +I HAD left the old pilot at Waigiou to take care of my house and to get +the prau into sailing order--to caulk her bottom, and to look after +the upper works, thatch, and ringing. When I returned I found it nearly +ready, and immediately began packing up and preparing for the voyage. +Our mainsail had formed one side of our house, but the spanker and jib +had been put away in the roof, and on opening them to see if any repairs +were wanted, to our horror we found that some rats had made them their +nest, and had gnawed through them in twenty places. We had therefore +to buy matting and make new sails, and this delayed us till the 29th of +September, when we at length left Waigiou. + +It took us four days before we could get clear of the land, having +to pass along narrow straits beset with reefs and shoals, and full of +strong currents, so that an unfavourable wind stopped us altogether. One +day, when nearly clear, a contrary tide and head wind drove us ten miles +back to our anchorage of the night before. This delay made us afraid of +running short of water if we should be becalmed at sea, and we therefore +determined, if possible, to touch at the island where our men had +been lost, and which lay directly in our proper course. The wind was, +however, as usual, contrary, being S.S.W. instead of S.S.E., as it +should have been at this time of the year, and all we could do was to +reach the island of Gagie, where we came to an anchor by moonlight under +bare volcanic hills. In the morning we tried to enter a deep bay, at +the head of which some Galela fishermen told us there was water, but a +head-wind prevented us. For the reward of a handkerchief, however, +they took us to the place in their boat, and we filled up our jars and +bamboos. We then went round to their camping-place on the north coast +of the island to try and buy something to eat, but could only get smoked +turtle meat as black and as hard as lumps of coal. A little further on +there was a plantation belonging to Guebe people, but under the care +of a Papuan slave, and the next morning we got some plantains and a few +vegetables in exchange for a handkerchief and some knives. On leaving +this place our anchor had got foul in some rock or sunken log in very +deep water, and after many unsuccessful attempts, we were forced to +cut our rattan cable and leave it behind us. We had now only one anchor +left. + +Starting early, on the 4th of October, the same S.S.W wind continued, +and we began to fear that we should hardly clear the southern point +of Gilolo. The night of the 5th was squally, with thunder, but after +midnight it got tolerably fair, and we were going along with a light +wind and looking out for the coast of Gilolo, which we thought we +must be nearing, when we heard a dull roaring sound, like a heavy surf, +behind us. In a short time the roar increased, and we saw a white line +of foam coming on, which rapidly passed us without doing any harm, as +our boat rose easily over the wave. At short intervals, ten or a +dozen others overtook us with bleat rapidity, and then the sea became +perfectly smooth, as it was before. I concluded at once that these must +be earthquake waves; and on reference to the old voyagers we find +that these seas have been long subject to similar phenomena. Dampier +encountered them near Mysol and New Guinea, and describes them as +follows: "We found here very strange tides, that ran in streams, making +a great sea, and roaring so loud that we could hear them before they +came within a mile of us. The sea round about them seemed all broken, +and tossed the ship so that she would not answer her helm. These +ripplings commonly lasted ten or twelve minutes, and then the sea became +as still and smooth as a millpond. We sounded often when in the midst of +them, but found no ground, neither could we perceive that they drove us +any way. We had in one night several of these tides, that came mostly +from the west, and the wind being from that quarter we commonly heard +them a long time before they came, and sometimes lowered our topsails, +thinking it was a gust of wind. They were of great length, from north to +south, but their breadth not exceeding 200 yards, and they drove a great +pace. For though we had little wind to move us, yet these world +soon pass away, and leave the water very smooth, and just before we +encountered them we met a great swell, but it did not break." Some time +afterwards, I learnt that an earthquake had been felt on the coast of +Gilolo the very day we had encountered these curious waves. + +When daylight came, we saw the land of Gilolo a few miles off, but the +point was unfortunately a little to windward of us. We tried to brace up +all we could to round it, but as we approached the shore we got into a +strong current setting northward, which carried us so rapidly with it +that we found it necessary to stand off again, in order to get out of +its influence. Sometimes we approached the point a little, and our hopes +revived; then the wind fell, and we drifted slowly away. Night found +us in nearly the same position as we had occupied in the morning, so +we hung down our anchor with about fifteen fathoms of cable to prevent +drifting. On the morning of the 7th we were however, a good way up +the coast, and we now thought our only chance would be to got close +in-shore, where there might be a return current, and we could then row. +The prau was heavy, and my men very poor creatures for work, so that it +took us six hours to get to the edge of the reef that fringed the shore; +and as the wind might at any moment blow on to it, our situation was a +very dangerous one. Luckily, a short distance off there was a sandy bay, +where a small stream stopped the growth of the coral; and by evening we +reached this and anchored for the night. Here we found some Galela men +shooting deer and pigs; but they could not or would not speak Malay, and +we could get little information from them. We found out that along shore +the current changed with the tide, while about a mile out it was always +one way, and against us; and this gave us some hopes of getting back to +the point, from which we were now distant twenty miles. Next morning we +found that the Galela men had left before daylight, having perhaps some +vague fear of our intentions, anal very likely taking me for a pirate. +During the morning a boat passed, and the people informed us that, at +a short distance further towards the point, there was a much better +harbour, where there were plenty of Galela men, from whom we, might +probably get some assistance. + +At three in the afternoon, when the current turned, we started; but +having a head-wind, made slow progress. At dusk we reached the entrance +of the harbour, but an eddy and a gust of wind carried us away and out +to sea. After sunset there was a land breeze, and we sailed a little to +the south-east. It then became calm, and we hung down our anchor forty +fathoms, to endeavour to counteract the current; but it was of little +avail, and in the morning we found ourselves a good way from shore, and +just opposite our anchorage of the day before, which we again reached by +hard rowing. I gave the men this day to rest and sleep; and the next day +(Oct. 10th) we again started at two in the morning with a land breeze. +After I had set them to their oars, and given instructions to keep +close in-shore, and on no account to get out to sea, I went below, being +rather unwell. At daybreak I found, to my great astonishment, that +we were again far off-shore, and was told that the wind had gradually +turned more ahead, and had carried us out--none of them having the sense +to take down the sail and row in-shore, or to call me. As soon as it was +daylight, we saw that we had drifted back, and were again opposite our +former anchorage, and, for the third time, had to row hard to get to it. +As we approached the shore, I saw that the current was favourable to us, +and we continued down the coast till we were close to the entrance to +the lower harbour. Just as we were congratulating ourselves on having at +last reached it, a strong south-east squall came on, blowing us back, +and rendering it impossible for us to enter. Not liking the idea of +again returning, I determined on trying to anchor, and succeeded in +doing so, in very deep water and close to the reefs; but the prevailing +winds were such that, should we not hold, we should have no difficulty +in getting out to sea. By the time the squall had passed, the current +had turned against us, and we expected to have to wait till four in the +afternoon, when we intended to enter the harbour. + +Now, however, came the climax of our troubles. The swell produced by the +squall made us jerk our cable a good deal, and it suddenly snapped +low down in the water. We drifted out to sea, and immediately set our +mainsail, but we were now without any anchor, and in a vessel so poorly +manned that it could not be rowed against the most feeble current or the +slightest wind, it word be madness to approach these dangerous shores +except in the most perfect calm. We had also only three days' food left. +It was therefore out of the question making any further attempts to get +round the point without assistance, and I at once determined to run +to the village of Gani-diluar, about ten miles further north, where we +understood there was a good harbour, and where we might get provisions +and a few more rowers. Hitherto winds and currents load invariably +opposed our passage southward, and we might have expected them to +be favourable to us now we had turned our bowsprit in an opposite +direction. But it immediately fell calm, and then after a time a +westerly land breeze set in, which would not serve us, and we had to +row again for hours, and when night came had not reached the village. We +were so fortunate, however, as to find a deep sheltered cove where the +water was quite smooth, and we constructed a temporary anchor by filling +a sack with stones from our ballast, which being well secured by a +network of rattans held us safely during the night. The next morning +my men went on shore to cut wood suitable for making fresh anchors, +and about noon, the current turning in our favour, we proceeded to the +village, where we found an excellent and well-protected anchorage. + +On inquiry, we found that the head men resided at the other Gani on the +western side of the peninsula, and it was necessary to send messengers +across (about half a day's journey) to inform them of my arrival, and +to beg them to assist me. I then succeeded in buying a little sago, some +dried deer-meat and cocoa-nuts, which at once relieved our immediate +want of something to eat. At night we found our bag of atones still held +us very well, and we slept tranquilly. + +The next day (October 12th), my men set to work making anchors and oars. +The native Malay anchor is ingeniously constructed of a piece of tough +forked timber, the fluke being strengthened by twisted rattans binding +it to the stem, while the cross-piece is formed of a long flat +stone, secured in the same manner. These anchors when well made, hold +exceedingly arm, and, owing to the expense of iron, are still almost +universally used on board the smaller praus. In the afternoon the head +men arrived, and promised me as many rowers as I could put on the +prau, and also brought me a few eggs and a little rice, which were very +acceptable. On the 14th there was a north wind all day, which would +have been invaluable to us a few days earlier, but which was now only +tantalizing. On the 16th, all being ready, we started at daybreak with +two new anchors and ten rowers, who understood their work. By evening we +had come more than half-way to the point, and anchored for the night in +a small bay. At three the next morning I ordered the anchor up, but the +rattan cable parted close to the bottom, having been chafed by rocks, +and we then lost our third anchor on this unfortunate voyage. The day +was calm, and by noon we passed the southern point of Gilolo, which had +delayed us eleven days, whereas the whole voyage during this monsoon +should not have occupied more than half that time. Having got round the +point our course was exactly in the opposite direction to what it had +been, and now, as usual, the wind changed accordingly, coming from the +north and north-west,--so that we still had to row every mile up to the +village of Gani, which we did not reach till the evening of the 18th. A +Bugis trader who was residing there, and the Senaji, or chief, were +very kind; the former assisting me with a spare anchor and a cable, and +making me a present of some vegetables, and the latter baking fresh sago +cakes for my men; and giving rue a couple of fowls, a bottle of oil, and +some pumpkins. As the weather was still very uncertain, I got four +extra men to accompany me to Ternate, for which place we started on the +afternoon of the 20th. + +We had to keep rowing all night, the land breezes being too weak to +enable us to sail against the current. During the afternoon of the 21st +we had an hour's fair wind, which soon changed into a heavy squall with +rain, and my clumsy men let the mainsail get taken aback and nearly +upset us, tearing the sail; and, what was worse, losing an hour's fair +wind. The night was calm, and we made little progress. + +On the 22d we had light head-winds. A little before noon we passed, with +the assistance of our oars, the Paciencia Straits, the narrowest part +of the channel between Batchian and Gilolo. These were well named by the +early Portuguese navigators, as the currents are very strong, and there +are so many eddies, that even with a fair wind vessels are often quite +unable to pass through them. In the afternoon a strong north wind (dead +ahead) obliged us to anchor twice. At nigh it was calm, and we crept +along slowly with our oars. + +On the 23d we still had the wind ahead, or calms. We then crossed over +again to the mainland of Gilolo by the advice of our Gani men, who knew +the coast well. Just as we got across we had another northerly squall +with rain, and had to anchor on the edge of a coral reef for the night. +I called up my men about three on the morning of the 24th, but there was +no wind to help us, and we rowed along slowly. At daybreak there was a +fair breeze from the south, but it lasted only an hour. All the rest of +the day we had nothing but calms, light winds ahead, and squalls, and +made very little progress. + +On the 25th we drifted out to the middle of the channel, but made no +progress onward. In the afternoon we sailed and rowed to the south end +of Kaioa, and by midnight reached the village. I determined to stay here +a few days to rest and recruit, and in hopes of getting better weather. +I bought some onions and other vegetables, and plenty of eggs, and my +men baked fresh sago cakes. I went daily to my old hunting-ground in +search of insects, but with very poor success. It was now wet, squally +weather, and there appeared a stagnation of insect life. We Staved five +days, during which time twelve persons died in the village, mostly from +simple intermittent fever, of the treatment of which the natives are +quite ignorant. During the whole of this voyage I had suffered greatly +from sunburnt lips, owing to having exposed myself on deck all day to +loon after our safety among the shoals and reefs near Waigiou. The +salt in the air so affected them that they would not heal, but became +excessively painful, and bled at the slightest touch, and for a long +time it was with great difficulty I could eat at all, being obliged +to open my mouth very wide, and put in each mouthful with the greatest +caution. I kept them constantly covered with ointment, which was itself +very disagreeable, and they caused me almost constant pain for more than +a month, as they did not get well till I had returned to Ternate, and +was able to remain a week indoors. + +A boat which left for Ternate, the day after we arrived, was obliged to +return the next day, on account of bad weather. On the 31st we went out +to the anchorage at the mouth of the harbour, so as to be ready to start +at the first favourable opportunity. + +On the 1st of November I called up my men at one in the morning, and we +started with the tide in our favour. Hitherto it had usually been calm +at night, but on this occasion we had a strong westerly squall with +rain, which turned our prau broadside, and obliged us to anchor. When it +had passed we went on rowing all night, but the wind ahead counteracted +the current in our favour, and we advanced but little. Soon after +sunrise the wind became stronger and more adverse, and as we had a +dangerous lee-shore which we could not clear, we had to put about +and get an offing to the W.S.W. This series of contrary winds and bad +weather ever since we started, not having had a single day of fair wind, +was very remarkable. My men firmly believed there was something unlucky +in the boat, and told me I ought to have had a certain ceremony gone +through before starting, consisting of boring a hole in the bottom and +pouring some kind of holy oil through it. It must be remembered that +this was the season of the south-east monsoon, and yet we had not had +even half a day's south-east wind since we left Waigiou. Contrary winds, +squalls, and currents drifted us about the rest of the day at their +pleasure. The night was equally squally and changeable, and kept us hard +at work taking in and making sail, and rowing in the intervals. + +Sunrise on the 2d found us in the middle of the ten-mile channel between +Kaioa and Makian. Squalls and showers succeeded each other during the +morning. At noon there was a dead calm, after which a light westerly +breeze enabled us to reach a village on Makian in the evening. Here I +bought some pumelos (Citrus decumana), kanary-nuts, and coffee, and let +my men have a night's sleep. + +The morning of the 3d was fine, and we rowed slowly along the coast of +Makian. The captain of a small prau at anchor, seeing me on deck and +guessing who I was, made signals for us to stop, and brought me a letter +from Charles Allen, who informed me he had been at Ternate twenty days, +and was anxiously waiting my arrival. This was good news, as I was +equally anxious about him, and it cheered up my spirits. A light +southerly wind now sprung up, and we thought we were going to have fine +weather. It soon changed, however, to its old quarter, the west; dense +clouds gathered over the sky, and in less than half an hour we had the +severest squall we had experienced during our whole voyage. Luckily we +got our great mainsail down in time, or the consequences might have been +serious. It was a regular little hurricane, and my old Bugis steersman +began shouting out to "Allah! il Allah!" to preserve us. We could only +keep up our jib, which was almost blown to rags, but by careful handling +it kept us before the wind, and the prau behaved very well. Our small +boat (purchased at Gani) was towing astern, and soon got full of water, +so that it broke away and we saw no more of it. In about an hour the +fury of the wind abated a little, and in two more we were able to hoist +our mainsail, reefed and half-mast high. Towards evening it cleared up +and fell calm, and the sea, which had been rather high, soon went down. +Not being much of a seaman myself I had been considerably alarmed, and +even the old steersman assured me he had never been in a worse squall +all his life. He was now more than ever confirmed in his opinion of the +unluckiness of the boat, and in the efficiency of the holy oil which all +Bugis praus had poured through their bottoms. As it was, he imputed +our safety and the quick termination of the squall entirely to his own +prayers, saying with a laugh, "Yes, that's the way we always do on board +our praus; when things are at the worst we stand up and shout out our +prayers as loud as we can, and then Tuwan Allah helps us." + +After this it took us two days more to reach Ternate, having our usual +calms, squalls, and head-winds to the very last; and once having to +return back to our anchorage owing to violent gusts of wind just as we +were close to the town. Looking at my whole voyage in this vessel from +the time when I left Goram in May, it will appear that rely experiences +of travel in a native prau have not been encouraging. My first crew +ran away; two men were lost for a month on a desert island; we were +ten times aground on coral reefs; we lost four anchors; the sails were +devoured by rats; the small boat was lost astern; we were thirty-eight +days on the voyage home, which should not have taken twelve; we were +many times short of food and water; we had no compass-lamp, owing to +there not being a drop of oil in Waigiou when we left; and to crown all, +during the whole of our voyages from Goram by Ceram to Waigiou, and from +Waigiou to Ternate, occupying in all seventy-eight days, or only +twelve days short of three months (all in what was supposed to be the +favourable season), we had not one single day of fair wind. We were +always close braced up, always struggling against wind, tide, and +leeway, and in a vessel that would scarcely sail nearer than eight +points from the wind. Every seaman will admit that my first voyage in my +own boat was a most unlucky one. + +Charles Allen had obtained a tolerable collection of birds and insects +at Mysol, but far less than he would have done if I had not been so +unfortunate as to miss visiting him. After waiting another week or two +till he was nearly starved, he returned to Wahai in Ceram, and heard, +much to his surprise, that I had left a fortnight before. He was delayed +there more than a month before he could get back to the north side of +Mysol, which he found a much better locality, but it was not yet the +season for the Paradise Birds; and before he had obtained more than a +few of the common sort, the last prau was ready to leave for Ternate, +and he was obliged to take the opportunity, as he expected I would be +waiting there for him. + +This concludes the record of my wanderings. I next went to Timor, and +afterwards to Bourn, Java, and Sumatra, which places have already been +described. Charles Allen made a voyage to New Guinea, a short account of +which will be given in my next chapter on the Birds of Paradise. On +his return he went to the Sula Islands, and made a very interesting +collection which served to determine the limits of the zoological group +of Celebes, as already explained in my chapter on the natural history of +that island. His next journey was to Flores and Solor, where he obtained +some valuable materials, which I have used in my chapter on the natural +history of the Timor group. He afterwards went to Coti on the east coast +of Borneo, from which place I was very anxious to obtain collections, +as it is a quite new locality as far as possible from Sarawak, and I +had heard very good accounts of it. On his return thence to Sourabaya in +Java, he was to have gone to the entirely unknown Sumba or Sandal-wood +Island. Most unfortunately, however, he was seized with a terrible fever +on his arrival at Coti, and, after lying there some weeks, was taken to +Singapore in a very bad condition, where he arrived after I had left for +England. When he recovered he obtained employment in Singapore, and I +lost his services as a collector. + +The three concluding chapters of my work will treat of the birds of +Paradise, the Natural History of the Papuan Islands, and the Races of +Man in the Malay Archipelago. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE BIRDS OF PARADISE. + +AS many of my journeys were made with the express object of obtaining +specimens of the Birds of Paradise, and learning something of their +habits and distribution; and being (as far as I am aware) the only +Englishman who has seen these wonderful birds in their native forests, +and obtained specimens of many of them, I propose to give here, in a +connected form, the result of my observations and inquiries. + +When the earliest European voyagers reached the Moluccas in search of +cloves and nutmegs, which were then rare and precious spices, they were +presented with the dried shins of birds so strange and beautiful as to +excite the admiration even of those wealth-seeking rovers. The Malay +traders gave them the name of "Manuk dewata," or God's birds; and the +Portuguese, finding that they had no feet or wings, and not being able +to learn anything authentic about then, called them "Passaros de Col," +or Birds of the Sun; while the learned Dutchmen, who wrote in Latin, +called them "Avis paradiseus," or Paradise Bird. John van Linschoten +gives these names in 1598, and tells us that no one has seen these birds +alive, for they live in the air, always turning towards the sun, and +never lighting on the earth till they die; for they have neither feet +nor wings, as, he adds, may be seen by the birds carried to India, and +sometimes to Holland, but being very costly they were then rarely seen +in Europe. More than a hundred years later Mr. William Funnel, who +accompanied Dampier, and wrote an account of the voyage, saw specimens +at Amboyna, and was told that they came to Banda to eat nutmegs, which +intoxicated them and made them fall down senseless, when they were +killed by ants. Down to 1760, when Linnaeus named the largest species, +Paradisea apoda (the footless Paradise Bird), no perfect specimen had +been seen in Europe, and absolutely nothing was known about them. And +even now, a hundred years later, most books state that they migrate +annually to Ternate, Banda, and Amboyna; whereas the fact is, that they +are as completely unknown in those islands in a wild state as they are +in England. Linnaeus was also acquainted with a small species, which he +named Paradisea regia (the King Bird of Paradise), and since then nine +or ten others have been named, all of which were first described from +skins preserved by the savages of New Guinea, and generally more or less +imperfect. These are now all known in the Malay Archipelago as "Burong +coati," or dead birds, indicating that the Malay traders never saw them +alive. + +The Paradiseidae are a group of moderate-sized birds, allied in +their structure and habits to crows, starlings, and to the Australian +honeysuckers; but they are characterised by extraordinary developments +of plumage, which are unequalled in any other family of birds. In +several species large tufts of delicate bright-coloured feathers spring +from each side of the body beneath the wings, forming trains, or fans, +or shields; and the middle feathers of the tail are often elongated into +wires, twisted into fantastic shapes, or adorned with the most brilliant +metallic tints. In another set of species these accessory plumes spring +from the head, the back, or the shoulders; while the intensity of colour +and of metallic lustre displayed by their plumage, is not to be equalled +by any other birds, except, perhaps, the humming-birds, and is not +surpassed even by these. They have been usually classified under +two distinct families, Paradiseidae and Epimachidae, the latter +characterised by long and slender beaks, and supposed to be allied to +the Hoopoes; but the two groups are so closely allied in every essential +point of structure and habits, that I shall consider them as forming +subdivisions of one family. I will now give a short description of each +of the known species, and then add some general remarks on their natural +history. + +The Great Bird of Paradise (Paradisea apoda of Linnaeus) is the largest +species known, being generally seventeen or eighteen inches from the +beak to the tip of the tail. The body, wings, and tail are of a rich +coffee-brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish-violet or +purple-brown. The whole top of the head and neck is of an exceedingly +delicate straw-yellow, the feathers being short and close set, so as +to resemble plush or velvet; the lower part of the throat up to the eye +clothed with scaly feathers of an emerald, green colour, and with a rich +metallic gloss, and velvety plumes of a still deeper green extend in +a band across the forehead and chin as far as the eye, which is bright +yellow. The beak is pale lead blue; and the feet, which are rather large +and very strong and well formed, are of a pale ashy-pink. The two middle +feathers of the tail have no webs, except a very small one at the base +and at the extreme tip, forming wire-like cirrhi, which spread out in +an elegant double curve, and vary from twenty-four to thirty-four inches +long. From each side of the body, beneath the wings, springs a dense +tuft of long and delicate plumes, sometimes two feet in length, of the +most intense golden-orange colour and very glossy, but changing towards +the tips into a pale brown. This tuft of plumage cam be elevated and +spread out at pleasure, so as almost to conceal the body of the bird. + +These splendid ornaments are entirely confined to the male sex, while +the female is really a very plain and ordinary-looking bird of a uniform +coffee-brown colour which never changes, neither does she possess the +long tail wires, nor a single yellow or green feather about the dead. +The young males of the first year exactly resemble the females, so that +they can only be distinguished by dissection. The first change is the +acquisition of the yellow and green colour on the head and throat, and +at the same time the two middle tail feathers grow a few inches longer +than the rest, but remain webbed on both sides. At a later period these +feathers are replaced by the long bare shafts of the full length, as +in the adult bird; but there is still no sign of the magnificent orange +side-plumes, which later still complete the attire of the perfect +male. To effect these changes there must be at least three successive +moultings; and as the birds were found by me in all the stages about the +same time, it is probable that they moult only once a year, and that +the full plumage is not acquired till the bird is four years old. It +was long thought that the fine train of feathers was assumed for a short +time only at the breeding season, but my own experience, as well as the +observation of birds of an allied species which I brought home with +me, and which lived two years in this country, show that the complete +plumage is retained during the whole year, except during a short period +of moulting as with most other birds. + +The Great Bird of Paradise is very active and vigorous and seems to be +in constant motion all day long. It is very abundant, small flocks +of females and young male being constantly met with; and though the +full-plumaged birds are less plentiful, their loud cries, which are +heard daily, show that they also are very numerous. Their note is, +"Wawk-wawk-wawk-Wok-wok-wok," and is so loud and shrill as to be heard a +great distance, and to form the most prominent and characteristic animal +sound in the Aru Islands. The mode of nidification is unknown; but the +natives told me that the nest was formed of leaves placed on an ant's +nest, or on some projecting limb of a very lofty tree, and they believe +that it contains only one young bird. The egg is quite unknown, and the +natives declared they had never seen it; and a very high reward offered +for one by a Dutch official did not meet with success. They moult about +January or February, and in May, when they are in full plumage, the +males assemble early in the morning to exhibit themselves in the +singular manner already described at p. 252. This habit enables the +natives to obtain specimens with comparative ease. As soon as they find +that the birds have fled upon a tree on which to assemble, they build a +little shelter of palm leaves in a convenient place among the branches, +and the hunter ensconces himself in it before daylight, armed with his +bow and a number of arrows terminating in a round knob. A boy waits +at the foot of the tree, and when the birds come at sunrise, and a +sufficient number have assembled, and have begun to dance, the hunter +shoots with his blunt arrow so strongly as to stun the bird, which drops +down, and is secured and killed by the boy without its plumage being +injured by a drop of blood. The rest take no notice, and fall one after +another till some of them take the alarm. (See Frontispiece.) + +The native mode of preserving them is to cut off the wings and feet, and +then skin the body up to the beak, taking out the skull. A stout stick +is then run up through the specimen coming out at the mouth. Round this +some leaves are stuffed, and the whole is wrapped up in a palm spathe +and dried in the smoky hut. By this plan the head, which is really +large, is shrunk up almost to nothing, the body is much reduced and +shortened, and the greatest prominence is given to the flowing plumage. +Some of these native skins are very clean, and often have wings and feet +left on; others are dreadfully stained with smoke, and all hive a most +erroneous idea of the proportions of the living bird. + +The Paradisea apoda, as far as we have any certain knowledge, is +confined to the mainland of the Aru Islands, never being found in the +smaller islands which surround the central mass. It is certainly not +found in any of the parts of New Guinea visited by the Malay and Bugis +traders, nor in any of the other islands where Birds of Paradise are +obtained. But this is by no means conclusive evidence, for it is only in +certain localities that the natives prepare skins, and in other places +the same birds may be abundant without ever becoming known. It is +therefore quite possible that this species may inhabit the great +southern mass of New Guinea, from which Aru has been separated; +while its near ally, which I shall next describe, is confined to the +north-western peninsula. + +The Lesser Bird of Paradise (Paradisea papuana of Bechstein), "Le petit +Emeraude" of French authors, is a much smaller bird than the preceding, +although very similar to it. It differs in its lighter brown colour, not +becoming darker or purpled on the breast; in the extension of the yellow +colour all over the upper part of the back and on the wing coverts; +in the lighter yellow of the side plumes, which have only a tinge of +orange, and at the tips are nearly pure white; and in the comparative +shortness of the tail cirrhi. The female differs remarkably front +the same sex in Paradisea apoda, by being entirely white on the under +surface of the body, and is thus a much handsomer bird. The young males +are similarly coloured, and as they grow older they change to brown, +and go through the same stages in acquiring the perfect plumage as has +already been described in the allied species. It is this bird which is +most commonly used in ladies' head-dresses in this country, and also +forms an important article of commerce in the East. + +The Paradisea papuana has a comparatively wide range, being the common +species on the mainland of New Guinea, as well as on the islands of +Mysol, Salwatty, Jobie, Biak and Sook. On the south coast of New +Guinea, the Dutch naturalist, Muller, found it at the Oetanata river in +longitude 136 deg. E. I obtained it myself at Dorey; and the captain of the +Dutch steamer Etna informed me that he had seen the feathers among the +natives of Humboldt Bay, in 141 deg. E. longitude. It is very probable, +therefore, that it ranges over the whole of the mainland of New Guinea. + +The true Paradise Birds are omnivorous, feeding on fruits and +insects--of the former preferring the small figs; of the latter, +grasshoppers, locusts, and phasmas, as well as cockroaches and +caterpillars. When I returned home, in 1862, I was so fortunate as to +find two adult males of this species in Singapore; and as they seemed +healthy, and fed voraciously on rice, bananas, and cockroaches, I +determined on giving the very high price asked for them--L100.--and to +bring them to England by the overland route under my own care. On my way +home I stayed a week at Bombay, to break the journey, and to lay in a +fresh stock of bananas for my birds. I had great difficulty, however, +in supplying them with insect food, for in the Peninsular and Oriental +steamers cockroaches were scarce, and it was only by setting traps in +the store-rooms, and by hunting an hour every night in the forecastle, +that I could secure a few dozen of these creatures,--scarcely enough +for a single meal. At Malta, where I stayed a fortnight, I got plenty +of cockroaches from a bake-house, and when I left, took with me several +biscuit-tins' full, as provision for the voyage home. We came through +the Mediterranean in March, with a very cold wind; and the only place on +board the mail-steamer where their large cage could be accommodated was +exposed to a strong current of air down a hatchway which stood open day +and night, yet the birds never seemed to feel the cold. During the night +journey from Marseilles to Paris it was a sharp frost; yet they arrived +in London in perfect health, and lived in the Zoological Gardens for +one, and two years, often displaying their beautiful plumes to the +admiration of the spectators. It is evident, therefore, that the +Paradise Birds are very hardy, and require air and exercise rather +than heat; and I feel sure that if a good sized conservators` could +be devoted to them, or if they could be turned loose in the tropical +department of the Crystal Palace or the Great Palm House at Kew, they +would live in this country for many years. + +The Red Bird of Paradise (Paradisea rubra of Viellot), though allied to +the two birds already described, is much more distinct from them than +they are from each other. It is about the same size as Paradisea papuana +(13 to 14 inches long), but differs from it in many particulars. The +side plumes, instead of being yellow, are rich crimson, and only extend +about three or four inches beyond the end of the tail; they are somewhat +rigid, and the ends are curved downwards and inwards, and are tipped +with white. The two middle tail feathers, instead of being simply +elongated and deprived of their webs, are transformed into stiff black +ribands, a quarter of an inch wide, but curved like a split quill, and +resembling thin half cylinders of horn or whalebone. When a dead bird +is laid on its back, it is seen that these ribands take a curve or set, +which brings them round so as to meet in a double circle on the neck +of the bird; but when they hang downwards, during life, they assume a +spiral twist, and form an exceedingly graceful double curve. They are +about twenty-two inches long, and always attract attention as the most +conspicuous and extraordinary feature of the species. The rich metallic +green colour of the throat extends over the front half of the head to +behind the eyes, and on the forehead forms a little double crest of +scaly feathers, which adds much to the vivacity of the bird's aspect. +The bill is gamboge yellow, and the iris blackish olive. (Figure at p. +353.) + +The female of this species is of a tolerably uniform coffee-brown +colour, but has a blackish head, and the nape neck, and shoulders +yellow, indicating the position of the brighter colours of the male. The +changes of plumage follow the same order of succession as in the other +species, the bright colours of the head and neck being first developed, +then the lengthened filaments of the tail, and last of all, the red side +plumes. I obtained a series of specimens, illustrating the manner in +which the extraordinary black tail ribands are developed, which is very +remarkable. They first appear as two ordinary feathers, rather shorter +than the rest of the tail; the second stage would no doubt be that shown +in a specimen of Paradisea apoda, in which the feathers are moderately +lengthened, and with the web narrowed in the middle; the third stage is +shown by a specimen which has part of the midrib bare, and terminated +by a spatulate web; in another the bare midrib is a little dilated +and semi-cylindrical, and the terminal web very small; in a fifth, the +perfect black horny riband is formed, but it bears at its extremity +a brown spatulate web, while in another a portion of the black riband +itself bears, for a portion of its length, a narrow brown web. It is +only after these changes are fully completed that the red side plumes +begin to appear. + +The successive stages of development of the colours and plumage of the +Birds of Paradise are very interesting, from the striking manner in +which they accord with the theory of their having been produced by the +simple action of variation, and the cumulative power of selection by the +females, of those male birds which were more than usually ornamental. +Variations of _colour_ are of all others the most frequent and the +most striking, and are most easily modified and accumulated by man's +selection of them. We should expect, therefore, that the sexual +differences of _colour_ would be those most early accumulated and fixed, +and would therefore appear soonest in the young birds; and this is +exactly what occurs in the Paradise Birds. Of all variations in the +_form_ of birds' feathers, none are so frequent as those in the head and +tail. These occur more, or less in every family of birds, and are easily +produced in many domesticated varieties, while unusual developments of +the feathers of the body are rare in the whole class of birds, and have +seldom or never occurred in domesticated species. In accordance with +these facts, we find the scale-formed plumes of the throat, the crests +of the head, and the long cirrhi of the tail, all fully developed before +the plumes which spring from the side of the body begin to mane their +appearance. If, on the other hand, the male Paradise Birds have not +acquired their distinctive plumage by successive variations, but have +been as they are mow from the moment they first appeared upon the earth, +this succession becomes at the least unintelligible to us, for we can +see no reason why the changes should not take place simultaneously, or +in a reverse order to that in which they actually occur. + +What is known of the habits of this bird, and the way in which it is +captured by the natives, have already been described at page 362. + +The Red Bird of Paradise offers a remarkable case of restricted +range, being entirely confined to the small island of Waigiou, off the +north-west extremity of New Guinea, where it replaces the allied species +found in the other islands. + +The three birds just described form a well-marked group, agreeing in +every point of general structure, in their comparatively large size, +the brown colour of their bodies, wings, and tail, and in the peculiar +character of the ornamental plumage which distinguishes the male bird. +The group ranges nearly over the whole area inhabited by the family of +the Paradiseidae, but each of the species has its own limited region, +and is never found in the same district with either of its close allies. +To these three birds properly belongs the generic title Paradisea, or +true Paradise Bird. + +The next species is the Paradisea regia of Linnaeus, or Ding Bird of +Paradise, which differs so much from the three preceding species as +to deserve a distinct generic name, and it has accordingly been called +Cicinnurus regius. By the Malays it is called "Burong rajah," or King +Bird, and by the natives of the Aru Islands "Goby-goby." + +This lovely little bird is only about six and a half inches long, partly +owing to the very short tail, which does not surpass the somewhat square +wings. The head, throat, and entire upper surface are of the richest +glossy crimson red, shading to orange-crimson on the forehead, where the +feathers extend beyond the nostrils more than half-way down the beak. +The plumage is excessively brilliant, shining in certain lights with a +metallic or glassy lustre. The breast and belly are pure silky white, +between which colour and the red of the throat there is a broad band of +rich metallic green, and there is a small spot of the same colour close +above each eye. From each side of the body beneath the wing, springs +a tuft of broad delicate feathers about an inch and a half long, of an +ashy colour, but tipped with a broad band of emerald green, bordered +within by a narrow line of buff: These plumes are concealed beneath the +wing, but when the bird pleases, can be raised and spread out so as to +form an elegant semicircular fan on each shoulder. But another ornament +still more extraordinary, and if possible more beautiful, adorns this +little bird. The two middle tail feathers are modified into very slender +wirelike shafts, nearly six inches long, each of which bears at the +extremity, on the inner side only, a web of an emerald green colour, +which is coiled up into a perfect spiral disc, and produces a most +singular and charming effect. The bill is orange yellow, and the feet +and legs of a fine cobalt blue. (See upper figure on the plate at the +commencement of this chapter.) + +The female of this little gem is such a plainly coloured bird, that it +can at first sight hardly be believed to belong to the same species. The +upper surface is of a dull earthy brown, a slight tinge of orange red +appearing only on the margins of the quills. Beneath, it is of a paler +yellowish brown, scaled and banded with narrow dusky markings. The young +males are exactly like the female, and they no doubt undergo a series of +changes as singular as those of Paradisea rubra; but, unfortunately, I +was unable to obtain illustrative specimens. + +This exquisite little creature frequents the smaller trees in the +thickest parts of the forest, feeding on various fruits; often of a very +large size for so small a bird. It is very active both on its wings and +feet, and makes a whirring sound while flying, something like the +South American manakins. It often flutters its wings and displays the +beautiful fan which adorns its breast, while the star-bearing tail wires +diverge in an elegant double curve. It is tolerably plentiful in the +Aru Islands, which led to it, being brought to Europe at an early period +along with Paradisea apoda. It also occurs in the island of Mysol and in +every part of New Guinea which has been visited by naturalists. + +We now come to the remarkable little bird called the "Magnificent," +first figured by Buffon, and named Paradisea speciosa by Boddaert, +which, with one allied species, has been formed into a separate genus +by Prince Buonaparte, under the name of Diphyllodes, from the curious +double mantle which clothes the back. + +The head is covered with short brown velvety feathers, which advance on +the back so as to cover the nostrils. From the nape springs a dense mass +of feathers of a straw-yellow colour, and about one and a half inches +long, forming a mantle over the upper part of the back. Beneath this, +and forming a band about one-third of an inch beyond it, is a second +mantle of rich, glossy, reddish-brown fathers. The rest of the bath is +orange-brown, the tail-coverts and tail dark bronzy, the wings light +orange-buff: The whole under surface is covered with an abundance of +plumage springing from the margins of the breast, and of a rich deep +green colour, with changeable hues of purple. Down the middle of the +breast is a broad band of scaly plumes of the same colour, while the +chin and throat are of a rich metallic bronze. From the middle of the +tail spring two narrow feathers of a rich steel blue, and about ten +inches long. These are webbed on the inner side only, and curve outward, +so as to form a double circle. + +From what we know of the habits of allied species, we may be sure that +the greatly developed plumage of this bird is erected and displayed in +some remarkable manner. The mass of feathers on the under surface are +probably expanded into a hemisphere, while the beautiful yellow mantle +is no doubt elevated so as to give the bird a very different appearance +from that which it presents in the dried and flattened skins of the +natives, through which alone it is at present known. The feet appear to +be dark blue. + +This rare and elegant little bird is found only on the mainland of New +Guinea, and in the island of Mysol. + +A still more rare and beautiful species than the last is the Diphyllodes +wilsoni, described by Mr. Cassin from a native skin in the rich museum +of Philadelphia. The same bird was afterwards named "Diphyllodes +respublica" by Prince Buonaparte, and still later, "Schlegelia calva," +by Dr. Bernstein, who was so fortunate as to obtain fresh specimens in +Waigiou. + +In this species the upper mantle is sulphur yellow, the lower one and +the wings pure red, the breast plumes dark green, and the lengthened +middle tail feathers much shorter than in the allied species. The most +curious difference is, however, that the top of the head is bald, the +bare skin being of a rich cobalt blue, crossed by several lines of black +velvety feathers. + +It is about the same size as Diphyllodes speciosa, and is no doubt +entirely confined to the island of Waigiou. The female, as figured and +described by Dr. Bernstein, is very like that of Cicinnurus regius, +being similarly banded beneath; and we may therefore conclude that its +near ally, the "Magnificent," is at least equally plain in this sex, of +which specimens have not yet been obtained. + +The Superb Bird of Paradise was first figured by Buffon, and was +named by Boddaert, Paradisea atra, from the black ground colour of its +plumage. It forms the genus Lophorina of Viellot, and is one of the +rarest and most brilliant of the whole group, being only known +front mutilated native skins. This bird is a little larger than the +Magnificent. The ground colour of the plumage is intense black, but with +beautiful bronze reflections on the neck, and the whole head scaled with +feathers of brilliant metallic green and blue. Over its breast it bears +a shield formed of narrow and rather stiff feathers, much elongated +towards the sides, of a pure bluish-green colour, and with a satiny +gloss. But a still more extraordinary ornament is that which springs +from the back of the neck,--a shield of a similar form to that on the +breast, but much larger, and of a velvety black colour, glossed with +bronze and purple. The outermost feathers of this shield are half +an inch longer than the wing, and when it is elevated it must, in +conjunction with the breast shield, completely change the form and whole +appearance of the bird. The bill is black, and the feet appear to be +yellow. + +This wonderful little bird inhabits the interior of the northern +peninsula of New Guinea only. Neither I nor Mr. Allen could hear +anything of it in any of the islands or on any part of the coast. It is +true that it was obtained from the coast-natives by Lesson; but when +at Sorong in 1861, Mr. Allen learnt that it is only found three days' +journey in the interior. Owing to these "Black Birds of Paradise," as +they are called, not being so much valued as articles of merchandise, +they now seem to be rarely preserved by the natives, and it thus +happened that during several years spent on the coasts of New Guinea +and in the Moluccas I was never able to obtain a skin. We are therefore +quite ignorant of the habits of this bird, and also of its female, +though the latter is no doubt as plain and inconspicuous as in all the +other species of this family. + +The Golden, or Six-shafted, Paradise Bird, is another rare species, +first figured by Buffon, and never yet obtained in perfect condition. It +was named by Boddaert, Paradisea sexpennis, and forms the genus +Parotia of Viellot. This wonderful bird is about the size of the female +Paradisea rubra. The plumage appear, at first sight black, but it glows +in certain light with bronze and deep purple. The throat and breast are +scaled with broad flat feathers of an intense golden hue, changing to +green and blue tints in certain lights. On the back of the head is a +broad recurved band of feathers, whose brilliancy is indescribable, +resembling the sheen of emerald and topaz rather than any organic +substance. Over the forehead is a large patch of pure white feathers, +which shine like satin; and from the sides of the head spring the six +wonderful feathers from which the bird receives its name. These are +slender wires, six inches long, with a small oval web at the extremity. +In addition to these ornaments, there is also an immense tuft of soft +feathers on each side of the breast, which when elevated must entirely +hide the wings, and give the bird au appearance of being double its real +bulk. The bill is black, short, and rather compressed, with the feathers +advancing over the nostrils, as in Cicinnurus regius. This singular and +brilliant bird inhabits the same region as the Superb Bird of Paradise, +and nothing whatever is known about it but what we can derive from an +examination of the skins preserved by the natives of New Guinea. + +The Standard Wing, named Semioptera wallacei by Mr. G. R. Gray, is +an entirely new form of Bird of Paradise, discovered by myself in the +island of Batchian, and especially distinguished by a pair of long +narrow feathers of a white colour, which spring from among the short +plumes which clothe the bend of the wing, and are capable of being +erected at pleasure. The general colour of this bird is a delicate +olive-brown, deepening to a loud of bronzy olive in the middle of the +back, and changing to a delicate ashy violet with a metallic gloss, on +the crown of the head. The feathers, which cover the nostrils and extend +half-way down the beak, are loose and curved upwards. Beneath, it is +much more beautiful. The scale-like feathers of the breast are margined +with rich metallic blue-green, which colour entirely covers the throat +and sides of the neck, as well as the long pointed plumes which spring +from the sides of the breast, and extend nearly as far as the end of the +wings. The most curious feature of the bird, however, and one altogether +unique in the whole class, is found in the pair of long narrow delicate +feathers which spring from each wing close to the bend. On lifting the +wing-coverts they are seen to arise from two tubular horny sheaths, +which diverge from near the point of junction of the carpal bones. As +already described at p. 41, they are erectile, and when the bird +is excited are spread out at right angles to the wing and slightly +divergent. They are from six to six and a half inches long, the upper +one slightly exceeding the lower. The total length of the bird is eleven +inches. The bill is horny olive, the iris deep olive, and the feet +bright orange. + +The female bird is remarkably plain, being entirely of a dull pale +earthy brown, with only a slight tinge of ashy violet on the head to +relieve its general monotony; and the young males exactly resemble her. +(See figures at p. 41.) + +This bird, frequents the lower trees of the forests, and, like most +Paradise Birds, is in constant motion--flying from branch to branch, +clinging to the twigs and even to the smooth and vertical trunks almost +as easily as a woodpecker. It continually utters a harsh, creaking note, +somewhat intermediate between that of Paradisea apoda, and the more +musical cry of Cicinnurus regius. The males at short intervals open and +flutter their wings, erect the long shoulder feathers, and spread out +the elegant green breast shields. + +The Standard Wing is found in Gilolo as well as in Batchian, and all +the specimens from the former island have the green breast shield rather +longer, the crown of the head darker violet, and the lower parts of the +body rather more strongly scaled with green. This is the only Paradise +Bird yet found in the Moluccan district, all the others being confined +to the Papuan Islands and North Australia. + +We now come to the Epimachidae, or Long-billed Birds of Paradise, which, +as before stated, ought not to be separated from the Paradiseidae by the +intervention of any other birds. One of the most remarkable of these is +the Twelve-wired Paradise Bird, Paradises alba of Blumenbach, but now +placed in the genus Seleucides of Lesson. + +This bird is about twelve inches long, of which the compressed and +curved beak occupies two inches. The colour of the breast and upper +surface appears at first sight nearly black, but a close examination +shows that no part of it is devoid of colour; and by holding it in +various lights, the most rich and glowing tints become visible. The +head, covered with short velvety feathers, which advance on the chic +much further than on the upper part of the beak, is of a purplish bronze +colour; the whole of the back and shoulders is rich bronzy green, while +the closed wings and tail are of the most brilliant violet purple, all +the plumage having a delicate silky gloss. The mass of feathers which +cover the breast is really almost black, with faint glosses of green +and purple, but their outer edges are margined with glittering bands of +emerald green. The whole lower part of the body is rich buffy yellow, +including the tuft of plumes which spring from the sides, and extend an +inch and a half beyond the tail. When skins are exposed to the light +the yellow fades into dull white, from which circumstance it derived its +specific name. About six of the innermost of these plumes on each side +have the midrib elongated into slender black wires, which bend at right +angles, and curve somewhat backwards to a length of about ten inches, +forming one of those extraordinary and fantastic ornaments with which +this group of birds abounds. The bill is jet black, and the feet +bright yellow. (See lower figure on the plate at the beginning of this +chapter). + +The female, although not quite so plain a bird as in some other species, +presents none of the gay colours or ornamental plumage of the male. The +top of the head and back of the neck are black, the rest of the upper +parts rich reddish brown; while the under surface is entirely yellowish +ashy, somewhat blackish on the breast, and crossed throughout with +narrow blackish wavy bands. + +The Seleucides alba is found in the island of Salwatty, and in the +north-western parts of New Guinea, where it frequents flowering trees, +especially sago-palms and pandani, sucking the flowers, round and +beneath which its unusually large and powerful feet enable it to cling. +Its motions are very rapid. It seldom rests more than a few moments on +one tree, after which it flies straight off, and with great swiftness, +to another. It has a loud shrill cry, to be heard a long way, consisting +of "Cah, cah," repeated five or six times in a descending scale, and at +the last note it generally flies away. The males are quite solitary in +their habits, although, perhaps, they assemble at pertain times like the +true Paradise Birds. All the specimens shot and opened by my assistant +Mr. Allen, who obtained this fine bird during his last voyage to New +Guinea, had nothing in their stomachs but a brown sweet liquid, +probably the nectar of the flowers on which they had been feeding. They +certainly, however, eat both fruit and insects, for a specimen which +I saw alive on board a Dutch steamer ate cockroaches and papaya fruit +voraciously. This bird had the curious habit of resting at noon with the +bill pointing vertically upwards. It died on the passage to Batavia, and +I secured the body and formed a skeleton, which shows indisputably that +it is really a Bird of Paradise. The tongue is very long and extensible, +but flat and little fibrous at the end, exactly like the true +Paradiseas. + +In the island of Salwatty, the natives search in the forests till they +find the sleeping place of this bird, which they know by seeing its +dung upon the ground. It is generally in a low bushy tree. At night they +climb up the trap, and either shoot the birds with blunt arrows, or even +catch them alive with a cloth. In New Guinea they are caught by placing +snares on the trees frequented by them, in the same way as the Red +Paradise birds are caught in Waigiou, and which has already been +described at page 362. + +The great Epimaque, or Long-tailed Paradise Bird (Epimachus magnus), is +another of these wonderful creatures, only known by the imperfect skins +prepared by the natives. In its dark velvety plumage, glowed with bronze +and purple, it resembles the Seleucides alba, but it bears a magnificent +tail more than two feet long, glossed on the upper surface with the most +intense opalescent blue. Its chief ornament, however, consists in the +group of broad plumes which spring from the sides of the breast, and +which are dilated at the extremity, and banded with the most vivid +metallic blue and green. The bill is long and curved, and the feet +black, and similar to those of the allied forms. The total length of +this fine bird is between three and four feet. + +This splendid bird inhabits the mountains of New Guinea, in the same +district with the Superb and the Six-shafted Paradise Birds, and I was +informed is sometimes found in the ranges near the coast. I was several +times assured by different natives that this bird makes its nest in +a hole under ground, or under rocks, always choosing a place with two +apertures, so that it may enter at one and go out at the other. This is +very unlike what we should suppose to be the habits of the bird, but it +is not easy to conceive how the story originated if it is not true; +and all travellers know that native accounts of the habits of animals, +however strange they may seem, almost invariably turn out to be correct. + +The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird (Epimachus magnificus of Cuvier) is now +generally placed with the Australian Rifle birds in the genus Ptiloris. +Though very beautiful, these birds are less strikingly decorated with +accessory plumage than the other species we have been describing, their +chief ornament being a more or less developed breastplate of stiff +metallic green feathers, and a small tuft of somewhat hairy plumes on +the sides of the breast. The back and wings of this species are of +an intense velvety black, faintly glossed in certain lights with rich +purple. The two broad middle tail feathers are opalescent green-blue +with a velvety surface, and the top of the head is covered with feathers +resembling scales of burnished steel. A large triangular space covering +the chin, throat, and breast, is densely scaled with feathers, having a +steel-blue or green lustre, and a silky feel. This is edged below with +a narrow band of black, followed by shiny bronzy green, below which the +body is covered with hairy feathers of a rich claret colour, deepening +to black at the tail. The tufts of side plumes somewhat resemble those +of the true Birds of Paradise, but are scanty, about as long as the +tail, and of a black colour. The sides of the head are rich violet, and +velvety feathers extend on each side of the beak over the nostrils. + +I obtained at Dorey a young male of this bird, in a state of plumage +which is no doubt that of the adult female, as is the case in all the +allied species. The upper surface, wings, and tail are rich reddish +brown, while the under surface is of a pale ashy colour, closely barred +throughout with narrow wavy black bands. There is also a pale banded +stripe over the eye, and a long dusky stripe from the gape down each +side of the neck. This bird is fourteen inches long, whereas the native +skins of the adult male are only about ten inches, owing to the way +in which the tail is pushed in, so as to give as much prominence as +possible to the ornamental plumage of the breast. + +At Cape York, in North Australia, there is a closely allied species, +Ptiloris alberti, the female of which is very similar to the young male +bird here described. The beautiful Rifle Birds of Australia, which +much resemble those Paradise Birds, are named Ptiloris paradiseus +and Ptiloris victories, The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird seems to be +confined to the mainland of New Guinea, and is less rare than several of +the other species. + +There are three other New Guinea birds which are by some authors classed +with the Birds of Paradise, and which, being almost equally remarkable +for splendid plumage, deserve to be noticed here. The first is the +Paradise pie (Astrapia nigra of Lesson), a bird of the size of Paradises +rubra, but with a very long tail, glossed above with intense violet. +The back is bronzy black, the lower parts green, the throat and neck +bordered with loose broad feathers of an intense coppery hue, while on +the top of the head and neck they are glittering emerald green, All the +plumage round the head is lengthened and erectile, and when spread out +by the living bird must lave an effect hardly surpassed by any of the +true Paradise birds. The bill is black and the feet yellow. The Astrapia +seems to me to be somewhat intermediate between the Paradiseidae and +Epimachidae. + +There is an allied species, having a bare carunculated head, which has +been called Paradigalla carunculata. It is believed to inhabit, with the +preceding, the mountainous, interior of New Guinea, but is exceedingly +rare, the only known specimen being in the Philadelphia Museum. + +The Paradise Oriole is another beautiful bird, which is now sometimes +classed with the Birds of Paradise. It has been named Paradises aurea +and Oriolus aureus by the old naturalists, and is now generally +placed in the same genus as the Regent Bird of Australia (Sericulus +chrysocephalus). But the form of the bill and the character of the +plumage seem to me to be so different that it will have to form a +distinct genus. This bird is almost entirely yellow, with the exception +of the throat, the tail, and part of the wings and back, which are +black; but it is chiefly characterised by a quantity of long feathers of +an intense glossy orange colour, which cover its neck down to the middle +of the back, almost like the hackles of a game-cock. + +This beautiful bird inhabits the mainland of New Guinea, and is also +found in Salwatty, but is so rare that I was only able to obtain one +imperfect native skin, and nothing whatever is known of its habits. + +I will now give a list of all the Birds of Paradise yet known, with the +places they are believed to inhabit. + +1. Paradisea apoda (The Great Paradise Bird). Aru Islands. + +2. Paradisea papuana (The Lesser Paradise Bird). New Guinea. Mysol, +Jobie. + +3. Paradisea rubra (The Red Paradise Bird). Waigiou. + +4. Cicinnurus regius (The King Paradise Bird). New Guinea, Aru Islands, +Mysol, Salwatty. + +5. Diphyllodes speciosa (The Magnificent). New Guinea, Mysol, Salwatty. + +6. Diphyllodes wilsoni (The Red Magnificent). Waigiou. + +7. Lophorina atra (The Superb). New Guinea. + +8. Parotia sexpennis (The Golden Paradise Bird). New Guinea. + +9. Semioptera wallacei (The Standard Wing). Batchian, Gilolo. + +10. Epimachus magnus (The Long-tailed Paradise Bird). New Guinea + +11. Seleucides albs (The Twelve-wired Paradise Bird).New Guinea, +Salwatty. + +12. Ptiloris magnifica (The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird). New Guinea. + +13. Ptiloris alberti (Prince Albert's Paradise Bird). North Australia. + +14. Ptiloris Paradisea (The Rifle Bird). East Australia. + +15. Ptiloris victoriae (The Victorian Rifle Bird). North-East Australia. + +16. Astrapia nigra (The Paradise Pie). New Guinea. + +17. Paradigalla carunculata (The Carunculated Paradise Pie). New Guinea. + +18. (?) Sericulus aureus (The Paradise Oriole). New Guinea, Salwatty. + +We see, therefore, that of the eighteen species which seem to deserve a +place among the Birds of Paradise, eleven are known to inhabit the great +island of New Guinea, eight of which are entirely confined to it and the +hardly separated island of Salwatty. But if we consider those islands +which are now united to New Guinea by a shallow sea to really form a +part of it, we shall find that fourteen of the Paradise Birds belong +to that country, while three inhabit the northern and eastern parts +of Australia, and one the Moluccas. All the more extraordinary and +magnificent species are, however, entirely confined to the Papuan +region. + +Although I devoted so much time to a search after these wonderful birds, +I only succeeded myself in obtaining five species during a residence +of many months in the Aru Islands, New Guinea, and Waigiou. Mr. Allen's +voyage to Mysol did not procure a single additional species, but we +both heard of a place called Sorong, on the mainland of New Guinea, +near Salwatty, where we were told that all the kinds we desired could be +obtained. We therefore determined that he should visit this place, and +endeavour to penetrate into the interior among the natives, who actually +shoot and skin the Birds of Paradise. He went in the small prau I +had fitted up at Goram, and through the kind assistance of the Dutch +Resident at Ternate, a lieutenant and two soldiers were sent by the +Sultan of Tidore to accompany and protect him, and to assist him in +getting men and in visiting the interior. + +Notwithstanding these precautions, Mr. Allen met with difficulties in +this voyage which we had neither of us encountered before. To understand +these, it is necessary to consider that the Birds of Paradise are an +article of commerce, and are the monopoly of the chiefs of the coast +villages, who obtain them at a low rate from the mountaineers, and sell +them to the Bugis traders. A portion is also paid every year as tribute +to the Sultan of Tidore. The natives are therefore very jealous of a +stranger, especially a European, interfering in their trade, and above +all of going into the interior to deal with the mountaineers themselves. +They of course think he will raise the prices in the interior, and +lessen the supply on the coast, greatly to their disadvantage; they also +think their tribute will be raised if a European takes back a quantity +of the rare sorts; and they have besides a vague and very natural dread +of some ulterior object in a white man's coming at so much trouble and +expense to their country only to get Birds of Paradise, of which they +know he can buy plenty (of the common yellow ones which alone they +value) at Ternate, Macassar, or Singapore. + +It thus happened that when Mr. Allen arrived at Sorong, and explained +his intention of going to seek Birds of Paradise in the interior, +innumerable objections were raised. He was told it was three or four +days' journey over swamps and mountains; that the mountaineers were +savages and cannibals, who would certainly kill him; and, lastly, that +not a man in the village could be found who dare go with him. After some +days spent in these discussions, as he still persisted in making the +attempt, and showed them his authority from the Sultan of Tidore to go +where he pleased and receive every assistance, they at length provided +him with a boat to go the first part of the journey up a river; at the +same time, however, they sent private orders to the interior villages +to refuse to sell any provisions, so as to compel him to return. On +arriving at the village where they were to leave the river and strike +inland, the coast people returned, leaving Mr. Allen to get on as +he could. Here he called on the Tidore lieutenant to assist him, and +procure men as guides and to carry his baggage to the villages of the +mountaineers. This, however, was not so easily done. A quarrel took +place, and the natives, refusing to obey the imperious orders of the +lieutenant, got out their knives and spears to attack him and his +soldiers; and Mr. Allen himself was obliged to interfere to protect +those who had come to guard him. The respect due to a white man and the +timely distribution of a few presents prevailed; and, on showing +the knives, hatchets, and beads he was willing to give to those who +accompanied him, peace was restored, and the next day, travelling over +a frightfully rugged country, they reached the villages of the +mountaineers. Here Mr. Allen remained a month without any interpreter +through whom he could understand a word or communicate a want. However, +by signs and presents and a pretty liberal barter, he got on very well, +some of them accompanying him every day in the forest to shoot, and +receiving a small present when he was successful. + +In the grand matter of the Paradise Birds, however, little was done. +Only one additional species was found, the Seleucides alba, of which +he had already obtained a specimen in Salwatty; but he learnt that the +other kinds' of which he showed them drawings, were found two or three +days' journey farther in the interior. When I sent my men from Dorey to +Amberbaki, they heard exactly the same story--that the rarer sorts +were only found several days' journey in the interior, among rugged +mountains, and that the skins were prepared by savage tribes who had +never even been seen by any of the coast people. + +It seems as if Nature had taken precautions that these her choicest +treasures should not be made too common, and thus be undervalued. This +northern coast of New Guinea is exposed to the full swell of the Pacific +Ocean, and is rugged and harbourless. The country is all rocky and +mountainous, covered everywhere with dense forests, offering in its +swamps and precipices and serrated ridges an almost impassable barrier +to the unknown interior; and the people are dangerous savages, in the +very lowest stage of barbarism. In such a country, and among such a +people, are found these wonderful productions of Nature, the Birds +of Paradise, whose exquisite beauty of form and colour and strange +developments of plumage are calculated to excite the wonder and +admiration of the most civilized and the most intellectual of mankind, +and to furnish inexhaustible materials for study to the naturalist, and +for speculation to the philosopher. + +Thus ended my search after these beautiful birds. Five voyages to +different parts of the district they inhabit, each occupying in its +preparation and execution the larger part of a year, produced me only +five species out of the fourteen known to exist in the New Guinea +district. The kinds obtained are those that inhabit the coasts of New +Guinea and its islands, the remainder seeming to be strictly confined +to the central mountain-ranges of the northern peninsula; and our +researches at Dorey and Amberbaki, near one end of this peninsula, and +at Salwatty and Sorong, near the other, enable me to decide with some +certainty on the native country of these rare and lovely birds, good +specimens of which have never yet been seen in Europe. + +It must be considered as somewhat extraordinary that, during five years' +residence and travel in Celebes, the Moluccas, and New Guinea, I should +never have been able to purchase skins of half the species which Lesson, +forty years ago, obtained during a few weeks in the same countries. I +believe that all, except the common species of commerce, are now much +more difficult to obtain than they were even twenty years ago; and I +impute it principally to their having been sought after by the Dutch +officials through the Sultan of Tidore. The chiefs of the annual +expeditions to collect tribute have had orders to get all the rare sorts +of Paradise Birds; and as they pay little or nothing for them (it being +sufficient to say they are for the Sultan), the head men of the +coast villages would for the future refuse to purchase them from the +mountaineers, and confine themselves instead to the commoner species, +which are less sought after by amateurs, but are a more profitable +merchandise. The same causes frequently lead the inhabitants of +uncivilized countries to conceal minerals or other natural products with +which they may become acquainted, from the fear of being obliged to pay +increased tribute, or of bringing upon themselves a new and oppressive +labour. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PAPUAN ISLANDS. + +NEW GUINEA, with the islands joined to it by a shallow sea, constitute +the Papuan group, characterised by a very close resemblance in their +peculiar forms of life. Having already, in my chapters on the Aru +Islands and on the Birds of Paradise, given some details of the natural +history of this district, I shall here confine myself to a general +sketch of its animal productions, and of their relations to those of the +rest of the world. + +New Guinea is perhaps the largest island on the globe, being a little +larger than Borneo. It is nearly fourteen hundred miles long, and in the +widest part four hundred broad, and seems to be everywhere covered with +luxuriant forests. Almost everything that is yet known of its natural +productions comes from the north-western peninsula, and a few islands +grouped around it. These do not constitute a tenth part of the area of +the whole island, and are so cut off from it, that their fauna may well +he somewhat different; yet they have produced us (with a very partial +exploration) no less than two hundred and fifty species of land birds, +almost all unknown elsewhere, and comprising some of the most curious +and most beautiful of the feathered tribes. It is needless to say how +much interest attaches to the far larger unknown portion of this +great island, the greatest terra incognita that still remains for the +naturalist to explore, and the only region where altogether new and +unimagined forms of life may perhaps be found. There is now, I am +happy to say, some chance that this great country will no longer +remain absolutely unknown to us. The Dutch Government have granted +well-equipped steamer to carry a naturalist (Mr. Rosenberg, already +mentioned in this work) and assistants to New Guinea, where they are +to spend some years in circumnavigating the island, ascending its +large rivers a< far as possible into the interior, and making extensive +collections of its natural productions. + +The Mammalia of New Guinea and the adjacent islands, yet discovered, +are only seventeen in number. Two of these are bats, one is a pig of a +peculiar species (Sus papuensis), and the rest are all marsupials. The +bats are, no doubt, much more numerous, but there is every reason to +believe that whatever new land Mammalia man be discovered will belong +to the marsupial order. One of these is a true kangaroo, very similar +to some of middle-sized kangaroos of Australia, and it is remarkable as +being the first animal of the kind ever seen by Europeans. It inhabits +Mysol and the Aru Islands (an allied species being found in New Guinea), +and was seen and described by Le Brun in 1714, from living specimens at +Batavia. A much more extraordinary creature is the tree-kangaroo, two +species of which are known from New Guinea. These animals do not differ +very strikingly in form from the terrestrial kangaroos, and appear to be +but imperfectly adapted to an arboreal life, as they move rather slowly, +and do not seem to have a very secure footing on the limb of a tree. The +leaping power of the muscular tail is lost, and powerful claws have been +acquired to assist in climbing, but in other respects the animal seems +better adapted to walls on terra firma. This imperfect adaptation may +be due to the fact of there being no carnivore in New Guinea, and no +enemies of any kind from which these animals have to escape by rapid +climbing. Four species of Cuscus, and the small flying opossum, also +inhabit New Guinea; and there are five other smaller marsupials, one of +which is the size of a rat, and takes its place by entering houses and +devouring provisions. + +The birds of New Guinea offer the greatest possible contrast to the +Mammalia, since they are more numerous, more beautiful, and afford more +new, curious, and elegant forms than those of any other island on the +globe. Besides the Birds of Paradise, which we have already sufficiently +considered, it possesses a number of other curious birds, which in the +eyes of the ornithologist almost serves to distinguish it as one of the +primary divisions of the earth. Among its thirty species of parrots are +the Great Pluck Cockatoo, and the little rigid-tailed Nasiterna, the +giant and the dwarf of the whole tribe. The bare-headed Dasyptilus +is one of the most singular parrots known; while the beautiful little +long-tailed Charmosyna, and the great variety of gorgeously-coloured +lories, have no parallels elsewhere. Of pigeons it possesses about forty +distinct species, among which are the magnificent crowned pigeons, now +so well known in our aviaries, and pre-eminent both for size and beauty; +the curious Trugon terrestris, which approaches the still more strange +Didunculus of Samoa; and a new genus (Henicophaps), discovered by +myself, which possesses a very long and powerful bill, quite unlike that +of any other pigeon. Among its sixteen kingfishers, it possesses the +carious hook-billed Macrorhina, and a red and blue Tanysiptera, the most +beautiful of that beautiful genus. Among its perching birds are the fine +genus of crow-like starlings, with brilliant plumage (Manucodia); the +carious pale-coloured crow (Gymnocorvus senex); the abnormal red and +black flycatcher (Peltops blainvillii); the curious little boat-billed +flycatchers (Machaerirhynchus); and the elegant blue flycatcher-wrens +(Todopsis). + +The naturalist will obtain a clearer idea of the variety and interest of +the productions of this country, by the statement, that its land birds +belong to 108 genera, of which 20 are exclusively characteristic of it; +while 35 belong to that limited area which includes the Moluccas and +North Australia, and whose species of these genera have been entirely +derived from New Guinea. About one-half of the New Guinea genera are +found also in Australia, about one-third in India and the Indo-Malay +islands. + +A very curious fact, not hitherto sufficiently noticed, is the +appearance of a pure Malay element in the birds of New Guinea. We +find two species of Eupetes, a curious Malayan genus allied to the +forked-tail water-chats; two of Alcippe, an Indian and Malay wren-like +form; an Arachnothera, quite resembling the spider-catching honeysuckers +of Malacca; two species of Gracula, the Mynahs of India; and a curious +little black Prionochilus, a saw-billed fruit pecker, undoubtedly allied +to the Malayan form, although perhaps a distinct genus. Now not one +of these birds, or anything allied to them, occurs in the Moluccas, or +(with one exception) in Celebes or Australia; and as they are most of +them birds of short flight, it is very difficult to conceive how or when +they could have crossed the space of more than a thousand miles, which +now separates them from their nearest allies. Such facts point to +changes of land and sea on a large scale, and at a rate which, measured +by the time required for a change of species, must be termed rapid. +By speculating on such changes, we may easily see how partial waves +of immigration may have entered New Guinea, and how all trace of their +passage may have been obliterated by the subsequent disappearance of the +intervening land. + +There is nothing that the study of geology teaches us that is more +certain or more impressive than the extreme instability of the earth's +surface. Everywhere beneath our feet we find proofs that what is land +has been sea, and that where oceans now spread out has once been land; +and that this change from sea to land, and from land to sea, has taken +place, not once or twice only, but again and again, during countless +ages of past time. Now the study of the distribution of animal life upon +the present surface of the earth, causes us to look upon this constant +interchange of land and sea--this making and unmaking of continents, +this elevation and disappearance of islands--as a potent reality, which +has always and everywhere been in progress, and has been the main agent +in determining the manner in which living things are now grouped and +scattered over the earth's surface. And when we continually come upon +such little anomalies of distribution as that just now described, we +find the only rational explanation of them, in those repeated elevations +and depressions which have left their record in mysterious, but still +intelligible characters on the face of organic nature. + +The insects of New Guinea are less known than the birds, but they seem +almost equally remarkable for fine forms and brilliant colours. The +magnificent green and yellow Ornithopterae are abundant, and have most +probably spread westward from this point as far as India. Among the +smaller butterflies are several peculiar genera of Nymphalidae and +Lycaenidae, remarkable for their large size, singular markings, or +brilliant coloration. The largest and most beautiful of the clear-winged +moths (Cocytia d'urvillei) is found here, as well as the large and +handsome green moth (Nyctalemon orontes). The beetles furnish us with +many species of large size, and of the most brilliant metallic lustre, +among which the Tmesisternus mirabilis, a longicorn beetle of a golden +green colour; the excessively brilliant rose-chafers, Lomaptera wallacei +and Anacamptorhina fulgida; one of the handsomest of the Buprestidae, +Calodema wallacei; and several fine blue weevils of the genus Eupholus, +are perhaps the most conspicuous. Almost all the other orders furnish us +with large or extraordinary forms. The curious horned flies have already +been mentioned; and among the Orthoptera the great shielded grasshoppers +are the most remarkable. The species here figured (Megalodon ensifer) +has the thorax covered by a large triangular horny shield, two and a +half inches long, with serrated edges, a somewhat wavy, hollow surface, +and a faun median line, so as very closely to resemble a leaf. The +glossy wing-coverts (when fully expanded, more than nine inches across) +are of a fine green colour and so beautifully veined as to imitate +closely some of the large shining tropical leaves. The body is short, +and terminated in the female by a long curved sword-like ovipositor (not +seen in the cut), and the legs are all long and strongly-spined. These +insects are sluggish in their motions, depending for safety on their +resemblance to foliage, their horny shield and wing-coverts, and their +spiny legs. + +The large islands to the east of New Guinea are very little known, but +the occurrence of crimson lories, which are quite absent from Australia, +and of cockatoos allied to those of New Guinea and the Moluccas, shows +that they belong to the Papuan group; and we are thus able to define the +Malay Archipelago as extending eastward to the Solomon's Islands. New +Caledonia and the New Hebrides, on the other hand, seem more nearly +allied to Australia; and the rest of the islands of the Pacific, though +very poor in all forms of life, possess a few peculiarities which +compel us to class them as a separate group. Although as a matter +of convenience I have always separated the Moluccas as a distinct +zoological group from New Guinea, I have at the same time pointed out +that its fauna was chiefly derived from that island, just as that +of Timor was chiefly derived from Australia. If we were dividing the +Australian region for zoological purposes alone, we should form three +great groups: one comprising Australia, Timor, and Tasmania; another +New Guinea, with the islands from Bouru to the Solomon's group; and the +third comprising the greater part of the Pacific Islands. + +The relation of the New Guinea fauna to that of Australia is very close. +It is best marked in the Mammalia by the abundance of marsupials, and +the almost complete absence of all other terrestrial forms. In birds +it is less striking, although still very clear, for all the remarkable +old-world forms which are absent from the one are equally so from the +other, such as Pheasants, Grouse, Vultures, and Woodpeckers; while +Cockatoos, Broad-tailed Parrots, Podargi, and the great families of the +Honeysuckers and Brush-turkeys, with many others, comprising no less +than twenty-four genera of land-birds, are common to both countries, and +are entirely confined to them. + +When we consider the wonderful dissimilarity of the two regions in all +those physical conditions which were once supposed to determine the +forms of life-Australia, with its open plains, stony deserts, dried up +rivers, and changeable temperate climate; New Guinea, with its luxuriant +forests, uniformly hot, moist, and evergreen--this great similarity in +their productions is almost astounding, and unmistakeably points to +a common origin. The resemblance is not nearly so strongly marked in +insects, the reason obviously being, that this class of animals are much +more immediately dependent on vegetation and climate than are the +more highly organized birds and Mammalia. Insects also have far more +effective means of distribution, and have spread widely into every +district favourable to their development and increase. The giant +Ornithopterae have thus spread from New Guinea over the whole +Archipelago, and as far as the base of the Himalayas; while the elegant +long-horned Anthribidae have spread in the opposite direction from +Malacca to New Guinea, but owing to unfavourable conditions have not +been able to establish themselves in Australia. That country, on the +other hand, has developed a variety of flower-haunting Chafers and +Buprestidae, and numbers of large and curious terrestrial Weevils, +scarcely any of which are adapted to the damp gloomy forests of New +Guinea, where entirely different forms are to be found. There are, +however, some groups of insects, constituting what appear to be the +remains of the ancient population of the equatorial parts of the +Australian region, which are still almost entirely confined to it. Such +are the interesting sub-family of Longicorn coleoptera--Tmesisternitae; +one of the best-marked genera of Buprestidae--Cyphogastra; and the +beautiful weevils forming the genus Eupholus. Among butterflies we have +the genera Mynes, Hypocista, and Elodina, and the curious eye-spotted +Drusilla, of which last a single species is found in Java, but in no +other of the western islands. + +The facilities for the distribution of plants are still greater than +they are for insects, and it is the opinion of eminent botanists, +that no such clearly-defined regions pan be marked out in botany as in +zoology. The causes which tend to diffusion are here most powerful, and +have led to such intermingling of the floras of adjacent regions that +none but broad and general divisions can now be detected. These remarks +have an important bearing on the problem of dividing the surface of the +earth into great regions, distinguished by the radical difference of +their natural productions. Such difference we now know to be the direct +result of long-continued separation by more or less impassable barriers; +and as wide oceans and great contrast: of temperature are the most +complete barriers to the dispersal of all terrestrial forms of life, +the primary divisions of the earth should in the main serve for all +terrestrial organisms. However various may be the effects of climate, +however unequal the means of distribution; these will never altogether +obliterate the radical effects of long-continued isolation; and it is my +firm conviction, that when the botany and the entomology of New Guinea +and the surrounding islands become as well known as are their mammals +and birds, these departments of nature will also plainly indicate the +radical distinctions of the Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan regions of +the great Malay Archipelago. + + + + +CHAPTER XL. THE RACES OF MAN IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. + +PROPOSE to conclude this account of my Eastern travels, with a short +statement of my views as to the races of man which inhabit the +various parts of the Archipelago, their chief physical and mental +characteristics, their affinities with each other and with surrounding +tribes, their migrations, and their probable origin. + +Two very strongly contrasted races inhabit the Archipelago--the Malays, +occupying almost exclusively the larger western half of it, and the +Papuans, whose headquarters are New Guinea and several of the adjacent +islands. Between these in locality, are found tribes who are also +intermediate in their chief characteristics, and it is sometimes a nice +point to determine whether they belong to one or the other race, or have +been formed by a mixture of the two. + +The Malay is undoubtedly the most important of these two races, as it +is the one which is the most civilized, which has come most into contact +with Europeans, and which alone has any place in history. What may +be called the true Malay races, as distinguished from others who +have merely a Malay element in their language, present a considerable +uniformity of physical and mental characteristics, while there are very +great differences of civilization and of language. They consist of four +great, and a few minor semi-civilized tribes, and a number of others who +may be termed savages. The Malays proper inhabit the Malay peninsula, +and almost all the coast regions of Borneo and Sumatra. They all +speak the Malay language, or dialects of it; they write in the Arabic +character, and are Mahometans in religion. The Javanese inhabit Java, +part of Sumatra, Madura, Bali, and Bart of Lombock. They speak the +Javanese and Kawi languages, which they write in a native character. +They are now Mahometans in Java, but Brahmins in Bali and Lombock. The +Bugis are the inhabitants of the greater parts of Celebes, and there +seems to be an allied people in Sumbawa. They speak the Bugis and +Macassar languages, with dialects, and have two different native +characters in which they write these. They are all Mahometans. The +fourth great race is that of the Tagalas in the Philippine Islands, +about whom, as I did not visit those Islands, I shall say little. Many +of them are now Christians, and speak Spanish as well as their native +tongue, the Tagala. The Moluccan-Malays, who inhabit chiefly Ternate, +Tidore, Batchian, and Amboyna, may be held to form a fifth division of +semi-civilized Malays. They are all Mahometans, but they speak a variety +of curious languages, which seem compounded of Bugis and Javanese, with +the languages of the savage tribes of the Moluccas. + +The savage Malays are the Dyaks of Borneo; the Battaks and other wild +tribes of Sumatra; the Jakuns of the Malay Peninsula; the aborigines of +Northern Celebes, of the Sula island, and of part of Bouru. + +The colour of all these varied tribes is a light reddish brown, with +more or less of an olive tinge, not varying in any important degree +over an extent of country as large as all Southern Europe. The hair is +equally constant, being invariably black and straight, and of a rather +coarse texture, so that any lighter tint, or any wave or curl in it, is +an almost certain proof of the admixture of some foreign blood. The face +is nearly destitute of beard, and the breast and limbs are free from +hair. The stature is tolerably equal, and is always considerably below +that of the average European; the body is robust, the breast well +developed, the feet small, thick, and short, the hands small and rather +delicate. The face is a little broad, and inclined to be flat; the +forehead is rather rounded, the brows low, the eyes black and very +slightly oblique; the nose is rather small, not prominent, but straight +and well-shaped, the apex a little rounded, the nostrils broad and +slightly exposed; the cheek-bones are rather prominent, the mouth large, +the lips broad and well cut, but not protruding, the chin round and +well-formed. + +In this description there seems little to object to on the score of +beauty, and yet on the whole the Malays are certainly not handsome. In +youth, however, they are often very good-looking, and many of the boys +and girls up to twelve or fifteen years of age are very pleasing, and +some have countenances which are in their way almost perfect. I am +inclined to think they lose much of their good looks by bad habits +and irregular living. At a very early age they chew betel and tobacco +almost incessantly; they suffer much want and exposure in their +fishing and other excursions; their lives are often passed in alternate +starvation and feasting, idleness and excessive labour,--and this +naturally produces premature old age and harshness of features. + +In character the Malay is impassive. He exhibits a reserve, diffidence, +and even bashfulness, which is in some degree attractive, and leads the +observer to thinly that the ferocious and bloodthirsty character imputed +to the race must be grossly exaggerated. He is not demonstrative. His +feelings of surprise, admiration, or fear, are never openly manifested, +and are probably not strongly felt. He is slow and deliberate in speech, +and circuitous in introducing the subject he has come expressly to +discuss. These are the main features of his moral nature, and exhibit +themselves in every action of his life. + +Children and women are timid, and scream and run at the unexpected sight +of a European. In the company of men they are silent, and are generally +quiet and obedient. When alone the Malay is taciturn; he neither +talks nor sings to himself. When several are paddling in a canoe, they +occasionally chant a monotonous and plaintive song. He is cautious of +giving offence to his equals. He does not quarrel easily about money +matters; dislikes asking too frequently even for payment of his just +debts, and will often give them up altogether rather than quarrel with +his debtor. Practical joking is utterly repugnant to his disposition; +for he is particularly sensitive to breaches of etiquette, or any +interference with the personal liberty of himself or another. As an +example, I may mention that I have often found it very difficult to get +one Malay servant to waken another. He will call as loud as he can, but +will hardly touch, much less shake his comrade. I have frequently had to +waken a hard sleeper myself when on a land or sea journey. + +The higher classes of Malays are exceedingly polite, and have all +the quiet ease and dignity of the best-bred Europeans. Yet this is +compatible with a reckless cruelty and contempt of human life, which +is the dark side of their character. It is not to be wondered at, +therefore, that different persons give totally opposite accounts of +them--one praising them for their soberness, civility, and good-nature; +another abusing them for their deceit, treachery, and cruelty. The old +traveller Nicolo Conti, writing in 1430, says: "The inhabitants of Java +and Sumatra exceed every other people in cruelty. They regard killing a +man as a mere jest; nor is any punishment allotted for such a deed. If +any one purchase a new sword, and wish to try it, he will thrust it +into the breast of the first person he meets. The passers-by examine the +wound, and praise the skill of the person who inflicted it, if he thrust +in the weapon direct." Yet Drake says of the south of Java: "The people +(as are their kings) are a very loving, true, and just-dealing people;" +and Mr. Crawfurd says that the Javanese, whom he knew thoroughly, are "a +peaceable, docile, sober, simple, and industrious people." Barbosa, on +the other hand, who saw them at Malacca about 1660, says: "They are +a people of great ingenuity, very subtle in all their dealings; very +malicious, great deceivers, seldom speaking the truth; prepared to do +all manner of wickedness, and ready to sacrifice their lives." + +The intellect of the Malay race seems rather deficient. They are +incapable of anything beyond the simplest combinations of ideas, and +have little taste or energy for the acquirement of knowledge. Their +civilization, such as it is, does not seem to be indigenous, as it +is entirely confined to those nations who have been converted to the +Mahometan or Brahminical religions. + +I will now give an equally brief sketch of the other great race of the +Malay Archipelago, the Papuan. + +The typical Papuan race is in many respects the very opposite of the +Malay, and it has hitherto been very imperfectly described. The colour +of the body is a deep sooty-brown or black, sometimes approaching, but +never quite equalling, the jet-black of some negro races. It varies +in tint, however, more than that of the Malay, and is sometimes a +dusky-brown. The hair is very peculiar, being harsh, dry, and frizzly, +growing in little tufts or curls, which in youth are very short and +compact, but afterwards grow out to a considerable length, forming the +compact frizzled mop which is the Papuans' pride and glory. The face is +adorned with a beard of the same frizzly nature as the hair of the head. +The arms, legs, and breast are also more or less clothed with hair of a +similar nature. + +In stature the Papuan decidedly surpasses the Malay, and is perhaps +equal, or even superior, to the average of Europeans. The legs are long +and thin, and the hands and feet larger than in the Malays. The face is +somewhat elongated, the forehead flatfish, the brows very prominent; +the nose is large, rather arched and high, the base thick, the nostrils +broad, with the aperture hidden, owing to the tip of the nose being +elongated; the mouth is large, the lips thick and protuberant. The face +has thus an altogether more European aspect than in the Malay, owing +to the large nose; and the peculiar form of this organ, with the more +prominent brows and the character of the hair on the head, face, +and body, enable us at a glance to distinguish the two races. I have +observed that most of these characteristic features are as distinctly +visible in children of ten or twelve years old as in adults, and the +peculiar form of the nose is always shown in the figures which they +carve for ornaments to their houses, or as charms to wear round their +necks. + +The moral characteristics of the Papuan appear to me to separate him as +distinctly from the Malay as do his form and features. He is impulsive +and demonstrative in speech and action. His emotions and passions +express themselves in shouts and laughter, in yells and frantic +leapings. Women and children take their share in every discussion, and +seem little alarmed at the sight of strangers and Europeans. + +Of the intellect of this race it is very difficult to judge, but I +am inclined to rate it somewhat higher than that of the Malays, +notwithstanding the fact that the Papuans have never yet made any +advance towards civilization. It must be remembered, however, that for +centuries the Malays have been influenced by Hindoo, Chinese, and Arabic +immigration, whereas the Papuan race has only been subjected to the very +partial and local influence of Malay traders. The Papuan has much more +vital energy, which would certainly greatly assist his intellectual +development. Papuan slaves show no inferiority of intellect, compared +with Malays, but rather the contrary; and in the Moluccas they are +often promoted to places of considerable trust. The Papuan has a greater +feeling for art than the Malay. He decorates his canoe, his house, and +almost every domestic utensil with elaborate carving, a habit which is +rarely found among tribes of the Malay race. + +In the affections and moral sentiments, on the other hand, the Papuans +seem very deficient. In the treatment of their children they are often +violent and cruel; whereas the Malays are almost invariably kind and +gentle, hardly ever interfering at all with their children's pursuits +and amusements, and giving them perfect liberty at whatever age they +wish to claim it. But these very peaceful relations between parents +and children are no doubt, in a great measure, due to the listless and +apathetic character of the race, which never leads the younger members +into serious opposition to the elders; while the harsher discipline of +the Papuans may be chiefly due to that greater vigour and energy of +mind which always, sooner or later, leads to the rebellion of the +weaker against the stronger,--the people against their rulers, the slave +against his master, or the child against its parent. + +It appears, therefore, that, whether we consider their physical +conformation, their moral characteristics, or their intellectual +capacities, the Malay and Papuan races offer remarkable differences +and striking contrasts. The Malay is of short stature, brown-skinned, +straight-haired, beardless, and smooth-bodied. The Papuan is taller, is +black-skinned, frizzly-haired, bearded, and hairy-bodied. The former +is broad-faced, has a small nose, and flat eyebrows; the latter is +long-faced, has a large and prominent nose, and projecting eyebrows. The +Malay is bashful, cold, undemonstrative, and quiet; the Papuan is bold, +impetuous, excitable, and noisy. The former is grave and seldom laughs; +the latter is joyous and laughter-loving,--the one conceals his +emotions, the other displays them. + +Having thus described in some detail, the great physical, intellectual, +and moral differences between the Malays and Papuans, we have to +consider the inhabitants of the numerous islands which do not agree very +closely with either of these races. The islands of Obi, Batchian, and +the three southern peninsulas of Gilolo, possess no true indigenous +population; but the northern peninsula is inhabited by a native race, +the so-called Alfuros of Sahoe and Galela. These people are quite +distinct from the Malays, and almost equally so from the Papuans. They +are tall and well-made, with Papuan features, and curly hair; they are +bearded and hairy-limbed, but quite as light in colour as the Malays. +They are an industrious and enterprising race, cultivating rice and +vegetables, and indefatigable in their search after game, fish, tripang, +pearls, and tortoiseshell. + +In the great island of Ceram there is also an indigenous race very +similar to that of Northern Gilolo. Bourn seems to contain two distinct +races,--a shorter, round-faced people, with a Malay physiognomy, who may +probably have come from Celebes by way of the Sula islands; and a taller +bearded race, resembling that of Ceram. + +Far south of the Moluccas lies the island of Timor, inhabited by tribes +much nearer to the true Papuan than those of the Moluccas. + +The Timorese of the interior are dusky brown or blackish, with bushy +frizzled hair, and the long Papuan nose. They are of medium height, +and rather slender figures. The universal dress is a long cloth twisted +round the waist, the fringed ends of which hang below the knee. The +people are said to be great thieves, and the tribes are always at war +with each other, but they are not very courageous or bloodthirsty. The +custom of "tabu," called here "pomali," is very general, fruit trees, +houses, crop, and property of all kinds being protected from depredation +by this ceremony, the reverence for which is very great. A palm branch +stuck across an open door, showing that the house is tabooed, is a more +effectual guard against robbery than any amount of locks and bars. The +houses in Timor are different from those of most of the other islands; +they seem all roof, the thatch overhanging the low walls and reaching +the ground, except where it is cut away for an entrance. In some parts +of the west end of Timor, and on the little island of Semau, the houses +more resemble those of the Hottentots, being egg-shaped, very small, and +with a door only about three feet high. These are built on the ground, +while those of the eastern districts art, raised a few feet on posts. +In their excitable disposition, loud voices, and fearless demeanour, the +Timorese closely resemble the people of New Guinea. + +In the islands west of Timor, as far as Flores and Sandalwood Island, a +very similar race is found, which also extends eastward to Timor-laut, +where the true Papuan race begins to appear. The small islands of +Savu and Rotti, however, to the west of Timor, are very remarkable +in possessing a different and, in some respects, peculiar race. These +people are very handsome, with good features, resembling in many +characteristics the race produced by the mixture of the Hindoo or Arab +with the Malay. They are certainly distinct from the Timorese or Papuan +races, and must be classed in the western rather than the eastern +ethnological division of the Archipelago. + +The whole of the great island of New Guinea, the Ke and Aru Islands, +with Mysol, Salwatty, and Waigiou, are inhabited almost exclusively by +the typical Papuans. I found no trace of any other tribes inhabiting the +interior of New Guinea, but the coast people are in some places mixed +with the browner races of the Moluccas. The same Papuan race seems to +extend over the islands east of New Guinea as far as the Fijis. + +There remain to be noticed the black woolly-haired races of the +Philippines and the Malay peninsula, the former called "Negritos," and +the latter "Semangs." I have never seen these people myself, but from +the numerous accurate descriptions of them that have been published, +I have had no difficulty in satisfying myself that they have little +affinity or resemblance to the Papuans, with which they have been +hitherto associated. In most important characters they differ more from +the Papuan than they do from the Malay. They are dwarfs in stature, only +averaging four feet six inches to four feet eight inches high, or eight +inches less than the Malays; whereas the Papuans are decidedly taller +than the Malays. The nose is invariably represented as small, flattened, +or turned up at the apex, whereas the most universal character of the +Papuan race is to have the nose prominent and large, with the apex +produced downwards, as it is invariably represented in their own rude +idols. The hair of these dwarfish races agrees with that of the Papuans, +but so it does with that of the negroes of Africa. The Negritos and the +Semangs agree very closely in physical characteristics with each other +and with the Andaman Islanders, while they differ in a marked manner +from every Papuan race. + +A careful study of these varied races, comparing them with those of +Eastern Asia, the Pacific Islands, and Australia, has led me to adopt a +comparatively simple view as to their origin and affinities. + +If we draw a line (see Physical Map, Vol. 1. p. 14), commencing to +the east of the Philippine Islands, thence along the western coast of +Gilolo, through the island of Bouru, and curving round the west end of +Mores, then bending back by Sandalwood Island to take in Rotti, we +shall divide the Archipelago into two portions, the races of which have +strongly marked distinctive peculiarities. This line will separate the +Malayan and all the Asiatic races, from the Papuans and all that inhabit +the Pacific; and though along the line of junction intermigration and +commixture have taken place, yet the division is on the whole almost as +well defined and strongly contrasted, as is the corresponding zoological +division of the Archipelago, into an Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan +region. + +I must briefly explain the reasons that have led me to consider this +division of the Oceanic races to be a true and natural one. The Malayan +race, as a whole, undoubtedly very closely resembles the East Asian +populations, from Siam to Mandchouria. I was much struck with this, when +in the island of Bali I saw Chinese traders who had adopted the costume +of that country, and who could then hardly be distinguished from Malays; +and, on the other hand, I have seen natives of Java who, as far as +physiognomy was concerned, would pass very well for Chinese. Then, +again, we have the most typical of the Malayan tribes inhabiting a +portion of the Asiatic continent itself, together with those great +islands which, possessing the same species of large Mammalia with +the adjacent parts of the continent, have in all probability formed a +connected portion of Asia during the human period. The Negritos are, no +doubt, quite a distinct race from the Malay; but yet, as some of them +inhabit a portion of the continent, and others the Andaman Islands +in the Bay of Bengal, they must be considered to have had, in all +probability, an Asiatic rather than a Polynesian origin. + +Now, turning to the eastern parts of the Archipelago, I find, by +comparing my own observations with those of the most trustworthy +travellers and missionaries, that a race identical in all its chief +features with the Papuan, is found in all the islands as far east as the +Fijis; beyond this the brown Polynesian race, or some intermediate type, +is spread everywhere over the Pacific. The descriptions of these latter +often agree exactly with the characters of the brown indigenes of Gilolo +and Ceram. + +It is to be especially remarked that the brown and the black Polynesian +races closely resemble each other. Their features are almost identical, +so that portraits of a New Zealander or Otaheitan will often serve +accurately to represent a Papuan or Timorese, the darker colour and more +frizzly hair of the latter being the only differences. They are both +tall races. They agree in their love of art and the style of +their decorations. They are energetic, demonstrative, joyous, and +laughter-loving, and in all these particulars they differ widely from +the Malay. + +I believe, therefore, that the numerous intermediate forms that occur +among the countless islands of the Pacific, are not merely the result of +a mixture of these races, but are, to some extent, truly intermediate or +transitional; and that the brown and the black, the Papuan, the natives +of Gilolo and Ceram, the Fijian, the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands +and those of New Zealand, are all varying forms of one great Oceanic or +Polynesian race. + +It is, however, quite possible, and perhaps probable, that the brown +Polynesians were originally the produce of a mixture of Malays, or +some lighter coloured Mongol race with the dark Papuans; but if so, +the intermingling took place at such a remote epoch, and has been +so assisted by the continued influence of physical conditions and of +natural selection, leading to the preservation of a special type suited +to those conditions, that it has become a fixed and stable race with no +signs of mongrelism, and showing such a decided preponderance of Papuan +character, that it can best be classified as a modification of the +Papuan type. The occurrence of a decided Malay element in the Polynesian +languages, has evidently nothing to do with any such ancient physical +connexion. It is altogether a recent phenomenon, originating in the +roaming habits of the chief Malay tribes; and this is proved by the fact +that we find actual modern words of the Malay and Javanese languages in +use in Polynesia, so little disguised by peculiarities of pronunciation +as to be easily recognisable--not mere Malay roots only to be detected +by the elaborate researches of the philologist, as would certainly have +been the case had their introduction been as remote as the origin of +a very distinct race--a race as different from the Malay in mental and +moral, as it is in physical characters. + +As bearing upon this question it is important to point out the harmony +which exists, between the line of separation of the human races of the +Archipelago and that of the animal productions of the same country, +which I have already so fully explained and illustrated. The dividing +lines do not, it is true, exactly agree; but I think it is a remarkable +fact, and something more than a mere coincidence, that they should +traverse the same district and approach each other so closely as they +do. If, however, I am right in my supposition that the region where the +dividing line of the Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan regions of zoology +can now be drawn, was formerly occupied by a much wider sea than at +present, and if man existed on the earth at that period, we shall see +good reason why the races inhabiting the Asiatic and Pacific areas +should now meet and partially intermingle in the vicinity of that +dividing line. + +It has recently been maintained by Professor Huxley, that the Papuans +are more closely allied to the negroes of Africa than to any other race. +The resemblance both in physical and mental characteristics had often +struck myself, but the difficulties in the way of accepting it as +probable or possible, have hitherto prevented me front giving full +weight to those resemblances. Geographical, zoological, and ethnological +considerations render it almost certain, that if these two races ever +had a common origin, it could only have been at a period far more remote +than any which has yet been assigned to the antiquity of the human race. +And even if their lenity could be proved, it would in no way affect my +argument for the close affinity of the Papuan and Polynesian races, and +the radical distinctness of both from the Malay. + +Polynesia is pre-eminently an area of subsidence, and its great +widespread groups of coral-reefs mark out the position of former +continents and islands. The rich and varied, yet strangely isolated +productions of Australia and New Guinea, also indicate an extensive +continent where such specialized forms were developed. The races of +men now inhabiting these countries are, therefore, most probably the +descendants of the races which inhabited these continents and islands. +This is the most simple and natural supposition to make. And if we find +any signs of direct affinity between the inhabitants of any other part +of the world and those of Polynesia, it by no means follows that the +latter were derived from the former. For as, when a Pacific continent +existed, the whole geography of the earth's surface would probably be +very different from what it now is, the present continents may not then +have risen above the ocean, and, when they were formed at a subsequent +epoch, may have derived some of their inhabitants from the Polynesian +area itself. It is undoubtedly true that there are proofs of extensive +migrations among the Pacific islands, which have led to community of +language from the sandwich group to New Zealand; but there are no proofs +whatever of recent migration from any surrounding country to Polynesia, +since there is no people to be found elsewhere sufficiently resembling +the Polynesian race in their chief physical and mental characteristics. + +If the past history of these varied races is obscure and uncertain, +the future is no less so. The true Polynesians, inhabiting the farthest +isles of the Pacific, are no doubt doomed to an early extinction. +But the more numerous Malay race seems well adapted to survive as the +cultivator of the soil, even when his country and government have passed +into the hands of Europeans. If the tide of colonization should be +turned to New Guinea, there can be little doubt of the early extinction +of the Papuan race. A warlike and energetic people, who will not submit +to national slavery or to domestic servitude, must disappear before the +white man as surely as do the wolf and the tiger. + +I have now concluded my task. I have given, in more or less detail, +a sketch of my eight years' wanderings among the largest and the most +luxuriant islands which adorn our earth's surface. I have endeavoured to +convey my impressions of their scenery, their vegetation, their animal +productions, and their human inhabitants. I have dwelt at some length on +the varied and interesting problems they offer to the student of nature. +Before bidding my reader farewell, I wish to make a few observations +on a subject of yet higher interest and deeper importance, which the +contemplation of savage life has suggested, and on which I believe that +the civilized can learn something from the savage man. + +We most of us believe that we, the higher races have progressed and +are progressing. If so, there must be some state of perfection, some +ultimate goal, which we may never reach, but to which all true progress +must bring nearer. What is this ideally perfect social state towards +which mankind ever has been, and still is tending? Our best thinkers +maintain, that it is a state of individual freedom and self-government, +rendered possible by the equal development and just balance of the +intellectual, moral, and physical parts of our nature,--a state in which +we shall each be so perfectly fitted for a social existence, by knowing +what is right, and at the same time feeling an irresistible impulse to +do what we know to be right., that all laws and all punishments shall +be unnecessary. In such a state every man would have a sufficiently +well-balanced intellectual organization, to understand the moral law in +all its details, and would require no other motive but the free impulses +of his own nature to obey that law. + +Now it is very remarkable, that among people in a very low stage of +civilization, we find some approach to such a perfect social state. I +have lived with communities of savages in South America and in the East, +who have no laws or law courts but the public opinion of the village +freely expressed. Each man scrupulously respects the rights of his +fellow, and any infraction of those rights rarely or never takes place. +In such a community, all are nearly equal. There are cone of those wide +distinctions, of education and ignorance, wealth and poverty, master +and servant, which are the product of our civilization; there is none of +that wide-spread division of labour, which, while it increases +wealth, products also conflicting interests; there is not that severe +competition and struggle for existence, or for wealth, which the dense +population of civilized countries inevitably creates. All incitements to +great crimes are thus wanting, and petty ones are repressed, partly by +the influence of public opinion, but chiefly by that natural sense of +justice and of his neighbour's right, which seems to be, in some degree, +inherent in every race of man. + +Now, although we have progressed vastly beyond the savage state in +intellectual achievements, we have not advanced equally in morals. It +is true that among those classes who have no wants that cannot be easily +supplied, and among whom public opinion has great influence; the rights +of others are fully respected. It is true, also, that we have vastly +extended the sphere of those rights, and include within them all the +brotherhood of man. But it is not too much to say, that the mass of our +populations have not at all advanced beyond the savage code of morals, +and have in many cases sunk below it. A deficient morality is the +great blot of modern civilization, and the greatest hindrance to true +progress. + +During the last century, and especially in the last thirty years, our +intellectual and material advancement has been too quickly achieved for +us to reap the full benefit of it. Our mastery over the forces of mature +has led to a rapid growth of population, and a vast accumulation of +wealth; but these have brought with them such au amount of poverty and +crime, and have fostered the growth of so much sordid feeling and so +many fierce passions, that it may well be questioned, whether the mental +and moral status of our population has not on the average been lowered, +and whether the evil has not overbalanced the good. Compared with our +wondrous progress in physical science and its practical applications, +our system of government, of administering justice, of national +education, and our whole social and moral organization, remains in a +state of barbarism. [See note next page.] And if we continue to devote +our chief energies to the utilizing of our knowledge the laws of nature +with the view of still further extending our commerce and our wealth, +the evils which necessarily accompany these when too eagerly pursued, +may increase to such gigantic dimensions as to be beyond our power to +alleviate. + +We should now clearly recognise the fact, that the wealth and knowledge +and culture of the few do not constitute civilization, and do not of +themselves advance us towards the "perfect social state." Our vast +manufacturing system, our gigantic commerce, our crowded towns and +cities, support and continually renew a mass of human misery and +crime absolutely greater than has ever existed before. They create and +maintain in life-long labour an ever-increasing army, whose lot is the +more hard to bear, by contrast with the pleasures, the comforts, and the +luxury which they see everywhere around them, but which they can never +hope to enjoy; and who, in this respect, are worse off than the savage +in the midst of his tribe. + +This is not a result to boast of, or to be satisfied with; and, +until there is a more general recognition of this failure of our +civilization--resulting mainly from our neglect to train and develop +more thoroughly the sympathetic feelings and moral faculties of +our nature, and to allow them a larger share of influence in our +legislation, our commerce, and our whole social organization--we shall +never, as regards the whole community, attain to any real or important +superiority over the better class of savages. + +This is the lesson I have been taught by my observations of uncivilized +man. I now bid my readers--Farewell! + + +NOTE. + +THOSE who believe that our social condition approaches perfection, will +think the above word harsh and exaggerated, but it seems to me the only +word that can be truly applied to us. We are the richest country in the +world, and yet cue-twentieth of our population are parish paupers, and +one-thirtieth known criminals. Add to these, the criminals who escape +detection; and the poor who live mainly on private charity, (which, +according to Dr. Hawkesley, expends seven millions sterling annually +is London alone,) and we may be sure that more than ONE-TENTH of our +population are actually Paupers and Criminals. Both these classes we +keep idle or at unproductive labour, and each criminal costs us annually +in our prisons more than the wages of an honest agricultural labourer. +We allow over a hundred thousand persons known to have no means +of subsistence but by crime, to remain at large and prey upon the +community, and many thousand children to grow up before our eyes in +ignorance and vice, to supply trained criminals for the next generation. +This, in a country which boasts of its rapid increase in wealth, of its +enormous commerce and gigantic manufactures, of its mechanical skill +and scientific knowledge, of its high civilization and its pure +Christianity,--I can but term a state of social barbarism. We also boast +of our love of justice, and that the law protects rich and poor alike, +yet we retain money fines as a punishment, and make the very first +steps to obtain justice a matter of expense--in both cases a barbarous +injustice, or denial of justice to the poor. Again, our laws render it +possible, that, by mere neglect of a legal form, and contrary to his own +wish and intention, a man's property may all go to a stranger, and his +own children be left destitute. Such cases have happened through the +operation of the laws of inheritance of landed property; and that such +unnatural injustice is possible among us, shows that we are in a state +of social barbarism. One more example to justify my use of the term, and +I have done. We permit absolute possession of the soil of our country, +with no legal rights of existence on the soil, to the vast majority +who do not possess it. A great landholder may legally convert his whole +property into a forest or a hunting-ground, and expel every human being +who has hitherto lived upon it. In a thickly-populated country like +England, where every acre has its owner and its occupier, this is a +power of legally destroying his fellow-creatures; and that such a +power should exist, and be exercised by individuals, in however small a +degree, indicates that, as regards true social science, we are still in +a state of barbarism. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred Russell Wallace + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO *** + +***** This file should be named 2539.txt or 2539.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/3/2539/ + +Produced by Martin Adamson + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/2539.zip b/2539.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..637c9e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/2539.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f744890 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #2539 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2539) diff --git a/old/2malay10.txt b/old/2malay10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c52e896 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/2malay10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10987 @@ +Project Gutenberg Etext The Malay Archipelago by Alfred R. Wallace + +Volume 2 + + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check +the copyright laws for your country before posting these files!! + +Please take a look at the important information in this header. +We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an +electronic path open for the next readers. Do not remove this. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations* + +Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and +further information is included below. We need your donations. + + +Title: The Malay Archipelago + +Author: by Alfred Russell Wallace + +February, 2001 [Etext #2539] + + +Project Gutenberg Etext The Malay Archipelago by Alfred R. Wallace +******This file should be named 2malay10.txt or 2malay10.zip****** + +Corrected EDITIONS of our etexts get a new NUMBER, 2malay11.txt + +E-Text created by Martin Adamson +martin@grassmarket.freeserve.co.uk + +Project Gutenberg Etexts are usually created from multiple editions, +all of which are in the Public Domain in the United States, unless a +copyright notice is included. Therefore, we usually do NOT keep any +of these books in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +We are now trying to release all our books one month in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. + +Please note: neither this list nor its contents are final till +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg Etexts is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. To be sure you have an +up to date first edition [xxxxx10x.xxx] please check file sizes +in the first week of the next month. Since our ftp program has +a bug in it that scrambles the date [tried to fix and failed] a +look at the file size will have to do, but we will try to see a +new copy has at least one byte more or less. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +time it takes us, a rather conservative estimate, is fifty hours +to get any etext selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. This +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If our value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour this year as we release thirty-six text +files per month, or 432 more Etexts in 1999 for a total of 2000+ +If these reach just 10% of the computerized population, then the +total should reach over 200 billion Etexts given away this year. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away One Trillion Etext +Files by December 31, 2001. [10,000 x 100,000,000 = 1 Trillion] +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only ~5% of the present number of computer users. + +At our revised rates of production, we will reach only one-third +of that goal by the end of 2001, or about 3,333 Etexts unless we +manage to get some real funding; currently our funding is mostly +from Michael Hart's salary at Carnegie-Mellon University, and an +assortment of sporadic gifts; this salary is only good for a few +more years, so we are looking for something to replace it, as we +don't want Project Gutenberg to be so dependent on one person. + +We need your donations more than ever! + + +All donations should be made to "Project Gutenberg/CMU": and are +tax deductible to the extent allowable by law. (CMU = Carnegie- +Mellon University). + +For these and other matters, please mail to: + +Project Gutenberg +P. O. Box 2782 +Champaign, IL 61825 + +When all other email fails. . .try our Executive Director: +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> +hart@pobox.com forwards to hart@prairienet.org and archive.org +if your mail bounces from archive.org, I will still see it, if +it bounces from prairienet.org, better resend later on. . . . + +We would prefer to send you this information by email. + +****** + +To access Project Gutenberg etexts, use any Web browser +to view http://promo.net/pg. This site lists Etexts by +author and by title, and includes information about how +to get involved with Project Gutenberg. You could also +download our past Newsletters, or subscribe here. This +is one of our major sites, please email hart@pobox.com, +for a more complete list of our various sites. + +To go directly to the etext collections, use FTP or any +Web browser to visit a Project Gutenberg mirror (mirror +sites are available on 7 continents; mirrors are listed +at http://promo.net/pg). + +Mac users, do NOT point and click, typing works better. + +Example FTP session: + +ftp metalab.unc.edu +login: anonymous +password: your@login +cd pub/docs/books/gutenberg +cd etext90 through etext99 etext00 and etext01 +dir [to see files] +get or mget [to get files. . .set bin for zip files] +GET GUTINDEX.?? [to get a year's listing of books, e.g., GUTINDEX.99] +GET GUTINDEX.ALL [to get a listing of ALL books] + +*** + +**Information prepared by the Project Gutenberg legal advisor** + +(Three Pages) + + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this etext, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you can distribute copies of this etext if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS ETEXT +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +etext, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this etext by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this etext on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM ETEXTS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG- +tm etexts, is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor +Michael S. Hart through the Project Gutenberg Association at +Carnegie-Mellon University (the "Project"). Among other +things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this etext +under the Project's "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +To create these etexts, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's etexts and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other etext medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] the Project (and any other party you may receive this +etext from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext) disclaims all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this etext within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS ETEXT IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE ETEXT OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold the Project, its directors, +officers, members and agents harmless from all liability, cost +and expense, including legal fees, that arise directly or +indirectly from any of the following that you do or cause: +[1] distribution of this etext, [2] alteration, modification, +or addition to the etext, or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this etext electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + etext or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this etext in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word pro- + cessing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The etext, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The etext may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the etext (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + etext in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the etext refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Project of 20% of the + net profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Association/Carnegie-Mellon + University" within the 60 days following each + date you prepare (or were legally required to prepare) + your annual (or equivalent periodic) tax return. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +The Project gratefully accepts contributions in money, time, +scanning machines, OCR software, public domain etexts, royalty +free copyright licenses, and every other sort of contribution +you can think of. Money should be paid to "Project Gutenberg +Association / Carnegie-Mellon University". + +We are planning on making some changes in our donation structure +in 2000, so you might want to email me, hart@pobox.com beforehand. + + + + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + + +E-Text created by Martin Adamson +martin@grassmarket.freeserve.co.uk + + + + +The Malay Archipelago by Alfred R. Wallace + + + + +VOLUME II + +By + +ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE. + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE MOLUCCAS--TERNATE. + +ON the morning of the 8th of January, 1858, I arrived at Ternate, +the fourth of a row of fine conical volcanic islands which shirt +the west coast of the large and almost unknown n island of +Gilolo. The largest and most perfectly conical mountain is +Tidore, which is over four thousand Feet high--Ternate being very +nearly the same height, but with a more rounded and irregular +summit. The town of Ternate is concealed from view till we enter +between the two islands, when it is discovered stretching along +the shore at the very base of the mountain. Its situation is +fine, and there are grand views on every side. Close opposite is +the rugged promontory and beautiful volcanic cone of Tidore; to +the east is the long mountainous coast of Gilolo, terminated +towards the north by a group of three lofty volcanic peaks, while +immediately behind the town rises the huge mountain, sloping +easily at first and covered with thick groves of fruit trees, but +soon becoming steeper, and furrowed with deep gullies. Almost to +the summit, whence issue perpetually faint wreaths of smoke, it +is clothed with vegetation, and looks calm and beautiful, +although beneath are hidden fires which occasionally burst forth +in lava-streams, but more frequently make their existence known +by the earthquakes which have many times devastated the town. + +I brought letters of introduction to Mr. Duivenboden, a native of +Ternate, of an ancient Dutch family, but who was educated in +England, and speaks our language perfectly. He was a very rich +man, owned half the town, possessed many ships, and above a +hundred slaves. He was moreover, well educated, and fond of +literature and science--a phenomenon in these regions. He was +generally known as the king of Ternate, from his large property +and great influence with the native Rajahs and their subjects. +Through his assistance I obtained a house; rather ruinous, but +well adapted to my purpose, being close to the town, yet with a +free outlet to the country and the mountain. A few needful +repairs were soon made, some bamboo furniture and other +necessaries obtained, and after a visit to the Resident and +Police Magistrate I found myself an inhabitant of the earthquake- +tortured island of Ternate, and able to look about me and lay +down the plan of my campaign for the ensuing year. I retained +this house for three years, as I found it very convenient to have +a place to return to after my voyages to the various islands of +the Moluccas and New Guinea, where I could pack my collections, +recruit my health, and make preparations for future journeys. To +avoid repetitions, I will in this chapter combine what notes I +have about Ternate. + +A description of my house (the plan of which is here shown) will +enable the reader to understand a very common mode of building in +these islands. There is of course only one floor. The walls are +of stone up to three feet high; on this are strong squared posts +supporting the roof, everywhere except in the verandah filled in +with the leaf-stems of the sago-palm, fitted neatly in wooden +owing. The floor is of stucco, and the ceilings are like the +walls. The house is forty feet square, consists of four rooms, a +hall, and two verandahs, and is surrounded by a wilderness of +fruit trees. A deep well supplied me with pure cold water, a +great luxury in this climate. Five minutes' walk down the road +brought me to the market and the beach, while in the opposite +direction there were no more European houses between me and the +mountain. In this house I spent many happy days. Returning to it +after a three or four months' absence in some uncivilized region, +I enjoyed the unwonted luxuries of milk and fresh bread, and +regular supplies of fish and eggs, meat and vegetables, which +were often sorely needed to restore my health and energy. I had +ample space and convenience or unpacking, sorting, and arranging +my treasures, and I had delightful walks in the suburbs of the +town, or up the lower slopes of the mountain, when I desired a +little exercise, or had time for collecting. + +The lower part of the mountain, behind the town of Ternate, is +almost entirely covered with a forest of fruit trees, and during +the season hundreds of men and women, boys and girls, go up every +day to bring down the ripe fruit. Durians and Mangoes, two of the +very finest tropical fruits, are in greater abundance at Ternate +than I have ever seen them, and some of the latter are of a +quality not inferior to any in the world. Lansats and Mangustans +are also abundant, but these do not ripen till a little later. +Above the fruit trees there is a belt of clearings and cultivated +grounds, which creep up the mountain to a height of between two +and three thousand feet, above which is virgin forest, reaching +nearly to the summit, which on the side next the town is covered +with a high reedy grass. On the further side it is more elevated, +of a bare and desolate aspect, with a slight depression marking +the position of the crater. From this part descends a black +scoriaceous tract; very rugged, and covered with a scanty +vegetation of scattered bushes as far down as the sea. This is +the lava of the great eruption near a century ago, and is called +by the natives "batu-angas"(burnt rock). + +Just below my house is the fort, built by the Portuguese, below +which is an open space to the peach, and beyond this the native +town extends for about a mile to the north-east. About the centre +of it is the palace of the Sultan, now a large untidy, half- +ruinous building of stone. This chief is pensioned by the Dutch +Government, but retains the sovereignty over the native +population of the island, and of the northern part of Gilolo. The +sultans of Ternate and Tidore were once celebrated through the +East for their power and regal magnificence. When Drake visited +Ternate in 1579, the Portuguese had been driven out of the +island, although they still had a settlement at Tidore. He gives +a glowing account of the Sultan: "The King had a very rich canopy +with embossings of gold borne over him, and was guarded with +twelve lances. From the waist to the ground was all cloth of +gold, and that very rich; in the attire of his head were finely +wreathed in, diverse rings of plaited gold, of an inch or more in +breadth, which made a fair and princely show, somewhat resembling +a crown in form; about his neck he had a chain of perfect gold, +the links very great and one fold double; on his left hand was a +diamond, an emerald, a ruby, and a turky; on his right hand in +one ring a big and perfect turky, and in another ring many +diamonds of a smaller size." + +All this glitter of barbaric gold was the produce of the spice +trade, of which the Sultans kept the monopoly, and by which they +became wealthy. Ternate, with the small islands in a line south +of it, as far as Batchian, constitute the ancient Moluccas, the +native country of the clove, as well as the only part in which it +was cultivated. Nutmegs and mace were procured from the natives +of New Guinea and the adjacent islands, where they grew wild; and +the profits on spice cargoes were so enormous, that the European +traders were glad to give gold and jewels, and the finest +manufactures of Europe or of India, in exchange. When the Dutch +established their influence in these seas, and relieved the +native princes from their Portuguese oppressors, they saw that +the easiest way to repay themselves would be to get this spice +trade into their own hands. For this purpose they adopted the +wise principle of concentrating the culture of these valuable +products in those spots only of which they could have complete +control. To do this effectually it was necessary to abolish the +culture and trade in all other places, which they succeeded in +doing by treaty with the native rulers. These agreed to have all +the spice trees in their possessions destroyed. They gave up +large though fluctuating revenues, but they gained in return a +fixed subsidy, freedom from the constant attacks and harsh +oppressions of the Portuguese, and a continuance of their regal +power and exclusive authority over their own subjects, which is +maintained in all the islands except Ternate to this day. + +It is no doubt supposed by most Englishmen, who have been +accustomed to look upon this act of the Dutch with vague horror, +as something utterly unprincipled and barbarous, that the native +population suffered grievously by this destruction of such +valuable property. But it is certain that this was not the case. +The Sultans kept this lucrative trade entirely in their own hands +as a rigid monopoly, and they would take care not to give, their +subjects more than would amount to their usual wages, while: they +would surely exact as large a quantity of spice as they could +possibly obtain. Drake and other early voyagers always seem to +have purchased their spice-cargoes from the Sultans and Rajahs, +and not from the cultivators. Now the absorption of so much +labour in the cultivation of this one product must necessarily +have raised the price of food and other necessaries; and when it +was abolished, more rice would be grown, more sago made, more +fish caught, and more tortoise-shell, rattan, gum-dammer, and +other valuable products of the seas and the forests would be +obtained. I believe, therefore, that this abolition of the spice +trade in the Moluccas was actually beneficial to the inhabitants, +and that it was an act both wise in itself and morally and +politically justifiable. + +In the selection of the places in which to carry on the +cultivation, the Dutch were not altogether fortunate or wise. +Banda was chosen for nutmegs, and was eminently successful, since +ü; continues to this day to produce a large supply of this spice, +and to yield a considerable revenue. Amboyna was fixed upon for +establishing the clove cultivation; but the soil and climate, +although apparently very similar to that of its native islands, +is not favourable, and for some years the Government have +actually been paying to the cultivators a higher rate than they +could purchase cloves elsewhere, owing to a great fall in the +price since the rate of payment was fixed for a term of years by +the Dutch Government, and which rate is still most honourably +paid. + +In walking about the suburbs of Ternate, we find everywhere the +ruins of massive stone and brick buildings, gateways and arches, +showing at once the superior wealth of the ancient town and the +destructive effects of earthquakes. It was during my second stay +in the town, after my return from New Guinea, that I first felt +an earthquake. It was a very slight one, scarcely more than has +been felt in this country, but occurring in a place that lad been +many times destroyed by them it was rather more exciting. I had +just awoke at gun-fire (5 A.M.), when suddenly the thatch began +to rustle and shake as if an army of cats were galloping over it, +and immediately afterwards my bed shook too, so that for an +instant I imagined myself back in New Guinea, in my fragile +house, which shook when an old cock went to roost on the ridge; +but remembering that I was now on a solid earthen floor, I said +to myself, "Why, it's an earthquake," and lay still in the +pleasing expectation of another shock; but none came, and this +was the only earthquake I ever felt in Ternate. + +The last great one was in February 1840, when almost every house +in the place was destroyed. It began about midnight on the +Chinese New Year's festival, at which time every one stays up +nearly all night feasting at the Chinamen's houses and seeing the +processions. This prevented any lives being lost, as every one +ran out of doors at the first shock, which was not very severe. +The second, a few minutes afterwards, threw down a great many +houses, and others, which continued all night and part of the +next day, completed the devastation. The line of disturbance was +very narrow, so that the native town a mile to the east scarcely +suffered at all. The wave passed from north to south, through the +islands of Tidore and Makian, and terminated in Batchian, where +it was not felt till four the following afternoon, thus taking no +less than sixteen hours to travel a hundred miles, or about six +miles an hour. It is singular that on this occasion there was no +rushing up of the tide, or other commotion of the sea, as is +usually the case during great earthquakes. + +The people of Ternate are of three well-marked races the Ternate +Malays, the Orang Sirani, and the Dutch. The first are an +intrusive Malay race somewhat allied to the Macassar people, who +settled in the country at a very early epoch, drove out the +indigenes, who were no doubt the same as those of the adjacent +mainland of Gilolo, and established a monarchy. They perhaps +obtained many of their wives from the natives, which will account +for the extraordinary language they speak--in some respects +closely allied to that of the natives of Gilolo, while it +contains much that points to a Malayan origin. To most of these +people the Malay language is quite unintelligible, although such +as are engaged in trade are obliged to acquire it. "Orang +Sirani," or Nazarenes, is the name given by the Malays to the +Christian descendants of the Portuguese, who resemble those of +Amboyna, and, like them, speak only Malay. There are also a +number of Chinese merchants, many of them natives of the place, a +few Arabs, and a number of half-breeds between all these races +and native women. Besides these there are some Papuan slaves, and +a few natives of other islands settled here, making up a motley +and very puzzling population, till inquiry and observation have +shown the distinct origin of its component parts. + +Soon after my first arrival in Ternate I went to the island of +Gilolo, accompanied by two sons of Mr. Duivenboden, and by a +young Chinaman, a brother of my landlord, who lent us the boat +and crew. These latter were all slaves, mostly Papuans, and at +starting I saw something of the relation of master and slave in +this part of the world. The crew had been ordered to be ready at +three in the morning, instead of which none appeared till five, +we having all been kept waiting in the dark and cold for two +hours. When at length they came they were scolded by their +master, but only in a bantering manner, and laughed and joked +with him in reply. Then, just as we were starting, one of the +strongest men refused to go at all, and his master had to beg and +persuade him to go, and only succeeded by assuring him that I +would give him something; so with this promise, and knowing that +there would be plenty to eat and drink and little to do, the +black gentleman was induced to favour us with his company and +assistance. In three hours' rowing and sailing we reached our +destination, Sedingole, where there is a house belonging to the +Sultan of Tidore, who sometimes goes there hunting. It was a +dirty ruinous shed, with no furniture but a few bamboo bedsteads. +On taking a walk into the country, I saw at once that it was no +place for me. For many miles extends a plain covered with coarse +high grass, thickly dotted here and there with trees, the forest +country only commencing at the hills a good way in the interior. +Such a place would produce few birds and no insects, and we +therefore arranged to stay only two days, and then go on to +Dodinga, at the narrow central isthmus of Gilolo, whence my +friends would return to Ternate. We amused ourselves shooting +parrots, lories, and pigeons, and trying to shoot deer, of which +we saw plenty, but could not get one; and our crew went out +fishing with a net, so we did not want for provisions. When the +time came for us to continue our journey, a fresh difficulty +presented itself, for our gentlemen slaves refused in a body to +go with us; saying very determinedly that they would return to +Ternate. So their masters were obliged to submit, and I was left +behind to get to Dodinga as I could. Luckily I succeeded in +hiring a small boat, which took me there the same night, with my +two men and my baggage. + +Two or three years after this, and about the same length of time +before I left the East, the Dutch emancipated all their slaves, +paying their owners a small compensation. No ill results +followed. Owing to the amicable relations which had always +existed between them and their masters, due no doubt in part to +the Government having long accorded them legal rights and +protection against cruelty and ill-usage, many continued in the +same service, and after a little temporary difficulty in some +cases, almost all returned to work either for their old or for +new, masters. The Government took the very proper step of placing +every emancipated slave under the surveillance of the police- +magistrate. They were obliged to show that they were working for +a living, and had some honestly-acquired means of existence. All +who could not do so were placed upon public works at low wages, +and thus were kept from the temptation to peculation or other +crimes, which the excitement of newly-acquired freedom, and +disinclination to labour, might have led them into. + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +GILOLO. + +(MARCH AND SEPTEMBER 1858.) + +I MADE but few and comparatively short visits to this large and +little known island, but obtained a considerable knowledge of its +natural history by sending first my boy Ali, and then my +assistant, Charles Allen, who stayed two or three months each in +the northern peninsula, and brought me back large collections of +birds and insects. In this chapter I propose to give a sketch of +the parts which I myself visited. My first stay was at Dodinga, +situated at the head of a deep-bay exactly opposite Ternate, and +a short distance up a little stream which penetrates a few miles +inland. The village is a small one, and is completely shut in by +low hills. + +As soon as I arrived, I applied to the head man of the village +for a house to live in, but all were occupied, and there was much +difficulty in finding one. In the meantime I unloaded my baggage +on the beach and made some tea, and afterwards discovered a small +but which the owner was willing to vacate if I would pay him five +guilders for a month's rent. As this was something less than the +fee-simple value of the dwelling, I agreed to give it him for the +privilege of immediate occupation, only stipulating that he was +to make the roof water-tight. This he agreed to do, and came +every day to tally and look at me; and when I each time insisted +upon his immediately mending the roof according to contract, all +the answer I could get was, "Ea nanti," (Yes, wait a little.) +However, when I threatened to deduct a quarter guilder from the +rent for every day it was not done, and a guilder extra if any of +my things were wetted, he condescended to work for half an hour, +which did all that was absolutely necessary. + +On the top of a bank, of about a hundred feet ascent from the +water, stands the very small but substantial fort erected by the +Portuguese. Its battlements and turrets have long since been +overthrown by earthquakes, by which its massive structure has +also been rent; but it cannot well be thrown down, being a solid +mass of stonework, forming a platform about ten feet high, and +perhaps forty feet square. It is approached by narrow steps under +an archway, and is now surmounted by a row of thatched hovels, in +which live the small garrison, consisting of, a Dutch corporal +and four Javanese soldiers, the sole representatives of the +Netherlands Government in the island. The village is occupied +entirely by Ternate men. The true indigenes of Gilolo, "Alfuros" +as they are here called, live on the eastern coast, or in the +interior of the northern peninsula. The distance across the +isthmus at this place is only two miles, and there, is a good +path, along which rice and sago are brought from the eastern +villages. The whole isthmus is very rugged, though not high, +being a succession of little abrupt hills anal valleys, with +angular masses of limestone rock everywhere projecting, and often +almost blocking up the pathway. Most of it is virgin forest, very +luxuriant and picturesque, and at this time having abundance of +large scarlet Ixoras in flower, which made it exceptionally gay. +I got some very nice insects here, though, owing to illness most +of the time, my collection was a small one, and my boy Ali shot +me a pair of one of the most beautiful birds of the East, Pitta +gigas, a lame ground-thrush, whose plumage of velvety black above +is relieved by a breast of pure white, shoulders of azure blue, +and belly of vivid crimson. It has very long and strong legs, and +hops about with such activity in the dense tangled forest, +bristling with rocks, as to make it very difficult to shoot. + +In September 1858, after my return from New Guinea, I went to +stay some time at the village of Djilolo, situated in a bay on +the northern peninsula. Here I obtained a house through the +kindness of the Resident of Ternate, who sent orders to prepare +one for me. The first walk into the unexplored forests of a new +locality is a moment of intense interest to the naturalist, as it +is almost sure to furnish him with something curious or hitherto +unknown. The first thing I saw here was a flock of small +parroquets, of which I shot a pair, and was pleased to find a +most beautiful little long-tailed bird, ornamented with green, +red, and blue colours, and quite new to me. It was a variety of +the Charmosyna placentis, one of the smallest and most elegant of +the brush-tongued lories. My hunters soon shot me several other +fine birds, and I myself found a specimen of the rare and +beautiful day-flying moth, Cocytia d'Urvillei. + +The village of Djilolo was formerly the chief residence of the +Sultans of Ternate, till about eighty years ago, when at the +request of the Dutch they removed to their present abode. The +place was then no doubt much more populous, as is indicated by +the wide extent of cleared land in the neighbourhood, now covered +with coarse high grass, very disagreeable to walk through, and +utterly barren to the naturalist. A few days' exploring showed me +that only some small patches of forest remained for miles wound, +and the result was a scarcity of insects and a very limited +variety of birds, which obliged me to change my locality. There +was another village called Sahoe, to which there was a road of +about twelve miles overland, and this had been recommended to me +as a good place for birds, and as possessing a large population +both of Mahomotans and Alfuros, which latter race I much wished +to see. I set off one morning to examine this place myself, +expecting to pass through some extent of forest on my way. In +this however I was much disappointed, as the whole road lies +through grass and scrubby thickets, and it was only after +reaching the village of Sahoe that some high forest land was +perceived stretching towards the mountains to the north of it. +About half-way we dad to pass a deep river on a bamboo raft, +which almost sunk beneath us. This stream was said to rise a long +way off to the northward. + +Although Sahoe did not at all appear what I expected, I +determined to give it a trial, and a few days afterwards obtained +a boat to carry my things by sea while I walked overland. A large +house on the beach belonging to the Sultan was given me. It stood +alone, and was quite open on every side, so that little privacy +could be had, but as I only intended to stay a short time I made +it do. Avery, few days dispelled all hopes I might have +entertained of making good collections in this place. Nothing was +to be found in every direction but interminable tracts of reedy +grass, eight or ten feet high, traversed by narrow baths, often +almost impassable. Here and there were clumps of fruit trees, +patches of low wood, and abundance of plantations and rice +grounds, all of which are, in tropical regions, a very desert for +the entomologist. The virgin forest that I was in search of, +existed only on the summits and on the steep rocky sides of the +mountains a long way off, and in inaccessible situations. In the +suburbs of the village I found a fair number of bees and wasps, +and some small but interesting beetles. Two or three new birds +were obtained by my hunters, and by incessant inquiries and +promises Í succeeded in getting the natives to bring me some land +shells, among which was a very fine and handsome one, Helix +pyrostoma. I was, however, completely wasting my time here +compared with what I might be doing in a good locality, and after +a week returned to Ternate, quite disappointed with my first +attempts at collecting in Gilolo. + +In the country round about Sahoe, and in the interior, there is a +large population of indigenes, numbers of whom came daily into +the village, bringing their produce for sale, while others were +engaged as labourers by the Chinese and Ternate traders. A +careful examination convinced me that these people are radically +distinct from all the Malay races. Their stature and their +features, as well as their disposition and habits, are almost the +same as those of the Papuans; their hair is semi-Papuan-neither +straight, smooth, and glossy, like all true Malays', nor so +frizzly and woolly as the perfect Papuan type, but always crisp, +waved, and rough, such as often occurs among the true Papuans, +but never among the Malays. Their colour alone is often exactly +that of the Malay, or even lighter. Of course there has been +intermixture, and there occur occasionally individuals which it +is difficult to classify; but in most cases the large, somewhat +aquiline nose, with elongated apex, the tall stature, the waved +hair, the bearded face, and hairy body, as well as the less +reserved manner and louder voice, unmistakeably proclaim the +Papuan type. Here then I had discovered the exact boundary lice +between the Malay and Papuan races, and at a spot where no other +writer had expected it. I was very much pleased at this +determination, as it gave me a clue to one of the most difficult +problems in Ethnology, and enabled me in many other places to +separate the two races, and to unravel their intermixtures. + +On my return from Waigiou in 1860, I stayed some days on the +southern extremity of Gilolo; but, beyond seeing something more +of its structure and general character, obtained very little +additional information. It is only in the northern peninsula that +there are any indígenes, the whole of the rest of the island, +with Batchian and the other islands westward, being exclusively +inhabited by Malay tribes, allied to those of Ternate and Tidore. +This would seem to indicate that the Alfuros were a comparatively +recent immigration, and that they lead come from the north or +east, perhaps from some of the islands of the Pacific. It is +otherwise difficult to understand how so many fertile districts +should possess no true indigenes. + +Gilolo, or Halmaheira as it is called by the Malays and Dutch, +seems to have been recently modified by upheaval and subsidence. +In 1673, a mountain is said to stave been upheaved at Gamokonora +on the northern peninsula. All the parts that I have seen have +either been volcanic or coralline, and along the coast there are +fringing coral reefs very dangerous to navigation. At the same +time, the character of its natural history proves it to be a +rather ancient land, since it possesses a number of animals +peculiar to itself or common to the small islands around it, but +almost always distinct from those of New Guinea on the east, of +Ceram on the south, and of Celebes and the Sula islands on the +west. + +The island of Morty, close to the north-eastern extremity of +Gilolo, was visited by my assistant Charles Allen, as well as by +Dr. Bernstein; and the collections obtained there present some +curious differences from those of the main island. About fifty- +six species of land-birds are known to inhabit this island, and +of these, a kingfisher (Tanysiptera Boris), a honey-sucker +(Tropidorhynchus fuscicapillus), and a large crow-like starling +(Lycocorax morotensis), are quite distinct from allied species +found in Gilolo. The island is coralline and sandy, and we must +therefore believe it to have been separated from Gilolo at a +somewhat remote epoch; while we learn from its natural history +that an arm of the sea twenty-five miles wide serves to limit the +range even of birds of considerable powers of flight. + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +TERNATE TO THE KAIOA ISLANDS AND BATCHIAN. + +(OCTOBER 1858.) + +ON returning to Ternate from Sahoe, I at once began making +preparations for a journey to Batchian, an island which I had +been constantly recommended to visit since I had arrived in this +part of the Moluccas. After all was ready I found that I should +have to hire a boat, as no opportunity of obtaining a passage +presented itself. I accordingly went into the native town, and +could only find two boats for hire, one much larger than I +required, and the other far smaller than I wished. I chose the +smaller one, chiefly because it would not cost me one-third as +much as the larger one, and also because in a coasting voyage a +small vessel can be more easily managed, and more readily got +into a place of safety during violent gales, than a large one. I +took with me my Bornean lad Ali, who was now very useful to me; +Lahagi, a native of Ternate, a very good steady man, and a fair +shooter, who had been with me to New Guinea; Lahi, a native of +Gilolo, who could speak Malay, as woodcutter and general +assistant; and Garo, a boy who was to act as cook. As the boat +was so small that we had hardly room to stow ourselves away when +all my stores were on board, I only took one other man named +Latchi, as pilot. He was a Papuan slave, a tall, strong black +fellow, but very civil and careful. The boat I had hired from a +Chinaman named Lau Keng Tong, for five guilders a month. + +We started on the morning of October 9th, but had not got a +hundred yards from land, when a strong head wind sprung up, +against which we could not row, so we crept along shore to below +the town, and waited till the turn of the tide should enable us +to cross over to the coast of Tidore. About three in the +afternoon we got off, and found that our boat sailed well, and +would keep pretty close to the wind. We got on a good way before +the wind fell and we had to take to our oars again. We landed on +a nice sandy beach to cook our suppers, just as the sun set +behind the rugged volcanic hills, to the south of the great cone +of Tidore, and soon after beheld the planet Venus shining in the +twilight with the brilliancy of a new moon, and casting a very +distinct shadow. We left again a little before seven, and as we +got out from the shadow of the mountain I observed a bright light +over one part of the edge, and soon after, what seemed a fire of +remarkable whiteness on the very summit of the hill. I called the +attention of my men to it, and they too thought it merely a fire; +but a few minutes afterwards, as we got farther off shore, the +light rose clear up above the ridge of the hill, and some faint +clouds clearing away from it, discovered the magnificent comet +which was at the same time, astonishing all Europe. The nucleus +presented to the naked eye a distinct disc of brilliant white +light, from which the tail rose at an angle of about 30° or 35° +with the horizon, curving slightly downwards, and terminating in +a broad brush of faint light, the curvature of which diminished +till it was nearly straight at the end. The portion of the tail +next the comet appeared three or four tunes as bright as the most +luminous portion of the milky way, and what struck me as a +singular feature was that its upper margin, from the nucleus to +very near the extremity, was clearly and almost sharply defined, +while the lower side gradually shaded off into obscurity. +Directly it rose above the ridge of the hill, I said to my men, +"See, it's not a fire, it's a bintang ber-ekor" ("tailed-star," +the Malay idiom for a comet). "So it is," said they; and all +declared that they had often heard tell of such, but had never +seen one till now. I had no telescope with me, nor any instrument +at hand, but I estimated the length of the tail at about 20°, and +the width, towards the extremity, about 4° or 5°. + +The whole of the next day we were obliged to stop near the +village of Tidore, owing to a strong wind right in our teeth. The +country was all cultivated, and I in vain searched for any +insects worth capturing. One of my men went out to shoot, but +returned home without a single bird. At sunset, the wind having +dropped, we quitted Tidore, and reached the next island, March, +where we stayed till morning. The comet was again visible, but +not nearly so brilliant, being partly obscured by clouds; and +dimmed by the light of the new moon. We then rowed across to the +island of Motir, which is so surrounded with coral-reefs that it +is dangerous to approach. These are perfectly flat, and are only +covered at high water, ending in craggy vertical walls of coral +in very deep water. When there is a little wind, it is dangerous +to come near these rocks; but luckily it was quite smooth, so we +moored to their edge, while the men crawled over the reef to the +land, to make; a fire and cook our dinner-the boat having no +accommodation for more than heating water for my morning and +evening coffee. We then rowed along the edge of the reef to the +end of the island, and were glad to get a nice westerly breeze, +which carried us over the strait to the island of Makian, where +we arrived about 8 P.M, The sky was quite clear, and though the +moon shone brightly, the comet appeared with quite as much +splendour as when we first saw it. + +The coasts of these small islands are very different according to +their geological formation. The volcanoes, active or extinct, +have steep black beaches of volcanic sand, or are fringed with +rugged masses of lava and basalt. Coral is generally absent, +occurring only in small patches in quiet bays, and rarely or +never forming reefs. Ternate, Tidore, and Makian belong to this +class. Islands of volcanic origin, not themselves volcanoes, but +which have been probably recently upraised, are generally more or +less completely surrounded by fringing reefs of coral, and have +beaches of shining white coral sand. Their coasts present +volcanic conglomerates, basalt, and in some places a foundation +of stratified rocks, with patches of upraised coral. Mareh and +Motir are of this character, the outline of the latter giving it +the appearance of having been a true volcano, and it is said by +Forrest to have thrown out stones in l778. The next day (Oct. +12th), we coasted along the island of Makian, which consists of a +single grand volcano. It was now quiescent, but about two +centuries ago (in 1646) there was a terrible eruption, which blew +up the whole top of the mountain, leaving the truncated jagged +summit and vast gloomy crater valley which at this time +distinguished it. It was said to have been as lofty as Tidore +before this catastrophe. [Soon after I' left the Archipelago, on +the 29th of December, 1862, another eruption of this mountain +suddenly took place, which caused great devastation in the +island. All the villages and crops were destroyed, and numbers of +the inhabitants killed. The sand and ashes fell so thick that the +crops were partially destroyed fifty miles off, at Ternate, where +it was so dark the following day that lamps had to be lighted at +noon. For the position of this and the adjacent islands, see the +map in Chapter XXXVII.] + +I stayed some time at a place where I saw a new clearing on a +very steep part of the mountain, and obtained a few interesting +insects. In the evening we went on to the extreme southern point, +to be ready to pass across the fifteen-mile strait to the island +of Kaiķa. At five the next morning we started, but the wind, +which had hitherto been westerly, now got to the south and +southwest, and we had to row almost all the way with a burning +sun overhead. As we approached land a fine breeze sprang up, and +we went along at a great pace; yet after an hour we were no +nearer, and found we were in a violent current carrying us out to +sea. At length we overcame it, and got on shore just as the sun +set, having been exactly thirteen hours coming fifteen miles. We +landed on a beach of hard coralline rock, with rugged cliffs of +the same, resembling those of the Ke Islands (Chap. XXIX.) It was +accompanied by a brilliancy and luxuriance of the vegetation, +very like what I had observed at those islands, which so much +pleased me that I resolved to stay a few days at the chief +village, and see if their animal productions were correspondingly +interesting. While searching for a secure anchorage for the night +we again saw the comet, still apparently as brilliant as at +first, but the tail had now risen to a higher angle. + +October 14th.--All this day we coasted along the Kaiķa Islands, +which have much the appearance and outline of Ke on a small +scale, with the addition of flat swampy tracts along shore, and +outlying coral reefs. Contrary winds and currents had prevented +our taking the proper course to the west of them, and we had to +go by a circuitous route round the southern extremity of one +island, often having to go far out to sea on account of coral +reefs. On trying to pass a channel through one of these reefs we +were grounded, and all had to get out into the water, which in +this shallow strait had been so heated by the sun as to be +disagreeably warm, and drag our vessel a considerable distance +among weeds and sponges, corals and prickly corallines. It was +late at night when we reached the little village harbour, and we +were all pretty well knocked up by hard work, and having had +nothing but very brackish water to drink all day-the best we +could find at our last stopping-place. There was a house close to +the shore, built for the use of the Resident of Ternate when he +made his official visits, but now occupied by several native +travelling merchants, among whom I found a place to sleep. + +The next morning early I went to the village to find the +"Kapala," or head man. I informed him that I wanted to stay a few +days in the house at the landing, and begged him to have it made +ready for me. He was very civil, and came down at once to get it +cleared, when we found that the traders had already left, on +hearing that I required it. There were no doors to it, so I +obtained the loan of a couple of hurdles to keep out dogs and +other animals. The land here was evidently sinking rapidly, as +shown by the number of trees standing in salt water dead and +dying. After breakfast I started for a walk to the forest-covered +hill above the village, with a couple of boys as guides. It was +exceedingly hot and dry, no rain having fallen for two months. +When we reached an elevation of about two hundred feet, the +coralline rock which fringes the shore was succeeded by a hard +crystalline rock, a kind of metamorphic sandstone. This would +indicate flat there had been a recent elevation of more than two +hundred feet, which had still more recently clanged into a +movement of subsidence. The hill was very rugged, but among dry +sticks and fallen trees I found some good insects, mostly of +forms and species I was already acquainted with from Ternate and +Gilolo. Finding no good paths I returned, and explored the lower +ground eastward of the village, passing through a long range of +plantain and tobacco grounds, encumbered with felled and burnt +logs, on which I found quantities of beetles of the family +Buprestidae of six different species, one of which was new to me. +I then reached a path in the swampy forest where I hoped to find +some butterflies, but was disappointed. Being now pretty well +exhausted by the intense heat, I thought it wise to return and +reserve further exploration for the next day. + +When I sat down in the afternoon to arrange my insects, the louse +was surrounded by men, women, and children, lost in amazement at +my unaccountable proceedings; and when, after pinning out the +specimens, I proceeded to write the name of the place on small +circular tickets, and attach one to each, even the old Kapala, +the Mahometan priest, and some Malay traders could not repress +signs of astonishment. If they had known a little more about the +ways and opinions of white men, they would probably have looked +upon me as a fool or a madman, but in their ignorance they +accepted my operations as worthy of all respect, although utterly +beyond their comprehension. + +The next day (October 16th) I went beyond the swamp, and found a +place where a new clearing was being made in the virgin forest. +It was a long and hot walk, and the search among the fallen +trunks and branches was very fatiguing, but I was rewarded by +obtaining about seventy distinct species of beetles, of which at +least a dozen were new to me, and many others rare and +interesting. I have never in my life seen beetles so abundant as +they were on this spot. Some dozen species of good-sized golden +Buprestidae, green rose-chafers (Lomaptera), and long-horned +weevils (Anthribidae), were so abundant that they rose up in +swarms as I walked along, filling the air with a loud buzzing +hum. Along with these, several fine Longicorns were almost +equally common, forming such au assemblage as for once to realize +that idea of tropical luxuriance which one obtains by looking +over the drawers of a well-filled cabinet. On the under sides of +the trunks clung numbers of smaller or more sluggish Longicorns, +while on the branches at the edge of the clearing others could be +detected sitting with outstretched antenna ready to take flight +at the least alarm. It was a glorious spot, and one which will +always live in my memory as exhibiting the insect-life of the +tropics in unexampled luxuriance. For the three following days I +continued to visit this locality, adding each time many new +species to my collection-the following notes of which may be +interesting to entomologists. October l5th, 33 species of +beetles; 16th, 70 species; 17th, 47 species; 18th, 40 species; +19th, 56 species--in all about a hundred species, of which forty +were new to me. There were forty-four species of Longicorns among +them, and on the last day I took twenty-eight species of +Longicorns, of which five were new to me. + +My boys were less fortunate in shooting. The only birds at all +common were the great red parrot (Eclectus grandis), found in +most of the Moluccas, a crow, and a Megapodius, or mound-maker. A +few of the pretty racquet-tailed kingfishers were also obtained, +but in very poor plumage. They proved, however, to be of a +different species from those found in the other islands, and come +nearest to the bird originally described by Linnaeus under the +name of Alcedo dea, and which came from Ternate. This would +indicate that the small chain of islands parallel to Gilolo have +a few peculiar species in common, a fact which certainly occurs +in insects. + +The people of Kaioa interested me much. They are evidently a +mixed race, having Malay and Papuan affinities, and are allied to +the peoples of Ternate and of Gilolo. They possess a peculiar +language, somewhat resembling those of the surrounding islands, +but quite distinct. They are now Mahometans, and are subject to +Ternate, The only fruits seen here were papaws and pine-apples, +the rocky soil and dry climate being unfavourable. Rice, maize, +and plantains flourish well, except that they suffer from +occasional dry seasons like the present one. There is a little +cotton grown, from which the women weave sarongs (Malay +petticoats). There is only one well of good water on the islands, +situated close to the landing-place, to which all the inhabitants +come for drinking water. The men are good boat-builders, and they +make a regular trade of it and seem to be very well off. + +After five days at Kaiķa we continued our journey, and soon got +among the narrow straits and islands which lead down to the town +of Batchian. In the evening we stayed at a settlement of Galela +men. These are natives of a district in the extreme north of +Gilolo, and are great wanderers over this part of the +Archipelago. They build large and roomy praus with outriggers, +and settle on any coast or island they take a fancy for. They +hunt deer and wild pig, drying the meat; they catch turtle and +tripang; they cut down the forest and plant rice or maize, and +are altogether remarkably energetic and industrious. They are +very line people, of light complexion, tall, and with Papuan +features, coming nearer to the drawings and descriptions of the +true Polynesians of Tahiti and Owyhee than any I have seen. + +During this voyage I had several times had an opportunity of +seeing my men get fire by friction. A sharp-edged piece of bamboo +is rubbed across the convex surface of another piece, on which a +small notch is first cut. The rubbing is slow at first and +gradually quicker, till it becomes very rapid, and the fine +powder rubbed off ignites and falls through the hole which the +rubbing has cut in the bamboo. This is done with great quickness +and certainty. The Ternate, people use bamboo in another way. +They strike its flinty surface with a bit of broken china, and +produce a spark, which they catch in some kind of tinder. + +On the evening of October 21st we reached our destination, having +been twelve days on the voyage. It had been tine weather all the +time, and, although very hot, I had enjoyed myself exceedingly, +and had besides obtained some experience in boat work among +islands and coral reefs, which enabled me afterwards to undertake +much longer voyages of the same kind. The village or town of +Batchian is situated at the head of a wide and deep bay, where a +low isthmus connects the northern and southern mountainous parts +of the island. To the south is a fine. range of mountains, and I +had noticed at several of our landing-places that the geological +formation of the island was very different from those around it. +Whenever rock was visible it was either sandstone in thin layers, +dipping south, or a pebbly conglomerate. Sometimes there was a +little coralline limestone, but no volcanic rocks. The forest had +a dense luxuriance and loftiness seldom found on the dry and +porous lavas and raised coral reefs of Ternate and Gilolo; and +hoping for a corresponding richness in the birds and insects, it +was with much satisfaction and with considerable expectation that +I began my explorations in the hitherto unknown island of +Batchian. + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +BATCHIAN. + +(OCTOBER 1858 To APRIL 1859.) + +I LANDED opposite the house kept for the use of the Resident of +Ternate, and was met by a respectable middle-aged Malay, who told +me he was Secretary to the Sultan, and would receive the official +letter with which I had been provided. On giving it him, he at +once informed me I might have the use of the official residence +which was empty. I soon got my things on shore, but on looking +about me found that the house would never do to stay long in. +There was no water except at a considerable distance, and one of +my men would be almost entirely occupied getting water and +firewood, and I should myself have to walk all through the +village every day to the forest, and live almost in public, a +thing I much dislike. The rooms were all boarded, and had +ceilings, which are a great nuisance, as there are no means of +hanging anything up except by driving nails, and not half the +conveniences of a native bamboo and thatch cottage. I accordingly +inquired for a house outside of the village on the road to the +coal mines, and was informed by the Secretary that there was a +small one belonging to the Sultan, and that he would go with me +early next morning to see it. + +We had to pass one large river, by a rude but substantial bridge, +and to wade through another fine pebbly stream of clear water, +just beyond which the little but was situated. It was very small, +not raised on posts, but with the earth for a floor, and was +built almost entirely of the leaf-stems of the sago-palm, called +here "gaba-gaba." Across the river behind rose a forest-clad +bank, and a good road close in front of the horse led through +cultivated grounds to the forest about half a mile on, and thence +to the coal mines tour miles further. These advantages at once +decided me, and I told the Secretary I would be very glad to +occupy the house. I therefore sent my two men immediately to buy +"ataps" (palm-leaf thatch) to repair the roof, and the next day, +with the assistance of eight of the Sultan's men, got all my +stores and furniture carried up and pretty comfortably arranged. +A rough bamboo bedstead was soon constructed, and a table made of +boards which I had brought with me, fixed under the window. Two +bamboo chairs, an easy cane chair, and hanging shelves suspended +with insulating oil cups, so as to be safe from ants, completed +my furnishing arrangements. + +In the afternoon succeeding my arrival, the Secretary accompanied +me to visit the Sultan. We were kept waiting a few minutes in an +outer gate-house, and then ushered to the door of a rude, half- +fortified whitewashed house. A small table and three chairs were +placed in a large outer corridor, and an old dirty-faced man with +grey hair and a grimy beard, dressed in a speckled blue cotton +jacket and loose red trousers, came forward, shook hands, and +asked me to be coated. After a quarter of an hour's conversation +on my pursuits, in which his Majesty seemed to take great +interest, tea and cakes-of rather better quality than usual on +such occasions-were brought in. I thanked him for the house, and +offered to show him my collections, which he promised to come and +look at. He then asked me to teach him to take views-to make +maps-to get him a small gun from England, and a milch-goat from +Bengal; all of which requests I evaded as skilfully as I was +able, and we parted very good friends. He seemed a sensible old +man, and lamented the small population of the island, which he +assured me was rich in many valuable minerals, including gold; +but there were not people enough to look after them and work +them. I described to him the great rush of population on the +discovery of the Australian gold mines, and the huge nuggets +found there, with which he was much interested, and exclaimed, +"Oh? if we had but people like that, my country would be quite as +rich " + +The morning after I had got into my new house, I sent my boys out +to shoot, and went myself to explore the road to the coal mines. +In less than half a mile it entered the virgin forest, at a place +where some magnificent trees formed a kind of natural avenue. The +first part was flat and swampy, but it soon rose a little, and +ran alongside the fine stream which passed behind my house, and +which here rushed and gurgled over a rocky or pebbly bed, +sometimes leaving wide sandbanks on its margins, and at other +places flowing between high banks crowned with a varied and +magnificent forest vegetation. After about two miles, the valley +narrowed, and the road was carried along the steep hill-side +which rose abruptly from the water's edge. In some places the +rock had been cut away, but its surface was already covered with +elegant ferns and creepers. Gigantic tree-ferns were abundant, +and the whole forest had an air of luxuriance and rich variety +which it never attains in the dry volcanic soil to which I had +been lately accustomed. A little further the road passed to the +other side of the valley by a bridge across the stream at a place +where a great mass of rock in the middle offered an excellent +support for it, and two miles more of most picturesque and +interesting road brought me to the mining establishment. + +This is situated in a large open space, at a spot where two +tributaries fall into the main stream. Several forest-paths and +new clearings offered fine collecting grounds, and I captured +some new and interesting insects; but as it was getting late I +had to reserve a more thorough exploration for future occasions. +Coal had been discovered here some years before, and the road was +made in order to bring down a sufficient quantity for a fair +trial on the Dutch steamers. The quality, however, was not +thought sufficiently good, and the mines were abandoned. Quite +recently, works had been commenced in another spot, in Hopes of +finding a better vein. There ware about eighty men employed, +chiefly convicts; but this was far too small a number for mining +operations in such a country, where the mere keeping a few miles +of road in repair requires the constant work of several men. If +coal of sufficiently good quality should be found, a tramroad +would be made, and would be very easily worked, owing to the +regular descent of the valley. + +Just as I got home I overtook Ali returning from shooting with +some birch hanging from his belt. He seemed much pleased, and +said, "Look here, sir, what a curious bird," holding out what at +first completely puzzled me. I saw a bird with a mass of splendid +green feathers on its breast, elongated into two glittering +tufts; but, what I could not understand was a pair of long white +feathers, which stuck straight out from each shoulder. Ali +assured me that the bird stuck them out this way itself, when +fluttering its wings, and that they had remained so without his +touching them. I now saw that I had got a great prize, no less +than a completely new form of the Bird of Paradise, differing +most remarkably from every other known bird. The general plumage +is very sober, being a pure ashy olive, with a purplish tinge on +the back; the crown of the head is beautifully glossed with pale +metallic violet, and the feathers of the front extend as much +over the beak as inmost of the family. The neck and breast are +scaled with fine metallic green, and the feathers on the lower +part are elongated on each side, so as to form a two-pointed +gorget, which can be folded beneath the wings, or partially +erected and spread out in the same way as the side plumes of most +of the birds of paradise. The four long white plumes which give +the bird its altogether unique character, spring from little +tubercles close to the upper edge of the shoulder or bend of the +wing; they are narrow, gentle curved, and equally webbed on both +sides, of a pure creamy white colour. They arc about six inches +long, equalling the wing, and can be raised at right angles to +it, or laid along the body at the pleasure of the bird. The bill +is horn colour, the legs yellow, and the iris pale olive. This +striking novelty has been named by Mr. G. R. Gray of the British +Museum, Semioptera Wallacei, or "Wallace's Standard wing." + +A few days later I obtained an exceedingly beautiful new +butterfly, allied to the fine blue Papilio Ulysses, but differing +from it in the colour being of a more intense tint, and in having +a row of blue stripes around the margin of the lower wings. This +good beginning was, however, rather deceptive, and I soon found +that insects, and especially butterflies, were somewhat scarce, +and birds in tar less variety than I had anticipated. Several of +the fine Moluccan species were however obtained. The handsome red +lory with green wings and a yellow spot in the back (Lorius +garrulus), was not uncommon. When the Jambu, or rose apple +(Eugenic sp.), was in flower in the village, flocks of the little +lorikeet (Charmosyna placentis), already met with in Gilolo, came +to feed upon the nectar, and I obtained as many specimens as I +desired. Another beautiful bird of the parrot tribe was the +Geoffroyus cyanicollis, a green parrot with a red bill and head, +which colour shaded on the crown into azure blue, and thence into +verditer blue and the green of the back. Two large and handsome +fruit pigeons, with metallic green, ashy, and rufous plumage, +were not uncommon; and I was rewarded by finding a splendid deep +blue roller (Eurystomus azureus); a lovely golden-capped sunbird +(Nectarinea auriceps), and a fine racquet-tailed kingfisher +(Tanysiptera isis), all of which were entirely new to +ornithologists. Of insects I obtained a considerable number of +interesting beetles, including many fine longicorns, among which +was the largest and handsomest species of the genus Glenea yet +discovered. Among butterflies the beautiful little Danis sebae +was abundant, making the forests gay with its delicate wings of +white and the richest metallic blue; while showy Papilios, and +pretty Pieridae, and dark, rich Euphaeas, many of them new, +furnished a constant source of interest and pleasing occupation. + +The island of Batchian possesses no really indigenous +inhabitants, the interior being altogether uninhabited; and there +are only a few small villages on various parts of the coast; yet +I found here four distinct races, which would wofully mislead an +ethnological traveller unable to obtain information as to their +origin, first there are the Batchian Malays, probably the +earliest colonists, differing very little from those of Ternate. +Their language, however, seems to have more of the Papuan +element, with a mixture of pure Malay, showing that the +settlement is one of stragglers of various races, although now +sufficiently homogeneous. Then there are the "Orang Sirani," as +at Ternate and Amboyna. Many of these have the Portuguese +physiognomy strikingly preserved, but combined with a skin +generally darker than the Malays. Some national customs are +retained, and the Malay, which is their only language, contains a +large number of Portuguese words and idioms. The third race +consists of the Galela men from the north of Gilolo, a singular +people, whom I have already described; and the fourth is a colony +from Tomķre, in the eastern peninsula of Celebes. These people +were brought here at their own request a few years ago, to avoid +extermination by another tribe. They have a very light +complexion, open Tartar physiognomy, low stature, and a language +of the Bugis type. They are an industrious agricultural people, +and supply the town with vegetables. They make a good deal of +bark cloth, similar to the tapa of the Polynesians, by cutting +down the proper trees and taping off large cylinders of bark, +which is beaten with mallets till it separates from the wood. It +is then soaked, and so continuously and regularly beaten out that +it becomes as thin and as tough as parchment. In this foam it is +much used for wrappers for clothes; and they also make jackets of +it, sewn neatly together and stained with the juice of another +kind of bark, which gives it a dark red colour and renders it +nearly waterproof. + +Here are four very distinct kinds of people who may all be seen +any day in and about the town of Batchian. Now if we suppose a +traveller ignorant of Malay, picking up a word or two here and +there of the "Batchian language," and noting down the "physical +and moral peculiarities, manners, and customs of the Batchian +people"--(for there are travellers who do all this in four-and- +twenty hours)--what an accurate and instructive chapter we should +have' what transitions would be pointed out, what theories of the +origin of races would be developed while the next traveller might +flatly contradict every statement and arrive at exactly opposite +conclusions. + +Soon after I arrived here the Dutch Government introduced a new +copper coinage of cents instead of doits (the 100th instead of +the 120th part of a guilder), and all the old coins were ordered +to be sent to Ternate to be changed. I sent a bag containing +6,000 doits, and duly received the new money by return of the +boat. Then Ali went to bring it, however, the captain required a +written order; so I waited to send again the next day, and it was +lucky I did so, for that night my house was entered, all my boxes +carried out and ransacked, and the various articles left on the +road about twenty yards off, where we found them at five in the +morning, when, on getting up and finding the house empty, we +rushed out to discover tracks of the thieves. Not being able to +find the copper money which they thought I had just received, +they decamped, taking nothing but a few yards of cotton cloth and +a black coat and trousers, which latter were picked up a few days +afterwards hidden in the grass. There was no doubt whatever who +were the thieves. Convicts are employed to guard the Government +stores when the boat arrives from Ternate. Two of them watch all +night, and often take the opportunity to roam about and commit +robberies. + +The next day I received my money, and secured it well in a strong +box fastened under my bed. I took out five or six hundred cents +for daily expenses, and put them in a small japanned box, which +always stood upon my table. In the afternoon I went for a short +walk, and on my return this box and my keys, which I had +carelessly left on the table, were gone. Two of my boys were in +the house, but had heard nothing. I immediately gave information +of the two robberies to the Director at the mines and to the +Commandant at the fort, and got for answer, that if I caught the +thief in the act I might shoot him. By inquiry in the village, we +afterwards found that one of the convicts who was on duty at the +Government rice-store in the village had quitted his guard, was +seen to pass over the bridge towards my house, was seen again +within two hundred yards of my house, and on returning over the +bridge into the village carried something under his arm, +carefully covered with his sarong. My box was stolen between the +hours he was seen going and returning, and it was so small as to +be easily carried in the way described. This seemed pretty clear +circumstantial evidence. I accused the man and brought the +witnesses to the Commandant. The man was examined, and confessed +having gone to the river close to my house to bathe; but said he +had gone no farther, having climbed up a cocoa-nut tree and +brought home two nuts, which he had covered over, _because he was +ashamed to be seen carrying them!_ This explanation was thought +satisfactory, and he was acquitted. I lost my cash and my box, a +seal I much valued, with other small articles, and all my keys- +the severest loss by far. Luckily my large cash-box was left +locked, but so were others which I required to open immediately. +There was, however, a very clever blacksmith employed to do +ironwork for the mines, and he picked my locks for me when I +required them, and in a few days made me new keys, which I used +all the time I was abroad. + +Towards the end of November the wet season set in, and we had +daily and almost incessant rains, with only about one or two +hours' sunshine in the morning. The flat parts of the forest +became flooded, the roads filled with mud, and insects and birds +were scarcer than ever. On December Lath, in the afternoon, we +had a sharp earthquake shock, which made the house and furniture +shale and rattle for five minutes, and the trees and shrubs wave +as if a gust of wind had passed over them. About the middle of +December I removed to the village, in order more easily to +explore the district to the west of it, and to be near the sea +when I wished to return to Ternate. I obtained the use of a good- +sized house in the Campong Sirani (or Christian village), and at +Christmas and the New Year had to endure the incessant gun- +firing, drum-beating, and fiddling of the inhabitants. + +These people are very fond of music and dancing, and it would +astonish a European to visit one of their assemblies. We enter a +gloomy palm-leaf hut, in which two or three very dim lamps barely +render darkness visible. The floor is of black sandy earth, the +roof hid in a smoky impenetrable blackness; two or three benches +stand against the walls, and the orchestra consists of a fiddle, +a fife, a drum, and a triangle. There is plenty of company, +consisting of young men and women, all very neatly dressed in +white and black--a true Portuguese habit. Quadrilles, waltzes, +polkas, and mazurkas are danced with great vigour and much skill. +The refreshments are muddy coffee and a few sweetmeats. Dancing +is kept up for hours, and all is conducted with much decorum and +propriety. A party of this kind meets about once a week, the +principal inhabitants taking it by turns, and all who please come +in without much ceremony. + +It is astonishing how little these people have altered in three +hundred years, although in that time they have changed their +language and lost all knowledge of their own nationality. They +are still in manners and appearance almost pure Portuguese, very +similar to those with whom I had become acquainted on the banks +of the Amazon. They live very poorly as regards their house and +furniture, but preserve a semi-European dress, and have almost +all full suits of black for Sundays. They are nominally +Protestants, but Sunday evening is their grand day for music and +dancing. The men are often good hunters; and two or three times a +week, deer or wild pigs are brought to the village, which, with +fish and fowls, enables them to live well. They are almost the +only people in the Archipelago who eat the great fruit-eating +bats called by us "flying foxes." These ugly creatures are +considered a great delicacy, and are much sought after. At about +the beginning of the year they come in large flocks to eat fruit, +and congregate during the day on some small islands in the bay, +hanging by thousands on the trees, especially on dead ones. They +can then be easily caught or knocked down with sticks, and are +brought home by basketsfull. They require to be carefully +prepared, as the skin and fur has a rank end powerful foxy odour; +but they are generally cooked with abundance of spices and +condiments, and are really very good eating, something like hare. +The Orang Sirani are good cooks, having a much greater variety of +savoury dishes than the Malays. Here, they live chiefly on sago +as bread, with a little rice occasionally, and abundance of +vegetables and fruit. + +It is a curious fact that everywhere in the Past where the +Portuguese have mixed with the native races they leave become +darker in colour than either of the parent stocks. This is the +case almost always with these "Orang Sirani" in the Moluccas, and +with the Portuguese of Malacca. The reverse is the case in South +America, where the mixture of the Portuguese or Brazilian with +the Indian produces the "Mameluco," who is not unfrequently +lighter than either parent, and always lighter than the Indian. +The women at Batchian, although generally fairer than the men, +are coarse in features, and very far inferior in beauty to the +mixed Dutch-Malay girls, or even to many pure Malays. + +The part of the village in which I resided was a grove of cocoa- +nut trees, and at night, when the dead leaves were sometimes +collected together and burnt, the effect was most magnificent-- +the tall stems, the fine crowns of foliage, and the immense +fruit-clusters, being brilliantly illuminated against a dark sky, +and appearing like a fairy palace supported on a hundred columns, +and groined over with leafy arches. The cocoa-nut tree, when well +grown, is certainly the prince of palms both for beauty and +utility. + +During my very first walk into the forest at Batchian, I had seen +sitting on a leaf out of reach, an immense butterfly of a dark +colour marked with white and yellow spots. I could not capture it +as it flew away high up into the forest, but I at once saw that +it was a female of a new species of Ornithoptera or "bird-winged +butterfly," the pride of the Eastern tropics. I was very anxious +to get it and to find the male, which in this genus is always of +extreme beauty. During the two succeeding months I only saw it +once again, and shortly afterwards I saw the male flying high in +the air at the mining village. I had begun to despair of ever +getting a specimen, as it seemed so rare and wild; till one day, +about the beginning of January, I found a beautiful shrub with +large white leafy bracts and yellow flowers, a species of +Mussaenda, and saw one of these noble insects hovering over it, +but it was too quick for me, and flew away. The next clay I went +again to the same shrub and succeeded in catching a female, and +the day after a fine male. I found it to be as I had expected, a +perfectly new and most magnificent species, and one of the most +gorgeously coloured butterflies in the world. Fine specimens of +the male are more than seven inches across the wings, which are +velvety black and fiery orange, the latter colour replacing the +green of the allied species. The beauty and brilliancy of this +insect are indescribable, and none but a naturalist can +understand the intense excitement I experienced when I at length +captured it. On taking it out of my net and opening the glorious +wings, my heart began to beat violently, the blood rushed to my +head, and I felt much more like fainting than I have done when in +apprehension of immediate death. I had a headache the rest of the +day, so great was the excitement produced by what will appear to +most people a very inadequate cause. + +I had decided to return to Ternate in a week or two more, but +this grand capture determined me to stay on till I obtained a +good series of the new butterfly, which I have since named +Ornithoptera croesus. The Mussaenda bush was an admirable place, +which I could visit every day on my way to the forest; and as it +was situated in a dense thicket of shrubs and creepers, I set my +man Lahi to clear a space all round it, so that I could easily +get at any insect that might visit it. Afterwards, finding that +it was often necessary to wait some time there, I had a little +seat put up under a tree by the side of it, where I came every +day to eat my lunch, and thus had half an hour's watching about +noon, besides a chance as I passed it in the morning. In this way +I obtained on an average one specimen a day for a long time, but +more than half of these were females, and more than half the +remainder worn or broken specimens, so that I should not have +obtained many perfect males had I not found another station for +them. + +As soon as I had seen them come to flowers, I sent my man Lahi +with a net on purpose to search for them, as they had also been +seen at some flowering trees on the beach, and I promised him +half a day's wages extra for every good specimen he could catch. +After a day or two he brought me two very fair specimens, and +told me he had caught them in the bed of a large rocky stream +that descends from the mountains to the sea abort a mile below +the village. They flew down this river, settling occasionally on +stones and rocks in the water, and he was obliged to wade up it +or jump from rock to rock to get at them. I went with him one +day, but found that the stream was far too rapid and the stones +too slippery for me to do anything, so I left it entirely to him, +and all the rest of the time we stayed in Batchian he used to be +out all day, generally bringing me one, and on good days two or +three specimens. I was thus able to bring away with me more than +a hundred of both sexes, including perhaps twenty very fine +males, though not more than five or six that were absolutely +perfect. + +My daily walk now led me, first about half a mile along the sandy +beach, then through a sago swamp over a causeway of very shaky +poles to the village of the Tomore people. Beyond this was the +forest with patches of new clearing, shady paths, and a +considerable quantity of felled timber. I found this a very fair +collecting ground, especially for beetles. The fallen trunks in +the clearings abounded with golden Buprestidae and curious +Brenthidae, and longicorns, while in the forest I found abundance +of the smaller Curculionidae, many longicorns, and some fine +green Carabidae. + +Butterflies were not abundant, but I obtained a few more of the +fine blue Papilio, and a number of beautiful little Lycaenidae, +as well as a single specimen of the very rare Papilio Wallacei, +of which I had taken the hitherto unique specimen in the Aru +Islands. + +The most interesting birds I obtained here, were the beautiful +blue kingfisher, Todiramphus diops; the fine green and purple +doves, Ptilonopus superbus and P. iogaster, and several new birds +of small size. My shooters still brought me in specimens of the +Semioptera Wallacei, and I was greatly excited by the positive +statements of several of the native hunters that another species +of this bird existed, much handsomer and more remarkable. They +declared that the plumage was glossy black, with metallic green +breast as in my species, but that the white shoulder plumes were +twice as long, and hung down far below the body of the bird. They +declared that when hunting pigs or deer far in the forest they +occasionally saw this bird, but that it was rare. I immediately +offered twelve guilders (a pound) for a specimen; but all in +vain, and I am to this day uncertain whether such a bird exists. +Since I left, the German naturalist, Dr. Bernstein, stayed many +months in the island with a large staff of hunters collecting for +the Leyden Museum; and as he was not more successful than myself, +we must consider either that the bird is very rare, or is +altogether a myth. + +Batchian is remarkable as being the most eastern point on the +globe inhabited by any of the Quadrumana. A large black baboon- +monkey (Cynopithecus nigrescens) is abundant in some parts of the +forest. This animal has bare red callosities, and a rudimentary +tail about an inch long--a mere fleshy tubercle, which may be +very easily overlooked. It is the same species that is found all +over the forests of Celebes, and as none of the other Mammalia of +that island extend into Batchian I am inclined to suppose that +this species has been accidentally introduced by the roaming +Malays, who often carry about with them tame monkeys and other +animals. This is rendered more probable by the fact that the +animal is not found in Gilolo, which is only separated from +Batchian by a very narrow strait. The introduction may have been +very recent, as in a fertile and unoccupied island such an animal +would multiply rapidly. The only other mammals obtained were an +Eastern opossum, which Dr. Gray has described as Cuscus ornatus; +the little flying opossum, Belideus ariel; a Civet cat, Viverra +zebetha; and nice species of bats, most of the smaller ones being +caught in the dusk with my butterfly net as they flew about +before the house. + +After much delay, owing to bad weather and the illness of one of +my men, I determined to visit Kasserota (formerly the chief +village), situated up a small stream, on an island close to the +north coast of Batchian; where I was told that many rare birds +were found. After my boat was loaded and everything ready, three +days of heavy squalls prevented our starting, and it was not till +the 21st of March that we got away. Early next morning we entered +the little river, and in about an hour we reached the Sultan's +house, which I had obtained permission to use. It was situated on +the bank of the river, and surrounded by a forest of fruit trees, +among which were some of the very loftiest and most graceful +cocoa-nut palms I have ever seen. It rained nearly all that day, +and I could do little but unload and unpack. Towards the +afternoon it cleared up, and I attempted to explore in various +directions, but found to my disgust that the only path was a +perfect mud swamp, along which it was almost impossible to walk, +and the surrounding forest so damp and dark as to promise little +in the way of insects. I found too on inquiry that the people +here made no clearings, living entirely on sago, fruit, fish, and +game; and the path only led to- a steep rocky mountain equally +impracticable and unproductive. The next day I sent my men to +this hill, hoping it might produce some good birds; but they +returned with only two common species, and I myself had been able +to get nothing; every little track I had attempted to follow +leading to a dense sago swamp. I saw that I should waste time by +staying here, and determined to leave the following day. + +This is one of those spots so hard for the European naturalist to +conceive, where with all the riches of a tropical vegetation, and +partly perhaps from the very luxuriance of that vegetation, +insects are as scarce as in the most barren parts of Europe, and +hardly more conspicuous. In temperate climates there is a +tolerable uniformity in the distribution of insects over those +parts of a country in which there is a similarity in the +vegetation, any deficiency being easily accounted for by the +absence of wood or uniformity of surface. The traveller hastily +passing through such a country can at once pick out a collecting +ground which will afford him a fair notion of its entomology. +Here the case is different. There are certain requisites of a +good collecting ground which can only be ascertained to exist by +some days' search in the vicinity of each village. In some places +there is no virgin forest, as at Djilolo and Sahoe; in others +there are no open pathways or clearings, as here. At Batchian +there are only two tolerable collecting places,--the road to the +coal mines, and the new clearings made by the Tomķre people, the +latter being by far the most productive. I believe the fact to be +that insects are pretty uniformly distributed over these +countries (where the forests have not been cleared away), and are +so scarce in any one spot that searching for them is almost +useless. If the forest is all cleared away, almost all the +insects disappear with it; but when small clearings and paths are +made, the fallen trees in various stages of drying and decay, the +rotting leaves, the loosening bark and the fungoid growths upon +it, together with the flowers that appear in much greater +abundance where the light is admitted, are so many attractions to +the insects for miles around, and cause a wonderful accumulation +of species and individuals. When the entomologist can discover +such a spot, he does more in a mouth than he could possibly do by +a year's search in the depths of the undisturbed forest. + +The next morning we left early, and reached the mouth of the +little river in about au hour. It flows through a perfectly flat +alluvial plain, but there are hills which approach it near the +mouth. Towards the lower part, in a swamp where the salt-water +must enter at high tides, were a number of elegant tree-ferns +from eight to fifteen feet high. These are generally considered +to be mountain plants, and rarely to occur on the equator at an +elevation of less than one or two thousand feet. In Borneo, in +the Aru Islands, and on the banks of the Amazon, I have observed +them at the level of the sea, and think it probable that the +altitude supposed to be requisite for them may have been deduced +from facts observed in countries where the plains and lowlands +are largely cultivated, and most of the indigenous vegetation +destroyed. Such is the case in most parts of Java, India, +Jamaica, and Brazil, where the vegetation of the tropics has been +most fully explored. + +Coming out to sea we turned northwards, and in about two hours' +sail reached a few huts, called Langundi, where some Galela men +had established themselves as collectors of gum-dammar, with +which they made torches for the supply of the Ternate market. +About a hundred yards back rises a rather steep hill, and a short +walk having shown me that there was a tolerable path up it, I +determined to stay here for a few days. Opposite us, and all +along this coast of Batchian, stretches a row of fine islands +completely uninhabited. Whenever I asked the reason why no one +goes to live in them, the answer always was, "For fear of the +Magindano pirates." Every year these scourges of the Archipelago +wander in one direction or another, making their rendezvous on +some uninhabited island, and carrying devastation to all the +small settlements around; robbing, destroying, killing, or taking +captive all they nee with. Their long well-manned praus escape +from the pursuit of any sailing vessel by pulling away right in +the wind's eye, and the warning smoke of a steamer generally +enables them to hide in some shallow bay, or narrow river, or +forest-covered inlet, till the danger is passed. The only +effectual way to put a stop to their depredations would be to +attack them in their strongholds and villages, and compel them to +give up piracy, and submit to strict surveillance. Sir James +Brooke did this with the pirates of the north-west coast of +Borneo, and deserves the thanks of the whole population of the +Archipelago for having rid them of half their enemies. + +All along the beach here, and in the adjacent strip of sandy +lowland, is a remarkable display of Pandanaceae or Screw-pines. +Some are like huge branching candelabra, forty or fifty feet +high, and bearing at the end of each branch a tuft of immense +sword-shaped leaves, six or eight inches wide, and as many feet +long. Others have a single unbranched stem, six or seven feet +high, the upper part clothed with the spirally arranged leaves, +and bearing a single terminal fruit ac large as a swan's egg. +Others of intermediate size have irregular clusters of rough red +fruits, and all have more or less spiny-edged leaves and ringed +stems. The young plants of the larger species have smooth glossy +thick leaves, sometimes ten feet long and eight inches wide, +which are used all over the Moluccas and New Guinea, to make +"cocoyas" or sleeping mats, which are often very prettily +ornamented with coloured patterns. Higher up on the bill is a +forest of immense trees, among which those producing the resin +called dammar (Dammara sp.) are abundant. The inhabitants of +several small villages in Batchian are entirely engaged in +searching for this product, and making it into torches by +pounding it and filling it into tubes of palm leaves about a yard +long, which are the only lights used by many of the natives. +Sometimes the dammar accumulates in large masses of ten or twenty +pounds weight, either attached to the trunk, or found buried in +the ground at the foot of the trees. The most extraordinary trees +of the forest are, however, a kind of fig, the aerial roots of +which form a pyramid near a hundred feet high, terminating just +where the tree branches out above, so that there is no real +trunk. This pyramid or cone is formed of roots of every size, +mostly descending in straight lines, but more or less obliquely- +and so crossing each other, and connected by cross branches, +which grow from one to another; as to form a dense and +complicated network, to which nothing but a photograph could do +justice (see illustration at Vol. I. page 130). The Kanary is +also abundant in this forest, the nut of which has a very +agreeable flavour, and produces an excellent oil. The fleshy +outer covering of the nut is the favourite food of the great +green pigeons of these islands (Carpophaga, perspicillata), and +their hoarse copings and heavy flutterings among the branches can +be almost continually heard. + +After ten days at Langundi, finding it impossible to get the bird +I was particularly in search of (the Nicobar pigeon, or a new +species allied to it), and finding no new birds, and very few +insects, I left early on the morning of April 1st, and in the +evening entered a river on the main island of Batchian (Langundi, +like Kasserota, being on a distinct island), where some Malays +and Galela men have a small village, and have made extensive +rice-fields and plantain grounds. Here we found a good house near +the river bank, where the water was fresh and clear, and the +owner, a respectable Batchian Malay, offered me sleeping room and +the use of the verandah if I liked to stay. Seeing forest all +round within a short distance, I accepted his offer, and the next +morning before breakfast walked out to explore, and on the skirts +of the forest captured a few interesting insects. + +Afterwards, I found a path which led for a mile or more through a +very fine forest, richer in palms than any I had seen in the +Moluccas. One of these especially attracted my attention from its +elegance. The stein was not thicker than my wrist, yet it was +very lofty, and bore clusters of bright red fruit. It was +apparently a species of Areca. Another of immense height closely +resembled in appearance the Euterpes of South America. Here also +grew the fan-leafed palm, whose small, nearly entire leaves are +used to make the dammar torches, and to form the water-buckets in +universal use. During this walk I saw near a dozen species of +palms, as well as two or three Pandani different from those of +Langundi. There were also some very fine climbing ferns and true +wild Plantains (Musa), bearing an edible fruit not so large as +one's thumb, and consisting of a mass of seeds just covered with +pulp and skin. The people assured me they had tried the +experiment of sowing and cultivating this species, but could not +improve it. They probably did not grow it in sufficient quantity, +and did not persevere sufficiently long. + +Batchian is an island that would perhaps repay the researches of +a botanist better than any other in the whole Archipelago. It +contains a great variety of surface and of soil, abundance of +large and small streams, many of which are navigable for some +distance, and there being no savage inhabitants, every part of it +can be visited with perfect safety. It possesses gold, copper, +and coal, hot springs and geysers, sedimentary and volcanic rocks +and coralline limestone, alluvial plains, abrupt hills and lofty +mountains, a moist climate, and a grand and luxuriant forest +vegetation. + +The few days I stayed here produced me several new insects, but +scarcely any birds. Butterflies and birds are in fact remarkably +scarce in these forests. One may walk a whole day and not see +more than two or three species of either. In everything but +beetles, these eastern islands are very deficient compared with +the western (Java, Borneo, &c.), and much more so if compared +with the forests of South America, where twenty or thirty species +of butterflies may be caught every day, and on very good days a +hundred, a number we can hardly reach here in months of +unremitting search. In birds there is the same difference. In +most parts of tropical America we may always find some species of +woodpecker tanager, bush shrike, chatterer, trogon, toucan, +cuckoo, and tyrant-flycatcher; and a few days' active search will +produce more variety than can be here met with in as many months. +Yet, along with this poverty of individuals and of species, there +are in almost every class and order, some one, or two species of +such extreme beauty or singularity, as to vie with, or even +surpass, anything that even South America can produce. + +One afternoon when I was arranging my insects, and surrounded by +a crowd of wondering spectators, I showed one of them how to look +at a small insect with a hand-lens, which caused such evident +wonder that all the rest wanted to see it too. I therefore fixed +the glass firmly to a piece of soft wood at the proper focus, and +put under it a little spiny beetle of the genus Hispa, and then +passed it round for examination. The excitement was immense. Some +declared it was a yard long; others were frightened, and +instantly dropped it, and all were as much astonished, and made +as much shouting and gesticulation, as children at a pantomime, +or at a Christmas exhibition of the oxyhydrogen microscope. And +all this excitement was produced by a little pocket lens, an inch +and a half focus, and therefore magnifying only four or five +times, but which to their unaccustomed eyes appeared to enlarge a +hundred fold. + +On the last day of my stay here, one of my hunters succeeded in +finding and shooting the beautiful Nicobar pigeon, of which I had +been so long in search. None of the residents had ever seen it, +which shows that it is rare and slay. My specimen was a female in +beautiful condition, and the glassy coppery and green of its +plumage, the snow-white tail and beautiful pendent feathers of +the neck, were greatly admired. I subsequently obtained a +specimen in New Guinea; and once saw it in the Kaiķa islands. It +is found also in some small islands near Macassar, in others near +Borneo; and in the Nicobar islands, whence it receives its name. +It is a ground feeder, only going upon trees to roost, and is a +very heavy fleshy bird. This may account far the fact of its +being found chiefly on very small islands, while in the western +half of the Archipelago, it seems entirely absent from the larger +ones. Being a ground feeder it is subject to the attacks of +carnivorous quadrupeds, which are not found in the very small +islands. Its wide distribution over the whole length of the +Archipelago; from extreme west to east, is however very +extraordinary, since, with the exception of a few of the birds of +prey, not a single land bird has so wide a range. Ground-feeding +birds are generally deficient in power of extended flight, and +this species is so bulky and heavy that it appears at first sight +quite unable to fly a mile. A closer examination shows, however, +that its wings are remarkably large, perhaps in proportion to its +size larger than those of any other pigeon, and its pectoral +muscles are immense. A fact communicated to me by the son of my +friend Mr. Duivenboden of Ternate, would show that, in accordance +with these peculiarities of structure, it possesses the power of +flying long distances. Mr. D. established an oil factory on a +small coral island, a hundred miles north of New Guinea, with no +intervening land. After the island had been settled a year, and +traversed in every direction, his son paid it a visit; and just +as the schooner was coming to an anchor, a bird was seen flying +from seaward which fell into the water exhausted before it could +reach the shore. A boat was sent to pick it up, and it was found +to be a Nicobar pigeon, which must have come from New Guinea, and +flown a hundred miles, since no such bird previously inhabited +the island. + +This is certainly a very curious case of adaptation to an unusual +and exceptional necessity. The bird does not ordinarily require +great powers of flight, since it lives in the forest, feeds on +fallen fruits, and roosts in low trees like other ground pigeons. +The majority of the individuals, therefore, can never make full +use of their enormously powerful wings, till the exceptional case +occurs of an individual being blown out to sea, or driven to +emigrate by the incursion of some carnivorous animal, or the +pressure of scarcity of food. A modification exactly opposite to +that which produced the wingless birds (the Apteryx, Cassowary, +and Dodo), appears to have here taken place; and it is curious +that in both cases an insular habitat should have been the moving +cause. The explanation is probably the same as that applied by +Mr. Darwin to the case of the Madeira beetles, many of which are +wingless, while some of the winged ones have the wings better +developed than the same species on the continent. It was +advantageous to these insects either never to fly at all, and +thus not run the risk of being blown out to sea, or to fly so +well as to he able either to return to land, or to migrate safely +to the continent. Pad flying was worse than not flying at all. +So, while in such islands as New Zealand and Mauritius far from +all land, it vas safer for a ground-feeding bird not to fly at +all, and the short-winged individuals continually surviving, +prepared the way for a wingless group of birds; in a vast +Archipelago thickly strewn with islands and islets it was +advantageous to be able occasionally to migrate, arid thus the +long and strong-winged varieties maintained their existence +longest, and ultimately supplanted all others, and spread the +race over the whole Archipelago. + +Besides this pigeon, the only new bird I obtained during the trip +was a rare goat-sucker (Batrachostomus crinifrons), the only +species of the genus yet found in the Moluccas. Among my insects +the best were the rare Pieris arum, of a rich chrome yellow +colour, with a black border and remarkable white antenna--perhaps +the very finest butterfly of the genus; and a large black wasp- +like insect, with immense jaws like a stag-beetle, which has been +named Megachile Pluto by Mr. B. Smith. I collected about a +hundred species of beetles quite new to me, but mostly very +minute, and also many rare and handsome ones which I had already +found in Batchian. On the whole I was tolerably satisfied with my +seventeen days' excursion, which was a very agreeable one, and +enabled me to sea a good deal of the island. I had hired a roomy +boat, and brought with me a small table and my rattan chair. +These were great comforts, as, wherever there was a roof, I could +immediately instal myself, and work and eat at ease. When I could +not find accommodation on shore I slept in the boat, which was +always drawn up on the beach if we stayed for a few days at one +spot. + +On my return to Batchian I packed up my collections, and prepared +for my return to Ternate. When I first came I had sent back my +boat by the pilot, with two or three other men who had been glad +of the opportunity. I now took advantage of a Government boat +which had just arrived with rice for the troops, and obtained +permission to return in her, and accordingly started on the 13th +of April, having resided only a week short of six months on the +island of Batchian. The boat was one of the kind called "Kora- +kora," quite open, very low, and about four tons burthen. It had +outriggers of bamboo about five feet off each side, which +supported a bamboo platform extending the whole length of the +vessel. On the extreme outside of this sit the twenty rowers, +while within was a convenient passage fore and aft. The middle +portion of the boat was covered with a thatch-house, in which +baggage and passengers are stowed; the gunwale was not more than +a foot above water, and from the great top and side weight, and +general clumsiness, these boats are dangerous in heavy weather, +and are not unfrequently lost. A triangle mast and mat sail +carried us on when the wind was favourable,--which (as usual) it +never was, although, according to the monsoon, it ought to have +been. Our water, carried in bamboos, would only last two days, +and as the voyage occupied seven, we had to touch at a great many +places. The captain was not very energetic, and the men rowed as +little as they pleased, or we might have reached Ternate in three +days, having had fine weather and little wind all the way. + +There were several passengers besides myself: three or four +Javanese soldiers, two convicts whose time had expired (one, +curiously enough, being the man who had stolen my cash-box and +keys), the schoolmaster's wife and a servant going on a visit to +Ternate, and a Chinese trader going to buy goods. We had to sleep +all together in the cabin, packed pretty close; but they very +civilly allowed me plenty of room for my mattrass, and we got on +very well together. There was a little cookhouse in the bows, +where we could boil our rice and make our coffee, every one of +course bringing his own provisions, and arranging his meal-times +as he found most convenient. The passage would have been +agreeable enough but for the dreadful "tom-toms," or wooden +drums, which are beaten incessantly while the men are rowing. Two +men were engaged constantly at them, making a fearful din the +whole voyage. The rowers are men sent by the Sultan of Ternate. +They get about threepence a day, and find their own provisions. +Each man had a strong wooden "betel" box, on which he generally +sat, a sleeping-mat, and a change of clothes--rowing naked, with +only a sarong or a waistcloth. They sleep in their places, +covered with their mat, which keeps out the rain pretty well. +They chew betel or smoke cigarettes incessantly; eat dry sago and +a little salt fish; seldom sing while rowing, except when excited +and wanting to reach a stopping-place, and do not talk a great +deal. They are mostly Malays, with a sprinkling of Alfuros from +Gilolo, and Papuans from Guebe or Waigiou. + +One afternoon we stayed at Makian; many of the men went on shore, +and a great deal of plantains, bananas, and other fruits were +brought on board. We then went on a little way, and in the +evening anchored again. When going to bed for the night, I put +out my candle, there being still a glimmering lamp burning, and, +missing my handkerchief, thought I saw it on a box which formed +one side of my bed, and put out my hand to take it. I quickly +drew back on feeling something cool and very smooth, which moved +as I touched it. "Bring the light, quick," I cried; "here's a +snake." And there he was, sure enough, nicely coiled up, with his +head just raised to inquire who had disturbed him. It was mow +necessary to catch or kill him neatly, or he would escape among +the piles of miscellaneous luggage, and we should hardly sleep +comfortably. One of the ex-convicts volunteered to catch him with +his hand wrapped up in a cloth, but from the way he went about it +I saw he was nervous and would let the thing go, so I would mot +allow him to make the attempt. I them got a chopping-knife, and +carefully moving my insect nets, which hung just over the snake +and prevented me getting a free blow, I cut him quietly across +the back, holding him down while my boy with another knife +crushed his head. On examination, I found he had large poison +fangs, and it is a wonder he did not bite me when I first touched +him. + +Thinking it very unlikely that two snakes had got on board at the +same time, I turned in and went to sleep; but having all the time +a vague dreamy idea that I might put my hand on another one, I +lay wonderfully still, not turning over once all night, quite the +reverse of my usual habits. The next day we reached Ternate, and +I ensconced myself in my comfortable house, to examine all my +treasures, and pack them securely for the voyage home. + +CHAPTER XXV. + +CERAM, GORAM, AND THE MATABELLO ISLANDS. + +(OCTOBER 1859 To JUNE 1860.) + +I LEFT Amboyna for my first visit to Ceram at three o'clock in +the morning of October 29th, after having been delayed several +days by the boat's crew, who could not be got together. Captain +Van der Beck, who gave me a passage in his boat, had been running +after them all day, and at midnight we had to search for two of +my men who had disappeared at the last moment. One we found at +supper in his own house, and rather tipsy with his parting +libations of arrack, but the other was gone across the bay, and +we were obliged to leave without him. We stayed some hours at two +villages near the east end of Amboyna, at one of which we had to +discharge some wood for the missionaries' house, and on the third +afternoon reached Captain Van der Beck's plantation, situated at +Hatosua, in that part of Ceram opposite to the island of Amboyna. +This was a clearing in flat and rather swampy forest, about +twenty acres in extent, and mostly planted with cacao and +tobacco. Besides a small cottage occupied by the workmen, there +was a large shed for tobacco drying, a corner of which was +offered me; and thinking from the look of the place that I should +find- good collecting ground here, I fitted up temporary tables, +benches, and beds, and made all preparations for some weeks' +stay. A few days, however, served to show that I should be +disappointed. Beetles were tolerably abundant, and I obtained +plenty of fine long-horned Anthribidae and pretty Longicorns, but +they were mostly the same species as I had found during my first +short visit to Amboyna. There were very few paths in the forest; +which seemed poor in birds and butterflies, and day after day my +men brought me nothing worth notice. I was therefore soon obliged +to think about changing my locality, as I could evidently obtain +no proper notion of the productions of the almost entirely +unexplored island of Ceram by staying in this place. + +I rather regretted leaving, because my host was one of the most +remarkable men and most entertaining companions I had ever met +with. He was a Fleeting by birth, and, like so many of his +countrymen, had a wonderful talent for languages. When quite a +youth he had accompanied a Government official who was sent to +report on the trade and commerce of the Mediterranean, and had +acquired the colloquial language of every place they stayed a few +weeks at. He had afterwards made voyages to St. Petersburg, and +to other parts of Europe, including a few weeks in London, and +had then come out to the past, where he had been for some years +trading and speculating in the various islands. He now spoke +Dutch, French, Malay, and Javanese, all equally well; English +with a very slight accent, but with perfect fluency, axed a most +complete knowledge of idiom, in which I often tried to puzzle him +in vain. German and Italian were also quite familiar to him, and +his acquaintance with European languages included Modern Greek, +Turkish, Russian, and colloquial Hebrew and Latin. As a test of +his power, I may mention that he had made a voyage to the out-of- +the-way island of Salibaboo, and had stayed there trading a few +weeks. As I was collecting vocabularies, he told me he thought he +could remember some words, and dictated considerable number. Some +time after I met with a short list of words taken down in those +islands, and in every case they agreed with those he had given +me. He used to sing a Hebrew drinking-song, which he had learned +from some Jews with whom he had once travelled, and astonished by +joining in their conversation, and had a never-ending fund of +tale and anecdote about the people he had met and the places he +had visited. + +In most of the villages of this part of Ceram are schools and +native schoolmasters, and the inhabitants have been long +converted to Christianity. In the larger villages there are +European missionaries; but there is little or no external +difference between the Christian and Alfuro villages, nor, as far +as I have seen, in their inhabitants. The people seem more +decidedly Papuan than those of Gilolo. They are darker in colour, +and a number of them have the frizzly Papuan hair; their features +also are harsh and prominent, and the women in particular are far +less engaging than those of the Malay race. Captain Van der Beck +was never tired of abusing the inhabitants of these Christian +villages as thieves, liars, and drunkards, besides being +incorrigibly lazy. In the city of Amboyna my friends Doctors +Mohnike and Doleschall, as well as most of the European residents +and traders, made exactly the same complaint, and would rather +have Mahometans for servants, even if convicts, than any of the +native Christians. One great cause of this is the fact, that with +the Mahometans temperance is a part of their religion, and has +become so much a habit that practically the rule is never +transgressed. One fertile source of want, arid one great +incentive to idleness and crime, is thus present with the one +class, but absent in the other; but besides this the Christians +look upon themselves as nearly the equals of the Europeans, who +profess the same religion, and as far superior to the followers +of Islam, and are therefore prone to despise work, and to +endeavour to live by trade, or by cultivating their own land. It +need hardly be said that with people in this low state of +civilization religion is almost wholly ceremonial, and that +neither are the doctrines of Christianity comprehended, nor its +moral precepts obeyed. At the same time, as far as my own +experience goes, I have found the better class of "Orang Sirani" +as civil, obliging, and industrious as the Malays, and only +inferior to them from their tendency to get intoxicated. + +Having written to the Assistant Resident of Saparua (who has +jurisdiction over the opposite part of the coast of Ceram) for a +boat to pursue my journey, I received one rather larger than +necessary with a crew of twenty men. I therefore bade adieu to my +kind friend Captain Van der Beck, and left on the evening after +its arrival for the village of Elpiputi, which we reached in two +days. I had intended to stay here, but not liking the appearance +of the place, which seemed to have no virgin forest near it, I +determined to proceed about twelve miles further up the bay of +Amahay, to a village recently formed, and inhabited by indigenes +from the interior, and where some extensive cacao plantations +were being made by some gentlemen of Amboyna. I reached the place +(called Awaiya) the same afternoon, and with the assistance of +Mr. Peters (the manager of the plantations) and the native chief, +obtained a small house, got all my things on shore, and paid and +discharged my twenty boatmen, two of whom had almost driven me to +distraction by beating tom-toms the whole voyage. + +I found the people here very nearly in a state of nature, and +going almost naked. The men wear their frizzly hair gathered into +a flat circular knot over the left temple, which has a very +knowing look, and in their ears cylinders of wood as thick as +one's finger, and coloured red at the ends. Armlets and anklets +of woven grass or of silver, with necklaces of beads or of small +fruits, complete their attire. The women wear similar ornaments, +but have their hair loose. All are tall, with a dark brown skin, +and well marked Papuan physiognomy. There is an Amboyna +schoolmaster in the village, and a good number of children attend +school every morning. Such of the inhabitants as have become +Christians may be known by their wearing their hair loose, and +adopting to some extent the native Christian dress-trousers and a +loose shirt. Very few speak Malay, all these coast villages +having been recently formed by inducing natives to leave the +inaccessible interior. In all the central part of Ceram there new +remains only one populous village in the mountains. Towards the +east and the extreme west are a few others, with which exceptions +all the inhabitants of Ceram are collected on the coast. In the +northern and eastern districts they are mostly Mahometans, while +on the southwest coast, nearest Amboyna, they are nominal +Christians. In all this part of the Archipelago the Dutch make +very praiseworthy efforts to improve the condition of the +aborigines by establishing schoolmasters in every village (who +are mostly natives of Amboyna or Saparua, who have; been +instructed by the resident missionaries), and by employing native +vaccinators to prevent the ravages of smallpox. They also +encourage the settlement of Europeans, and the formation of new +plantations of cacao and coffee, one of the best means of raising +the condition of the natives, who thus obtain work at fair wages, +and have the opportunity of acquiring something of European +tastes and habits. + +My collections here did not progress much better than at my +former station, except that butterflies were a little more +plentiful, and some very fine species were to be found in the +morning on the sea-beach, sitting so quietly on the wet sand that +they could be caught with the fingers. In this way I had many +fine specimens of Papilios brought me by the children. Beetles, +however, were scarce, and birds still more so, and I began to +think that the handsome species which I had so often heard were +found in Ceram must be entirely confined to the eastern extremity +of the island. + +A few miles further worth, at the head of the Bay of Amahay, is +situated the village of Makariki, from whence there is a native +path quite across the island to the north coast. My friend Mr. +Rosenberg, whose acquaintance I had made at New Guinea, and who +was now the Government superintendent of all this part of Ceram, +returned from Wahai, on the north coast, after I had been three +weeks at Awaiya, and showed me some fine butterflies he had +obtained on the mountain streams in the interior. He indicated a +spot about the centre of the island where he thought I might +advantageously stay a few days. I accordingly visited Makariki +with him the next day, and he instructed the chief of the village +to furnish me with men to carry my baggage, and accompany me on +my excursion. As the people of the village wanted to be at home +on Christmas-day, it was necessary to start as soon as possible; +so we agreed that the men should be ready in two days, and I +returned to make my arrangements. + +I put up the smallest quantity of baggage possible for a six +days' trip, and on the morning of December 18th we left Makariki, +with six men carrying my baggage and their own provisions, and a +lad from Awaiya, who was accustomed to catch butterflies for me. +My two Amboyna hunters I left behind to shoot and skin what birds +they could while I was away. Quitting the village, we first +walked briskly for an hour through a dense tangled undergrowth, +dripping wet from a storm of the previous night, and full of mud +holes. After crossing several small streams we reached one of the +largest rivers in Ceram, called Ruatan, which it was necessary to +cross. It was both deep and rapid. The baggage was first taken +over, parcel by parcel, on the men's heads, the water reaching +nearly up to their armpits, and then two men returned to assist +me. The water was above my waist, and so strong that I should +certainly have been carried off my feet had I attempted to cross +alone; and it was a matter of astonishment to me how the men +could give me any assistance, since I found the greatest +difficulty in getting my foot down again when I had once moved it +off the bottom. The greater strength and grasping power of their +feet, from going always barefoot, no doubt gave them a surer +footing in the rapid water. + +After well wringing out our wet clothes and putting them on, we +again proceeded along a similar narrow forest track as before, +choked with rotten leaves and dead trees, and in the more open +parts overgrown with tangled vegetation. Another hour brought us +to a smaller stream flowing in a wide gravelly bed, up which our +road lay. Here w e stayed half an hour to breakfast, and then +went on, continually crossing the stream, or walking on its stony +and gravelly banks, till about noon, when it became rocky and +enclosed by low hills. A little further we entered a regular +mountain-gorge, and had to clamber over rocks, and every moment +cross and recross the water, or take short cuts through the +forest. This was fatiguing work; and about three in the +afternoon, the sky being overcast, and thunder in the mountains +indicating an approaching storm, we had to loon out for a camping +place, and soon after reached one of Mr. Rosenberg's old ones. +The skeleton of his little sleeping-hut remained, and my men cut +leaves and made a hasty roof just as the rain commenced. The +baggage was covered over with leaves, and the men sheltered +themselves as they could till the storm was over, by which time a +flood came down the river, which effectually stopped our further +march, even had we wished to proceed. We then lighted fires; I +made some coffee, and my men roasted their fish and plantains, +and as soon as it was dark, we made ourselves comfortable for the +night. + +Starting at six the next morning, we had three hours of the same +kind of walking, during which we crossed the river at least +thirty or forty times, the water being generally knee-deep. This +brought us to a place where the road left the stream, and here we +stopped to breakfast. We then had a long walk over the mountain, +by a tolerable path, which reached an elevation of about fifteen +hundred feet above the sea. Here I noticed one of the smallest +and most elegant tree ferns I had ever seen, the stem being +scarcely thicker than my thumb, yet reaching a height of fifteen +or twenty feet. I also caught a new butterfly of the genus +Pieris, and a magnificent female specimen of Papilio gambrisius, +of which I had hitherto only found the males, which are smaller +and very different in colour. Descending the other side of the +ridge, by a very steep path, we reached another river at a spot +which is about the centre of the island, and which was to be our +resting place for two or three days. In a couple of hour my men +had built a little sleeping-shed for me, about eight feet by +four, with a bench of split poles, they themselves occupying two +or three smaller ones, which had been put up by former +passengers. + +The river here was about twenty yards wide, running over a pebbly +and sometimes a rocky bed, and bordered by steep hills with +occasionally flat swampy spots between their base and the stream. +The whole country was one dense, Unbroken, and very damp and +gloomy virgin forest. Just at our resting-place there was a +little bush-covered island in the middle of the channel, so that +the opening in the forest made by the river was wider than usual, +and allowed a few gleams of sunshine to penetrate. Here there +were several handsome butterflies flying about, the finest of +which, however, escaped me, and I never saw it again during my +stay. In the two days and a half which we remained here, I +wandered almost all day up and down the stream, searching after +butterflies, of which I got, in all, fifty or sixty specimens, +with several species quite new to me. There were many others +which I saw only once, and did not capture, causing me to regret +that there was no village in these interior valleys where I could +stay a month. In the early part of each morning I went out with +my gun in search of birds, and two of my men were out almost all +day after deer; but we were all equally unsuccessful, getting +absolutely nothing the whole time we were in the forest. The only +good bird seen was the fine Amboyna lory, but these were always +too high to shoot; besides this, the great Moluccan hornbill, +which I did not want, was almost the only bird met with. I saw +not a single ground-thrush, or kingfisher, or pigeon; and, in +fact, have never been in a forest so utterly desert of animal +life as this appeared to be. Even in all other groups of insects, +except butterflies, there was the same poverty. I bad hoped to +find some rare tiger beetles, as I had done in similar situations +in Celebes; but, though I searched closely in forest, river-bed, +and mountain-brook, I could find nothing but the two common +Amboyna species. Other beetles there were absolutely none. + +The constant walking in water, and over rocks and pebbles, quite +destroyed the two pair of shoes I brought with me, so that, on my +return, they actually fell to pieces, and the last day I had to +walk in my stockings very painfully, and reached home quite lame. +On our way back from Makariki, as on our way there, we had storm +and rain at sea, and we arrived at Awaiya late in the evening, +with all our baggage drenched, and ourselves thoroughly +uncomfortable. All the time I had been in Ceram I had suffered +much from the irritating bites of an invisible acarus, which is +worse than mosquitoes, ants, and every other pest, because it is +impossible to guard against them. This last journey in the forest +left me covered from head to foot with inflamed lumps, which, +after my return to Amboyna, produced a serious disease, confining +me to the house for nearly two months, a not very pleasant +memento of my first visit to Ceram, which terminated with the +year 1859. + +It was not till the 24th of February, 1860, that I started again, +intending to pass from village to village along the coast, +staying where I found a suitable locality. I had a letter from +the Governor of the Moluccas, requesting all the chiefs to supply +me with boats and men to carry me on my journey. The first boat +took me in two days to Amahay, on the opposite side of the bay to +Awaiya. The chief here, wonderful to relate, did not make any +excuses for delay, but immediately ordered out the boat which was +to carry me on, put my baggage on hoard, set up mast and sails +after dark, and had the men ready that nigh; so that we were +actually on our way at five the next morning,--a display of +energy and activity I scarcely ever saw before in a native chief +on such an occasion. We touched at Cepa, and stayed for the night +at Tamilan, the first two Mahometan villages on the south coast +of Ceram. The next day, about noon, we reached Hoya, which was as +Far as my present boat and crew were going to take me. The +anchorage is about a mile east of the village, which is faced by +coral reefs, and we had to wait for the evening tide to move up +and unload the boat into the strange rotten wooden pavilion kept +for visitors. + +There was no boat here large enough to take my baggage; and +although two would have done very well, the Rajah insisted upon +sending four. The reason of this I found was, that there were +four small villages under his rule, and by sending a boat from +each he would avoid the difficult task of choosing two and +letting off the others. I was told that at the next village of +Teluti there were plenty of Alfuros, and that I could get +abundance of Tories and other birds. The Rajah declared that +black and yellow Tories and black cockatoos were found there; but +I am inclined to think he knew very well he was telling me lies, +and that it was only a scheme to satisfy me with his plan of +taking me to that village, instead of a day's journey further on, +as I desired. Here, as at most of the villages, I was asked for +spirits, the people being mere nominal Mahometans, who confine +their religion almost entirely to a disgust at pork, and a few +other forbidden articles of food. The next morning, after much +trouble, we got our cargoes loaded, and had a delightful row +across the deep bay of Teluti, with a view of the grand central +mountain-range of Ceram. Our four boats were rowed by sixty men, +with flags flying and tom-toms beating, as well as very vigorous +shouting and singing to keep up their spirits. The sea way +smooth, the morning bright, and the whole scene very +exhilarating. On landing, the Orang-kaya and several of the chief +men, in gorgeous silk jackets, were waiting to receive us, and +conducted me to a house prepared for my reception, where I +determined to stay a few days, and see if the country round +produced anything new. + +My first inquiries were about the lories, but I could get very +little satisfactory information. The only kinds known were the +ring-necked lory and the common red and green lorikeet, both +common at Amboyna. Black Tories and cockatoos were quite unknown. +The Alfuros resided in the mountains five or six days' journey +away, and there were only one or two live birds to be found in +the village, and these were worthless. My hunters could get +nothing but a few common birds; and notwithstanding fine +mountains, luxuriant forests, and a locality a hundred miles +eastward, I could find no new insects, and extremely few even of +the common species of Amboyna and West Ceram. It was evidently no +use stopping at such a place, and I was determined to move on as +soon as possible. + +The village of Teluti is populous, but straggling and very dirty. +Sago trees here cover the mountain side, instead of growing as +usual in low swamps; but a closer examination shows that they +grow in swampy patches, which have formed among the loose rocks +that cover the ground, and which are kept constantly full of +moisture by the rains, and by the abundance of rills which +trickle down among them. This sago forms almost the whole +subsistence of the inhabitants, who appear to cultivate nothing +but a few small patches of maize and sweet potatoes. Hence, as +before explained, the scarcity of insects. The Orang-kaya has +fine clothes, handsome lamps, and other expensive European goods, +yet lives every day on sago and fish as miserably as the rest. + +After three days in this barren place I left on the morning of +March 6th, in two boats of the same size as those which had +brought me to Teluti. With some difficulty I had obtained +permission to take these boats on to Tobo, where I intended to +stay a while, and therefore got on pretty quickly, changing men +at the village of Laiemu, and arriving in a heavy rain at +Ahtiago. As there was a good deal of surf here, and likely to be +more if the wind blew hard during the night, our boats were +pulled up on the beach; and after supping at the Orang-kaya's +house, and writing down a vocabulary of the language of the +Alfuros, who live in the mountains inland, I returned to sleep in +the boat. Next morning we proceeded, changing men at Warenama, +and again at Hatometen, at both of which places there was much +surf and no harbour, so that the men had to go on shore and come +on board by swimming. Arriving in the evening of March 7th at +Batuassa, the first village belonging to the Rajah of Tobo, and +under the government of Banda, the surf was very heavy, owing to +a strong westward swell. We therefore rounded the rocky point on +which the village was situated, but found it very little better +on the other side. We were obliged, however, to go on shore here; +and waiting till the people on the beach had made preparations, +by placing a row of logs from the water's edge on which to pull +up our boats, we rowed as quickly as we could straight on to +them, after watching till the heaviest surfs had passed. The +moment we touched ground our men all jumped out, and, assisted by +those on shore, attempted to haul up the boat high and dry, but +not having sufficient hands, the surf repeatedly broke into the +stern. The steepness of the beach, however, prevented any damage +being done, and the other boat having both crews to haul at it, +was got up without difficulty. + +The next morning, the water being low, the breakers were at some +distance from shore, and we had to watch for a smooth moment +after bringing the boats to the water's edge, and so got safely +out to sea. At the two next villages, Tobo and Ossong, we also +took in fresh men, who came swimming through the surf; and at the +latter place the Rajah came on board and accompanied me to +Kissalaut, where he has a house which he lent me during my stay. +Here again was a heavy surf, and it was with great difficulty we +got the boats safely hauled up. At Amboyna I had been promised at +this season a calm sea and the wind off shore, but in this case, +as in every other, I had been unable to obtain any reliable +information as to the winds and seasons of places distant two or +three days' journey. It appears, however, that owing to the +general direction of the island of Ceram (E.S.E. and W.N.W.), +there is a heavy surf and scarcely any shelter on the south coast +during the west monsoon, when alone a journey to the eastward can +be safely made; while during the east monsoon, when I proposed to +return along the north coast to Wahai, I should probably find +that equally exposed and dangerous. But although the general +direction of the west monsoon in the Banda sea causes a heavy +swell, with bad surf on the coast, yet we had little advantage of +the wind; for, owing I suppose to the numerous bays and +headlands, we had contrary south-east or even due east winds all +the way, and had to make almost the whole distance from Amboyna +by force of rowing. We had therefore all the disadvantages, and +none of the advantages, of this west monsoon, which I was told +would insure me a quick and pleasant journey. + +I was delayed at Kissa-laut just four weeks, although after the +first three days I saw that it would be quite useless for me to +stay, and begged the Rajah to give me a prau and men to carry me +on to Goram. But instead of getting one close at hand, he +insisted on sending several miles off; and when after many delays +it at length arrived, it was altogether unsuitable and too small +to carry my baggage. Another was then ordered to be brought +immediately, and was promised in three days, but doable that time +elapsed and none appeared, and we were obliged at length to get +one at the adjoining village, where it might have been so much +more easily obtained at first. Then came caulking and covering +over, and quarrels between the owner and the Rajah's men, which +occupied more than another ten days, during all which time I was +getting absolutely nothing, finding this part of Ceram a perfect +desert in zoology. although a most beautiful country, and with a +very luxuriant vegetation. It was a complete puzzle, which to +this day I have not been able to understand; the only thing I +obtained worth notice during my month's stay here being a few +good land shells. + +At length, on April 4th, we succeeded in getting away in our +little boat of about four tons burthen, in which my numerous +boxes were with difficulty packed so as to leave sleeping and +cooling room. The craft could not boast an ounce of iron or a +foot of rope in any part of its construction, nor a morsel of +pitch or paint in its decoration. The planks were fastened +together in the usual ingenious way with pegs and rattans. The +mast was a bamboo triangle, requiring no shrouds, and carrying a +long mat sail; two rudders were hung on the quarters by rattans, +the anchor was of wood, and a long and thick rattan; served as a +cable. Our crew consisted of four men, whose pole accommodation +was about three feet by four in the bows and stern, with the +sloping thatch roof to stretch themselves upon for a change. We +had nearly a hundred miles to go, fully exposed to the swell of +the Banda sea, which is sometimes very considerable; but we +luckily had it calm and smooth, so that we made the voyage in +comparative comfort. + +On the second day we passed the eastern extremity of Ceram, +formed of a group of hummocky limestone hills; and, sailing by +the islands of Kwammer and Keffing, both thickly inhabited, came +in sight of the little town of Kilwaru, which appears to rise out +of the sea like a rustic Venice. This place has really a most +extraordinary appearance, as not a particle of land or vegetation +can be seen, but a long way out at sea a large village seems to +float upon the water. There is of course a small island of +several acres in extent; but the houses are built so closely all +round it upon piles in the water, that it is completely hidden. +It is a place of great traffic, being the emporium for much of +the produce of these Eastern seas, and is the residence of many +Bugis and Ceramese traders, and appears to have been chosen on +account of its being close to the only deep channel between the +extensive shoals of Ceram-laut and those bordering the east end +of Ceram. We now had contrary east winds, and were obliged to +pole over the shallow coral reefs of Ceram-laut for nearly thirty +miles. The only danger of our voyage was just at its termination, +for as we were rowing towards Manowolko, the largest of the Goram +group, we were carried out so rapidly by a strong westerly +current, that I was almost certain at one time we should pass +clear of the island; in which case our situation would have been +both disagreeable and dangerous, as, with the east wind which had +just set in, we might have been unable to return for many days, +and we had not a day's water on board. At the critical moment I +served out some strong spirits to my men, which put fresh vigour +into their arms, and carried us out of the influence of the +current before it was too late. + +MANOWOLKO, GORAM GROUP. + +On arriving at Manowolko, we found the Rajah was at the opposite +island of Goram; but he was immediately sent for, and in the +meantime a large shed was given for our accommodation. At night +the Rajah came, and the next day I had a visit from him, and +found, as I expected, that I had already made his acquaintance +three years before at Aru. He was very friendly, and we had a +long talk; but when I begged for a boat and men to take me on to +Ke, he made a host of difficulties. There were no praus, as all +had gone to Ke or Aim; and even if one were found, there were no +men, as it was the season when all were away trading. But he +promised to see about it, and I was obliged to wait. For the next +two or three days there was more talking and more difficulties +were raised, and I had time to make an examination of the island +and the people. + +Manowolko is about fifteen miles long, and is a mere; upraised +coral-reef. Two or three hundred yards inland rise cliffs of +coral rock, in many parts perpendicular, and one or two hundred +feet high; and this, I was informed, is characteristic of the +whole island, in which there is no other kind of rock, and no +stream of water. A few cracks and chasms furnish paths to the top +of these cliffs, where there is an open undulating country, in +which the chief vegetable grounds of the inhabitants are +situated. + +The people here--at least the chief men--were of a much purer +Malay race than the Mahometans of the mainland of Ceram, which is +perhaps due to there having been no indigenes on these small +islands when the first settlers arrived. In Ceram, the Alfuros of +Papuan race are the predominant type, the Malay physiognomy being +seldom well marked; whereas here the reverse is the case, and a +slight infusion of Papuan on a mixture of Malay and Bugis has +produced a very good-looking set of people. The lower class of +the population consist almost entirely of the indigenes of the +adjacent island. They are a fine race, with strongly-marked +Papuan features, frizzly hair, and brown complexions. The Goram +language is spoken also at the east end of Ceram, and in the +adjacent islands. It has a general resemblance to the languages +of Ceram, but possesses a peculiar element which I have not met +with in other languages of the Archipelago. + +After great delay, considering the importance of every day at +this time of year, a miserable boat and five men were found, and +with some difficulty I stowed away in it such baggage as it was +absolutely necessary for me to take, leaving scarcely sitting or +sleeping room. The sailing qualities of the boat were highly +vaunted, and I was assured that at this season a small one was +much more likely to succeed in making the journey. We first +coasted along the island, reaching its eastern extremity the +following morning (April 11th), and found a strong W. S.W. wind +blowing, which just allowed us to lay across to the Matabello +Islands, a distance little short of twenty miles. I did not much +like the look of the heavy sky and rather rough sea, and my men +were very unwilling to make the attempt; but as we could scarcely +hope for a better chance, I insisted upon trying. The pitching +and jerking of our little boat, soon reduced me to a state of +miserable helplessness, and I lay down, resigned to whatever +might happen. After three or four hours, I was told we were +nearly over; but when I got up, two hours later, just as the sun +was setting, I found we were still a good distance from the +point, owing to a strong current which had been for some time +against us. Night closed in, and the wind drew more ahead, so we +had to take in sail. Then came a calm, and we rowed and sailed as +occasion offered; and it was four in the morning when we reached +the village of Kisslwoi, not having made more than three miles in +the last twelve hours. + +MATABELLO ISLANDS. + +At daylight I found we were; in a beautiful little harbour, +formed by a coral reef about two hundred yards from shore, and +perfectly secure in every wind. Having eaten nothing since the +previous morning, we cooked our breakfast comfortably on shore, +and left about noon, coasting along the two islands of this +group, which lie in the same line, and are separated by a narrow +channel. Both seem entirely formed of raised coral rock; but them +has been a subsequent subsidence, as shaven by the barrier reef +which extends all along them at varying distances from the shore, +This reef is sometimes only marked by a. line of breakers when +there is a little swell on the sea; in other places there is a +ridge of dead coral above the water, which is here and there high +enough to support a few low bushes. This was the first example I +had met with of a true barrier reef due to subsidence, as has +been so clearly shown by Mr. Darwin. In a sheltered archipelago +they will seldom be distinguishable, from the absence of those +huge rolling waves and breakers which in the wide ocean throw up +a barrier of broken coral far above the usual high-water mark, +while here they rarely rise to the surface. + +On reaching the end of the southern island, called Uta, we were +kept waiting two days for a wind that would enable us to pass +over to the next island, Teor, and I began to despair of ever +reaching Ke, and determined on returning. We left with a south +wind, which suddenly changed to north-east, and induced me to +turn again southward in the hopes that this was the commencement +of a few days' favourable weather. We sailed on very well in the +direction of Teor for about an hour, after which the wind shifted +to WSW., and we were driven much out of our course, and at +nightfall found ourselves in the open sea, and full ten miles to +leeward of our destination. My men were now all very much +frightened, for if we went on we might be a. week at sea in our +little open boat, laden almost to the water's edge; or we might +drift on to the coast of New Guinea, in which case we should most +likely all be murdered. I could not deny these probabilities, and +although I showed them that we could not get back to our +starting-point with the wind as it was, they insisted upon +returning. We accordingly put about, and found that we could lay +no nearer to Uta than to Teor; however, by great good luck, about +ten o'clock we hit upon a little coral island, and lay under its +lee till morning, when a favourable change of wind brought us +back to Uta, and by evening (April 18th w e reached our first +anchorage in Matabello, where I resolved to stay a few days, and +then return to Goram. It way with much regret that I gave up my +trip to Ke and the intervening islands, which I had looked +forward to as likely to make up for my disappointment in Ceram, +since my short visit on my voyage to Aru had produced me so many +rare and beautiful insects. + +The natives of Matabello are almost entirely occupied in making +cocoanut oil, which they sell to the Bugis and Goram traders, who +carry it to Banda and Amboyna. The rugged coral rock seems very +favourable to the growth of the cocoa-nut palm, which abounds +over the whole island to the very highest points, and produces +fruit all the year round. Along with it are great numbers of the +areca or betel-nut palm, the nuts of which are sliced, dried, and +ground into a paste, which is much used by the betel-chewing +Malays and Papuans. A11 the little children here even such as can +just run alone, carried between their lips a mass of the nasty- +looking red paste, which is even more disgusting than to see them +at the same age smoking cigars, which is very common even before +they are weaned. Cocoa-nuts, sweet potatoes, an occasional sago +cake, and the refuse nut after the oil has been extracted by +boiling, form the chief sustenance of these people; and the +effect of this poor and unwholesome diet is seen in the frequency +of eruptions and scurfy skin diseases, and the numerous sores +that disfigure the faces of the children. + +The villages are situated on high and rugged coral peaks, only +accessible by steep narrow paths, with ladders and bridges over +yawning chasms. They are filthy with rotten husks and oil refuse, +and the huts are dark, greasy, and dirty in the extreme. The +people are wretched ugly dirty savages, clothed in unchanged +rags, and living in the most miserable manner, and as every drop +of fresh water has to be brought up from the beach, washing is +never thought of; yet they are actually wealthy, and have the +means of purchasing all the necessaries and luxuries of life. +Fowls are abundant, and eggs were given me whenever I visited the +villages, but these are never eaten, being looked upon as pets or +as merchandise. Almost all of the women wear massive gold +earrings, and in every village there are dozens of small bronze +cannon lying about on the ground, although they have cost on the +average perhaps Ŗ10 a piece. The chief men of each village came +to visit me, clothed in robes of silk and flowered satin, though +their houses and their daily fare are no better than those of the +ether inhabitants. What a contrast between these people and such +savages as the best tribes of bill. Dyaks in Borneo, or the +Indians of the Uaupes in South America, living on the banks of +clear streams, clean in their persons and their houses, with +abundance of wholesome food, and exhibiting its effect in healthy +shins and beauty of form and feature! There is in fact almost as +much difference: between the various races of savage as of +civilized peoples, and we may safely affirm that the better +specimens of the former are much superior to the lower examples +of the latter class. + +One of the few luxuries of Matabello is the palm wine; which is +the fermented sap from the flower stains of the cocoa-net. It is +really a very mice drink, more like cyder than beer, though quite +as intoxicating as the latter. Young cocoa-nuts are also very +abundant, so that anywhere in the island it is only necessary to +go a few yards to find a delicious beverage by climbing up a tree +for it. It is the water of the young fruit that is drunk, before +the pulp has hardened; it is then more abundant, clear, and +refreshing, and the thin coating of gelatinous pulp is thought a +treat luxury. The water of full-brown cocoa-nuts is always thrown +away as undrinkable, although it is delicious in comparison with +that of the old dry nuts which alone we obtain in this country. +The cocoa-nut pulp I did not like at first; but fruits are so +scarce, except at particular seasons, that one soon learns to +appreciate anything of a fruity nature. + +Many persons in Europe are under the impression that fruits of +delicious flavour abound in the tropical forests, and they will +no doubt be surprised to learn that the truly wild fruits of this +brand and luxuriant archipelago, the vegetation of which will vie +with that of any part of the world, are in almost every island +inferior in abundance and duality to those of Britain. Wild +strawberries and raspberries are found in some places, but they +arc such poor tasteless things as to be hardly worth eating, and +there is nothing to compare with our blackberries and +whortleberries. The kanary-nut may be considered equal to a +hazel-nut, but I have met with nothing else superior to our +crabs, oar haws, beech-nuts, wild plums, and acorns; fruits +which would be highly esteemed by the natives of these islands, +and would form an important part of their sustenance. All the +fine tropical fruits are as much cultivated productions as our +apples, peaches, and plums, and their wild prototypes, when +found, are generally either tasteless or uneatable. + +The people of Matabello, like those of most of the Mahometan +villages of East Ceram and Goram, amused me much by their strange +ideas concerning the Russian war. They believe that the Russians +were not only most thoroughly beaten by the Turks, but were +absolutely conquered, and all converted to Islamism! And they can +hardly be convinced that such is not the case, and that had it +not been for the assistance of France and England, the poor +Sultan world have fared ill. Another of their motions is, that +the Turks are the largest and strongest people in the world--in +fact a race of giants; that they eat enormous quantities of meat, +and are a most ferocious and irresistible nation. Whence such +strangely incorrect opinions could have arisen it is difficult to +understand, unless they are derived from Arab priests, or hadjis +returned from Mecca, who may have heard of the ancient prowess of +the Turkish armies when they made all Europe tremble, and suppose +that their character and warlike capacity must be the same at the +present time. + +GORAM + +A steady south-east wind having set in, we returned to Manowolko +on the 25th of April, and the day after crossed over to Ondor, +the chief village of Goram. + +Around this island extends, with few interruptions, an encircling +coral reef about a quarter of a mile from the shore, visible as a +stripe of pale green water, but only at very lowest ebb-tides +showing any rock above the surface. There are several deep +entrances through this reef, and inside it there is hood +anchorage in all weathers. The land rises gradually to a moderate +height, and numerous small streams descend on all sides. The mere +existence of these streams would prove that the island was not +entirely coralline, as in that case all the water would sink +through the porous rock as it does at Manowolko and Matabello; +but we have more positive proof in the pebbles and stones of +their beds, which exhibit a variety of stratified crystalline +rocks. About a hundred yards from the beach rises a wall of coral +rock, ten or twenty feet high, above which is an undulating +surface of rugged coral, which slopes downward towards the +interior, and then after a slight ascent is bounded by a second +wall of coral. Similar walls occur higher up, and coral is found +on the highest part of the island. + +This peculiar structure teaches us that before the coral was +formed land existed in this spot; that this land sunk gradually +beneath the waters, but with intervals of rest, during which +encircling reef's were formed around it at different elevations; +that it then rose to above its present elevation, and is now +again sinking. We infer this, because encircling reefs are a +proof of subsidence; and if the island were again elevated about +a hundred feet, what is now the reef and the shallow sea within +it would form a wall of coral rock, and an undulating coralline +plain, exactly similar to those that still exist at various +altitudes up to the summit of the island. We learn also that +these changes have taken place at a comparatively recent epoch, +for the surface of the coral has scarcely suffered from the +action of the weather, and hundreds of sea-shells, exactly +resembling those still found upon the beach, and many of them +retaining their gloss and even their colour, are scattered over +the surface of the island to near its summit. + +Whether the Goram group formed originally part of New Guinea or +of Ceram it is scarcely possible to determine, and its +productions will throw little light upon the question, if, as I +suppose, the islands have been entirely submerged within the +epoch of existing species of animals, as in that case it must owe +its present fauna and flora to recent immigration from +surrounding lands; and with this view its poverty in species very +well agrees. It possesses much in common with East Ceram, but at +the same time has a good deal of resemblance to the Ke Islands +and Banda. The fine pigeon, Carpophaga concinna, inhabits Ke, +Banda, 11-Iatabello, and Goram, and is replaced by a distinct +species, C. neglecta, in Ceram. The insects of these four islands +have also a common facies--facts which seem to indicate that some +more extensive land has recently disappeared from the area they +now occupy, and has supplied them with a few of its peculiar +productions. + +The Goram people (among whom I stayed a month) are a race of +traders. Every year they visit the Tenimber, Ke, and Aru Islands, +the whole north-west coast of New Guinea from Oetanata to +Salwatty, and the island of Waigiou and Mysol. They also extend +their voyages to Tidore and Ternate, as well as to Banda and +Amboyna, Their praus are all made by that wonderful race of +boatbuilders, the Ke. islanders, who annually turn out some +hundreds of boats, large and small, which can hardly be surpassed +for beauty of form and goodness of workmanship, They trade +chiefly in tripang, the medicinal mussoi bark, wild nutmegs, and +tortoiseshell, which they sell to the Bugis traders at Ceram-laut +or Aru, few of them caring to take their products to any other +market. In other respects they are a lazy race, living very +poorly, and much given to opium smoking. The only native +manufactures are sail-matting, coarse cotton cloth, and pandanus- +leaf boxes, prettily stained and ornamented with shell-work. + +In the island of Goram, only eight or ten miles long, there are +about a dozen Rajahs, scarcely better off than the rest of the +inhabitants, and exercising a mere nominal sway, except when any +order is received from the Dutch Government, when, being backed +by a higher power, they show a little more strict authority. My +friend the Rajah of Ammer (commonly called Rajah of Goram) told +me that a few years ago, before the Dutch had interfered in the +affairs of the island, the trade was not carried on so peaceably +as at present, rival praus often fighting when on the way to the +same locality, or trafficking in the same village. Now such a +thing is never thought of-one of the good effects of the +superintendence of a civilized government. Disputes between +villages are still, however, sometimes settled by fighting, and I +one day saw about fifty men, carrying long guns and heavy +cartridge-belts, march through the village. They had come from +the other side of the island on some question of trespass or +boundary, and were prepared for war if peaceable negotiations +should fail. + +While at Manowolko I had purchased for 100 florins Ŗ9.) a small +prau, which was brought over the next day, as I was informed it +was more easy to have the necessary alterations made in Goram, +where several Ke workmen were settled. + +As soon as we began getting my prau ready I was obliged to give +up collecting, as I found that unless I was constantly on the +spot myself very little work would be clone. As I proposed making +some long voyages in this boat, I determined to fit it up +conveniently, and was obliged to do all the inside work myself, +assisted by my two Amboynese boys. I had plenty of visitors, +surprised to see a white man at work, and much astonished at the +novel arrangements I was making in one of their native vessels. +Luckily I had a few tools of my own, including a small saw and +some chisels, and these were now severely tried, cutting and +fitting heavy iron-wood planks for the flooring and the posts +that support the triangular mast. Being of the best London make, +they stood the work well, and without them it would have been +impossible for me to have finished my boat with half the +neatness, or in double the time. I had a Ke workman to put in new +ribs, for which I bought nails of a Bugis trader, at 8d. a pound. +My gimlets were, however, too small; and having no augers we were +obliged to bore all the holes with hot irons, a most tedious and +unsatisfactory operation. + +Five men had engaged to work at the prau till finished, and then +go with me to Mysol, Waigiou, and Ternate. Their ideas of work +were, however, very different from mine, and I had immense +difficulty with them; seldom more than two or three coming +together, and a hundred excuses being given for working only half +a day when they did come. Yet they were constantly begging +advances of money, saying they had nothing to eat. When I gave it +them they were sure to stay away the next day, and when I refused +any further advances some of them declined working any more. As +the boat approached completion my difficulties with the men +increased. The uncle of one had commenced a war, or sort of +faction fight, and wanted his assistance; another's wife was ill, +and would not let him come; a third had fever and ague, and pains +in his head and back; and a fourth had an inexorable creditor who +would not let him go out of his sight. They had all received a +month's wages in advance; and though the amount was not large, it +was necessary to make them pay it back, or I should get ago men +at a11. I therefore sent the village constable after two, and +kept them in custody a day, when they returned about three- +fourths of what they owed me. The sick man also paid, and the +steersman found a substitute who was willing to take his debt, +and receive only the balance of his wages. + +About this time we had a striking proof of the dangers of New +Guinea trading. Six men arrived at the village in a small boat +almost starved, having escaped out of two praus, the remainder of +whose crews (fourteen in number) had been murdered by the natives +of New Guinea. The praus had left this village a few months +before, and among the murdered men were the Rajah's son, and the +relation or slaves of many of the inhabitants. The cry of +lamentation that arose when the news arrived was most +distressing. A score of women, who had lost husbands, brothers, +sons, or more distant relatives, set up at once the most dismal +shrieks and groans and wailings, which continued at intervals +till late at night; and as the chief houses in the village were +crowded together round that which I occupied, our situation was +anything but agreeable. + +It seems that the village where the attack took place (nearly +opposite the small island of Lakahia) is known to be dangerous, +and the vessels had only gone there a few days before to buy some +tripang. The crew were living on shore, the praus being in a +small river close by, and they were attacked and murdered in the +day-time while bargaining with the Papuans. The six men who +survived were on board the praus, and escaped by at once setting +into the small boat and rowing out to sea. + +This south-west part of New Guinea, known to the native traders +as "Papua Kowiyee" and "Papua Onen," is inhabited by the most +treacherous and bloodthirsty tribes. It is in these districts +that the commanders and portions of the crews of many of the +early discovery ships were murdered, and scarcely a year now +passes but some lives are lost. The Goram and Ceram traders are +themselves generally inoffensive; they are well acquainted with +the character of these natives, and are not likely to provoke an +attack by any insults or open attempt at robbery or imposition. +They are accustomed to visit the same places every year, and the +natives can have no fear of them, as may be alleged in excuse for +their attacks on Europeans. In other extensive districts +inhabited by the same Papuan races, such as Mysol, Salwatty, +Waigiou, and some parts of the adjacent coast, the people have +taken the first step in civilization, owing probably to the +settlement of traders of mixed breed among them, and for many +years no such attacks have taken place. On the south-west coast, +and in the large island of Jobie, however, the natives are in a +very barbarous condition, and tale every opportunity of robbery +and murder,--a habit which is confirmed by the impunity they +experience, owing to the vast extent of wild mountain and forest +country forbidding all pursuit or attempt at punishment. In the +very same village, four years before, more than fifty Goram men +were murdered; and as these savages obtain an immense booty in +the praus and all their appurtenances, it is to be feared that +such attacks will continue to be made at intervals as long as +traders visit the same spots and attempt no retaliation. +Punishment could only be inflicted on these people by very +arbitrary measures, such as by obtaining possession of some of +the chiefs by stratagem, and rendering them responsible for the +capture of the murderers at the peril of their own heads. But +anything of this kind would be done contrary to the system +adopted by the Dutch Government in its dealings with natives. + +GORAM TO WAHAI IN CERAM. + +When my boat was at length launched and loaded, I got my men +together, and actually set sail the next day (May 27th), much to +the astonishment of the Goram people, to whom such punctuality +was a novelty. I had a crew of three men and a boy, besides my +two Amboyna lads; which was sufficient for sailing, though rather +too few if obliged to row much. The next day was very wet, with +squalls, calms, and contrary winds, and with some difficulty we +reached Kilwaru, the metropolis of the Bugis traders in the far +East. As I wanted to make some purchases, I stayed here two days, +and sent two of my boxes of specimens by a Macassar prau to be +forwarded to Ternate, thus relieving myself of a considerable +incumbrance. I bought knives, basins, and handkerchiefs for +barter, which with the choppers, cloth, and beads I had brought +with me, made a pretty good assortment. I also bought two tower +muskets to satisfy my crew, who insisted on the necessity of +being armed against attacks of pirates; and with spices and a few +articles of food for the voyage nearly my last doit was expended. + +The little island of Kilwaru is a mere sandbank, just large +enough to contain a small village, and situated between the +islands of Ceram-laut, and Kissa--straits about a third of a mile +wide separating it from each of them. It is surrounded by coral +reefs, and offers good anchorage in both monsoons. Though not +more than fifty yards across, and not elevated more than three or +four feet above the highest tides, it has wells of excellent +drinking water--a singular phenomenon, which would seem to imply +deep-seated subterranean channels connecting it with other +islands. These advantages, with its situation in the centre of +the Papuan trading district, lead to its being so much frequented +by the Bugis traders. Here the Goram men bring the produce of +their little voyages, which they exchange for cloth, sago cakes, +and opium; and the inhabitants of all the surrounding islands +visit it with the game object. It is the rendezvous of the praus +trading to various parts of New Guinea, which here assort and dry +their cargoes, and refit for the voyage home. Tripang and mussoi +bark are the most bulky articles of produce brought here, with +wild nutmegs, tortoiseshell, pearls, and birds of Paradise; in +smaller quantities. The villagers of the mainland of Ceram bring +their sago, which is thus distributed to the islands farther +east, while rice from Bali and Macassar can also be purchased at +a moderate price. The Goram men come here for their supplies of +opium, both for their own consumption and for barter in Mysol and +Waigiou, where they have introduced it, and where the chiefs and +wealthy men are passionately fond of it. Schooners from Bali come +to buy Papuan slaves, while the sea-wandering Bugis arrive from +distant Singapore in their lumbering praus, bringing thence the +produce of the Chinamen's workshops and Kling's bazaar, as well +as of the looms of Lancashire and Massachusetts. + +One of the Bugis traders who had arrived a few days before from +Mysol, brought me news of my assistant Charles Allen, with whom +he was well acquainted, and who, he assured me; was making large +collections of birds and insects, although he had not obtained +any birds of Paradise; Silinta, where he was staying, not being a +good place for them. This was on the whole satisfactory, and I +was anxious to reach him as soon as possible. + +Leaving Kilwaru early in the morning of June 1st, with a strong +east wind we doubled the point of Ceram about noon, the heavy sea +causing my prau to roll abort a good deal, to the damage of our +crockery. As bad weather seemed coming on, we got inside the +reefs and anchored opposite the village of Warns-warns to wait +for a change. + +The night was very squally, and though in a good harbour we +rolled and jerked uneasily; but in the morning I had greater +cause for uneasiness in the discovery that our entire Goram crew +had decamped, taking with them all they possessed and a little +more, and leaving us without any small boat in which to land. I +immediately told my Amboyna men to load and fire the muskets as a +signal of distress, which was soon answered by the village chief +sending off a boat, which took me on shore. I requested that +messengers should be immediately sent to the neighbouring +villages in quest of the fugitives, which was promptly done. My +prau was brought into a small creek, where it could securely rest +in the mud at low water, and part of a house was given me in +which T could stay for a while. I now found my progress again +suddenly checked, just when I thought I had overcome my chief +difficulties. As I had treated my men with the greatest kindness, +and had given them almost everything they had asked for, I can +impute their running away only to their being totally +unaccustomed to the restraint of a European master, and to some +undefined dread of my ultimate intentions regarding them. The +oldest man was an opium smoker, and a reputed thief, but I had +been obliged to take him at the last moment as a substitute for +another. I feel sure it was he who induced the others to run +away, and as they knew the country well, and had several hours' +start of us, there was little chance of catching them. + +We were here in the great sago district of East Ceram which +supplies most of the surrounding islands with their daily bread, +and during our week's delay I had an opportunity of seeing the +whole process of making it, and obtaining some interesting +statistics. The sago tree is a palm, thicker and larger than the +cocoa-nut tree, although rarely so tall, and having immense +pinnate spiny leaves, which completely cover the trunk till it is +many years old. It has a creeping root-stem like the Nipa palm, +and when about ten or fifteen years of age sends up an immense +terminal spike of flowers, after which the tree dies. It grows in +swamps, or in swampy hollows on the rocky slopes of hills, where +it seems to thrive equally well as when exposed to the influx of +salt or brackish water. The midribs of the immense leaves form +one of the most useful articles in these lands, supplying the +place of bamboo, to which for many purposes they are superior. +They are twelve or fifteen feet long, and, when very fine, as +thick in the lower part as a man's leg. They are very light, +consisting entirely of a firm pith covered with a hard thin rind +or bark. Entire houses are built of these; they form admirable +roofing-poles for thatch; split and well-supported, they do for +flooring; and when chosen of equal size, and pegged together side +by side to fill up the panels of framed wooden horses, they have +a very neat appearance, and make better walls and partitions than +boards, as they do not shrink, require no paint or varnish, and +are not a quarter the expense. When carefully split and shaved +smooth they are formed into light boards with pegs of the bark +itself, and are the foundation of the leaf-covered boxes of +Goram. All the insect-boxes I used in the Moluccas were thus made +at Amboyna, and when covered with stout paper inside and out, are +strong, light, and secure the insect-pins remarkably well. The +leaflet of the sago folded and tied side by side on the smaller +midribs form the "atap "or thatch in universal use, while the +product of the trunk is the staple food of some= hundred +thousands of men. + +When sago is to be made, a full-grown tree is selected just +before it is going to flower. It is cut down close to the ground, +the leaves and leafstalks cleared away, and a broad strip of the +bark taken off the upper side of the trunk. This exposes the +pithy matter, which is of a rusty colour near the bottom of the +tree, but higher up pure white, about as hard as a dry apple, but +with woody fibre running through it about a quarter of an inch +apart. This pith is cut or broken down into a coarse powder by +means of a tool constructed for the purpose--a club of hard and +heavy wood, having a piece of sharp quartz rock firmly imbedded +into its blunt end, and projecting about half an inch. By +successive blows of this, narrow strips of the pith are cut away, +and fall down into the cylinder formed by the bark. Proceeding +steadily on, the whole trunk is cleared out, leaving a skin not +more than half an inch in thickness. This material is carried +away (in baskets made of the sheathing bases of the leaves) to +the nearest water, where a washing-machine is put up, which is +composed almost entirely of the saga tree itself. The large +sheathing bases of the leaves form the troughs, and the fibrous +covering from the leaf-stalks of the young cocoa-nut the +strainer. Water is poured on the mass of pith, which is kneaded +and pressed against the strainer till the starch is all dissolved +and has passed through, when the fibrous refuse is thrown away, +and a fresh basketful put in its place. The water charged with +sago starch passes on to a trough, with a depression in the +centre, where the sediment is deposited, the surplus water +trickling off by a shallow outlet. When the trough is nearly +full, the mass of starch, which has a slight reddish tinge, is +made into cylinders of about thirty pounds' weight, and neatly +covered with sago leaves, and in this state is sold as raw sago. + +Boiled with water this forms a thick glutinous mass, with a +rather astringent taste, and is eaten with salt, limes, and +chilies. Sago-bread is made in large quantities, by baking it +into cakes in a small clay oven containing six or eight slits +side by side, each about three-quarters of an inch wide, and six +or eight inches square. The raw sago is broken up, dried in the +sun, powdered, and finely sifted. The oven is heated over a clear +fire of embers, and is lightly filled with the sago-powder. The +openings are then covered with a flat piece of sago bark, and in +about five minutes the cakes are turned out sufficiently baked. +The hot cakes are very nice with butter, and when made with the +addition of a little sugar and grated cocoa-nut are quite a +delicacy. They are soft, and something like corn-flour cakes, but +leave a slight characteristic flavour which is lost in the +refined sago we use in this country. When not wanted for +immediate use, they are dried for several days in the sun, and +tied up in bundles of twenty. They will then keep for years; they +are very hard, and very rough and dry, but the people are used to +them from infancy, and little children may be seen gnawing at +them as contentedly as ours with their bread-and-butter. If +dipped in water and then toasted, they become almost as good as +when fresh baked; and thus treated they were my daily substitute +for bread with my coffee. Soaked and boiled they make a very good +pudding or vegetable, and served well to economize our rice, +which is sometimes difficult to get so far east. + +It is truly an extraordinary sight to witness a whole tree-trunk, +perhaps twenty feet long and four or five in circumference, +converted into food with so little labour and preparation. A +good-sized tree will produce thirty tomans or bundles of thirty +pounds each, and each toman will make sixty cakes of three to the +pound. Two of these cakes are as much as a man can eat at one +meal, and five are considered a full day's allowance; so that, +reckoning a tree to produce 1,800 cakes, weighing 600 pounds, it +will supply a man with food for a whole year. The labour to +produce this is very moderate. Two men will finish a tree in five +days, and two women will bake the whole into cakes in five days +more; but the raw sago will keep very well, and can be baked as +wanted, so that we may estimate that in ten days a man may +produce food for the whole year. This is on the supposition that +he possesses sago trees of his own, for they are now all private +property. If he does not, he has to pay about seven and sixpence +for one; and as labour here is five pence a day, the total cost +of a year's food for one man is about twelve shillings. The +effect of this cheapness of food is decidedly prejudicial, for +the inhabitants of the sago countries are never so well off as +those where rice is cultivated. Many of the people here have +neither vegetables nor fruit, but live almost entirely on sago +and a little fish. Having few occupations at home, they wander +about on petty trading or fishing expeditions to the neighbouring +islands; and as far as the comforts of life are concerned, are +much inferior to the wild hill-Dyaks of Borneo, or to many of the +more barbarous tribes of the Archipelago. + +The country round Warus-warus is low and swampy, and owing to the +absence of cultivation there were scarcely any paths leading into +the forest. I was therefore unable to collect much during my +enforced stay, and found no rare birds or insects to improve my +opinion of Ceram as a collecting ground. Finding it quite +impossible to get men here to accompany me on the whole voyage, I +was obliged to be content with a crew to take me as far as Wahai, +on the middle of the north coast of Ceram, and the chief Dutch +station in the island. The journey took us five days, owing to +calms and light winds, and no incident of any interest occurred +on it, nor did I obtain at our stopping places a single addition +to my collections worth naming. At Wahai, which I reached on the +15th of June, I was hospitably received by the Commandant and my +old friend Herr Rosenberg, who was now on an official visit here. +He lent me some money to pay my men, and I was lucky enough to +obtain three others willing to make the voyage with me to +Ternate, and one more who was to return from Mysol. One of my +Amboyna lads, however, left me, so that I was still rather short +of hands. + +I found here a letter from Charles Allen, who was at Silinta in +Mysol, anxiously expecting me, as he was out of rice and other +necessaries, and was short of insect-pins. He was also ill, and +if I did not soon come would return to Wahai. + +As my voyage from this place to Waigiou was among islands +inhabited by the Papuan race, and was an eventful and disastrous +one, I will narrate its chief incidents in a separate chapter in +that division of my work devoted to the Papuan Islands. I now +have to pass over a year spent in Waigiou and Timor, in order to +describe my visit to the island of Bouru, which concluded my +explorations of the Moluccas. + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +BOURU. + +MAY AND JUNE 1861. + +I HAD long wished to visit the large island of Bouru, which lies +due west of Ceram, and of which scarcely anything appeared to be +known to naturalists, except that it contained a babirusa very +like that of Celebes. I therefore made arrangements for staying +there two months after leaving Timor Delli in 1861. This I could +conveniently do by means of the Dutch mail-steamers, which make a +monthly round of the Moluccas. + +We arrived at the harbour of Cajeli on the 4th of May; a gun was +fired, the Commandant of the fort came alongside in a native boat +to receive the post-packet, and took me and my baggage on shore, +the steamer going off again without coming to an anchor. We went +to the horse of the Opzeiner, or overseer, a native of Amboyna-- +Bouru being too poor a place to deserve even an Assistant +Resident; yet the appearance of the village was very far superior +to that of Delli, which possesses "His Excellency the Governor," +and the little fort, in perfect order, surrounded by neat brass- +plots and straight walks, although manned by only a dozen +Javanese soldiers with an Adjutant for commander, was a very +Sebastopol in comparison with the miserable mud enclosure at +Delli, with its numerous staff of Lieutenants, Captain, and +Major. Yet this, as well as most of the forts in the Moluccas, +was originally built by the Portuguese themselves. Oh! Lusitania, +how art thou fallen! + +While the Opzeiner was reading his letters, I took a walk round +the village with a guide in search of a horse. The whole place +was dreadfully damp and muddy, being built in a swamp with not a +spot of ground raised a foot above it, and surrounded by swamps +on every side. The houses were mostly well built, of wooden +framework filled in with gaba-gaba (leaf-stems of the sago-palm), +but as they had no whitewash, and the floors were of bare black +earth like the roads, and generally on the same level, they were +extremely damp and gloomy. At length I found one with the floor +raised about a foot, and succeeded in making a bargain with the +owner to turn out immediately, so that by night I had installed +myself comfortably. The chairs and tables were left for me; and +as the whole of the remaining furniture in the house consisted of +a little crockery and a few clothes-boxes, it was not much +trouble for the owners to move into the house of some relatives, +and thus obtain a few silver rupees very easily. Every foot of +ground between the homes throughout the village is crammed with +fruit trees, so that the sun and air have no chance of +penetrating. This must be very cool and pleasant in the dry +season, but makes it damp and unhealthy at other times of the +year. Unfortunately I had come two months too soon, for the rains +were not yet over, and mud and water were the prominent features +of the country. + +About a mile behind and to the east of the village the hills +commence, but they are very barren, being covered with scanty +coarse grass and scattered trees of the Melaleuca cajuputi, from +the leaves of which the celebrated cajeput oil is made. Such +districts are absolutely destitute of interest for the zoologist. +A few miles further on rose higher mountains, apparently well +covered with forest, but they were entirely uninhabited and +trackless, and practically inaccessible to a traveller with +limited time and means. It became evident, therefore, that I must +leave Cajeli for some better collecting ground, and finding a man +who was going a few miles eastward to a village on the coast +where he said there were hills and forest, I sent my boy Ali with +him to explore and report on the capabilities of the district. At +the same time I arranged to go myself on a little excursion up a +river which flows into the bay about five miles north of the +town, to a village of the Alfuros, or indigenes, where I thought +I might perhaps find a good collecting ground. + +The Rajah of Cajeli, a good-tempered old man, offered to +accompany me, as the village was under his government; and we +started one morning early, in a long narrow boat with eight +rowers. In about two hours we entered the river, and commenced +our inland journey against a very powerful current. The stream +was about a hundred yards wide, and was generally bordered with +high grass, and occasionally bushes and palm-trees. The country +round was flat and more or less swampy, with scattered trees and +shrubs. At every bend we crossed the river to avoid the strength +of the current, and arrived at our landing-place about four +o'clock in a torrent of rain. Here we waited for an hour, +crouching under a leaky mat till the Alfuros arrived who had been +sent for from the village to carry my baggage, when we set off +along a path of whose extreme muddiness I had been warned before +starting. + +I turned up my trousers as high as possible, grasped a stoat +stick to prevent awkward falls, and then boldly plunged into the +first mud-hole, which was immediately succeeded by another and +another. The marl or mud and water was knee-deep with little +intervals of firmer ground between, making progression +exceedingly difficult. The path was bordered with high rigid +grass, brewing in dense clumps separated by water, so that +nothing was to be gained by leaving the beaten track, and we were +obliged to go floundering on, never knowing where our feet would +rest, as the mud was now a few inches, now two feet deep, and the +bottom very uneven, so that the foot slid down to the lowest +part, and made it difficult to keep one's balance. One step would +be upon a concealed stick or log, almost dislocating the ankle, +while the next would plunge into soft mud above the knee. It +rained all the way, and the long grass, six feet high, met over +the path; so that we could not see a step of the way ahead, and +received a double drenching. Before we got to the village it was +dark, and we had to cross over a small but deep and swollen +stream by a narrow log of wood, which was more than a foot under +water. There was a slender shaking stick for a handrail, and it +was nervous work feeling in the dark in the rushing water for a +safe place on which to place the advanced foot. After au hour of +this most disagreeable and fatiguing walk we reached the village, +followed by the men with our guns, ammunition, boxes, and bedding +all more or less soaked. We consoled ourselves with some hot tea +and cold fowl, and went early to bed. + +The next morning was clear and fine, and I set out soon after +sunrise to explore the neighbourhood. The village had evidently +been newly formed, and consisted of a single straight street of +very miserable huts totally deficient in every comfort, and as +bare and cheerless inside as out. It was situated on a little +elevated patch of coarse gravelly soil, covered with the usual +high rigid grass, which came up close to the backs of the houses. +At a short distance in several directions were patches of forest, +but all on low and swampy ground. I made one attempt along the +only path I could find, but soon came upon a deep mud-hole, and +found that I must walk barefoot if at all; so I returned and +deferred further exploration till after breakfast. I then went on +into the jungle and found patches of sago-palms and a low forest +vegetation, but the paths were everywhere full of mud-holes, and +intersected by muddy streams and tracts of swamp, so that walking +was not pleasurable, and too much attention to one's steps was +not favourable to insect catching, which requires above +everything freedom of motion. I shot a few birds, and caught a +few butterflies, but all were the same as I had already obtained +about Cajeli. + +On my return to the village I was told that the same kind of +ground extended for many miles in every direction, and I at once +decided that Wayapo was not a suitable place to stay at. The next +morning early we waded back again through the mud and long wet +grass to our boat, and by mid-day reached Cajeli, where I waited +Ali's return to decide on my future movements. He came the +following day, and gave a very bad account of Pelah, where he had +been. There was a little brush and trees along the beach, and +hills inland covered with high grass and cajuputi trees--my dread +and abhorrence. On inquiring who could give me trustworthy +information, I was referred to the Lieutenant of the Burghers, +who had travelled all round the island, and was a very +intelligent fellow. I asked him to tell me if he knew of any part +of Bouru where there was no "kusu-kusu," as the coarse grass of +the country is called. He assured me that a good deal of the +south coast was forest land, while along the north was almost +entirely swamp and grassy hills. After minute inquiries, I found +that the forest country commenced at a place called Waypoti, only +a few miles beyond Pelah, but that, as the coast beyond that +place was exposed to the east monsoon and dangerous for praus, it +was necessary to walk. I immediately went to the Opzeiner, and he +called the Rajah. We had a consultation, and arranged for a boat +to take me the next evening but one, to Pelah, whence I was to +proceed on foot, the Orang-kaya going the day before to call the +Alfuros to carry my baggage. + +The journey was made as arranged, and on May 19th we arrived at +Waypoti, having walked about ten miles along the beach, and +through stony forest bordering the sea, with occasional plunges +of a mile or two into the interior. We found no village, but +scattered houses and plantations, with hilly country pretty well +covered with forest, and looking rather promising. A low hut with +a very rotten roof, showing the sky through in several places, +was the only one I could obtain. Luckily it did not rain that +night, and the next day we pulled down some of the walls to +repair the roof, which was of immediate importance, especially +over our beds and table. + +About half a mile from the house was a fine mountain stream, +running swiftly over a bed of rocks and pebbles, and beyond this +was a hill covered with fine forest. By carefully picking my way +I could wade across this river without getting much above my +knees, although I would sometimes slip off a rock and go into a +hole up to my waist, and about twice a week I went across it in +order to explore the forest. Unfortunately there were no paths +here of any extent, and it did not prove very productive either +in insects or birds. To add to my difficulties I had stupidly +left my only pair of strong hoots on board the steamer, and my +others were by this time all dropping to pieces, so that I was +obliged to walk about barefooted, and in constant fear of hurting +my feet, and causing a wound which might lay me up for weeks, as +had happened in Borneo, Are, and Dorey. Although there were +numerous plantations of maize and plantains, there were no new +clearings; and as without these it is almost impossible to find +many of the best kinds of insects, I determined to make one +myself, and with much difficulty engaged two men to clear a patch +of forest, from which I hoped to obtain many fine beetles before +I left. + +During the whole of my stay, however, insects never became +plentiful. My clearing produced me a few fine, longicorns and +Buprestidae, different from any I had before seen, together with +several of the Amboyna species, but by no means so numerous or, +so beautiful as I had found in that small island. For example, I +collected only 210 different kinds of beetles during my two +months' stay at Bourn, while in three weeks at Amboyna, in 1857, +I found more than 300 species: One of the finest insects found at +Bouru was a large Cerambyx, of a deep shining chestnut colour, +and with very long antennae. It varied greatly in size, the +largest specimens being three inches long, while the smallest +were only an inch, the antenna varying from one and a half to +five inches. + +One day my boy Ali came home with a story of a big snake. He was +walking through some high grass, and stepped on something which +he took for a small fallen tree, but it felt cold and yielding to +his feet, and far to the right and left there was a waving and +rustling of the herbage. He jumped back in affright and prepared +to shoot, but could not get a good vies of the creature, and it +passed away, he said, like a tree being dragged along through the +grass. As he lead several times already shot large snakes, which +he declared were all as nothing compared with this, I am inclined +to believe it must really have been a monster. Such creatures are +rather plentiful here, for a man living close by showed me on his +thigh the marks where he bad been seized by one close to his +house. It was big enough to take the man's thigh in its mouth, +and he would probably have been killed and devoured by it had not +his cries brought out his neighbours, who destroyed it with their +choppers. As far as I could make out it was about twenty feet +long, but Ali's was probably much larger. + +It sometimes amuses me to observe how, a few days after I have +taken possession of it, a native hut seems quite a comfortable +home. My house at Waypoti was a bare shed, with a large bamboo +platform at one side. At one end of this platform, which was +elevated about three feet, I fixed up my mosquito curtain, and +partly enclosed it with a large Scotch plaid, making a +comfortable little sleeping apartment. I put up a rude table on +legs buried in the earthen floor, and had my comfortable rattan- +chair for a seat. A line across one corner carried my daily- +washed cotton clothing, and on a bamboo shelf was arranged my +small stock of crockery and hardware: Boxes were ranged against +the thatch walls, and hanging shelves, to preserve my collections +from ants while drying, were suspended both without and within +the house. On my table lay books, penknives, scissors, pliers, +and pins, with insect and bird labels, all of which were unsolved +mysteries to the native mind. + +Most of the people here had never seen a pin, and the better +informed took a pride in teaching their more ignorant companions +the peculiarities and uses of that strange European production--a +needle with a head, but no eye! Even paper, which we throw away +hourly as rubbish, was to them a curiosity; and I often saw them +picking up little scraps which had been swept out of the house, +and carefully putting them away in their betel-pouch. Then when I +took my morning coffee and evening tea, how many were the strange +things displayed to them! Teapot, teacups, teaspoons, were all +more or less curious in their eyes; tea, sugar, biscuit, and +butter, were articles of human consumption seen by many of them +for the first time. One asks if that whitish powder is "gula +passir" (sand-sugar), so called to distinguish it from the coarse +lump palm-sugar or molasses of native manufacture; and the +biscuit is considered a sort of European sago-cake, which the +inhabitants of those remote regions are obliged to use in the +absence of the genuine article. My pursuit, were of course +utterly beyond their comprehension. They continually asked me +what white people did with the birds and insects I tools so much +care to preserve. If I only kept what was beautiful, they might +perhaps comprehend it; but to see ants and files and small ugly +insects put away so carefully was a great puzzle to them, and +they were convinced that there must be some medical or magical +use for them which I kept a profound secret. These people were in +fact as completely unacquainted with civilized life as the +Indians of the Rocky Mountains, or the savages of Central Africa- +-yet a steamship, that highest triumph of human ingenuity, with +its little floating epitome of European civilization, touches +monthly at Cajeli, twenty miles off; while at Amboyna, only sixty +miles distant, a European population and government have been +established for more than three hundred years. + +Having seen a good many of the natives of Bouru from different +villages, and from distant parts of the island, I feel convinced +that they consist of two distinct races now partially +amalgamated. The larger portion are Malays of the Celebes type, +often exactly similar to the Tomķre people of East Celebes, whom +I found settled in Batchian; while others altogether resemble the +Alfuros of Ceram. + +The influx of two races can easily be accounted for. The Sula +Islands, which are closely connected with East Celebes, approach +to within forty miles of the north coast of Bouru, while the +island of Manipa offers an easy point of departure for the people +of Ceram. I was confirmed in this view by finding that the +languages of Bouru possessed distinct resemblances to that of +Sula, as well as to those of Ceram. + +Soon after we had arrived at Waypoti, Ali had seen a beautiful +little bird of the genus Pitta, which I was very anxious to +obtain, as in almost every island the species are different, and +none were yet known from Bourn. He and my other hunter continued +to see it two or three times a week, and to hear its peculiar +note much oftener, but could never get a specimen, owing to its +always frequenting the most dense thorny thickets, where only +hasty glimpses of it could be obtained, and at so short a +distance that it would be difficult to avoid blowing the bird to +pieces. Ali was very much annoyed that he could not get a +specimen of this bird, in going after which he had already +severely, wounded his feet with thorns; and when we had only two +days more to stay, he went of his own accord one evening to sleep +at a little but in the forest some miles off, in order to have a +last try for it at daybreak, when many birds come out to feed, +and are very intent on their morning meal. The next evening he +brought me home two specimens, one with the head blown completely +off, and otherwise too much injured to preserve, the other in +very good order, and which I at once saw to be a new species, +very like the Pitta celebensis, but ornamented with a square +patch of bright red on the nape of the neck. + +The next day after securing this prize we returned to Cajeli, and +packing up my collections left Bouru by the steamer. During our +two days' stay at Ternate, I took on board what baggage I had +left there, and bade adieu to all my friends. We then crossed +over to Menado, on our way to Macassar and Java, and I finally +quitted the Moluccas, among whose luxuriant and beautiful islands +I had wandered for more than three years. + +My collections in Bouru, though not extensive, were of +considerable interest; for out of sixty-six species of birds +which I collected there, no less than seventeen were new, or had +not been previously found in any island of the Moluccas. Among +these were two kingfishers, Tanysiptera acis and Ceyx Cajeli; a +beautiful sunbird, Nectarines proserpina; a handsome little black +and white flycatcher, Monarcha loricata, whose swelling throat +was beautifully scaled with metallic blue; and several of less +interest. I also obtained a skull of the babirusa, one specimen +of which was killed by native hunters during my residence at +Cajeli. + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MOLUCCAS. + +THE Moluccas consist of three large islands, Gilolo, Ceram, and +Bouru, the two former being each about two hundred miles long; +and a great number of smaller isles and islets, the most +important of which are Batchian, Morty, Obi, Ke, Timor-Laut, and +Amboyna; and among the smaller ones, Ternate, Tidore, Kaiķa, and +Banda. They occupy a space of ten degrees of latitude by eight of +longitude, and they are connected by groups of small islets to +New Guinea on the east, the Philippines on the north, Celebes on +the west, and Timor on the south. It will be as well to bear in +mind these main features of extent and geographical position, +while we survey their animal productions and discuss their +relations to the countries which surround them on every side in +almost equal proximity. + +We will first consider the Mammalia or warm-blooded quadrupeds, +which present us with some singular anomalies. The land mammals +are exceedingly few in number, only ten being yet known from the +entire group. The bats or aerial mammals, on the other hand, are +numerous--not less than twenty-five species being already known. +But even this exceeding poverty of terrestrial mammals does not +at all represent the real poverty of the Moluccas in this class +of animals; for, as we shall soon see, there is good reason to +believe that several of the species have been introduced by man, +either purposely or by accident. + +The only quadrumanous animal in the group is the curious baboon- +monkey, Cynopithecus nigrescens, already described as being one +of the characteristic animals of Celebes. This is found only in +the island of Batchian; and it seems so much out of place there +as it is difficult to imagine how it could have reached the +island by any natural means of dispersal, and yet not have passed +by the same means over the narrow strait to Gilolo--that it seems +more likely to have originated from some individuals which had +escaped from confinement, these and similar animals being often +kept as pets by the Malays, and carried about in their praus. + +Of all the carnivorous animals of the Archipelago the only one +found in the Moluccas is the Viverra tangalunga, which inhabits +both Batchian and Bouru, and probably come of the other islands. +I am inclined to think that this also may have been introduced +accidentally, for it is often made captive by the Malays, who +procure civet from it, and it is an animal very restless and +untameable, and therefore likely to escape. This view is rendered +still more probable by what Antonio de Morga tells us was the +custom in the Philippines in 1602. He says that "the natives of +Mindanao carry about civet-cats in cages, and sell them in the +islands; and they take the civet from them, and let them go +again." The same species is common in the Philippines and in all +the large islands of the Indo-Malay region. + +The only Moluccan ruminant is a deer, which was once supposed to +be a distinct species, but is now generally considered to be a +slight variety of the Rusa hippelaphus of Java. Deer are often +tamed and petted, and their flesh is so much esteemed by all +Malays, that it is very natural they should endeavour to +introduce them into the remote islands in which they settled, and +whose luxuriant forests seem so well adapted for their +subsistence. + +The strange babirusa of Celebes is also found in Bouru; but in no +other Moluccan island, and it is somewhat difficult to imagine +how it got there. It is true that there is some approximation +between the birds of the Sula Islands (where the babirusa is also +found) and those of Bouru, which seems to indicate that these +islands have recently been closer together, or that some +intervening land has disappeared. At this time the babirusa may +have entered Bouru, since it probably swims as well as its allies +the pigs. These are spread all over the Archipelago, even to +several of the smaller islands, and in many cases the species are +peculiar. It is evident, therefore, that they have some natural +means of dispersal. There is a popular idea that pigs cannot +swim, but Sir Charles Lyell has shown that this is a mistake. In +his "Principles of Geology" (10th Edit. vol. ii p. 355) he adduces +evidence to show that pigs have swum many miles at sea, and are +able to swim with great ease and swiftness. I have myself seen a +wild pig swimming across the arm of the sea that separates +Singapore from the Peninsula of Malacca, and we thus have +explained the curious fact, that of all the large mammals of the +Indian region, pigs alone extend beyond the Moluccas and as far +as New Guinea, although it is somewhat curious that they have not +found their way to Australia. + +The little shrew, Sorex myosurus, which is common in Sumatra, +Borneo, and Java, is also found in the larger islands of the +Moluccas, to which it may have been accidentally conveyed in +native praus. + +This completes the list of the placental mammals which are so +characteristic of the Indian region; and we see that, with the +single exception of the pig, all may very probably have been +introduced by man, since all except the pig are of species +identical with those now abounding in the great Malay islands, or +in Celebes. + +The four remaining mammals are Marsupials, an order of the class +Mammalia, which is very characteristic of the Australian fauna; +and these are probably true natives of the Moluccas, since they +are either of peculiar species, or if found elsewhere are natives +only of New Guinea or North Australia. The first is the small +flying opossum, Belideus ariel, a beautiful little animal, +exactly line a small flying squirrel in appearance, but belonging +to the marsupial order. The other three are species of the +curious genus Cuscus, which is peculiar to the Austro-Malayan +region. These are opossum-like animals, with a long prehensile +tail, of which the terminal half is generally bare. They have +small heads, large eyes, and a dense covering of woolly fur, +which is often pure white with irregular black spots or blotches, +or sometimes ashy brown with or without white spots. They live in +trees, feeding upon the leaves, of which they devour large +quantities, they move about slowly, and are difficult to kill, +owing to the thickness of their fur, and their tenacity of life. +A heavy charge of shot will often lodge in the slain and do them +no harm, and even breaking the spine or piercing the brain will +not kill them for some hours. The natives everywhere eat their +flesh, and as their motions are so slow, easily catch them by +climbing; so that it is wonderful they have not been +exterminated. It may be, however, that their dense woolly fur +protects them from birds of prey, and the islands they live in +are too thinly inhabited for man to be able to exterminate them. +The figure represents Cuscus ornatus, a new species discovered by +me in Batchian, and which also inhabits Ternate. It is peculiar +to the Moluccas, while the two other species which inhabit Ceram +are found also in New Guinea and Waigiou. + +In place of the excessive poverty of mammals which characterises +the Moluccas, we have a very rich display of the feathered +tribes. The number of species of birds at present known from the +various islands of the Molluccan group is 265, but of these only +70 belong to the usually abundant tribes of the waders and +swimmers, indicating that these are very imperfectly known. As +they are also pre-eminently wanderers, and are thus little fitted +for illustrating the geographical distribution of life in a +limited area, we will here leave them out of consideration and +confine our attention only to the 195 land birds. + +When we consider that all Europe, with its varied climate and +vegetation, with every mile of its surface explored, and with the +immense extent of temperate Asia and Africa, which serve as +storehouses, from which it is continually recruited, only +supports 25l species of land birds as residents or regular +immigrants, we must look upon the numbers already procured in the +small and comparatively unknown islands of the Moluccas as +indicating a fauna of fully average richness in this department. +But when we come to examine the family groups which go to make up +this number, we find the most curious deficiencies in some, +balanced by equally striking redundancy in other. Thus if we +compare the birds of the Moluccas with those of India, as given +in Mr. Jerdon's work, we find that the three groups of the +parrots, kingfishers, and pigeons, form nearly _one-third_ of the +whole land-birds in the former, while they amount to only _one- +twentieth_ in the latter country. On the other hand, such wide- +spread groups as the thrushes, warblers, and finches, which in +India form nearly _one-third_ of all the land-birds, dwindle down +in the Moluccas to _one-fourteenth._ + +The reason of these peculiarities appears to be, that the +Moluccan fauna has been almost entirely derived from that of New +Guinea, in which country the same deficiency and the same +luxuriance is to be observed. Out of the seventy-eight genera in +which the Moluccan land-birds may be classed, no less than +seventy are characteristic of Yew Guinea, while only six belong +specially to the Indo-Malay islands. But this close resemblance +to New Guinea genera does not extend to the species, for no less +than 140 out of the 195 land-birds are peculiar to the Moluccan +islands, while 32 are found also in New Guinea, and 15 in the +Indo-Malay islands. These facts teach us, that though the birds +of this group have evidently been derived mainly from New Guinea, +yet the immigration has not been a recent one, since there has +been time for the greater portion of the species to have become +changed. We find, also, that many very characteristic New Guinea +forms lave not entered the Moluccas at all, while others found in +Ceram and Gilolo do not extend so far west as Bouru. Considering, +further, the absence of most of the New Guinea mammals from the +Moluccas, we are led to the conclusion that these islands are not +fragments which have been separated from New Guinea, but form a +distinct insular region, which has been upheaved independently at +a rather remote epoch, and during all the mutations it has +undergone has been constantly receiving immigrants from that +great and productive island. The considerable length of time the +Moluccas have remained isolated is further indicated by the +occurrence of two peculiar genera of birds, Semioptera and +Lycocorax, which are found nowhere else. + +We are able to divide this small archipelago into two well marked +groups--that of Ceram, including also Bouru. Amboyna, Banda, and +Ke; and that of Gilolo, including Morty, Batchian, Obi, Ternate, +and other small islands. These divisions have each a considerable +number of peculiar species, no less than fifty-five being found +in the Ceram group only; and besides this, most of the separate +islands have some species peculiar to themselves. Thus Morty +island has a peculiar kingfisher, honeysucker, and starling; +Ternate has a ground-thrush (Pitta) and a flycatcher; Banda has a +pigeon, a shrike, and a Pitta; Ke has two flycatchers, a +Zosterops, a shrike, a king-crow and a cuckoo; and the remote +Timor-Laut, which should probably come into the Moluccan group, +has a cockatoo and lory as its only known birds, and both are of +peculiar species. + +The Moluccas are especially rich in the parrot tribe, no less +than twenty-two species, belonging to ten genera, inhabiting +them. Among these is the large red-crested cockatoo, so commonly +seen alive in Europe, two handsome red parrots of the genus +Eclectus, and five of the beautiful crimson lories, which are +almost exclusively confined to these islands and the New Guinea +group. The pigeons are hardly less abundant or beautiful, twenty- +one species being known, including twelve of the beautiful green +fruit pigeons, the smaller kinds of which are ornamented with the +most brilliant patches of colour on the head and the under- +surface. Next to these come the kingfishers, including sixteen +species, almost all of which are beautiful, end many are among +the most brilliantly-coloured birds that exist. + +One of the most curious groups of birds, the Megapodii, or mound- +makers, is very abundant in the Moluccas. They are gallinaceous +birds, about the size of a small fowl, and generally of a dark +ashy or sooty colour, and they have remarkably large and strong +feet and long claws. They are allied to the "Maleo" of Celebes, +of which an account has already been given, but they differ in +habits, most of these birds frequenting the scrubby jungles along +the sea-shore, where the soil is sandy, and there is a +considerable quantity of debris, consisting of sticks, shells, +seaweed, leaves, &c. Of this rubbish the Megapodius forms immense +mounds, often six or eight feet high and twenty or thirty feet in +diameter, which they are enabled to do with comparative ease, by +means of their large feet, with which they can grasp and throw +backwards a quantity of material. In the centre of this mound, at +a depth of two or three feet, the eggs are deposited, and are +hatched by the gentle heat produced by the fermentation of the +vegetable matter of the mound. When I first saw these mounds in +the island of Lombock, I could hardly believe that they were made +by such small birds, but I afterwards met with them frequently, +and have once or twice come upon the birds engaged in making +them. They run a few steps backwards, grasping a quantity of +loose material in one foot, and throw it a long way behind them. +When once properly buried the eggs seem to be no more cared for, +the young birds working their way up through the heap of rubbish, +and running off at once into the forest. They come out of the egg +covered with thick downy feathers, and have no tail, although the +wings are full developed. + +I was so fortunate as to discover a new species (Megapodius +wallacei), which inhibits Gilolo, Ternate, and Bouru. It is the +handsomest bird of the genus, being richly banded with reddish +brown on the back and wings; and it differs from the other +species in its habits. It frequents the forests of the interior, +and comes down to the sea-beach to deposit its eggs, but instead +of making a mound, or scratching a hole to receive them, it +burrows into the sand to the depth of about three feet obliquely +downwards, and deposits its eggs at the bottom. It then loosely +covers up the mouth of the hole, and is said by the natives to +obliterate and disguise its own footmarks leading to and from the +hole, by making many other tracks and scratches in the +neighbourhood. It lays its eggs only at night, and at Bouru a +bird was caught early one morning as it was coming out of its +hole, in which several eggs were found. All these birds seem to +be semi-nocturnal, for their loud wailing cries may be constantly +heard late into the night and long before daybreak in the +morning. The eggs are all of a rusty red colour, and very large +for the size of the bird, being generally three or three and a +quarter inches long, by two or two and a quarter wide. They are +very good eating, and are much sought after by the natives. + +Another large and extraordinary bird is the Cassowary, which +inhabits the island of Ceram only. It is a stout and strong bird, +standing five or six feet high, and covered with long coarse +black hair-like feathers. The head is ornamented with a large +horny calque or helmet, and the bare skin of the neck is +conspicuous with bright blue and red colours. The wings are quite +absent, and are replaced by a group of horny black spines like +blunt porcupine quills. + +These birds wander about the vast mountainous forests that cover +the island of Ceram, feeding chiefly on fallen fruits, and on +insects or crustacea. The female lays from three to five large +and beautifully shagreened green eggs upon a bed of leaves, the +male and female sitting upon them alternately for about a month. +This bird is the helmeted cassowary (Casuarius galeatus) of +naturalists, and was for a long time the only species known. +Others have since been discovered in New Guinea, New Britain, and +North Australia. + +It was in the Moluccas that I first discovered undoubted cases of +"mimicry" among birds, and these are so curious that I must +briefly describe them. It will be as well, however, first to +explain what is meant by mimicry in natural history. At page 205 +of the first volume of this work, I have described a butterfly +which, when at rest, so closely resembles a dead leaf, that it +thereby escape the attacks of its enemies. This is termed a +"protective resemblance." If however the butterfly, being itself +savoury morsel to birds, had closely resembled another butterfly +which was disagreeable to birds, and therefore never eaten by +them, it would be as well protected as if it resembled a leaf; +and this is what has been happily termed "mimicry" by Mr. Bates, +who first discovered the object of these curious external +imitations of one insect by another belonging to a distinct genus +or family, and sometimes even to a distinct order. The clear- +winged moth which resemble wasps and hornets are the best +examples of "mimicry" in our own country. + +For a long time all the known cases of exact resemblance of one +creature to quite a different one were confined to insects, and +it was therefore with great pleasure that I discovered in the +island of Bouru two birds which I constantly mistook for each +other, and which yet belonged to two distinct and somewhat +distant families. One of these is a honeysucker named +Tropidorhynchus bouruensis, and the other a kind of oriole, which +has been called Mimeta bouruensis. The oriole resembles the +honeysucker in the following particulars: the upper and under +surfaces of the two birds are exactly of the same tints of dark +and light brown; the Tropidorhynchus has a large bare black patch +round the eyes; this is copied in the Mimeta by a patch of black +feathers. The top of the head of the Tropidorhynchus has a scaly +appearance from the narrow scale-formed feathers, which are +imitated by the broader feathers of the Mimeta having a dusky +line down each. The Tropidorhynchus has a pale ruff formed of +curious recurved feathers on the nape (which has given the whole +genus the name of Friar birds); this is represented in the Mimeta +by a pale band in the same position. Lastly, the bill of the +Tropidorhynchus is raised into a protuberant keel at the base, +and the Mimeta has the same character, although it is not a +common one in the genus. The result is, that on a superficial +examination the birds are identical, although they leave +important structural differences, and cannot be placed near each +other in any natural arrangement. + +In the adjacent island of Ceram we find very distinct species of +both these genera, and, strange to say, these resemble each other +quite as closely as do those of Bouru The Tropidorhynchus +subcornutus is of an earthy brown colour, washed with ochreish +yellow, with bare orbits, dusky: cheeks, and the usual recurved +nape-ruff: The Mimeta forsteni which accompanies it, is +absolutely identical in the tints of every part of the body, and +the details are copied just as minutely as in the former species. + +We have two kinds of evidence to tell us which bird in this case +is the model, and which the copy. The honeysuckers are coloured +in a manner which is very general in the whole family to which +they belong, while the orioles seem to have departed from the gay +yellow tints so common among their allies. We should therefore +conclude that it is the latter who mimic the former. If so, +however, they must derive some advantage from the imitation, and +as they are certainly weak birds, with small feet and claws, they +may require it. Now the Tropidorhynchi are very strong and active +birds, having powerful grasping claws, and long, curved, sharp +beaks. They assemble together in groups and small flocks, and +they haw a very loud bawling note which can be heard at a great +distance, and serves to collect a number together in time of +danger. They are very plentiful and very pugnacious, frequently +driving away crows and even hawks, which perch on a tree where a +few of them are assembled. It is very probable, therefore, that +the smaller birds of prey have learnt to respect these birds and +leave them alone, and it may thus be a great advantage for the +weaker and less courageous Mimetas to be mistaken for them. This +being case, the laws of Variation and Survival of the Fittest, +will suffice to explain how the resemblance has been brought +about, without supposing any voluntary action on the part of the +birds themselves; and those who have read Mr. Darwin's "Origin of +Species" will have no difficulty in comprehending the whole +process. + +The insects of the Moluccas are pre-eminently beautiful, even +when compared with the varied and beautiful productions of other +parts of the Archipelago. The grand bird-winged butterflies +(Ornithoptera) here reach their maximum of size and beauty, and +many of the Papilios, Pieridae Danaidae, and Nymphalidae are +equally preeminent. There is, perhaps, no island in the world so +small as Amboyna where so many grand insects are to be found. +Here are three of the very finest Ornithopterae--priamus, helena, +and remiss; three of the handsomest and largest Papilios-- +ulysses, deiphobus, and gambrisius; one of the handsomest +Pieridae, Iphias leucippe; the largest of the Danaidae, Hestia +idea; and two unusually large and handsome Nymphalidae--Diadema +pandarus, and Charaxes euryalus. Among its beetles are the +extraordinary Euchirus longimanus, whose enormous legs spread +over a space of eight inches, and an unusual number of large and +handsome Longicorns, Anthribidae, and Buprestidae. + +The beetles figured on the plate as characteristic of the +Moluccas are: 1. A small specimen of the Euchirus longimanus, or +Long-armed Chafer, which has been already mentioned in the +account of my residence at Amboyna (Chapter XX.). The female has +the fore legs of moderate length. 2. A fine weevil, (an +undescribed species of Eupholus,) of rich blue and emerald green +colours, banded with black. It is a native of Ceram and Goram, +and is found on foliage. 3. A female of Xenocerus semiluctuosus, +one of the Anthribidae of delicate silky white and black colours. +It is abundant on fallen trunks and stumps in Ceram and Amboyna. +4. An undescribed species of Xenocerus; a male, with very long +and curious antenna, and elegant black and white markings. It is +found on fallen trunks in Batchian. 5. An undescribed species of +Arachnobas, a curious genus of weevils peculiar to the Moluccas +and New Guinea, and remarkable for their long legs, and their +habit of often sitting on leaves, and turning rapidly round the +edge to the under-surface when disturbed. It was found in Gilolo. +All these insects are represented of the natural size. + +Like the birds, the insects of the Moluccas show a decided +affinity with those of New Guinea rather than with the +productions of the great western islands of the Archipelago, but +the difference in form and structure between the productions of +the east and west is not nearly so marked here as in birds. This +is probably due to the more immediate dependence of insects on +climate and vegetation, and the greater facilities for their +distribution in the varied stages of egg, pupa, and perfect +insect. This has led to a general uniformity in the insect-life +of the whole Archipelago, in accordance with the general +uniformity of its climate and vegetation; while on the other hand +the great susceptibility of the insect organization to the action +of external conditions has led to infinite detailed modifications +of form and colour, which have in many cases given a considerable +diversity to the productions of adjacent islands. + +Owing to the great preponderance among the birds, of parrots, +pigeons, kingfishers, and sunbirds, almost all of gay or delicate +colours, and many adorned with the most gorgeous plumage, and to +the numbers of very large and showy butterflies which are almost +everywhere to be met with, the forests of the Moluccas offer to +the naturalist a very striking example of the luxuriance and +beauty of animal life in the tropics. Yet the almost entire +absence of Mammalia, and of such wide-spread groups of birds as +woodpeckers, thrushes, jays, tits, and pheasants, must convince +him that he is in a part of the world which has, in reality but +little in common with the great Asiatic continent, although an +unbroken chain of islands seems to link them to it. + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + +MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS IN A NATIVE PRAU. + +(DECEMBER, 1856.) + +IT was the beginning of December, and the rainy season at +Macassar had just set in. For nearly three months had beheld the +sun rise daily above the palm-groves, mount to the zenith, and +descend like a globe of fire into the ocean, unobscured for a +single moment of his course. Now dark leaden clouds had gathered +over the whole heavens, and seemed to have rendered him +permanently invisible. The strong east winds, warm and dry and +dust-laden, which had hitherto blown as certainly as the sun had +risen, were now replaced by variable gusty breezes and heavy +rains, often continuous for three days and nights together; and +the parched and fissured rice stubbles which during the dry +weather had extended in every direction for miles around the +town, were already so flooded as to be only passable by boats, or +by means of a labyrinth of paths on the top of the narrow banks +which divided the separate properties. + +Five months of this kind of weather might be expected in Southern +Celebes, and I therefore determined to seek some more favourable +climate for collecting in during that period, and to return in +the next dry season to complete my exploration of the district. +Fortunately for me I was in one of the treat emporiums of the +native trade of the archipelago. Rattans from Borneo, sandal-wood +and bees'-was from Flores and Timor, tripang from the Gulf of +Carpentaria, cajputi-oil from Bouru, wild nutmegs and mussoi-bark +from New Guinea, are all to be found in the stores of the Chinese +and Bugis merchants of Macassar, along with the rice and coffee +which are the chief products of the surrounding country. More +important than all these however is the trade to Aru, a group of +islands situated on the south-west coast of New Guinea, and of +which almost the whole produce comes to Macassar in native +vessels. These islands are quite out of the track of all European +trade, and are inhabited only by black mop-headed savages, who +yet contribute to the luxurious tastes of the most civilized +races. Pearls, mother-of-pearl, and tortoiseshell find their way +to Europe, while edible birds' nests and "tripang" or sea-slug +are obtained by shiploads for the gastronomic enjoyment of the +Chinese. + +The trade to these islands has existed from very early times, and +it is from them that Birds of Paradise, of the two kinds known to +Linnaeus were first brought The native vessels can only make the +voyage once a year, owing to the monsoons. They leave Macassar in +December or January at the beginning of the west monsoon, and +return in July or August with the full strength of the east +monsoon. Even by the Macassar people themselves, the voyage to +the Aru Islands is looked upon as a rather wild and romantic +expedition, fall of novel sights and strange adventures. He who +has made it is looked up to as an authority, and it remains with +many the unachieved ambition of their lives. I myself had hoped +rather than expected ever to reach this "Ultima Thule" of the +East: and when I found that I really could do so now, had I but +courage to trust myself for a thousand miles' voyage in a Bugis +prau, and for six or seven months among lawless traders and +ferocious savages, I felt somewhat as I did when, a schoolboy, I +was for the first time allowed to travel outside the stage-coach, +to visit that scene of all that is strange and new and wonderful +to young imaginations-London! + +By the help of some kind friends I was introduced to the owner of +one of the large praus which was to sail in a few days. He was a +Javanese half-caste, intelligent, mild, and gentlemanly in his +manners, and had a young and pretty Dutch wife, whom he was going +to leave behind during his absence. When we talked about passage +money he would fix no sum, but insisted on leaving it entirely to +me to pay on my return exactly what I liked. "And then," said he, +"whether you give me one dollar or a hundred, I shall he +satisfied, and shall ask no more." + +The remainder of my stay was fully occupied in laying in stores, +engaging servants, and making every other preparation for an +absence of seven months from even the outskirts of civilization. +On the morning of December 13th, when we went on board at +daybreak, it was raining hard. We set sail and it came on to +blow. Our boat was lost astern, our sails damaged, and the +evening found us hack again in Macassar harbour. We remained +there four days longer, owing to its raining all the time, thus +rendering it impossible to dry and repair the huge mat sails. All +these dreary days I remained on board, and during the rare +intervals when it didn't rain, made myself acquainted with our +outlandish craft, some of the peculiarities of which I will now +endeavour to describe. + +It was a vessel of about seventy tons burthen, and shaped +something like a Chinese junk. The deck sloped considerably +downward to the bows, which are thus the lowest part of the ship. +There were two large rudders, but instead of being planed astern +they were hung on the quarters from strong cross beams, which +projected out two or three feet on each side, and to which extent +the deck overhung the sides of the vessel amidships. The rudders +were not hinged but hung with slings of rattan, the friction of +which keeps them in any position in which they are placed, and +thus perhaps facilitates steering. The tillers were not on deck, +but entered the vessel through two square openings into a lower +or half deck about three feet high, in which sit the two +steersmen. In the after part of the vessel was a low poop, about +three and a half feet high, which forms the captain's cabin, its +furniture consisting of boxes, mats, and pillows. In front of the +poop and mainmast was a little thatched house on deck, about four +feet high to the ridge; and one compartment of this, forming a +cabin six and a half feet long by five and a half wide, I had all +to myself, and it was the snuggest and most comfortable little +place I ever enjoyed at sea. It was entered by a low sliding door +of thatch on one side, and had a very small window on the other. +The floor was of split bamboo, pleasantly elastic, raised six +inches above the deck, so as to be quite dry. It was covered with +fine cane mats, for the manufacture of which Macassar is +celebrated; against the further wall were arranged my guncase, +insect-boxes, clothes, and books; my mattress occupied the +middle, and next the door were my canteen, lamp, and little store +of luxuries for the voyage; while guns, revolver, and hunting +knife hung conveniently from the roof. During these four +miserable days I was quite jolly in this little snuggery more so +than I should have been if confined the same time to the gilded +and uncomfortable saloon of a first-class steamer. Then, how +comparatively sweet was everything on board--no paint, no tar, no +new rope, (vilest of smells to the qualmish!) no grease, or oil, +or varnish; but instead of these, bamboo and rattan, and coir +rope and palm thatch; pure vegetable fibres, which smell +pleasantly if they smell at all, and recall quiet scenes in the +green and shady forest. + +Our ship had two masts, if masts they can be called c which were +great moveable triangles. If in an ordinary ship you replace the +shrouds and backstay by strong timbers, and take away the mast +altogether, you have the arrangement adopted on board a prau. +Above my cabin, and resting on cross-beams attached to the masts, +was a wilderness of yards and spars, mostly formed of bamboo. The +mainyard, an immense affair nearly a hundred feet long, was +formed of many pieces of wood and bamboo bound together with +rattans in an ingenious manner. The sail carried by this was of +an oblong shape, and was hung out of the centre, so that when the +short end was hauled down on deck the long end mounted high in +the air, making up for the lowness of the mast itself. The +foresail was of the same shape, but smaller. Both these were of +matting, and, with two jibs and a fore and aft sail astern of +cotton canvas, completed our rig. + +The crew consisted of about thirty men, natives of Macassar and +the adjacent coasts and islands. They were mostly young, and +were short, broad-faced, good-humoured looking fellows. Their +dress consisted generally of a pair of trousers only, when at +work, and a handkerchief twisted round the head, to which in the +evening they would add a thin cotton jacket. Four of the elder +men were "jurumudis," or steersmen, who had to squat (two at a +time) in the little steerage before described, changing every six +hours. Then there was an old man, the "juragan," or captain, but +who was really what we should call the first mate; he occupied +the other half of the little house on deck. There were about ten +respectable men, Chinese or Bugis, whom our owner used to call +"his own people." He treated them very well, shared his meals +with them, and spoke to them always with perfect politeness; yet +they were most of them a kind of slave debtors, bound over by the +police magistrate to work for him at mere nominal wages for a +term of years till their debts were liquidated. This is a Dutch +institution in this part of the world, and seems to work well. It +is a great boon to traders, who can do nothing in these thinly- +populated regions without trusting goods to agents and petty +dealers, who frequently squander them away in gambling and +debauchery. The lower classes are almost all in a chronic state +of debt. The merchant trusts them again and again, till the +amount is something serious, when he brings them to court and has +their services allotted to him for its liquidation. The debtors +seem to think this no disgrace, but rather enjoy their freedom +from responsibility, and the dignity of their position under a +wealthy and well-known merchant. They trade a little on their own +account, and both parties seem to get on very well together. The +plan seems a more sensible one than that which we adopt, of +effectually preventing a man from earning anything towards paying +his debts by shutting him up in a jail. + +My own servants were three in number. Ali, the Malay boy whom I +had picked up in Borneo, was my head man. He had already been +with me a year, could turn his hand to anything, and was quite +attentive and trustworthy. He was a good shot, and fond of +shooting, and I had taught him to skin birds very well. The +second, named Baderoon, was a Macassar lad; also a pretty good +boy, but a desperate gambler. Under pretence of buying a house +for his mother, and clothes, for himself, he had received four +months' wages about a week before we sailed, and in a day or two +gambled away every dollar of it. He had come on board with no +clothes, no betel, or tobacco, or salt fish, all which necessary +articles I was obliged to send Ali to buy for him. These two lads +were about sixteen, I should suppose; the third was younger, a +sharp little rascal named Baso, who had been with me a month or +two, and had learnt to cook tolerably. He was to fulfil the +important office of cook and housekeeper, for I could not get any +regular servants to go to such a terribly remote country; one +might as well ask a chef de cuisine to go to Patagonia. + +On the fifth day that I had spent on board (Dec. 15th) the rain +ceased, and final preparations were made for starting. Sails were +dried and furled, boats were constantly coming and going, and +stores for the voyage, fruit, vegetables, fish, and palm sugar, +were taken on board. In the afternoon two women arrived with a +large party of friends and relations, and at parting there was a +general noserubbing (the Malay kiss), and some tears shed. These +were promising symptoms for our getting off the next day; and +accordingly, at three in the morning, the owner came on board, +the anchor was immediately weighed, and by four we set sail. Just +as we were fairly off and clear of the other praus, the old +juragan repeated some prayers, all around responding with "Allah +il Allah," and a few strokes on a gong as an accompaniment, +concluding with all wishing each other "Salaamat jalan," a safe +and happy journey. We had a light breeze, a calm sea, and a fine +morning, a prosperous commencement of our voyage of about a +thousand miles to the far-famed Aru Islands. + +The wind continued light and variable all day, with a calm in the +evening before the land breeze sprang up, were then passing the +island of "Tanakaki "(foot of the land), at the extreme south of +this part of Celebes. There are some dangerous rocks here, and as +I was standing by the bulwarks, I happened to spit over the side; +one of the men begged I would not do so just now, but spit on +deck, as they were much afraid of this place. Not quite +comprehending, I made him repeat his request, when, seeing he was +in earnest, I said, "Very well, I suppose there are 'hantus' +(spirits) here." "Yes," said he, "and they don't like anything to +be thrown overboard; many a prau has been lost by doing it." Upon +which I promised to be very careful. At sunset the good +Mahometans on board all repeated a few words of prayer with a +general chorus, reminding me of the pleasing and impressive "Ave. +Maria" of Catholic countries. + +Dec. 20th.-At sunrise we were opposite the Bontyne mountain, said +to be one of the highest in Celebes. In the afternoon we passed +the Salayer Straits and had a little squall, which obliged us to +lower our huge mast, sails, and heavy yards. The rest of the +evening we had a fine west wind, which carried us on at near five +knots an hour, as much as our lumbering old tub can possibly go. + +Dec. 21st.-A heavy swell from the south-west rolling us about +most uncomfortably. A steady wind was blowing however, and we got +on very well. + +Dec. 22d.-The swell had gone down. We passed Boutong, a large +island, high, woody, and populous, the native place of some of +our crew. A small prau returning from Bali to the, island of +Goram overtook us. The nakoda (captain) was known to our owner. +They had been two years away, but were full of people, with +several black Papuans on board. At 6 P.M. we passed Wangiwangi, +low but not flat, inhabited and subject to Boutong. We had now +fairly entered the Molucca Sea. After dark it was a beautiful +sight to look down on our rudders, from which rushed eddying +streams of phosphoric light gemmed with whirling sparks of fire. +It resembled (more nearly than anything else to which I can +compare it) one of the large irregular nebulous star-clusters +seen through a good telescope, with the additional attraction of +ever-changing form and dancing motion. + +Dec. 23d.-Fine red sunrise; the island we left last evening +barely visible behind us. The Goram prau about a mile south of +us. They have no compass, yet they have kept a very true course +during the night. Our owner tells me they do it by the swell of +the sea, the direction of which they notice at sunset, and sail +by it during the night. In these seas they are never (in fine +weather) more than two days without seeing land. Of course +adverse winds or currents sometimes carry them away, but they +soon fall in with some island, and there are always some old +sailors on board who know it, and thence take a new course. Last +night a shark about five feet long was caught, and this morning +it was cut up and cooked. In the afternoon they got another, and +I had a little fried, and found it firm and dry, but very +palatable. In the evening the sun set in a heavy bank of clouds, +which, as darkness came on, assumed a fearfully black appearance. +According to custom, when strong wind or rain is expected, our +large sails -were furled, and with their yards let down on deck, +and a small square foresail alone kept up. The great mat sails +are most awkward things to manage in rough weather. The yards +which support them are seventy feet long, and of course very +heavy, and the only way to furl them being to roll up the sail on +the boom, it is a very dangerous thing to have them standing when +overtaken by a squall. Our crew; though numerous enough for a +vessel of 700 instead of one of 70 tons, have it very much their +own way, and there seems to be seldom more than a dozen at work +at a time. When anything important is to be done, however, all +start up willingly enough, but then all think themselves at +liberty to give their opinion, and half a dozen voices are heard +giving orders, and there is such a shrieking and confusion that +it seems wonderful anything gets done at all. + +Considering we have fifty men of several tribes and tongues +onboard, wild, half-savage looking fellows, and few of them +feeling any of the restraints of morality or education, we get on +wonderfully well. There is no fighting or quarrelling, as there +would certainly be among the same number of Europeans with as +little restraint upon their actions, and there is scarcely any of +that noise and excitement which might be expected. In fine +weather the greater part of them are quietly enjoying themselves- +-some are sleeping under the shadow of the sails; others, in +little groups of three or four, are talking or chewing betel; one +is making a new handle to his chopping-knife, another is +stitching away at a new pair of trousers or a shirt, and all are +as quiet and well-conducted as on board the best-ordered English +merchantman. Two or three take it by turns to watch in the bows +and see after the braces and halyards of the great sails; the two +steersmen are below in the steerage; our captain, or the juragan, +gives the course, guided partly by the compass and partly by the +direction of the wind, and a watch of two or three on the poop +look after the trimming of the sails and call out the hours by +the water-clock. This is a very ingenious contrivance, which +measures time well in both rough weather and fine. It is simply a +bucket half filled with water, in which floats the half of a +well-scraped cocoa-nut shell. In the bottom of this shell is a +very small hole, so that when placed to float in the bucket a +fine thread of water squirts up into it. This gradually fills the +shell, and the size of the hole is so adjusted to the capacity of +the vessel that, exactly at the end of an hour, plump it goes to +the bottom. The watch then cries out the number of hours from +sunrise and sets the shell afloat again empty. This is a very +good measurer of time. I tested it with my watch and found that +it hardly varied a minute from one hour to another, nor did the +motion of the vessel have any effect upon it, as the water in the +bucket of course kept level. It has a great advantage for a rude +people in being easily understood, in being rather bulky and easy +to see, and in the final submergence being accompanied with a +little bubbling and commotion of the water, which calls the +attention to it. It is also quickly replaced if lost while in +harbour. + +Our captain and owner I find to be a quiet, good-tempered man, +who seems to get on very well with all about him. When at sea he +drinks no wine or spirits, but indulges only in coffee and cakes, +morning and afternoon, in company with his supercargo and +assistants. He is a man of some little education, can read and +write well both Dutch and Malay, uses a compass, and has a chart. +He has been a trader to Aru for many years, and is well known to +both Europeans and natives in this part of the world. + +Dec. 24th.-Fine, and little wind. No land in sight for the first +time since we left Macassar. At noon calm, with heavy showers, in +which our crew wash their clothes, anti in the afternoon the prau +is covered with shirts, trousers, and sarongs of various gay +colours. I made a discovery to-day which at first rather alarmed +me. The two ports, or openings, through which the tillers enter +from the lateral rudders are not more than three or four feet +above the surface of the water, which thus has a free entrance +into the vessel. I of course had imagined that this open space +from one side to the other was separated from the hold by a +water-tight bulkhead, so that a sea entering might wash out at +the further side, and do no more harm than give the steersmen a +drenching. To my surprise end dismay, however, I find that it is +completely open to the hold, so that half-a-dozen seas rolling in +on a stormy night would nearly, or quite, swamp us. Think of a +vessel going to sea for a month with two holes, each a yard +square, into the hold, at three feet above the water-line,-holes, +too, which cannot possibly be closed! But our captain says all +praus are so; and though he acknowledges the danger, "he does not +know how to alter it--the people are used to it; he does not +understand praus so well as they do, and if such a great +alteration were made, he should be sure to have difficulty in +getting a crew!" This proves at all events that praus must be +good sea-boats, for the captain has been continually making +voyages in them for the last ten years, and says he has never +known water enough enter to do any harm. + +Dec.25th.-Christmas-day dawned upon us with gusts of wind, +driving rain, thunder and lightning, added to which a short +confused sea made our queer vessel pitch and roll very +uncomfortably. About nine o'clock, however, it cleared up, and we +then saw ahead of us the fine island of Bouru, perhaps forty or +fifty miles distant, its mountains wreathed with clouds, while +its lower lands were still invisible. The afternoon was fine, and +the wind got round again to the west; but although this is really +the west monsoon, there is no regularity or steadiness about it, +calms and breezes from every point of the compass continually +occurring. The captain, though nominally a Protestant, seemed to +have no idea of Christmas-day as a festival. Our dinner was of +rice and curry as usual, and an extra glass of wine was all I +could do to celebrate it. + +Dec. 26th.--Fine view of the mountains of Bouru, which we have +now approached considerably. Our crew seem rather a clumsy lot. +They do not walk the deck with the easy swing of English sailors, +but hesitate and stagger like landsmen. In the night the lower +boom of our mainsail broke, and they were all the morning +repairing it. It consisted of two bamboos lashed together, thick +end to thin, and was about seventy feet long. The rigging and +arrangement of these praus contrasts strangely with that of +European vessels, in which the various ropes and spars, though +much more numerous, are placed so as not to interfere with each +other's action. Here the case is quite different; for though +there are no shrouds or stays to complicate the matter, yet +scarcely anything can be done without first clearing something +else out of the way. The large sails cannot be shifted round to +go on the other tack without first hauling down the jibs, and the +booms of the fore and aft sails have to be lowered and completely +detached to perform the same operation. Then there are always a +lot of ropes foul of each other, and all the sails can never be +set (though they are so few) without a good part of their surface +having the wind kept out of them by others. Yet praus are much +liked even by those who have had European vessels, because of +their cheapness both in first cost and in keeping up; almost all +repairs can be done by the crew, and very few European stores are +required. + +Dec. 28th.--This day we saw the Banda group, the volcano first +appearing,--a perfect cone, having very much the outline of the +Egyptian pyramids, and looking almost as regular. In the evening +the smoke rested over its summit like a small stationary cloud. +This was my first view of an active volcano, but pictures and +panoramas have so impressed such things on one's mind, that when +we at length behold them they seem nothing extraordinary. + +Dec. 30th.--Passed the island of Teor, and a group near it, which +are very incorrectly marked on the charts. Flying-fish were +numerous to-day. It is a smaller species than that of the +Atlantic, and more active and elegant in its motions. As they +skim along the surface they turn on their sides, so as fully to +display their beautiful fins, taking a flight of about a hundred +yards, rising and falling in n most graceful manner. At a little +distance they exactly resemble swallows, and no one who sees them +can doubt that they really do fly, not merely descend in an +oblique direction from the height they gain by their first +spring. In the evening an aquatic bird, a species of booby (Sula +fiber.) rested on our hen-coop, and was caught by the neck by one +of my boys. + +Dec. 31st,.--At daybreak the Ke Islands (pronounced Kay) were in +sight, where we are to stay a few days. About noon we rounded the +northern point, and endeavoured to coast along to the anchorage; +but being now on the leeward side of the island, the wind came in +violent irregular gusts, and then leaving us altogether, we were +carried back by a strong current. Just then two boats-load of +natives appeared, and our owner having agreed with them to tow us +into harbour, they tried to do so, assisted by our own boat, but +could make no way. We were therefore obliged to anchor in a very +dangerous place on a rocky bottom, and we were engaged till +nearly dark getting hawsers secured to some rocks under water. +The coast of Ke along which we had passed was very picturesque. +Light coloured limestone rocks rose abruptly from the water to +the height of several hundred feet, everywhere broken into +jutting peaks and pinnacles, weather-worn into sharp points and +honeycombed surfaces, and clothed throughout with a most varied +and luxuriant vegetation. The cliffs above the sea offered to our +view screw-pines and arborescent Liliaceae of strange forms, +mingled with shrubs and creepers; while the higher slopes +supported a dense growth of forest trees. Here and there little +bays and inlets presented beaches of dazzling whiteness. The +water was transparent as crystal, and tinged the rock-strewn +slope which plunged steeply into its unfathomable depths with +colours varying from emerald to lapis-lazuli. The sea was calm as +a lake, and the glorious sun of the tropics threw a flood of +golden light over all. The scene was to me inexpressibly +delightful. I was in a new world, and could dream of the +wonderful productions hid in those rocky forests, and in those +azure abysses. But few European feet had ever trodden the shores +I gazed upon its plants, and animals, and men were alike almost +unknown, and I could not help speculating on what my wanderings +there for a few days might bring to light. + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +THE KE ISLANDS. + +(JANUARY 1857) + +THE native boats that had come to meet us were three or four in +number, containing in all about fifty men. + +They were long canoes, with the bow and stern rising up into a +beak six or night feet high, decorated with shells and waving +plumes of cassowaries hair. I now had my first view of Papuans in +their own country, and in less than five minutes was convinced +that the opinion already arrived at by the examination of a few +Timor and New Guinea slaves was substantially correct, and that +the people I now had an opportunity of comparing side by side +belonged to two of the most distinct and strongly marked races +that the earth contains. Had I been blind, I could have been +certain that these islanders were not Malays. The loud, rapid, +eager tones, the incessant motion, the intense vital activity +manifested in speech and action, are the very antipodes of the +quiet, unimpulsive, unanimated Malay These Ke men came up singing +and shouting, dipping their paddles deep in the water and +throwing up clouds of spray; as they approached nearer they stood +up in their canoes and increased their noise and gesticulations; +and on coming alongside, without asking leave, and without a +moment's hesitation, the greater part of them scrambled up on our +deck just as if they were come to take possession of a captured +vessel. Then commenced a scene of indescribable confusion. These +forty black, naked, mop-headed savages seemed intoxicated with +joy and excitement. Not one of them could remain still for a +moment. Every individual of our crew was in turn surrounded and +examined, asked for tobacco or arrack, grinned at and deserted +for another. All talked at once, and our captain was regularly +mobbed by the chief men, who wanted to be employed to tow us in, +and who begged vociferously to be paid in advance. A few presents +of tobacco made their eyes glisten; they would express their +satisfaction by grins and shouts, by rolling on deck, or by a +headlong leap overboard. Schoolboys on an unexpected holiday, +Irishmen at a fair, or mid-shipmen on shore, would give but a +faint idea of the exuberant animal enjoyment of these people. + +Under similar circumstances Malays could not behave as these +Papuans did. If they came on board a vessel (after asking +permission), not a word would be at first spoken, except a few +compliments, and only after some time, and very cautiously, world +any approach be made to business. One would speak at a time, with +a low voice and great deliberation, and the mode of making a +bargain would be by quietly refusing all your offers, or even +going away without saying another word about the matter, unless +advanced your price to what they were willing to accept. Our +crew, many of whom had not made the voyage before, seemed quite +scandalized at such unprecedented bad manners, and only very +gradually made any approach to fraternization with the black +fellows. They reminded me of a party of demure and well-behaved +children suddenly broken in upon by a lot of wild romping, +riotous boys, whose conduct seems most extraordinary and very +naughty. These moral features are more striking and more +conclusive of absolute diversity than oven the physical contrast +presented by the two races, though that is sufficiently +remarkable. The sooty blackness of the skin, the mop-like head of +frizzly hair, and, most important of all, the marked form of +countenance of quite a different type from that of the Malay, are +what we cannot believe to result from mere climatal or other +modifying influences on one and the same race. The Malay face is +of the Mongolian type, broad and somewhat flat. The brows are +depressed, the mouth wide, but not projecting, and the nose small +and well formed but for the great dilatation of the nostrils. The +face is smooth, and rarely develops the trace of a beard; the +hair black, coarse, and perfectly straight. The Papuan, on the +other hand, has a face which we may say is compressed and +projecting. The brows are protuberant and overhanging, the mouth +large and prominent, while the nose is very large, the apex +elongated downwards, the ridge thick, and the nostrils large. It +is an obtrusive and remarkable feature in the countenance, the +very reverse of what obtains in the Malay face. The twisted beard +and frizzly hair complete this remarkable contrast. Hero then I +had reached a new world, inhabited by a strange people. Between +the Malayan tribes, among whom I had for some years been living, +and the Papuan races, whose country I had now entered, we may +fairly say that there is as much difference, both moral and +physical, as between the red Indians of South America and the +negroes of Guinea on the opposite side of the Atlantic. + +Jan. 1st, 1857.-This has been a day of thorough enjoyment. I have +wandered in the forests of an island rarely seen by Europeans. +Before daybreak we left our anchorage, and in an hour reached the +village of Har, where we were to stay three or four days. The +range of hills here receded so as to form a small bay, and they +were broken up into peaks and hummocks with intervening flats and +hollows. A broad beach of the whitest sand lined the inner part +of the bay, backed by a mass of cocoa-nut palms, among which the +huts were concealed, and surmounted by a dense and varied growth +of timber. Canoes and boats of various sizes were drawn up on the +beach and one or two idlers, with a few children and a dog, gazed +at our prau as we came to an anchor. + +When we went on shore the first thing that attracted us was a +large and well-constructed shed, under which a long boat was +being built, while others in various stages of completion were +placed at intervals along the beach. Our captain, who wanted two +of moderate size for the trade among the islands at Aru, +immediately began bargaining for them, and in a short tine had +arranged the nuns number of brass guns, gongs, sarongs, +handkerchiefs, axes, white plates, tobacco, and arrack, which he +was to give for a hair which could be got ready in four days. We +then went to the village, which consisted only of three or four +huts, situated immediately above the beach on an irregular rocky +piece of ground overshadowed with cocoa-nuts, palms, bananas, and +other fruit trees. The houses were very rude, black, and half +rotten, raised a few feet on posts with low sides of bamboo or +planks, and high thatched roofs. They had small doors and no +windows, an opening under the projecting gables letting the smoke +out and a little light in. The floors were of strips of bamboo, +thin, slippery, and elastic, and so weak that my feet were in +danger of plunging through at every step. Native boxes of +pandanus-leaves and slabs of palm pith, very neatly constructed, +mats of the same, jars and cooking pots of native pottery, and a +few European plates and basins, were the whole furniture, and the +interior was throughout dark and smoke-blackened, and dismal in +the extreme. + +Accompanied by Ali and Baderoon, I now attempted to make some +explorations, and we were followed by a train of boys eager to +see what we were going to do. The most trodden path from the +beach led us into a shady hollow, where the trees were of immense +height and the undergrowth scanty. From the summits of these +trees came at intervals a deep booming sound, which at first +puzzled us, but which we soon found to proceed from some large +pigeons. My boys shot at them, and after one or two misses, +brought one down. It was a magnificent bird twenty inches long, +of a bluish white colour, with the back wings and tail intense +metallic green, with golden, blue, and violet reflexions, the +feet coral red, and the eyes golden yellow. It is a rare species, +which I have named Carpophaga concinna, and is found only in a +few small islands, where, however, it abounds. It is the same +species which in the island of Banda is called the nutmeg-pigeon, +from its habit of devouring the fruits, the seed or nutmeg being +thrown up entire and uninjured. Though these pigeons have a +narrow beak, yet their jaws and throat are so extensible that +they can swallow fruits of very large size. I had before shot a +species much smaller than this one, which had a number of hard +globular palm-fruits in its crop, each more than an inch in +diameter. + +A little further the path divided into two, one leading along the +beach, and across mangrove and sago swamps the other rising to +cultivated grounds. We therefore returned, and taking a fresh +departure from the village, endeavoured to ascend the hills and +penetrate into the interior. The path, however, was a most trying +one. Where there was earth, it was a deposit of reddish clay +overlying the rock, and was worn so smooth by the attrition of +naked feet that my shoes could obtain no hold on the sloping +surface. A little farther we came to the bare rock, and this was +worse, for it was so rugged and broken, and so honeycombed and +weatherworn into sharp points and angles, that my boys, who had +gone barefooted all their lives, could not stand it. Their feet +began to bleed, and I saw that if I did not want them completely +lamed it would be wise to turn lack. My own shoes, which were +rather thin, were but a poor protection, and would soon have been +cut to pieces; yet our little naked guides tripped along with the +greatest ease and unconcern, and seemed much astonished at our +effeminacy in not being able to take a walk which to them was a +perfectly agreeable one. During the rest of our stay in the +island we were obliged to confine ourselves to the vicinity of +the shore and the cultivated grounds, and those more level +portions of the forest where a little soil had accumulated and +the rock had been less exposed to atmospheric action. + +The island of Ke (pronounced exactly as the letter K, but +erroneously spelt in our maps Key or Ki) is long and narrow, +running in a north and south direction, and consists almost +entirely of rock and mountain. It is everywhere covered with +luxuriant forests, and in its bays and inlets the sand is of +dazzling whiteness, resulting from the decomposition of the +coralline limestone of which it is entirely composed. In all the +little swampy inlets and valleys sago trees abound, and these +supply the main subsistence of the natives, who grow no rice, and +have scarcely any other cultivated products but cocoa-nuts, +plantains, and yams. From the cocoa-nuts, which surround every +hut, and which thrive exceedingly on the porous limestone soil +and under the influence of salt breezes, oil is made which is +sold at a good price to the Aru traders, who all touch here to +lay in their stuck of this article, as well as to purchase boats +and native crockery. Wooden bowls, pans, and trays are also +largely made here, hewn out of solid blocks of wood with knife +and adze; and these are carried to all parts of the Moluccas. But +the art in which the natives of Ke pre-eminently excel is that of +boat building. Their forests supply abundance of fine timber, +though, probably not more so than many other islands, and from +some unknown causes these remote savages have come to excel in +what seems a very difficult art. Their small canoes are +beautifully formed, broad and low in the centre, but rising at +each end, where they terminate in high-pointed beaks more or less +carved, and ornamented with a plume of feathers. They are not +hollowed out of a tree, but are regularly built of planks running +from ego to end, and so accurately fitted that it is often +difficult to find a place where a knife-blade can be inserted +between the joints. The larger ones are from 20 to 30 tons +burthen, and are finished ready for sea without a nail or +particle of iron being used, and with no other tools than axe, +adze, and auger. These vessels are handsome to look at, good +sailers, and admirable sea-boats, and will make long voyages with +perfect safety, traversing the whole Archipelago from New Guinea +to Singapore in seas which, as every one who has sailed much in +them can testify, are not so smooth and tempest-free as word- +painting travellers love to represent them. + +The forests of Ke produce magnificent timber, tall, straight, and +durable, of various qualities, some of which are said to be +superior to the best Indian teak. To make each pair of planks +used in the construction of the larger boats an entire tree is +consumed. It is felled, often miles away from the shore, cut +across to the proper length, and then hewn longitudinally into +two equal portions. Each of these forms a plank by cutting down +with the axe to a uniform thickness of three or four inches, +leaving at first a solid block at each end to prevent splitting. +Along the centre of each plank a series of projecting pieces are +left, standing up three or four inches, about the same width, and +a foot long; these are of great importance in the construction of +the vessel. When a sufficient number of planks have been made, +they are laboriously dragged through the forest by three or four +men each to the beach, where the boat is to be built. A +foundation piece, broad in the middle and rising considerably at +each end, is first laid on blocks and properly shored up. The +edges of this are worked true and smooth with the adze, and a +plank, properly curved and tapering at each end, is held firmly +up against it, while a line is struck along it which allows it to +be cut so as to fit exactly. A series of auger holes, about as +large as one's finger, are then bored along the opposite edges, +and pins of very hard wood are fitted to these, so that the two +planks are held firmly, and can be driven into the closest +contact; and difficult as this seems to do without any other aid +than rude practical skill in forming each edge to the true +corresponding curves, and in poring the holes so as exactly to +match both in position and direction, yet so well is it done that +the best European shipwright cannot produce sounder or closer- +fitting joints. The boat is built up in this way by fitting plank +to plank till the proper height and width are obtained. We have +now a skin held together entirely by the hardwood pins connecting +the edges of the planks, very strong and elastic, but having +nothing but the adhesion of these pins to prevent the planks +gaping. In the smaller boats seats, in the larger ones cross- +beams, are now fixed. They are sprung into slight notches cut to +receive them, and are further secured to the projecting pieces of +the plank below by a strong lashing of rattan. Ribs are now +formed of single pieces of tough wood chosen and trimmed so as +exactly to fit on to the projections from each plank, being +slightly notched to receive them, and securely bound to them by +rattans passed through a hole in each projecting piece close to +the surface of the plank. The ends are closed against the +vertical prow and stern posts, and further secured with pegs and +rattans, and then the boat is complete; and when fitted with +rudders, masts, and thatched covering, is ready to do battle +with, the waves. A careful consideration of the principle of this +mode of construction, and allowing for the strength and binding +qualities of rattan (which resembles in these respects wire +rather than cordage), makes me believe that a vessel carefully +built in this manner is actually stronger and safer than one +fastened in the ordinary way with nails. + +During our stay here we were all very busy. Our captain was daily +superintending the completion of his two small praus. All day +long native boats were coming with fish, cocoa-nuts, parrots and +lories, earthen pans, sirip leaf, wooden bowls, and trays, &c. +&e., which every one of the fifty inhabitants of our prau seemed +to be buying on his own account, till all available and most +unavailable space of our vessel was occupied with these +miscellaneous articles: for every man on board a prau considers +himself at liberty to trade, and to carry with him whatever he +can afford to buy. + +Money is unknown and valueless here--knives, cloth, and arrack +forming the only medium of exchange, with tobacco for small coin. +Every transaction is the subject of a special bargain, and the +cause of much talking. It is absolutely necessary to offer very +little, as the natives are never satisfied till you add a little +more. They are then far better pleased than if you had given them +twice the amount at first and refused to increase it. + +I, too, was doing a little business, having persuaded some of the +natives to collect insects for me; and when they really found +that I gave them most fragrant tobacco for worthless black and +green beetles, I soon had scores of visitors, men, women, and +children, bringing bamboos full of creeping things, which, alas! +too frequently had eaten each other into fragments during the +tedium of a day's confinement. Of one grand new beetle, +glittering with ruby and emerald tints, I got a large quantity, +having first detected one of its wing-cases ornamenting the +outside of a native's tobacco pouch. It was quite a new species, +and had not been found elsewhere than on this little island. It +is one of the Buprestidae, and has been named Cyphogastra +calepyga. + +Each morning after an early breakfast I wandered by myself into +the forest, where I found delightful occupation in capturing the +large and handsome butterflies, which were tolerably abundant, +and most of them new to me; for I was now upon the confines of +the Moluccas and New Guinea,--a region the productions of which +were then among the most precious and rare in the cabinets of +Europe. Here my eyes were feasted for the first time with +splendid scarlet lories on the wing, as well as by the sight of +that most imperial butterfly, the "Priamus "of collectors, or a +closely allied species, but flying so high that I did not succeed +in capturing a specimen. One of them was brought me in a bamboo, +bored up with a lot of beetles, and of course torn to pieces. The +principal drawback of the place for a collector is the want of +good paths, and the dreadfully rugged character of the surface, +requiring the attention to be so continually directed to securing +a footing, as to make it very difficult to capture active winged +things, who pass out of reach while one is glancing to see that +the next step may not plunge one into a chasm or over a +precipice. Another inconvenience is that there are no running +streams, the rock being of so porous a nature that the surface- +water everywhere penetrates its fissures; at least such is the +character of the neighbourhood we visited, the only water being +small springs trickling out close to the sea-beach. + +In the forests of Ke, arboreal Liliaceae and Pandanaceae abound, +and give a character to the vegetation in the more exposed rocky +places. Flowers were scarce, and there were not many orchids, but +I noticed the fine white butterfly-orchis, Phalaenopsis +grandiflora, or a species closely allied to it. The freshness and +vigour of the vegetation was very pleasing, and on such an arid +rocky surface was a sure indication of a perpetually humid +climate. Tall clean trunks, many of them buttressed, and immense +trees of the fig family, with aerial roots stretching out and +interlacing and matted together for fifty or a hundred feet above +the ground, were the characteristic features; and there was an +absence of thorny shrubs and prickly rattans, which would have +made these wilds very pleasant to roam in, had it not been for +the sharp honeycombed rocks already alluded to. In damp places a +fine undergrowth of broadleaved herbaceous plants was found, +about which swarmed little green lizards, with tails of the most +"heavenly blue," twisting in and out among the stalks and foliage +so actively that I often caught glimpses of their tails only, +when they startled me by their resemblance to small snakes. +Almost the only sounds in these primeval woods proceeded from two +birds, the red lories, who utter shrill screams like most of the +parrot tribe, and the large green nutmeg-pigeon, whose voice is +either a loud and deep boom, like two notes struck upon a very +large gong, or sometimes a harsh toad-like croak, altogether +peculiar and remarkable. Only two quadrupeds are said by the +natives to inhabit the island--a wild pig and a Cuscus, or +Eastern opossum, of neither of which could I obtain specimens. + +The insects were more abundant, and very interesting. Of +butterflies I caught thirty-five species, most of them new to me, +and many quite unknown in European collections. Among them was +the fine yellow and black Papilio euchenor, of which but few +specimens had been previously captured, and several other +handsome butterflies of large size, as well as some beautiful +little "blues," and some brilliant dayflying moths. The beetle +tribe were less abundant, yet I obtained some very fine and rare +species. On the leaves of a slender shrub in an old clearing I +found several fine blue and black beetles of the genus Eupholus, +which almost rival in beauty- the diamond beetles of South +America. Some cocoa-nut palms in blossom on the beach were +frequented by a fine green floral beetle (Lomaptera which, when +the flowers were shaken, flew off like a small swarm of bees. I +got one of our crew to climb up the tree, and he brought me a +good number in his hand; and seeing they were valuable, I sent +him up again with my net to shake the flowers into, and thus +secured a large quantity. My best capture, however, was the +superb insect of the Buprestis family, already mentioned as +having been obtained from the natives, who told me they found it +in rotten trees in the mountains. + +In the forest itself the only common and conspicuous coleoptera +were two tiger beetles. One, Therates labiata, was much larger +than our green tiger beetle, of a purple black colour, with green +metallic glosses, and the broad upper lip of a bright yellow. It +was always found upon foliage, generally of broad-leaned +herbaceous plants, and in damp and gloomy situations, taking +frequent short flights from leaf to leaf, and preserving an alert +attitude, as if always looking out for its prey. Its vicinity +could be immediately ascertained, often before it was seen, by a +very pleasant odour, like otto of roses, which it seems to emit +continually, and which may probably be attractive to the small +insects on which it feeds. The other, Tricondyla aptera, is one +of the most curious forms in the family of the Cicindelidae, and +is almost exclusively confined to the Malay islands. In shape it +resembles a very large ant, more than an inch long, and of a +purple black colour. Like an ant also it is wingless, and is +generally found ascending trees, passing around the trunks in a +spiral direction when approached, to avoid capture, so that it +requires a sudden run and active fingers to secure a specimen. +This species emits the usual fetid odour of the ground beetles. +My collections during our four days' stay at Ke were as follow:-- +Birds, 13 species; insects, 194 species; and 3 kinds of land- +shells. + +There are two kinds of people inhabiting these islands--the +indigenes, who have the Papuan characters strongly marked, and +who are pagans; and a mixed race, who are nominally Mahometans, +and wear cotton clothing, while the former use only a waist cloth +of cotton or bark. These Mahometans are said to have been driven +out of Banda by the early European settlers. They were probably a +brown race, more allied to the Malays, and their mixed +descendants here exhibit great variations of colour, hair, and +features, graduating between the Malay and Papuan types. It is +interesting to observe the influence of the early Portuguese +trade with these countries in the words of their language, which +still remain in use even among these remote and savage islanders. +"Lenco" for handkerchief, and "faca" for knife, are here used to +the exclusion of the proper Malay terms. The Portuguese and +Spaniards were truly wonderful conquerors and colonizers. They +effected more rapid changes in the countries they conquered than +any other nations of modern times, resembling the Romans in their +power of impressing their own language, religion, and manners on +rode and barbarous tribes. + +The striking contrast of character between these people and the +Malays is exemplified in many little traits. One day when I was +rambling in the forest, an old man stopped to look at me catching +an insect. He stood very quiet till I had pinned and put it away +in my collecting box, when he could contain himself no longer, +but bent almost double, and enjoyed a hearty roar of laughter. +Every one will recognise this as a true negro trait. A Malay +would have stared, and asked with a tone of bewilderment what I +was doing, for it is but little in his nature to laugh, never +heartily, and still less at or in the presence of a stranger, to +whom, however, his disdainful glances or whispered remarks are +less agreeable than the most boisterous open expression of +merriment. The women here were not so much frightened at +strangers, or made to keep themselves so much secluded as among +the Malay races; the children were more merry and had the "nigger +grin," while the noisy confusion of tongues among the men, and +their excitement on very ordinary occasions, are altogether +removed from the general taciturnity and reserve of the Malay. + +The language of the Ke people consists of words of one, two, or +three syllables in about equal proportions, and has many +aspirated and a few guttural sounds. The different villages have +slight differences of dialect, but they are mutually +intelligible, and, except in words that have evidently been +introduced during a long-continued commercial intercourse, seem +to have no affinity whatever with the Malay languages. + +Jan. 6th.-The small boats being finished, we sailed for Aru at 4 +P.M., and as we left the shores of Ke had a line view of its +rugged and mountainous character; ranges of hills, three or four +thousand feet high, stretching southwards as far as the eye could +reach, everywhere covered with a lofty, dense, and unbroken +forest. We had very light winds, and it therefore took us thirty +hours to make the passage of sixty miles to the low, or flat, but +equally forest-covered Aru Islands, where we anchored in the +harbour of Dobbo at nine in the evening of the next day. + +My first voyage in a prau being thus satisfactorily terminated, I +must, before taking leave of it for some months, bear testimony +to the merits of the queer old-world vessel. Setting aside all +ideas of danger, which is probably, after all, not more than in +any other craft, I must declare that I have never, either before +or since, made a twenty days' voyage so pleasantly, or perhaps, +more correctly speaking, with so little discomfort. This I +attribute chiefly to having my small cabin on deck, and entirely +to myself, to having my own servants to wait upon me, and to the +absence of all those marine-store smells of paint, pitch, tallow, +and new cordage, which are to me insupportable. Something is also +to be put down to freedom from all restraint of dress, hours of +meals, &c., and to the civility and obliging disposition of the +captain. I had agreed to have my meals with him, but whenever I +wished it I had them in my own berth, and at what hours I felt +inclined. The crew were all civil and good-tempered, and with +very little discipline everything went on smoothly, and the +vessel was kept very clean and in pretty good order, so that on +the whole I was much delighted with the trip, and was inclined to +rate the luxuries of the semi-barbarous prau as surpassing those +of the most magnificent screw-steamer, that highest result of our +civilisation. + +CHAPTER XXX + +THE ARU ISLANDS--RESIDENCE IN DOBBO + +(JANUARY TO MARCH 1857.) + +On the 8th of January, 1857, I landed at Dobbo, the trading +settlement of the Bugis and Chinese, who annually visit the Aru +Islands. It is situated on the small island of Wamma, upon a spit +of sand which projects out to the north, and is just wide enough +to contain three rows of houses. Though at first sight a most +strange and desolate-looking place to build a village on, it has +many advantages. There is a clear entrance from the west among +the coral reefs that border the land, and there is good anchorage +for vessels, on one side of the village or the other, in both the +east and west monsoons. Being fully exposed to the sea-breezes in +three directions it is healthy, and the soft sandy heath offers +great facilities for hauling up the praus, in order to secure +them from sea-worms and prepare them for the homeward voyage. At +its southern extremity the sand-bank merges in the beach of the +island, and is backed by a luxuriant growth of lofty forest. The +houses are of various sizes, but are all built after one pattern, +being merely large thatched sheds, a small portion of which, next +the entrance, is used as a dwelling, while the rest is parted +oft; and often divided by one or two floors, in order better to +stow away merchandise and native produce. + +As we had arrived early in the season, most of the houses were +empty, and the place looked desolate in the extreme--the whole of +the inhabitants who received us on our landing amounting to about +half-a-dozen Bugis and Chinese. Our captain, Herr Warzbergen, had +promised to obtain a house for me, but unforeseen difficulties +presented themselves. One which was to let had no roof; and the +owner, who was building it on speculation, could not promise to +finish it in less than a month. Another, of which the owner was +dead, and which I might therefore take undisputed possession of +as the first comer, wanted considerable repairs, and no one could +be found to do the work, although about four times its value was +offered. The captain, therefore, recommended me to take +possession of a pretty good house near his own, whose owner was +not expected for some weeks; and as I was anxious to be on shore, +I immediately had it cleared out, and by evening had all my +things housed, and was regularly installed as an inhabitant of +Dobbo. I had brought with me a cane chair, and a few light +boards, which were soon rigged up into a table and shelves. A +broad bamboo bench served as sofa and bedstead, my boxes were +conveniently arranged, my mats spread on the floor, a window cut +in the palm-leaf wall to light my table, and though the place was +as miserable and gloomy a shed as could be imagined, I felt as +contented as if I had obtained a well-furnished mansion, and +looked forward to a month's residence in it with unmixed +satisfaction. + +The next morning, after an early breakfast, I set off to explore +the virgin forests of Aru, anxious to set my mind at rest as to +the treasures they were likely to yield, and the probable success +of my long-meditated expedition. A little native imp was our +guide, seduced by the gift of a German knife, value three- +halfpence, and my Macassar boy Baderoon brought his chopper to +clear the path if necessary. + +We had to walk about half a mile along the beach, the ground +behind the village being mostly swampy, and then turned into the +forest along a path which leads to the native village of Wamma, +about three miles off on the other side of the island. The path +was a narrow one, and very little used, often swampy and +obstructed by fallen trees, so that after about a mile we lost it +altogether, our guide having turned back, and we were obliged to +follow his example. In the meantime, however, I had not been +idle, and my day's captures determined the success of my journey +in an entomological point of view. I had taken about thirty +species of butterflies, more than I had ever captured in a day +since leaving the prolific banks of the Amazon, and among them +were many most rare and beautiful insects, hitherto only known by +a few specimens from New Guinea. The large and handsome spectre +butterfly, Hestia durvillei; the pale-winged peacock butterfly, +Drusilla catops; and the most brilliant and wonderful of the +clear-winged moths, Cocytia durvillei, were especially +interesting, as well, as several little "blues," equalling in +brilliancy and beauty anything the butterfly world can produce. +In the other groups of insects I was not so successful, but this +was not to be wondered at in a mere exploring ramble, when only +what is most conspicuous and novel attracts the attention. +Several pretty beetles, a superb "bug," and a few nice land- +shells were obtained, and I returned in the afternoon well +satisfied with my first trial of the promised land. + +The next two days were so wet and windy that there was no going +out; but on the succeeding one the sun shone brightly, and I had +the good fortune to capture one of the most magnificent insects +the world contains, the great bird-winged butterfly, Ornithoptera +Poseidon. I trembled with excitement as I saw it coming +majestically towards me, and could hardly believe I had really +succeeded in my stroke till I had taken it out of the net and was +gazing, lost in admiration, at the velvet black and brilliant +green of its wings, seven inches across, its bolder body, and +crimson breast. It is true I had seen similar insects in cabinets +at home, but it is quite another thing to capture such oneself-to +feel it struggling between one's fingers, and to gaze upon its +fresh and living beauty, a bright gem shirring out amid the +silent gloom of a dark and tangled forest. The village of Dobbo +held that evening at least one contented man. + +Jan. 26th.--Having now been here a fortnight, I began to +understand a little of the place and its peculiarities. Praus +continually arrived, and the merchant population increased almost +daily. Every two or three days a fresh house was opened, and the +necessary repairs made. In every direction men were bringing in +poles, bamboos, rattans, and the leaves of the nipa palm to +construct or repair the walls, thatch, doors, and shutters of +their houses, which they do with great celerity. Some of the +arrivals were Macassar men or Bugis, but more from the small +island of Goram, at the east end of Ceram, whose inhabitants are +the petty traders of the far East. Then the natives of Aru come +in from the other side of the islands (called here "blakang +tana," or "back of the country") with the produce they have +collected during the preceding six months, and which they now +sell to the traders, to some of whom they are most likely in +debt. + +Almost all, or I may safely say all, the new arrivals pay me a +visit, to see with their own eyes the unheard-of phenomenon of a +person come to stay at Dobbo who does not trade! They have their +own ideas of the uses that may possibly be made of stuffed birds, +beetles, and shells which are not the right shells--that is, +"mother-of-pearl." They every day bring me dead and broken +shells, such as l can pick up by hundreds on the beach, and seem +quite puzzled and distressed when I decline them. If, however, +there are any snail shells among a lot, I take them, and ask for +more--a principle of selection so utterly unintelligible to them, +that they give it up in despair, or solve the problem by imputing +hidden medical virtue to those which they see me preserve so +carefully. + +These traders are all of the Malay race, or a mixture of which +Malay is the chef ingredient, with the exception of a few +Chinese. The natives of Aru, on the other hand, are, Papuans, +with black or sooty brown skims, woolly or frizzly hair, thick- +ridged prominent noses, and rather slender limbs. Most of them +wear nothing but a waist-cloth, and a few of them may be seen all +day long wandering about the half-deserted streets of Dobbo +offering their little bit of merchandise for sale. + +Living in a trader's house everything is brought to me as well as +to the rest,--bundles of smoked tripang, or "beche de mer," +looking like sausages which have been rolled in mud and then +thrown up the chimney; dried sharks' fins, mother-of-pearl +shells, as well as birds of Paradise, which, however, are so +dirty and so badly preserved that I have as yet found no +specimens worth purchasing. When I hardly look at the articles, +and make no offer for them, they seem incredulous, and, as if +fearing they have misunderstood me, again offer them, and declare +what they want in return--knives, or tobacco, or sago, or +handkerchiefs. I then have to endeavour to explain, through any +interpreter who may be at hand, that neither tripang nor pearl +oyster shells have any charms for me, and that I even decline to +speculate in tortoiseshell, but that anything eatable I will buy- +-fish, or turtle, or vegetables of any sort. Almost the only +food, however, that we can obtain with any regularity, are fish +and cockles of very good quality, and to supply our daily wants +it is absolutely necessary to be always provided with four +articles--tobacco, knives, sago-cakes, and Dutch copper doits-- +because when the particular thing asked for is not forthcoming, +the fish pass on to the next house, and we may go that day +without a dinner. It is curious to see the baskets and buckets +used here. The cockles are brought in large volute shells, +probably the Cymbium ducale, while gigantic helmet-shells, a +species of Cassis, suspended by a rattan handle, form the vessels +in which fresh water is daily carried past my door. It is painful +to a naturalist to see these splendid shells with their inner +whorls ruthlessly broken away to fit them for their ignoble use. + +My collections, however, got on but slowly, owing to the +unexpectedly bad weather, violent winds with heavy showers having +been so continuous as only to give me four good collecting days +out of the first sixteen I spent here. Yet enough had been +collected to show me that with time and fine weather I might +expect to do something good. From the natives I obtained some +very fine insects and a few pretty land-shells; and of the small +number of birds yet shot more than half were known New Guinea +species, and therefore certainly rare in European collections, +while the remainder were probably new. In one respect my hopes +seemed doomed to be disappointed. I had anticipated the pleasure +of myself preparing fine specimens of the Birds of Paradise, but +I now learnt that they are all at this season out of plumage, and +that it is in September and October that they have the long +plumes of yellow silky feathers in full perfection. As all the +praus return in July, I should not be able to spend that season +in Aru without remaining another whole year, which was out of the +question. I was informed, however, that the small red species, +the "King Bird of Paradise," retains its plumage at all seasons, +and this I might therefore hope to get. + +As I became familiar with the forest scenery of the island, +(perceived it to possess some characteristic features that +distinguished it from that of Borneo and Malacca, while, what is +very singular and interesting, it recalled to my mind the half- +forgotten impressions of the forests of Equatorial America. For +example, the palms were much more abundant than I had generally +found them in the East, more generally mingled with the other +vegetation, more varied in form and aspect, and presenting some +of those lofty and majestic smooth-stemmed, pinnate-leaved +species which recall the Uauassu (Attalea speciosa) of the +Amazon, but which I had hitherto rarely met with in the Malayan +islands. + +In animal life the immense number and variety of spiders and of +lizards were circumstances that recalled the prolific regions of +south America, more especially the abundance and varied colours +of the little jumping spiders which abound on flowers and +foliage, and are often perfect gems of beauty. The web-spinning +species were also more numerous than I had ever seen them, and +were a great annoyance, stretching their nets across the +footpaths just about the height of my face; and the threads +composing these are so strong and glutinous as to require much +trouble to free oneself from them. Then their inhabitants, great +yellow-spotted monsters with bodies two inches long, and legs in +proportion, are not pleasant to o run one's nose against while +pursuing some gorgeous butterfly, or gazing aloft in search of +some strange-voiced bird. I soon found it necessary not only to +brush away the web, but also to destroy the spinner; for at +first, having cleared the path one day, I found the next morning +that the industrious insects had spread their nets again in the +very same places. + +The lizards were equally striking by their numbers, variety, and +the situations in which they were found. The beautiful blue- +tailed species so abundant in Ke was not seen here. The Aru +lizards are more varied but more sombre in their colours--shades +of green, grey, brown, and even black, being very frequently +seen. Every shrub and herbaceous plant was alive with them, every +rotten trunk or dead branch served as a station for some of these +active little insect-hunters, who, I fear, to satisfy their gross +appetites, destroy many gems of the insect world, which would +feast the eyes and delight the heart of our more discriminating +entomologists. Another curious feature of the jungle here was the +multitude of sea-shells everywhere met with on the ground and +high up on the branches and foliage, all inhabited by hermit- +crabs, who forsake the beach to wander in the forest. I lave +actually seen a spider carrying away a good-sized shell and +devouring its (probably juvenile) tenant. On the beach, which I +had to walls along every morning to reach the forest, these +creatures swarmed by thousands. Every dead shell, from the +largest to the most minute, was appropriated by them. They formed +small social parties of ten or twenty around bits of stick or +seaweed, but dispersed hurriedly at the sound of approaching +footsteps. After a windy night, that nasty-looking Chinese +delicacy the sea-slug was sometimes thrown up on the beach, which +was at such times thickly strewn with some of the most beautiful +shells that adorn our cabinets, along with fragments and masses +of coral and strange sponges, of which I picked up more than +twenty different sorts. In many cases sponge and coral are so +much alike that it is only on touching them that they can be +distinguished. Quantities of seaweed, too, are thrown up; but +strange as it may seem, these are far less beautiful and less +varied than may be found on any favourable part of our own +coasts. + +The natives here, even those who seem to be of pare Papuan race, +were much more reserved and taciturn than those of Ke. This is +probably because I only saw them as yet among strangers and in +small parties, One must see the savage at home to know what he +really is. Even here, however, the Papuan character sometimes +breaks out. Little boys sing cheerfully as they walk along, or +talk aloud to themselves (quite a negro characteristic); and try +all they can, the men cannot conceal their emotions in the true +Malay fashion. A number of them were one day in my house, and +having a fancy to try what sort of eating tripang would be, I +bought a couple, paying for them with such an extravagant +quantity of tobacco that the seller saw I was a green customer. +He could not, however, conceal his delight, but as he smelt the +fragrant weed, and exhibited the large handful to his companions, +he grinned and twisted and gave silent chuckles in a most +expressive pantomime. I had often before made the same mistake in +paying a Malay for some trifle. In no case, however, was his +pleasure visible on his countenance--a dull and stupid hesitation +only showing his surprise, which would be exhibited exactly in +the same way whether he was over or under paid. These little +moral traits are of the greatest interest when taken in connexion +with physical features. They do not admit of the same ready +explanation by external causes which is so frequently applied to +the latter. Writers on the races of mankind have too often to +trust to the information of travellers who pass rapidly from +country to country, and thus have few opportunities of becoming +acquainted with peculiarities of national character, or even of +ascertaining what is really the average physical conformation of +the people. Such are exceedingly apt to be deceived in places +where two races have long, intermingled, by looking on +intermediate forms and mixed habits as evidences of a natural +transition from one race to the other, instead of an artificial +mixture of two distinct peoples; and they will be the more +readily led into this error if, as in the present case, writers +on the subject should have been in the habit of classing these +races as mere varieties of one stock, as closely related in +physical conformation as from their geographical proximity one +might suppose they ought to be. So far as I have yet seen, the +Malay and Papuan appear to be as widely separated as any two +human races that exist, being distinguished by physical, mental, +and moral characteristics, all of the most marked and striking +kind. + +Feb 5th.--I took advantage of a very fine calm day to pay a visit +to the island of Wokan, which is about a mile from us, and forms +part of the "canna busar," or mainland of Aru. This is a large +island, extending from north to south about a hundred miles, but +so low in many parts as to be intersected by several creeks, +which run completely through it, offering a passage for good- +sized vessels. On the west side, where we are, there are only a +few outlying islands, of which ours (Wamma) is the principal; but +on the east coast are a great number of islands, extending some +miles beyond the mainland, and forming the "blakang tang," or +"back country," of the traders, being the principal seat of the +pearl, tripang, and tortoiseshell fisheries. To the mainland many +of the birds and animals of the country are altogether confined; +the Birds of paradise, the black cockatoo, the great brush- +turkey, and the cassowary, are none of them found on Wamma or any +of the detached islands. I did not, however, expect in this +excursion to see any decided difference in the forest or its +productions, and was therefore agreeably surprised. The beach was +overhung with the drooping branches of lame trees, loaded with +Orchideae, ferns, and other epiphytal plants. In the forest there +was more variety, some parts being dry, and with trees of a lower +growth, while in others there were some of the most beautiful +palms I have ever seen, with a perfectly straight, smooth, +slender stem, a hundred feet high, and a crown of handsome +drooping leaves. But the greatest novelty and most striking +feature to my eyes were the tree-ferns, which, after seven years +spent in the tropics, I now saw in perfection for the first time. +All I had hitherto met with were slender species, not more than +twelve feet high, and they gave not the least idea of the supreme +beauty of trees bearing their elegant heads of fronds more than +thirty feet in the air, like those which were plentifully +scattered about this forest. There is nothing in tropical +vegetation so perfectly beautiful. + +My boys shot five sorts of birds, none of which we had obtained +during a month's shooting in Wamma. Two were very pretty +flycatchers, already known from New Guinea; one of them (Monarcha +chrysomela), of brilliant black and bright orange colours, is by +some authors considered to be the most beautiful of all +flycatchers; the other is pure white and velvety black, with a +broad fleshy ring round the eye of are azure blue colour; it is +named the "spectacled flycatcher" (Monarcha telescopthalma), and +was first found in New Guinea, along with the other, by the +French naturalists during the voyage of the discovery-ship +Coquille. + +Feb. 18th.--Before leaving Macassar, I had written to the +Governor of Amboyna requesting him to assist me with the native +chiefs of Aru. I now received by a +vessel which had arrived from Amboyna a very polite answer +informing me that orders had been sent to give me every +assistance that I might require; and I was just congratulating +myself on being at length able to get a boat and men to go to the +mainland and explore the interior, when a sudden check carne in +the form of a piratical incursion. A small prau arrived which had +been attacked by pirates and had a man wounded. They were said to +have five boats, but more were expected to be behind and the +traders were all in consternation, fearing that their small +vessels sent trading to the "blakang tana" would be plundered. +The Aru natives were of course dreadfully alarmed, as these +marauders attack their villages, burn and murder, and carry away +women and children for slaves. Not a man will stir from his +village for some time, and I must remain still a prisoner in +Dobbo. The Governor of Amboyna, out of pure kindness, has told +the chiefs that they are to be responsible for my safety, so that +they have au excellent excuse for refusing to stir. + +Several praus went out in search of the pirates, sentinels were +appointed, and watch-fires lighted on the beach to guard against +the possibility of a night attack, though it was hardly thought +they would be bold enough to attempt to plunder Dobbo. The next +day the praus returned, and we had positive information that +these scourges of the Eastern seas were really among us. One of +Herr Warzbergen's small praus also arrived in a sad plight. It +had been attacked six days before, just as it was returning, from +the "blakang tana." The crew escaped in their small boat and hid +in the jungle, while the pirates came up and plundered the +vessel. They took away everything but the cargo of mother-of- +pearl shell, which was too bulky for them. All the clothes and +boxes of the men, and the sails and cordage of the prau, were +cleared off. They had four large war boats, and fired a volley of +musketry as they came up, and sent off their small boats to the +attack. After they had left, our men observed from their +concealment that three had stayed behind with a small boat; and +being driven to desperation by the sight of the plundering, one +brave fellow swam off armed only with his parang, or chopping- +knife, and coming on them unawares made a desperate attack, +killing one and wounding the other two, receiving himself numbers +of slight wounds, and then swimming off again when almost +exhausted. Two other prams were also plundered, and the crew of +one of them murdered to a man. They are said to be Sooloo +pirates, but have Bugis among them. On their way here they have +devastated one of the small islands east of Ceram. It is now +eleven years since they have visited Aru, and by thus making +their attacks at long and uncertain intervals the alarm dies +away, and they find a population for the most part unarmed and +unsuspicious of danger. None of the small trading vessels now +carry arms, though they did so for a year or two after the last +attack, which was just the time when there was the least occasion +for it. A week later one of the smaller pirate boats was captured +in the "blakang tana." Seven men were killed and three taken +prisoners. The larger vessels have been often seen but cannot be +caught, as they have very strong crews, and can always escape by +rowing out to sea in the eye of the wind, returning at night. +They will thus remain among the innumerable islands and channels, +till the change of the monsoon enables them to sail westward. + +March 9th.-For four or five days we have had a continual gale of +wind, with occasional gusts of great fury, which seem as if they +would send Dobbo into the sea. Rain accompanies it almost every +alternate hour, so that it is not a pleasant time. During such +weather I can do little, but am busy getting ready a boat I have +purchased, for an excursion into the interior. There is immense +difficulty about men, but I believe the "Orang-kaya," or head man +of Wamma, will accompany me to see that I don't run into danger. + +Having become quite an old inhabitant of Dobbo, I will endeavour +to sketch the sights and sounds that pervade it, and the manners +and customs of its inhabitants. The place is now pretty full, and +the streets present a far more cheerful aspect than when we first +arrived. Every house is a store, where the natives barter their +produce for what they are most in need of. Knives, choppers, +swords, guns, tobacco, gambier, plates, basins, handkerchiefs, +sarongs, calicoes, and arrack, are the principal articles wanted +by the natives; but some of the stores contain also tea, coffee, +sugar, wine, biscuits, &c., for the supply of the traders; and +others are full of fancy goods, china ornaments, looking-glasses, +razors, umbrellas, pipes, and purses, which take the fancy of the +wealthier natives. Every fine day mats are spread before the +doors and the tripang is put out to dry, as well as sugar, salt, +biscuit, tea, cloths, and other things that get injured by an +excessively moist atmosphere. In the morning and evening, spruce +Chinamen stroll about or chat at each other's doors, in blue +trousers, white jacket, and a queue into which red silk is +plaited till it reaches almost to their heels. An old Bugis hadji +regularly takes an evening stroll in all the dignity of flowing +green silk robe and gay turban, followed by two small boys +carrying his sirih and betel boxes. + +In every vacant space new houses are being built, and all sorts +of odd little cooking-sheds are erected against the old ones, +while in some out-of-the-way corners, massive log pigsties are +tenanted by growing porkers; for how can the Chinamen exist six +months without one feast of pig? + +Here and there are stalls where bananas are sold, and every +morning two little boys go about with trays of sweet rice and +crated cocoa-nut, fried fish, or fried plantains; and whichever +it may be, they have but one cry, and that is +"Chocolat-t--t!" This must be a Spanish or Portuguese cry, handed +down for centuries, while its meaning has been lost. The Bugis +sailors, while hoisting the main sail, cry out, "Vela a vela,-- +vela, vela, vela!" repeated in an everlasting chorus. As "vela" +is Portuguese a sail, I supposed I had discovered the origin of +this, but I found afterwards they used the same cry when heaving +anchor, and often chanted it to "hela," which is so much an +universal expression of exertion and hard breathing that it is +most probably a mere interjectional cry. + +I daresay there are now near five hundred people in Dobbo of +various races, all met in this remote corner of the East, as they +express it, "to look for their fortune;" to get money any way +they can. They are most of them people who have the very worst +reputation for honesty as well as every other form of morality,-- +Chinese, Bugis, Ceramese, and half-caste Javanese, with a +sprinkling of half-wild Papuans from Timor, Babber, and other +islands, yet all goes on as yet very quietly. This motley, +ignorant, bloodthirsty, thievish population live here without the +shadow of a government, with no police, no courts, and no +lawyers; yet they do not cut each other's throats, do not plunder +each other day and night, do not fall into the anarchy such a +state of things might be supposed to lead to. It is very +extraordinary! It puts strange thoughts into one's head about the +mountain-load of government under which people exist in Europe, +and suggests the idea that we may be over-governed. Think of the +hundred Acts of Parliament annually enacted to prevent us, the +people of England, from cutting each other's throats, or from +doing to our neighbour as we would not be done by. Think of the +thousands of lawyers and barristers whose whole lives are spent +in telling us what the hundred Acts of Parliament mean, and one +would be led to infer that if Dobbo has too little law England +has too much. + +Here we may behold in its simplest form the genius of Commerce at +the work of Civilization. Trade is the magic that keeps all at +peace, and unites these discordant elements into a well-behaved +community. All are traders, and know that peace and order are +essential to successful trade, and thus a public opinion is +created which puts down all lawlessness. Often in former year, +when strolling along the Campong Glam in Singapore, I have +thought how wild and ferocious the Bugis sailors looked, and how +little should like to trust myself among them. But now I find +them to be very decent, well-behaved fellows; I walk daily +unarmed in the jungle, where I meet them continually; I sleep in +a palm-leaf hut, which any one may enter, with as little fear and +as little danger of thieves or murder as if I were under the +protection of the Metropolitan police. It is true the Dutch +influence is felt here. The islands are nominally under the +government of the Moluccas, which the native chiefs acknowledge; +and in most years a commissioner arrives from Amboyna, who makes +the tour of the islands, hears complaints, settle disputes, and +carries away prisoner any heinous offender. This year he is not +expected to come, as no orders have yet been received to prepare +for him; so the people of Dobbo will probably be left to their +own devices. One day a man was caught in the act of stealing a +piece of iron from Herr Warzbergen's house, which he had entered +by making a hole through the thatch wall. In the evening the +chief traders of the place, Bugis and Chinese, assembled, the +offender was tried and found guilty, and sentenced +to receive twenty lashes on the spot. They were given with a +small rattan in the middle of the street, not very severely, the +executioner appeared to sympathise a little with the culprit. The +disgrace seemed to be thought as much of as the pain; for though +any amount of clever cheating is thought rather meritorious than +otherwise, open robbery and housebreaking meet with universal +reprobation. + +CHAPTER XXXI. + +THE ARU ISLANDS.--JOURNEY AND RESIDENCE IN THE INTERIOR. + +(MARCH TO MAY 1857.) + +MY boat was at length ready, and having obtained two men besides +my own servants, after an enormous amount of talk and trouble, we +left Dobbo on the morning of March 13th, for the mainland of Aru. +By noon we reached the mouth of a small river or creek, which we +ascended, winding among mangrove, swamps, with here and there a +glimpse of dry land. In two hours we reached a house, or rather +small shed, of the most miserable description, which our +steersman, the "Orang-kaya" of Wamma, said was the place we were +to stay at, and where he had assured me we could get every kind +of bird and beast to be found in Aru. The shed was occupied by +about a dozen men, women, and children; two cooking fires were +burning in it, and there seemed little prospect of my obtaining +any accommodation. I however deferred inquiry till I had seen the +neighbouring forest, and immediately started off with two men, +net, and guns, along a path at the back of the house. In an +hour's walk I saw enough to make me determine to give the place a +trial, and on my return, finding the "Orang-kaya" was in a strong +fever-fit and unable to do anything, I entered into negotiations +with the owner of the house for the use of a slip at one end of +it about five feet wide, for a week, and agreed to pay as rent +one "parang," or chopping-knife. I then immediately got my boxes +and bedding out of the boat, hung up a shelf for my bird-skins +and insects, and got all ready for work next morning. My own boys +slept in the boat to guard the remainder of my property; a +cooking place sheltered by a few mats was arranged under a tree +close by, and I felt that degree of satisfaction and enjoyment +which I always experience when, after much trouble and delay, I +am on the point of beginning work in a new locality. + +One of my first objects was to inquire for the people who are +accustomed to shoot the Paradise birds. They lived at some +distance in the jungle, and a man was sent to call them. When +they arrived, we had a talk by means of the "Orang-kaya "as +interpreter, and they said they thought they could get some. They +explained that they shoot the birds with a bow and arrow, the +arrow having a conical wooden cap fitted to the end as large as a +teacup, so as to kill the bird by the violence of the blow +without making any wound or shedding any blood. The trees +frequented by the birds are very lofty; it is therefore necessary +to erect a small leafy covering or hut among the branches, to +which the hunter mounts before daylight in the morning and +remains the whole day, and whenever a bird alights they are +almost sure of securing it. (See Frontispiece.) They returned to +their homes the same evening, and I never saw anything more of +them, owing, as I afterwards found, to its being too early to +obtain birds in good plumage. + +The first two or three days of our stay here were very wet, and I +obtained but few insects or birds, but at length, when I was +beginning to despair, my boy Baderoon returned one day with a +specimen which repaid me for months of delay and expectation. It +was a small bird a little less than a thrush. The greater part of +its plumage was of an intense cinnabar red, with a gloss as of +spun glass. On the head the feathers became short and velvety, +and shaded into rich orange. Beneath, from the breast downwards, +was pure white, with the softness and gloss of silk, and across +the breast a band of deep metallic green separated this colour +from the red of the throat. Above each eye was a round spot of +the same metallic green; the bill was yellow, and the feet and +legs were of a fine cobalt ķ111e, strikingly contrasting with all +the other parts of the body. Merely in arrangement of colours and +texture of plumage this little bird was a gem of the first water, +yet there comprised only half its strange beauty. Springing from +each side of the breast, and ordinarily lying concealed under the +wings, were little tufts of greyish feathers about two inches +long, and each terminated by a broad band of intense emerald +green. These plumes can be raised at the will of the bird, and +spread out into a pair of elegant fans when the wings are +elevated. But this is not the only ornament. The two middle +feathers of the tail are in the form of slender wires about five +inches long, and which diverge in a beautiful double curve. About +half an inch of the end of this wire is webbed on the outer side +only, awe coloured of a fine metallic green, and being curled +spirally inwards form a pair of elegant glittering buttons, +hanging five inches below the body, and the same distance apart. +These two ornaments, the breast fans and the spiral tipped tail +wires, are altogether unique, not occurring on any other species +of the eight thousand different birds that are known to exist +upon the earth; and, combined with the most exquisite beauty of +plumage, render this one of the most perfectly lovely of the many +lovely productions of nature. My transports of admiration and +delight quite amused my Aru hosts, who saw nothing more in the +"Burong raja" than we do in the robin of the goldfinch. + +Thus one of my objects in coming to the far fast was +accomplished. I had obtained a specimen of the King Bird of +Paradise (Paradisea regia), which had been described by Linnaeus +from skins preserved in a mutilated state by the natives. I knew +how few Europeans had ever beheld the perfect little organism I +now gazed upon, and how very imperfectly it was still known in +Europe. The emotions excited in the minds of a naturalist, who +has long desired to see the actual thing which he has hitherto +known only by description, drawing, or badly-preserved external +covering--especially when that thing is of surpassing rarity and +beauty, require the poetic faculty fully to express them. The +remote island in which I found myself situated, in an almost +unvisited sea, far from the tracks of merchant fleets and navies; +the wild luxuriant tropical forest, which stretched far away on +every side; the rude uncultured savages who gathered round me,-- +all had their influence in determining the emotions with which I +gazed upon this "thing of beauty." I thought of the long ages of +the past, during which the successive generations of this little +creature had run their course--year by year being born, and +living and dying amid these dark and gloomy woods, with no +intelligent eye to gaze upon their loveliness; to all appearance +such a wanton waste of beauty. Such ideas excite a feeling of +melancholy. It seems sad, that on the one hand such exquisite +creatures should live out their lives and exhibit their charms +only in these wild inhospitable regions, doomed for ages yet to +come to hopeless barbarism; while on the other hand, should +civilized man ever reach these distant lands, and bring moral, +intellectual, and physical light into the recesses of these +virgin forests, we may be sure that he will so disturb the +nicely-balanced relations of organic and inorganic nature as to +cause the disappearance, and finally the extinction, of these +very beings whose wonderful structure and beauty he alone is +fitted to appreciate and enjoy. This consideration must surely +tell us that all living things were _not_ made for man. Many of +them have no relation to him. The cycle of their existence has +gone on independently of his, and is disturbed or broken by every +advance in man's intellectual development; and their happiness +and enjoyment, their loves and hates, their struggles for +existence, their vigorous life and early death, would seem to be +immediately related to their own well-being and perpetuation +alone, limited only by the equal well-being and perpetuation of +the numberless other organisms with which each is more or less +intimately connected. + +After the first king-bird was obtained, I went with my men into +the forest, and we were not only rewarded with another in equally +perfect plumage, but I was enabled to see a little of the habits +of both it and the larger species. It frequents the lower trees +of the less dense forests: and is very active, flying strongly +with a whirring sound, and continually hopping or flying from +branch to branch. It eats hard stone-bearing fruits as large as a +gooseberry, and often flutters its wings after the manner of the +South American manakins, at which time it elevates and expands +the beautiful fans with which its breast is adorned. The natives +of Aru call it "Goby-goby." + +One day I get under a tree where a number of the Great Paradise +birds were assembled, but they were high up in the thickest of +the foliage, and flying and jumping about so continually that I +could get no good view of them. At length I shot one, but it was +a young specimen, and was entirely of a rich chocolate-brown +colour, without either the metallic green throat or yellow plumes +of the full-grown bird. All that I had yet seen resembled this, +and the natives told me that it would be about two months before +any would be found in full plumage. I still hoped, therefore, to +get some. Their voice is most extraordinary. At early morn, +before the sun has risen, we hear a loud cry of "Wawk-wawk-wawk, +wķk-wķk-wķk," which resounds through the forest, changing its +direction continually. This is the Great Bird of Paradise going +to seek his breakfast. Others soon follow his example; lories and +parroquets cry shrilly, cockatoos scream, king-hunters croak and +bark, and the various smaller birds chirp and whistle their +morning song. As I lie listening to these interesting sounds, I +realize my position as the first European who has ever lived for +months together in the Aru islands, a place which I had hoped +rather than expected ever to visit. I think how many besides my +self have longed to reach these almost fairy realms, and to see +with their own eyes the many wonderful and beautiful things which +I am daily encountering. But now Ali and Baderoon are up and +getting ready their guns and ammunition, and little Brio has his +fire lighted and is boiling my coffee, and I remember that I had +a black cockatoo brought in late last night, which I must skin +immediately, and so I jump up and begin my day's work very +happily. + +This cockatoo is the first I have seen, and is a great prize. It +has a rather small and weak body, long weak legs, large wings, +and an enormously developed head, ornamented with a magnificent +crest, and armed with a sharp-pointed hoofed bill of immense size +and strength. The plumage is entirely black, but has all over it +the curious powdery white secretion characteristic of cockatoo. +The cheeks are bare, and of an intense blood-red colour. Instead +of the harsh scream of the white cockatoos, its voice is a +somewhat plaintive whistle. The tongue is a curious organ, being +a slender fleshy cylinder of a deep red colour, terminated by a +horny black plate, furrowed across and somewhat prehensile. The +whole tongue has a considerable extensile power. I will here +relate something of the habits of this bird, with which I have +since become acquainted. It frequents the lower parts of the +forest, and is seen singly, or at most two or three together. It +flies slowly and noiselessly, and may be killed by a +comparatively slight wound. It eats various fruits arid seeds, +but seems more particularly attached to the kernel of the kanary- +nut, which grows on a lofty forest tree (Canarium commune), +abundant in the islands where this bird is found; and the manner +in which it gets at these seeds shows a correlation of structure +and habits, which would point out the "kanary" as its special +food. The shell of this nut is so excessively hard that only a +heavy hammer will crack it; it is somewhat triangular, and the +outside is quite smooth. The manner in which the bird opens these +nuts is very curious. Taking one endways in its bill and keeping +it firm by a pressure of the tongue, it cuts a transverse notch +by a lateral sawing motion of the sharp-edged lower mandible. +This done, it takes hold of the nut with its foot, and biting off +a piece of leaf retains it in the deep notch of the upper +mandible, and again seizing the nut, which is prevented from +slipping by the elastic tissue of the leaf, fixes the edge of the +lower mandible in the notch, and by a powerful nip breaks of a +piece of the shell. again taking the nut in its claws, it inserts +the very long and sharp point of the bill and picks out the +kernel, which is seized hold of, morsel by morsel, by the +extensible tongue. Thus every detail of form. and structure in +the extraordinary bill of this bird seems to have its use, and we +may easily conceive that the black cockatoos have maintained +themselves in competition with their more active and more +numerous white allies, by their power of existing on a kind of +food which no other bird is able to extract from its stony shell. +The species is the Microglossum aterrimum of naturalists. + +During the two weeks which I spent in this little settlement, I +had good opportunities of observing the natives at their own +home, and living in their usual manner. There is a great monotony +and uniformity in everyday savage life, and it seemed to me a +more miserable existence than when it had the charm of novelty. +To begin with the most important fact in the existence of +uncivilized peoples--their food--the Aru men have no regular +supply, no staff of life, such as bread, rice, mandiocca, maize, +or sago, which are the daily food of a large proportion of +mankind. They have, however, many sorts of vegetables, plantains, +yams, sweet potatoes, and raw sago; and they chew up vast +quantities of sugar-cane, as well as betel-nuts, gambir, and +tobacco. Those who live on the coast have plenty of fish; but +when inland, as we are here, they only go to the sea +occasionally, and then bring home cockles and other shell-fish by +the boatload. Now and then they get wild pig or kangaroo, but too +rarely to form anything like a regular part of their diet, which +is essentially vegetable; and what is of more importance, as +affecting their health, green, watery vegetables, imperfectly +cooked, and even these in varying and often in sufficient +quantities. To this diet may be attributed the prevalence of skin +diseases, and ulcers on the legs and joints. The scurfy skin +disease so common among savages has a close connexion with the +poorness and irregularity of their living. The Malays, who are +never without their daily rice, are generally free from it; the +hill-Dyaks of Borneo, who grow rice and live well, are clean +skinned while the less industrious and less cleanly tribes, who +live for a portion of the year on fruits and vegetables only, are +very subject to this malady. It seems clear that in this, as in +other respects, man is not able to make a beast of himself with +impunity, feeding like the cattle on the herbs and fruits of the +earth, and taking no thought of the morrow. To maintain his +health and beauty he must labour to prepare some farinaceous +product capable of being stored and accumulated, so as to give +him a regular supply of wholesome food. When this is obtained, he +may add vegetables, fruits, and meat with advantage. + +The chief luxury of the Aru people, besides betel and tobacco, is +arrack (Java rum), which the traders bring in great quantities +and sell very cheap. A day's fishing or rattan cutting will +purchase at least a half-gallon bottle; and when the tripang or +birds' nests collected during a season are sold, they get whole +boxes, each containing fifteen such bottles, which the inmates of +a house will sit round day and night till they have finished. +They themselves tell me that at such bouts they often tear to +pieces the house they are in, break and destroy everything they +can lay their hands on, and make such an infernal riot as is +alarming to behold. + +The houses and furniture are on a par with the food. A rude shed, +supported on rough and slender sticks rather than posts, no +walls, but the floor raised to within a foot of the eaves, is the +style of architecture they usually adopt. Inside there are +partition walls of thatch, forming little boxes or sleeping +places, to accommodate the two or three separate families that +usually live together. A few mats, baskets, and cooking vessels, +with plates and basins purchased from the Macassar traders, +constitute their whole furniture; spears and bows are their +weapons; a sarong or mat forms the clothing of the women, a +waistcloth of the men. For hours or even for days they sit idle +in their houses, the women bringing in the vegetables or sago +which form their food. Sometimes they hunt or fish a little, or +work at their houses or canoes, but they seem to enjoy pure +idleness, and work as little as they can. They have little to +vary the monotony of life, little that can be called pleasure, +except idleness and conversation. And they certainly do talk! +Every evening there is a little Babel around me: but as I +understand not a word of it, I go on with my book or work +undisturbed. Now and then they scream and shout, or laugh +frantically for variety; and this goes on alternately with +vociferous talking of men, women, and children, till long after I +am in my mosquito curtain and sound asleep. + +At this place I obtained some light on the complicated mixture of +races in Aru, which would utterly confound an ethnologist. Many +of the, natives, though equally dark with the others, have little +of the Papuan physiognomy, but have more delicate features of the +European type, with more glossy, curling hair: These at first +quite puzzled me, for they have no more resemblance to Malay than +to Papuan, and the darkness of skin and hair would forbid the +idea of Dutch intermixture. Listening to their conversation, +however, I detected some words that were familiar to me. "Accabķ" +was one; and to be sure that it was not an accidental +resemblance, I asked the speaker in Malay what "accabķ" meant, +and was told it meant "done or finished," a true Portuguese word, +with its meaning retained. Again, I heard the word "jafui" often +repeated, and could see, without inquiry, that its meaning was +"he's gone," as in Portuguese. "Porco," too, seems a common name, +though the people have no idea of its European meaning. This +cleared up the difficulty. I at once understood that some early +Portuguese traders had penetrated to these islands, and mixed +with the natives, influencing their language, and leaving in +their descendants for many generations the visible +characteristics of their race. If to this we add the occasional +mixture of Malay, Dutch, and Chinese with the indigenous Papuans, +we have no reason to wonder at the curious varieties of form and +feature occasionally to be met with in Aru. In this very house +there was a Macassar man, with an Aru wife and a family of mixed +children. In Dobbo I saw a Javanese and an Amboyna man, each with +an Aru wife and family; and as this kind of mixture has been +going on for at least three hundred years, and probably much +longer, it has produced a decided effect on the physical +characteristics of a considerable portion of the population of +the islands, more especially in Dobbo and the parts nearest to +it. + +March 28th.--The "Orang-kaya" being very ill with fever had +begged to go home, and had arranged with one of the men of the +house to go on with me as his substitute. Now that I wanted to +move, the bugbear of the pirates was brought up, and it was +pronounced unsafe to go further than the next small river. This +world not suit me, as I had determined to traverse the channel +called Watelai to the "blakang-tana;" but my guide was firm in +his dread of pirates, of which I knew there was now no danger, as +several vessels had gone in search of them, as well as a Dutch +gunboat which had arrived since I left Dobbo. I had, fortunately, +by this time heard that the Dutch "Commissie" had really arrived, +and therefore threatened that if my guide did not go with me +immediately, I would appeal to the authorities, and he would +certainly be obliged to gig a back the cloth which the "Orang- +kaya" had transferred to him in prepayment. This had the desired +effect; matters were soon arranged, and we started the next +morning. The wind, however, was dead against us, and after rowing +hard till midday we put in to a small river where there were few +huts, to cook our dinners. The place did not look very promising, +but as we could not reach our destination, the Watelai river, +owing to the contrary wind, I thought we might as well wait here +a day or two. I therefore paid a chopper for the use of a small +shed, and got my bed and some boxes on shore. In the evening, +after dark, we were suddenly alarmed by the cry of "Bajak! +bajak!" (Pirates!) The men all seized their bows and spears, and +rushed down to the beach; we got hold of our guns and prepared +for action, but in a few minutes all came back laughing and +chattering, for it had proved to be only a small boat and some of +their own comrades returned from fishing. When all was quiet +again, one of the men, who could speak a little Malay, came to me +and begged me not to sleep too hard. "Why?" said I. "Perhaps the +pirates may really come," said he very seriously, which made me +laugh and assure him I should sleep as hard as I could. + +Two days were spent here, but the place was unproductive of +insects or birds of interest, so we made another attempt to get +on. As soon as we got a little away from the land we had a fair +wind, and in six hours' sailing reached the entrance of the +Watelai channel, which divides the most northerly from the middle +portion of Aru. At its mouth this was about half a mile wide, but +soon narrowed, and a mile or two on it assumed entirely the +aspect of a river about the width of the Thames at London, +winding among low but undulating and often hilly country. The +scene was exactly such as might be expected in the interior of a +continent. The channel continued of a uniform average width, with +reaches and sinuous bends, one bank being often precipitous, or +even forming vertical cliffs, while the other was flat and +apparently alluvial; and it was only the pure salt-water, and the +absence of any stream but the slight flux and reflux of the tide, +that would enable a person to tell that he was navigating a +strait and not a river. The wind was fair, and carried us along, +with occasional assistance from our oars, till about three in the +afternoon, when we landed where a little brook formed two or +three basins in the coral rock, and then fell in a miniature +cascade into the salt water river. Here we bathed and cooked our +dinner, and enjoyed ourselves lazily till sunset, when we pursued +our way for two hours snore, and then moored our little vessel to +an overhanging tree for the night. + +At five the next morning we started again, and in an hour +overtook four large praus containing the "Commissie," who had +come from Dobbo to make their official tour round the islands, +and had passed us in the eight. I paid a visit to the Dutchmen, +one of whom spoke a little English, but we found that we could +get on much better with Malay. They told me that they had been +delayed going after the pirates to one of the northern islands, +and had seen three of their vessels but could not catch them, +because on being pursued they rowed out in the wind's eye, which +they are enabled to do by having about fifty oars to each boat. +Having had some tea with thorn, I bade them adieu, and turned up +a narrow channel which our pilot said would take us to the +village of Watelai, on the west side- of Are. After going some +miles we found the channel nearly blocked up with coral, so that +our boat grated along the bottom, crunching what may truly be +called the living rock. Sometimes all hands had to get out and +wade, to lighten the vessel and lift it over the shallowest +places; but at length we overcame all obstacles and reached a +wide bay or estuary studded with little rocks and islets, and +opening to the western sea and the numerous islands of the +"blakang-tuna." I now found that the village we were going to was +miles away; that we should have to go out to sea, and round a +rocky point. A squall seemed coming on, and as I have a horror of +small boats at sea, and from all I could learn Watelai village +was not a place to stop at (no birds of Paradise being found +there), I determined to return and go to a village I had heard of +up a tributary of the Watelai river, and situated nearly in the +centre of the mainland of Aru. The people there were said to be +good, and to be accustomed to hunting and bird-catching, being +too far inland to get any part of their food from the sea. While +I was deciding this point the squall burst upon us, and soon +raised a rolling sea in the shallow water, which upset an oil +bottle and a lamp, broke some of my crockery, and threw us all +into confusion. Rowing hard we managed to get back into the main +river by dusk, and looked out for a place to cook our suppers. It +happened to be high water, and a very high tide, so that every +piece of sand or beach was covered, and it was with the greatest +difficulty, and after much groping in the dark, that we +discovered a little sloping piece of rock about two feet square +on which to make a fire and cook some rice. The next day we +continued our way back, and on the following day entered a stream +on the south side of the Watelai river, and ascending to where +navigation ceased found the little village of Wanumbai, +consisting of two large houses surrounded by plantations, amid +the virgin forests of Aru. + +As I liked the look of the place, and was desirous of staying +some time, I sent my pilot to try and make a bargain for house +accommodation. The owner and chief man of the place made many +excuses. First, be was afraid I would not like his house, and +then was doubtful whether his son, who was away, would like his +admitting me. I had a long talk with him myself, and tried to +explain what I was doing, and how many things I would buy of +them, and showed him my stock of heads, and knives, and cloth, +and tobacco, all of which I would spend with his family and +friends if he would give me house-room. He seemed a little +staggered at this, and said he, would talk to his wife, and in +the meantime I went for a little walk to see the neighbourhood. +When I carne back, I again sent my pilot, saying that I would go +away if he would not dive me part of his house. In about half an +hour he returned with a demand for about half the cost of +building a house, for the rent of a small portion of it for a few +weeks. As the only difficulty now was a pecuniary one, I got out +about ten yards of cloth, an axe, with a few beads and some +tobacco, and sent them as my final offer for the part of the +house which I had before pointed out. This was accepted after a +little more talk, and I immediately proceeded to take possession. + +The house was a good large one, raised as usual about seven feet +on posts, the walls about three or four feet more, with a high- +pitched roof. The floor was of bamboo laths, and in the sloping +roof way an immense shutter, which could be lifted and propped up +to admit light and air. At the end where this was situated the +floor was raised about a foot, and this piece, about ten feet +wide by twenty long, quite open to the rest of the house, was the +portion I was to occupy. At one end of this piece, separated by a +thatch partition, was a cooking place, with a clay floor and +shelves for crockery. At the opposite end I had my mosquito +curtain hung, and round the walls we arranged my boxes and other +stores, fated up a table and seat, and with a little cleaning and +dusting made the place look quite comfortable. My boat was then +hauled up on shore, and covered with palm-leaves, the sails and +oars brought indoors, a hanging-stage for drying my specimens +erected outside the house and another inside, and my boys were +set to clean their gnus and get ail ready for beginning work. + +The next day I occupied myself in exploring the paths in the +immediate neighbourhood. The small river up which we had ascended +ceases to be navigable at this point, above which it is a little +rocky brook, which quite dries up in the hot season. There was +now, however, a fair stream of water in it; and a path which was +partly in and partly by the side of the water, promised well for +insects, as I here saw the magnificent blue butterfly, Papilio +ulysses, as well as several other fine species, flopping lazily +along, sometimes resting high up on the foliage which drooped +over the water, at others settling down on the damp rock or on +the edges of muddy pools. A little way on several paths branched +off through patches of second-growth forest to cane-fields, +gardens, and scattered houses, beyond which again the dark wall +of verdure striped with tree-trunks, marked out the limits of the +primeval forests. The voices of many birds promised good +shooting, and on my return I found that my boy s had already +obtained two or three kinds I had not seen before; and in the +evening a native brought me a rare and beautiful species of +ground-thrush (Pitta novaeguinaeae) hitherto only known from New +Guinea. + +As I improved my acquaintance with them I became much interested +in these people, who are a fair sample of the true savage +inhabitants of the Aru Islands, tolerably free from foreign +admixture. The house I lived in contained four or five families, +and there were generally from six to a dozen visitors besides. +They kept up a continual row from morning till night--talking, +laughing, shouting, without intermission--not very pleasant, but +interesting as a study of national character. My boy Ali said to +me, "Banyak quot bitchara Orang Aru "(The Aru people are very +strong talkers), never having been accustomed to such eloquence +either in his own or any other country he had hitherto visited. +Of an evening the men, having got over their first shyness, began +to talk to me a little, asking about my country, &c., and in +return I questioned them about any traditions they had of their +own origin. I had, however, very little success, for I could not +possibly make them understand the simple question of where the +Aru people first came from. I put it in every possible way to +them, but it was a subject quite beyond their speculations; they +had evidently never thought of anything of the kind, and were +unable to conceive a thing so remote and so unnecessary to be +thought about, as their own origin. Finding this hopeless, I +asked if they knew when the trade with Aru first began, when the +Bugis and Chinese and Macassar men first came in their praus to +buy tripang and tortoise-shell, and birds' nests, arid Paradise +birds? + +This they comprehended, but replied that there had always been +the same trade as long as they or their fathers recollected, but +that this was the first time a real white man had come among +them, and, said they, "You see how the people come every day from +all the villages round to look at you." This was very flattering, +and accounted for the great concourse of visitors which I had at +first imagined was accidental. A few years before I had been one +of the gazers at the Zoolus, and the Aztecs in London. Now the +tables were turned upon me, for I was to these people a new and +strange variety of man, and had the honour of affording to them, +in my own person, an attractive exhibition, gratis. + +All the men and boys of Aru are expert archers, never stirring +without their bows and arrows. They shoot all sorts of birds, as +well as pigs and kangaroos occasionally, and thus have a +tolerably good supply of meat to eat with their vegetables. The +result of this better living is superior healthiness, well-made +bodies, and generally clear skins. They brought me numbers of +small birds in exchange for beads or tobacco, but mauled them +terribly, notwithstanding my repeated instructions. When they got +a bird alive they would often tie a string to its leg, and keep +it a day or two, till its plumage was so draggled and dirtied as +to be almost worthless. One of the first things I got from there +was a living specimen of the curious and beautiful racquet-tailed +kingfisher. Seeing how much I admired it, they afterwards brought +me several more, which wore all caught before daybreak, sleeping +in cavities of the rocky banks of the stream. My hunters also +shot a few specimens, and almost all of them had the red bill +more or less clogged with mud and earth. This indicates the +habits of the bird, which, though popularly a king-fisher, never +catches fish, but lives on insects and minute shells, which it +picks up in the forest, darting down upon them from its perch on +some low branch. The genus Tanysiptera, to which this bird +belongs, is remarkable for the enormously lengthened tail, which +in all other kingfishers is small and short. Linnaeus named the +species known to him "the goddess kingfisher" (Alcedo dea), from +its extreme grace and beauty, the plumage being brilliant blue +and white, with the bill red, like coral. Several species of +these interesting birds are now known, all confined within the +very limited area which comprises the Moluccas, New Guinea, and +the extreme North of Australia. They resemble each other so +closely that several of them can only be distinguished by careful +comparison. One of the rarest, however, which inhabits New +Guinea, is very distinct from the rest, being bright red beneath +instead of white. That which I now obtained was a new one, and +has been named Tanysiptera hydrocharis, but in general form and +coloration it is exactly similar to the larger species found in +Amboyna, and figured at page 468 of my first volume. + +New and interesting birds were continually brought in, either by +my own boys or by the natives, and at the end of a week Ali +arrived triumphant one afternoon with a fine specimen of the +Great Bird of Paradise. The ornamental plumes had not yet +attained their full growth, but the richness of their glossy +orange colouring, and the exquisite delicacy of the loosely +waving feathers, were unsurpassable. At the same time a great +black cockatoo was brought in, as well as a fine fruit-pigeon and +several small birds, so that we were all kept hard at work +skinning till sunset. Just as we had cleared away and packed up +for the night, a strange beast was brought, which had been shot +by the natives. It resembled in size, and in its white woolly +covering, a small fat lamb, but had short legs, hand-like feet +with large claws, and a long prehensile tail. It was a Cuscus (C. +maculatus), one of the curious marsupial animals of the Papuan +region, and I was very desirous to obtain the skin. The owners, +however, said they wanted to eat it; and though I offered them a +good price, and promised to give them all the meat, there was +grout hesitation. Suspecting the reason, I offered, though it was +night, to set to work immediately and get out the body for them, +to which they agreed. The creature was much hacked about, and the +two hind feet almost cut off; but it was the largest and finest +specimen of the kind I had seen; and after an hour's hard work I +handed over the body to the owners, who immediately cut it up and +roasted it for supper. + +As this was a very good place for birds, I determined to remain a +month longer, and took the opportunity of a native boat going to +Dobbo, to send Ali for a fresh supply of ammunition and +provisions. They started on the 10th of April, and the house was +crowded with about a hundred men, boys, women, and girls, +bringing their loads of sugar-cane, plantains, sirih-leaf, yams, +&c.; one lad going from each house to sell the produce and make +purchases. The noise was indescribable. At least fifty of the +hundred were always talking at once, and that not in the low +measured tones of the apathetically polite Malay, but with loud +voices, shouts, and screaming laughter, in which the women and +children were even more conspicuous than the men. It was only +while gazing at me that their tongues were moderately quiet, +because their eyes were fully occupied. The black vegetable soil +here overlying the coral rock is very rich, and the sugar-cane +was finer than any I had ever seen. The canes brought to the boat +were often ten and even twelve feet long, and thick in +proportion, with short joints throughout, swelling between the +knots with the, abundance of the rich juice. At Dobbo they get a +high price for it, 1d. to 3d. a stick, and there is an insatiable +demand among the crews of the praus and the Baba fishermen. Here +they eat it continually. They half live on it, and sometimes feed +their pigs with it. Near every house are great heaps of the +refuse cane; and large wicker-baskets to contain this refuse as +it is produced form a regular part of the furniture of a house. +Whatever time of the day you enter, you are sure to find three or +four people with a yard of cane in one hand, a knife in the +other, and a basket between their legs, hacking, paring, chewing, +and basket-filling, with a persevering assiduity which reminds +one of a hungry cow grazing, or of a caterpillar eating up a +leaf. + +After five days' absence the boats returned from Dobbo, bringing +Ali and all the things I had sent for quite safe. A large party +had assembled to be ready to carry home the goods brought, among +which were a good many cocoa-nut, which are a great luxury here. +It seems strange that they should never plant them; but the +reason simply is, that they cannot bring their hearts to bury a +good nut for the prospective advantage of a crop twelve years +hence. There is also the chance of the fruits being dug up and +eaten unless watched night and day. Among the things I had sent +for was a box of arrack, and I was now of course besieged with +requests for a little drop. I gave them a flask (about two +bottles, which was very soon finished, and I was assured that +there were many present who had not had a taste. As I feared my +box would very soon be emptied if I supplied all their demands, I +told them I had given them one, but the second they must pay for, +and that afterwards I must have a Paradise bird for each flask. +They immediately sent round to all the neighbouring houses, and +mustered up a rupee in Dutch copper money, got their second +flask, and drunk it as quickly as the first, and were then very +talkative, but less noisy and importunate than I had expected. +Two or three of them got round me and begged me for the twentieth +time to tell them the name of my country. Then, as they could not +pronounce it satisfactorily, they insisted that I was deceiving +them, and that it was a name of my own invention. One funny old +man, who bore a ludicrous resemblance, to a friend of mine at +home, was almost indignant. "Ung-lung! "said he, "who ever heard +of such a name?--ang lang--anger-lung--that can't be the name of +your country; you are playing with us." Then he tried to give a +convincing illustration. "My country is Wanumbai--anybody can say +Wanumbai. I'm an ` orang-Wanumbai; but, N-glung! who ever heard +of such a name? Do tell us the real name of your country, and +then when you are gone we shall know how to talk about you." To +this luminous argument and remonstrance I could oppose nothing +but assertion, and the whole party remained firmly convinced that +I was for some reason or other deceiving them. They then attacked +me on another point--what all the animals and birds and insects +and shells were preserved so carefully for. They had often asked +me this before, and I had tried to explain to them that they +would be stuffed, and made to look as if alive, and people in my +country would go to look at them. But this was not satisfying; in +my country there must be many better things to look at, and they +could not believe I would take so much trouble with their birds +and beasts just for people to look at. They did not want to look +at them; and we, who made calico and glass and knives, and all +sorts of wonderful things, could not want things from Aru to look +at. They had evidently been thinking about it, and had at length +got what seemed a very satisfactory theory; for the same old man +said to me, in a low, mysterious voice, "What becomes of them +when you go on to the sea?" "Why, they are all packed up in +boxes," said I "What did you think became of them?" "They all +come to life again, don't they?" said he; and though I tried to +joke it off, and said if they did we should have plenty to eat at +sea, he stuck to his opinion, and kept repeating, with an air of +deep conviction, "Yes, they all come to life again, that's what +they do--they all come to life again." + +After a little while, and a good deal of talking among +themselves, he began again--"I know all about it--oh yes! Before +you came we had rain every day--very wet indeed; now, ever since +you have been here, it is fine hot weather. Oh, yes! I know all +about it; you can't deceive me." And so I was set down as a +conjurer, and was unable to repel the charge. But the conjurer +was completely puzzled by the next question: "What," said the old +man, "is the great ship, where the Bugis and Chinamen go to sell +their things? It is always in the great sea--its name is Jong; +tell us all about it." In vain I inquired what they knew about +it; they knew nothing but that it was called "Jong," and was +always in the sea, and was a very great ship, and concluded with, +"Perhaps that is your country?" Finding that I could not or would +not tell them anything about "Jong," there came more regrets that +I would not tell them the real name of my country; and then a +long string of compliments, to the effect that I was a much +better sort of a person than the Bugis and Chinese, who sometimes +came to trade with them, for I gave them things for nothing, and +did not try to cheat them. How long would I stop? was the next +earnest inquiry. Would I stay two or three months? They would get +me plenty of birds and animals, and I might soon finish all the +goods I had brought, and then, said the old spokesman, "Don't go +away, but send for more things from Dobbo, and stay here a year +or two." And then again the old story, "Do tell us the name of +your country. We know the Bugis men, and the Macassar men, and +the Java men, and the China men; only you, we don't know from +what country you come. Ung-lung! it can't be; I know that is not +the name of your country." Seeing no end to this long talk, I +said I was tired, and wanted to go to sleep; so after begging-- +one a little bit of dry fish for his supper, and another a little +salt to eat with his sago--they went off very quietly, and I went +outside and took a stroll round the house by moonlight, thinking +of the simple people and the strange productions of Aru, and then +turned in under my mosquito curtain; to sleep with a sense of +perfect security in the midst of these good-natured savages. + +We now had seven or eight days of hot and dry weather, which +reduced the little river to a succession of shallow pools +connected by the smallest possible thread of trickling water. If +there were a dry season like that of Macassar, the Aru Islands +would be uninhabitable, as there is no part of them much above a +hundred feet high; and the whole being a mass of porous coralline +rock, allows the surface water rapidly to escape. The only dry +season they have is for a month or two about September or +October, and there is then an excessive scarcity of water, so +that sometimes hundreds of birds and other animals die of +drought. The natives then remove to houses near the sources of +the small streams, where, in the shady depths of the forest, a +small quantity of water still remains. Even then many of them +have to go miles for their water, which they keep in large +bamboos and use very sparingly. They assure me that they catch +and kill game of all kinds, by watching at the water holes or +setting snares around them. That would be the time for me to make +my collections; but the want of water would be a terrible +annoyance, and the impossibility of getting away before another +whole year had passed made it out of the question. + +Ever since leaving Dobbo I had suffered terribly from insects, +who seemed here bent upon revenging my long-continued persecution +of their race. At our first stopping-place sand-flies were very +abundant at night, penetrating to every part of the body, and +producing a more lasting irritation than mosquitoes. My feet and +ankles especially suffered, and were completely covered with +little red swollen specks, which tormented me horribly. On +arriving here we were delighted to find the house free from sand- +flies or mosquitoes, but in the plantations where my daily walks +led me, the day-biting mosquitoes swarmed, and seemed especially +to delight in attaching my poor feet. After a month's incessant +punishment, those useful members rebelled against such treatment +and broke into open insurrection, throwing out numerous inflamed +ulcers, which were very painful, and stopped me from walking. So +I found myself confined to the house, and with no immediate +prospect of leaving it. Wounds or sores in the feet are +especially difficult to heal in hot climates, and I therefore +dreaded them more than any other illness. The confinement was +very annoying, as the fine hot weather was excellent for insects, +of which I had every promise of obtaining a fine collection; and +it is only by daily and unremitting search that the smaller +kinds, and the rarer and more interesting specimens, can be +obtained. When I crawled down to the river-side to bathe, I often +saw the blue-winged Papilio ulysses, or some other equally rare +and beautiful insect; but there was nothing for it but patience, +and to return quietly to my bird-skinning, or whatever other work +I had indoors. The stings and bites and ceaseless irritation +caused by these pests of the tropical forests, would be borne +uncomplainingly; but to be kept prisoner by them in so rich and +unexplored a country where rare and beautiful creatures are to be +met with in every forest ramble--a country reached by such a long +and tedious voyage, and which might not in the present century be +again visited for the same purpose--is a punishment too severe +for a naturalist to pass over in silence. + +I had, however, some consolation in the birds my boys brought +home daily, more especially the Paradiseas, which they at length +obtained in full plumage. It was quite a relief to my mind to get +these, for I could hardly have torn myself away from Aru had I +not obtained specimens. + +But what I valued almost as much as the birds themselves was the +knowledge of their habits, which I was daily obtaining both from +the accounts of my hunters, and from the conversation of the +natives. The birds had now commenced what the people here call +their "sacaleli," or dancing-parties, in certain trees in the +forest, which are not fruit trees as I at first imagined, but +which have an immense tread of spreading branches and large but +scattered leaves, giving a clear space for the birds to play and +exhibit their plumes. On one of these trees a dozen or twenty +full-plumaged male birds assemble together, raise up their wings, +stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, +keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly +across from branch to branch in great excitement, so that the +whole tree is filled with waving plumes in every variety of +attitude and motion. (See Frontispiece.) The bird itself is +nearly as large as a crow, and is of a rich coffee brown colour. +The head and neck is of a pure straw yellow above and rich +metallic green beneath. The long plumy tufts of golden orange +feathers spring from the sides beneath each wing, and when the +bird is in repose are partly concealed by them. At the time of +its excitement, however, the wings are raised vertically over +tile back, the head is bent down and stretched out, and the long +plumes are raised up and expanded till they form two magnificent +golden fans, striped with deep red at the base, and fading off +into the pale brown tint of the finely divided and softly waving +points. The whole bird is then overshadowed by them, the +crouching body, yellow head, and emerald green throat forming but +the foundation and setting to the golden glory which waves above. +When seen in this attitude, the Bird of Paradise really deserves +its name, and must be ranked as one of the most beautiful and +most wonderful of living things. I continued also to get +specimens of the lovely little king-bird occasionally, as well as +numbers of brilliant pigeons, sweet little parroquets, and many +curious small birds, most nearly resembling those of Australia +and New Guinea. + +Here, as among most savage people I have dwelt among, I was +delighted with the beauty of the human form-a beauty of which +stay-at-home civilized people can scarcely have any conception. +What are the finest Grecian statues to the living, moving, +breathing men I saw daily around me? The unrestrained grace of +the naked savage as he goes about his daily occupations, or +lounges at his ease, must be seen to be understood; and a youth +bending his bow is the perfection of manly beauty. The women, +however, except in extreme youth, are by no means so pleasant to +look at as the men. Their strongly-marked features are very +unfeminine, and hard work, privations, and very early marriages +soon destroy whatever of beauty or grace they may for a short +time possess. Their toilet is very simple, but also, I am sorry +to say, very coarse, and disgusting. It consists solely of a mat +of plaited strips of palm leaves, worn tight round the body, and +reaching from the hips to the knees. It seems not to be changed +till worn out, is seldom washed, and is generally very dirty. +This is the universal dress, except in a few cases where Malay +"sarongs" have come into use. Their frizzly hair is tied in a +bench at the back of the head. They delight in combing, or rather +forking it, using for that purpose a large wooden fork with four +diverging prongs, which answers the purpose of separating and +arranging the long tangled, frizzly mass of cranial vegetation +much better than any comb could do. The only ornaments of the +women are earrings and necklaces, which they arrange in various +tasteful ways. The ends of a necklace are often attached to the +earrings, and then looped on to the hair-knot behind. This has +really an elegant appearance, the beads hanging gracefully on +each side of the head, and by establishing a connexion with the +earrings give an appearance of utility to those barbarous +ornaments. We recommend this style to the consideration of those +of the fair sex who still bore holes in their ears and hang rings +thereto. Another style of necklace among these Papuan belles is +to wear two, each hanging on one side of the neck and under the +opposite arm, so as to cross each other. This has a very pretty +appearance, in part due to the contrast of the white beads or +kangaroo teeth of which they are composed with the dark glossy +skin. The earrings themselves are formed of a bar of copper or +silver, twisted so that the ends cross. The men, as usual among +savages, adorn themselves more than the women. They wear +necklaces, earrings, and finger rings, and delight in a band of +plaited grass tight round the arm just below the shoulder, to +which they attach a bunch of hair or bright coloured feathers by +way of ornament. The teeth of small animals, either alone, or +alternately with black or white beads, form their necklaces, and +sometimes bracelets also. For these latter, however, they prefer +brass wire, or the black, horny, wing-spines of the cassowary, +which they consider a charm. Anklets of brass or shell, and tight +plaited garters below the knee, complete their ordinary +decorations. + +Some natives of Kobror from further south, and who are reckoned +the worst and least civilized of the Aru tribes, came one day to +visit us. They have a rather more than usually savage appearance, +owing to the greater amount of ornaments they use--the most +conspicuous being a large horseshoe-shaped comb which they wear +over the forehead, the ends resting on the temples. The back of +the comb is fastened into a piece of wood, which is plated with +tin in front, and above is attached a plume of feathers from a +cock's tail. In other respects they scarcely differed from the +people I was living with. They brought me a couple of birds, some +shells and insects; showing that the report of the white man and +his doing had reached their country. There was probably hardly a +man in Aru who had not by this time heard of me. + +Besides the domestic utensils already mentioned, the moveable +property of a native is very scanty. He has a good supply of +spears and bows and arrows for hunting, a parang, or chopping- +knife, and an axe-for the stone age has passed away here, owing +to the commercial enterprise of the Bugis and other Malay races. +Attached to a belt, or hung across his shoulder, he carrion a +little skin pouch and an ornamented bamboo, containing betel-nut, +tobacco, and lime, and a small German wooden-handled knife is +generally stuck between his waist-cloth of bark and his bare +shin. Each man also possesses a °cadjan," or sleeping-mat, made +of the broad leaves of a pandanus neatly sewn together in- three +layers. This mat is abort four feet square, and when folded has +one end sewn up, so that it forms a kind of sack open at one +side. In the closed corner the head or feet can be placed, or by +carrying it on the head in a shower it forms both coat and +umbrella. It doubles up ix a small compass for convenient +carriage, and then forms a light and elastic cushion, so that on +a journey it becomes clothing, house, bedding, and furniture, all +in one. + +The only ornaments in an Aru horse are trophies of the chase-- +jaws of wild pigs, the heads and backbones of cassowaries, and +plumes made from the feathers of the Bird of Paradise, cassowary, +and domestic fowl. The spears, shields, knife-handles, and other +utensils are more or less carved in fanciful designs, and the +mats and leaf boxes are painted or plaited in neat patterns of +red, black, and yellow colours. I must not forget these boxes, +which are most ingeniously made of the pith of a balm leaf pegged +together, lined inside with pandanus leaves, and outside with the +same, or with plaited grass. All the joints and angles are +coffered with strips of split rattan sewn neatly on. The lid is +covered with the brown leathery spathe of the Areca palm, which +is impervious to water, and the whole box is neat, strong, and +well finished. They are made from a few inches to two or three +feet long, and being much esteemed by the Malay as clothes-boxes, +are a regular article of export from Aru. The natives use the +smaller ones for tobacco or betel-nut, but seldom have clothes +enough to require the larger ones, which are only made for sale. + +Among the domestic animals which may generally be seen in native +houses, are gaudy parrots, green, red, and blue, a few domestic +fowls, which have baskets hung for them to lay in under the +eaves, and who sleep on the ridge, and several half-starved +wolfish-baking dogs. Instead of rats and mice there are curious +little marsupial animals about the same size, which run about at +night and nibble anything eatable that may be left uncovered. +Four or five different kinds of ants attack everything not +isolated by water, and one kind even swims across that; great +spiders lurk in baskets and boxes, or hide in the folds of my +mosquito curtain; centipedes and millepedes are found everywhere. +I have caught them under my pillow and on my bead; while in every +box, and under every hoard which has lain for some days +undisturbed, little scorpions are sure to be found snugly +ensconced, with their formidable tails quickly turned up ready +for attack or defence. Such companions seem very alarming and +dangerous, but all combined are not so bad as the irritation of +mosquitoes, or of the insect pests often found at home. These +latter are a constant and unceasing source of torment and +disgust, whereas you may live a long time among scorpions, +spiders, and centipedes, ugly and venomous though they are, and +get no harm from them. After living twelve years in the tropics, +I have never yet been bitten or stung by either. + +The lean and hungry dogs before mentioned were my greatest +enemies, and kept me constantly on the watch. If my boys left the +bird they were skinning for an instant, it was sure to be carried +off. Everything eatable had to be hung up to the roof, to be out +of their reach. Ali had just finished skinning a fine King Bird +of Paradise one day, when he dropped the skin. Before he could +stoop to pick it up, one of this famished race had seized upon +it, and he only succeeded in rescuing it from its fangs after it +was torn to tatters. Two skins of the large Paradisea, which were +quite dry and ready to pack away, were incautiously left on my +table for the night, wrapped up in paper. The next morning they +were gone, and only a few scattered feathers indicated their +fate. My hanging shelf was out of their reach; but having +stupidly left a box which served as a step, a full-plumaged +Paradise bird was next morning missing; and a dog below the house +was to be seen still mumbling over the fragments, with the fine +golden plumes all trampled in the mud. Every night, as soon as I +was in bed, I could hear them searching about for what they could +devour, under my table, and all about my boxes and baskets, +keeping me in a state of suspense till morning, lest something of +value might incautiously have been left within their read. They +would drink the oil of my floating lamp and eat the wick, and +upset or break my crockery if my lazy boys had neglected to wash +away even the smell of anything eatable. Bad, however, as they +are here, they were worse in a Dyak's house in Borneo where I was +once staying, for there they gnawed off the tops of my waterproof +boots, ate a large piece out of an old leather game-bag, besides +devouring a portion of my mosquito curtain! + +April 28th.--Last evening we had a grand consultation, which had +evidently been arranged and discussed beforehand. A number of the +natives gathered round me, and said they wanted to talk. Two of +the best Malay scholars helped each other, the rest putting in +hints and ideas in their own language. They told me a long +rambling story; but, partly owing to their imperfect knowledge of +Malay, partly through my ignorance of local terms, and partly +through the incoherence of their narrative, I could not make it +out very clearly. It was, however, a tradition, and I was glad to +find they had anything of the kind. A long time ago, they said, +some strangers came to Aru, and came here to Wanumbai, and the +chief of the Wanumbai people did not like them, and wanted them +to go away, but they would not go, and so it came to fighting, +and many Aru men were killed, and some, along with the chief, +were taken prisoners, and carried away by the strangers. Some of +the speakers, however, said that he was not carried away, but +went away in his own boat to escape from the foreigners, and went +to the sea and never came back again. But they all believe that +the chief and the people that went with him still live in some +foreign country; and if they could but find out where, they would +send for them to come back again. Now having some vague idea that +white men must know every country beyond the sea, they wanted to +know if I had met their people in my country or in the sea. They +thought they must be there, for they could not imagine where else +they could be. They had sought for them everywhere, they said--on +the land and in the sea, in the forest and on the mountains, in +the air and in the sky, and could not find them; therefore, they +must be in my country, and they begged me to tell them, for I +must surely know, as I came from across the great sea. I tried to +explain to them that their friends could not have reached my +country in small boats; and that there were plenty of islands +like Aru all about the sea, which they would be sure to find. +Besides, as it was so long ago, the chief and all the people must +be dead. But they quite laughed at this idea, and said they were +sure they were alive, for they had proof of it. And then they +told me that a good many years ago, when the speakers were boys, +some Wokan men who were out fishing met these lost people in the +sea, and spoke to them; and the chief gave the Wokan men a +hundred fathoms of cloth to bring to the men of Wanumbai, to show +that they were alive and would soon come back to them, but the +Wokan men were thieves, and kept the cloth, and they only heard +of it afterwards; and when they spoke about it, the Wokan men +denied it, and pretended they had not received the cloth;--so +they were quite sure their friends were at that time alive and +somewhere in the sea. And again, not many years ago, a report +came to them that some Bu0gis traders had brought some children +of their lost people; so they went to Dobbo to see about it, and +the owner of the house, who was now speaking to me, was one who +went; but the Bugis roan would not let them see the children, and +threatened to kill them if they came into his house. He kept the +children shut up in a large box, and when he went away he took +them with him. And at the end of each of these stories, they +begged me in an imploring tone to tell them if I knew where their +chief and their people now were. + +By dint of questioning, I got some account of the strangers who +had taken away their people. They said they were wonderfully +strong, and each one could kill a great many Aru men; and when +they were wounded, however badly, they spit upon the place, and +it immediately became well. And they made a great net of rattans, +and entangled their prisoners in it, and sunk them in the water; +and the next day, when they pulled the net up on shore, they made +the drowned men come to life again, and carried them away. + +Much more of the same kind was told me, but in so confused and +rambling a manner that I could make nothing out of it, till I +inquired how long ago it was that all this happened, when they +told me that after their people were taken away the Bugis came in +their praus to trade in Aru, and to buy tripang and birds' nests. +It is not impossible that something similar to what they related +to me really happened when the early Portuguese discoverers first +carne to Aru, and has formed the foundation for a continually +increasing accumulation of legend and fable. I have no doubt that +to the next generation, or even before, I myself shall be +transformed into a magician or a demigod, a worker of miracles, +and a being of supernatural knowledge. They already believe that +all the animals I preserve will come to life again; and to their +children it will be related that they actually did so. An unusual +spell of fine weather setting in just at my arrival has made them +believe I can control the seasons; and the simple circumstance of +my always walking alone in the forest is a wonder and a mystery +to them, as well as my asking them about birds and animals I have +not yet seen, and showing an acquaintance with their form, +colours, and habits. These facts are brought against me when I +disclaim knowledge of what they wish me to tell them. "You must +know," say they; "you know everything: you make the fine weather +for your men to shoot, and you know all about our birds and our +animals as well as we do; and you go alone into the forest and +are not afraid." Therefore every confession of ignorance on my +part is thought to be a blind, a mere excuse to avoid telling +them too much. My very writing materials and books are to them +weird things; and were I to choose to mystify them by a few +simple experiments with lens and magnet, miracles without end +would in a few years cluster about me; and future travellers, +penetrating to Wanumbai, world h hardly believe that a poor +English naturalist, who had resided a few months among them, +could have been the original of the supernatural being to whom so +many marvels were attributed. + +Far some days I had noticed a good deal of excitement, and many +strangers came and went armed with spears and cutlasses, bows and +shields. I now found there was war near us--two neighbouring +villages having a quarrel about some matter of local politics +that I could not understand. They told me it was quite a common +thing, and that they are rarely without fighting somewhere near. +Individual quarrels are taken up by villages and tribes, and the +nonpayment of the stipulated price for a wife is one of the most +frequent causes of bitterness and bloodshed. One of the war +shields was brought me to look at. It was made of rattans and +covered with cotton twist, so as to be both light, strong, and +very tough. I should think it would resist any ordinary bullet. +Abort the middle there was au arm-hole with a shutter or flap +over it. This enables the arm to be put through and the bow +drawn, while the body and face, up to the eyes, remain protected, +which cannot be done if the shield is carried on the arm by loops +attached at the back in the ordinary way. A few of the young men +from our house went to help their friends, but I could not bear +that any of them were hurt, or that there was much hard fighting. + +May 8th.-I had now been six weeks at Wanumbai, but for more than +half the time was laid up in the house with ulcerated feet. My +stores being nearly exhausted, and my bird and insect boxes full, +and having no immediate prospect of getting the use of my legs +again, I determined on returning to Dobbo. Birds had lately +become rather scarce, and the Paradise birds had not yet become +as plentiful as the natives assured me they would be in another +month. The Wanumbai people seemed very sorry at my departure; and +well they might be, for the shells and insects they picked up on +the way to and from their plantations, and the birds the little +boys shot with their bows and arrows, kept them all well supplied +with tobacco and gambir, besides enabling them to accumulate a +stock of beads and coppers for future expenses. The owner of the +house was supplied gratis with a little rice, fish, or salt, +whenever he asked for it, which I must say was not very often. On +parting, I distributed among them my remnant stock of salt and +tobacco, and gave my host a flask of arrack, and believe that on +the whole my stay with these simple and good-natured people was +productive of pleasure and profit to both parties. I fully +intended to come back; and had I known that circumstances would +have prevented my doing so, shoed have felt some sorrow in +leaving a place where I had first seen so many rare and beautiful +living things, and bad so fully enjoyed the pleasure which fills +the heart of the naturalist when he is so fortunate as to +discover a district hitherto unexplored, and where every day +brings forth new and unexpected treasures. We loaded our boat in +the afternoon, and, starting before daybreak, by the help of a +fair wind reached Dobbo late the same evening. + +CHAPTER XXXII. + +THE ARU ISLANDS.--SECOND RESIDENCE AT DOBBO. + +(MAY AND JUNE 1857.) + +DOBBO was full to overflowing, and I was obliged to occupy the +court-house where the Commissioners hold their sittings. They had +now left the island, and I found the situation agreeable, as it +was at the end of the village, with a view down the principal +street. It was a mere shed, but half of it had a roughly boarded +floor, and by putting up a partition and opening a window I made +it a very pleasant abode. In one of the boxes I had left in +charge of Herr Warzbergen, a colony of small ants had settled and +deposited millions of eggs. It was luckily a fine hot day, and by +carrying the box some distance from the house, and placing every +article in the sunshine for an hour or two, I got rid of them +without damage, as they were fortunately a harmless species. + +Dobbo now presented an animated appearance. Five or six new +houses had been added to the street; the praus were all brought +round to the western side of the point, where they were hauled up +on the beach, and were being caulked and covered with a thick +white lime-plaster for the homeward voyage, making them the +brightest and cleanest looking things in the place. Most of the +small boats had returned from the "blakang-tana "(back country), +as the side of the islands towards New Guinea is called. Piles of +firewood were being heaped up behind the houses; sail-makers and +carpenters were busy at work; mother-of-pearl shell was being +tied up in bundles, and the black and ugly smoked tripang was +having a last exposure to the sun before loading. The spare +portion of the crews were employed cutting and squaring timber, +and boats from Ceram and Goram were constantly unloading their +cargoes of sago-cake for the traders' homeward voyage. The fowls, +ducks, and goats all looked fat and thriving on the refuse food +of a dense population, and the Chinamen's pigs were in a state of +obesity that foreboded early death. Parrots and Tories and +cockatoos, of a dozen different binds, were suspended on bamboo +perches at the doors of the houses, with metallic green or white +fruit-pigeons which cooed musically at noon and eventide. Young +cassowaries, strangely striped with black and brown, wandered +about the houses or gambolled with the playfulness of kittens in +the hot sunshine, with sometimes a pretty little kangaroo, caught +in the Aru forests, but already tame and graceful as a petted +fawn. + +Of an evening there were more signs of life than at the time of +my former residence. Tom-toms, jews'-harps, and even fiddles were +to be heard, and the melancholy Malay songs sounded not +unpleasantly far into the night. Almost every day there was a +cock-fight in the street. The spectators make a ring, and after +the long steel spurs are tied on, and the poor animals are set +down to gash and kill each other, the excitement is immense. +Those who lave made bets scream and yell and jump frantically, if +they think they are going to win or lose, but in a very few +minutes it is all over; there is a hurrah from the winners, the +owners seize their cocks, the winning bird is caressed and +admired, the loser is generally dead or very badly wounded, and +his master may often be seen plucking out his feathers as he +walks away, preparing him for the cooking pot while the poor bird +is still alive. + +A game at foot-ball, which generally took place at sunset, was, +however, much more interesting to me. The ball used is a rather +small one, and is made of rattan, hollow, light, and elastic. The +player keeps it dancing a little while on his foot, then +occasionally on his arm or thigh, till suddenly he gives it a +good blow with the hollow of the foot, and sends it flying high +in the air. Another player runs to meet it, and at its first +bound catches it on his foot and plays in his turn. The ball must +never be touched with the hand; but the arm, shoulder, knee, or +thigh are used at pleasure to rest the foot. Two or three played +very skilfully, keeping the ball continually flying about, but +the place was too confined to show off the game to advantage. One +evening a quarrel arose from some dispute in the game, and there +was a great row, and it was feared there would be a fight about +it--not two men only, but a party of a dozen or twenty on each +side, a regular battle with knives and krisses; but after a large +amount of talk it passed off quietly, and we heard nothing about +it afterwards. + +Most Europeans being gifted by nature with a luxuriant growth of +hair upon their faces, think it disfigures them, and keep up a +continual struggle against her by mowing down every morning the +crop which has sprouted up flaring the preceding twenty-four +hours. Now the men of Mongolian race are, naturally, just as many +of us want to he. They mostly pass their lives with faces as +smooth and beardless as an infant's. But shaving seems an +instinct of the human race; for many of these people, having no +hair to take off their faces, shave their heads. Others, however, +set resolutely to work to force nature to give them a beard. One +of the chief cock-fighters at Dobbo was a Javanese, a sort of +master of the ceremonies of the ring, who tied on the spars and +acted as backer-up to one of the combatants. This man had +succeeded, by assiduous cultivation, in raising a pair of +moustaches which were a triumph of art, for they each contained +about a dozen hairs more than three inches long, and which, being +well greased and twisted, were distinctly visible (when not too +far off) as a black thread hanging down on each side of his +mouth. But the beard to match was the difficulty, for nature had +cruelly refused to give him a rudiment of hair on his chin, and +the most talented gardener could not do much if he had nothing to +cultivate. But true genius triumphs over difficulties. Although +there was no hair proper on the chin; there happened to be, +rather on one side of it, a small mole or freckle which contained +(as such things frequently do) a few stray hairs. These had been +made the most of. They had reached four or five inches in length, +and formed another black thread dangling from the left angle of +the chin. The owner carried this as if it were something +remarkable (as it certainly was); he often felt it +affectionately, passed it between his fingers, and was evidently +extremely proud of his moustaches and beard! + +One of the most surprising things connected with Aru was the +excessive cheapness of all articles of European or native +manufacture. We were here two thousand miles beyond Singapore and +Batavia, which are themselves emporiums of the "far east," in a +place unvisited by, and almost unknown to, European traders; +everything reached us through at least two or three hands, often +many more; yet English calicoes and American cotton cloths could +be bought for 8s. the piece, muskets for 15s., common scissors +and German knives at three-halfpence each, and other cutlery, +cotton goods, and earthenware in the same proportion. The natives +of this out-of-the-way country can, in fact, buy all these things +at about the same money price as our workmen at home, but in +reality very much cheaper, for the produce of a few hours' labour +enables the savage to purchase in abundance what are to him +luxuries, while to the European they are necessaries of life. The +barbarian is no happier and no better off for this cheapness. On +the contrary, it has a most injurious effect on him. He wants the +stimulus of necessity to force him to labour; and if iron were as +dear as silver, and calico as costly as satin, the effect would +be beneficial to him. As it is, he has more idle hours, gets a +more constant supply of tobacco, and can intoxicate himself with +arrack more frequently and more thoroughly; for your Aru man +scorns to get half drunk-a tumbler full of arrack is but a slight +stimulus, and nothing less than half a gallon of spirit will make +him tipsy to his own satisfaction. + +It is not agreeable to reflect on this state of things. At least +half of the vast multitudes of uncivilized peoples, on whom our +gigantic manufacturing system, enormous capital, and intense +competition force the produce of our looms and workshops, would +be not a whit worse off physically, and would certainly be +improved morally, if all the articles with which w e supply them +were double or treble their present prices. If at the same time +the difference of cost, or a large portion of it, could find its +way into the pockets of the manufacturing workmen, thousands +would be raised from want to comfort, from starvation to health, +and would be removed from one of the chief incentives to crime. +It is difficult for an Englishman to avoid contemplating with +pride our gigantic and ever-increasing manufactures and commerce, +and thinking everything good that renders their progress still +more rapid, either by lowering the price at which the articles +can be produced, or by discovering new markets to which they may +be sent. If, however, the question that is so frequently asked of +the votaries of the less popular sciences were put here--"Cui +bono?"--it would be found more difficult to answer than had been +imagined. The advantages, even to the few who reap them, would be +seen to be mostly physical, while the wide-spread moral and +intellectual evils resulting from unceasing labour, low wages, +crowded dwellings, and monotonous occupations, to perhaps as +large a number as those who gain any real advantage, might be +held to show a balance of evil so great, as to lead the greatest +admirers of our manufactures and commerce to doubt the +advisability of their further development. It will be said: "We +cannot stop it; capital must be employed; our population must be +kept at work; if we hesitate a moment, other nations now hard +pressing us will get ahead, and national ruin will follow." Some +of this is true, some fallacious. It is undoubtedly a difficult +problem which we have to solve; and I am inclined to think it is +this difficulty that makes men conclude that what seems a +necessary and unalterable state of things must be good-that its +benefits must he greater than its evils. This was the feeling of +the American advocates of slavery; they could not see an easy, +comfortable way out of it. In our own case, however, it is to be +hoped, that if a fair consideration of the matter in all its +hearings shows that a preponderance of evil arises from the +immensity of our manufactures and commerce-evil which must go on +increasing with their increase-there is enough both of political +wisdom and true philanthropy in Englishmen, to induce them to +turn their superabundant wealth into other channels. The fact +that has led to these remarks is surely a striking one: that in +one of the most remote corners of the earth savages can buy +clothing cheaper than the people of the country where it is made; +that the weaver's child should shiver in the wintry wind, unable +to purchase articles attainable by the wild natives of a tropical +climate, where clothing is mere ornament or luxury, should make +us pause ere we regard with unmixed admiration the system which +has led to such a result, and cause us to look with some +suspicion on the further extension of that system. It must be +remembered too that our commerce is not a purely natural growth. +It has been ever fostered by the legislature, and forced to an +unnatural luxuriance by the protection of our fleets and armies. +The wisdom and the justice of this policy have been already +doubted. So soon, therefore, as it is seen that the further +extension of our manufactures and commerce would be an evil, the +remedy is not far to seek. + +After six weeks' confinement to the house I was at length well, +and could resume my daily walks in the forest. I did not, +however, find it so productive as when I had first arrived at +Dobbo. There was a damp stagnation about the paths, and insects +were very scarce. In some of my best collecting places I now +found a mass of rotting wood, mingled with young shoots, and +overgrown with climbers, yet I always managed to add something +daily to my extensive collections. I one day met with a curious +example of failure of instinct, which, by showing it to be +fallible, renders it very doubtful whether it is anything more +than hereditary habit, dependent on delicate modifications of +sensation. Some sailors cut down a good-sized tree, and, as is +always my practice, I visited it daily for some time in search of +insects. Among other beetles came swarms of the little +cylindrical woodborers (Platypus, Tesserocerus, &c.), and +commenced making holes in the bark. After a day or two I was +surprised to find hundreds of them sticking in the holes they had +bored, and on examination discovered that the milky sap of the +tree was of the nature of gutta-percha, hardening rapidly on +exposure to the air, and glueing the little animals in self-dug +graves. The habit of boring holes in trees in which to deposit +their eggs, was not accompanied by a sufficient instinctive +knowledge of which trees were suitable, and which destructive to +them. If, as is very probable, these trees have an attractive +odour to certain species of borers, it might very likely lead to +their becoming extinct; while other species, to whom the same +odour was disagreeable, and who therefore avoided the dangerous +trees, would survive, and would be credited by us with an +instinct, whereas they would really be guided by a simple +sensation. + +Those curious little beetles, the Brenthidae, were very abundant +in Aru. The females have a pointed rostrum, with which they bore +deep holes in the bark of dead trees, often burying the rostrum +up to the eyes, and in these holes deposit their eggs. The males +are larger, and have the rostrum dilated at the end, and +sometimes terminating in a good-sized pair of jaws. I once saw +two males fighting together; each had a fore-leg laid across the +neck of the other, and the rostrum bent quite in an attitude of +defiance, and looking most ridiculous. Another time, two were +fighting for a female, who stood close by busy at her boring. +They pushed at each other with their rostra, and clawed and +thumped, apparently in the greatest rage, although their coats of +mail must have saved both from injury. The small one, however, +soon ran away, acknowledging himself vanquished. In most +Coleoptera the female is larger than the male, and it is +therefore interesting, as bearing on the question of sexual +selection, that in this case, as in the stag-beetles where the +males fight together, they should be not only better armed, but +also much larger than the females. Just as we were going away, a +handsome tree, allied to Erythrina, was in blossom, showing its +masses of large crimson flowers scattered here and there about +the forest. Could it have been seen from an elevation, it would +have had a fine effect; from below I could only catch sight of +masses of gorgeous colour in clusters and festoons overhead, +about which flocks of blue and orange lories were fluttering and +screaming. + +A good many people died at Dobbo this season; I believe about +twenty. They were buried in a little grove of Casuarinas behind +my house. Among the traders was a. Mahometan priest, who +superintended the funerals, which were very simple. The body was +wrapped up in new white cotton cloth, and was carried on a bier +to the grave. All the spectators sat down on the ground, and the +priest chanted some verses from the Koran. The graves were fenced +round with a slight bamboo railing, and a little carved wooden +head-post was put to mark the spot. There was also in the village +a small mosque, where every Friday the faithful went to pray. +This is probably more remote from Mecca than any other mosque in +the world, and marks the farthest eastern extension of the +Mahometan religion. The Chinese here, as elsewhere, showed their +superior wealth and civilization by tombstones of solid granite +brought from Singapore, with deeply-cut inscriptions, the +characters of which are painted in red, blue, and gold. No people +have more respect for the graves of their relations and friends +than this strange, ubiquitous, money-getting people. + +Soon after we had returned to Dobbo, my Macassar boy, Baderoon, +took his wages and left me, because I scolded him for laziness. +He then occupied himself in gambling, and at first had some luck, +and bought ornaments, and had plenty of money. Then his luck +turned; he lost everything, borrowed money and lost that, and was +obliged to become the slave of his creditor till he had worked +out the debt. He was a quick and active lad when he pleased, but +was apt to be idle, and had such an incorrigible propensity for +gambling, that it will very likely lead to his becoming a slave +for life. + +The end of June was now approaching, the east monsoon had set in +steadily, and in another week or two Dobbo would be deserted. +Preparations for departure were everywhere visible, and every +sunny day (rather rare now) the streets were as crowded and as +busy as beehives. Heaps of tripang were finally dried and packed +up in sacks; mother-of-pearl shell, tied up with rattans into +convenient bundles, was all day long being carried to the beach +to be loaded; water-casks were filled, and cloths and mat-sails +mended and strengthened for the run home before the strong east +wind. Almost every day groups of natives arrived from the most +distant parts of the islands, with cargoes of bananas and sugar- +cane to exchange for tobacco, sago, bread, and other luxuries, +before the general departure. The Chinamen killed their fat pig +and made their parting feast, and kindly sent me some pork, and a +basin of birds' nest stew, which had very little more taste than +a dish of vermicelli. My boy Ali returned from Wanumbai, where I +had sent him alone for a fortnight to buy Paradise birds and +prepare the skins; he brought me sixteen glorious specimens, and +had he not been very ill with fever and ague might have obtained +twice the number. He had lived with the people whose house I had +occupied, and it is a proof of their goodness, if fairly treated, +that although he took with him a quantity of silver dollars to +pay for the birds they caught, no attempt was made to rob him, +which might have been done with the most perfect impunity. He was +kindly treated when ill, and was brought back to me with the +balance of the dollars he had not spent. + +The Wanumbai people, like almost all the inhabitants of the Aru +Islands, are perfect savages, and I saw no signs of any religion. +There are, however, three or four villages on the coast where +schoolmasters from Amboyna reside, and the people are nominally +Christians, and are to some extent educated and civilized. I +could not get much real knowledge of the customs of the Aru +people during the short time I was among them, but they have +evidently been considerably influenced by their long association +with Mahometan traders. They often bury their dead, although the +national custom is to expose the body an a raised stage till it +decomposes. Though there is no limit to the number of wives a man +may have, they seldom exceed one or two. A wife is regularly +purchased from the parents, the price being a large assortment of +articles, always including gongs, crockery, and cloth. They told +me that some of the tribes kill the old men and women when they +can no longer work, but I saw many very old and decrepid people, +who seemed pretty well attended to. No doubt all who have much +intercourse with the Bugis and Ceramese traders gradually lose +many of their native customs, especially as these people often +settle in their villages and marry native women. + +The trade carried on at Dobbo is very considerable. This year +there were fifteen large praus from Macassar, and perhaps a +hundred small boats from Ceram, Goram, and Ke. The Macassar +cargoes are worth about Ŗ1,000. each, and the other boats take +away perhaps about Ŗ3,000, worth, so that the whole exports may +be estimated at Ŗ18,000. per annum. The largest and most bulky +items are pearl-shell and tripang, or "beche-de-mer," with +smaller quantities of tortoise-shell, edible birds' nests, +pearls, ornamental woods, timber, and Birds of Paradise. These +are purchased with a variety of goods. Of arrack, about equal in +strength to ordinary West India rum, 3,000 boxes, each containing +fifteen half-gallon bottles, are consumed annually. Native cloth +from Celebes is much esteemed for its durability, and large +quantities are sold, as well as white English calico and American +unbleached cottons, common crockery, coarse cutlery, muskets, +gunpowder, gongs, small brass cannon, and elephants' tusks. These +three last articles constitute the wealth of the Aru people, with +which they pay for their wives, or which they hoard up as "real +property." Tobacco is in immense demand for chewing, and it must +be very strong, or an Aru man will not look at it. Knowing how +little these people generally work, the mass of produce obtained +annually shows that the islands must be pretty thickly inhabited, +especially along the coasts, as nine-tenths of the whole are +marine productions. + +It was on the 2d of July that we left Aru, followed by all the +Macassar praus, fifteen in number, who had agreed to sail in +company. We passed south of Banda, and then steered due west, +not seeing land for three days, till we sighted some low islands +west of Bouton. We had a strong and steady south-east wind day +and night, which carried us on at about five knots an hour, where +a clipper ship would have made twelve. The sky was continually +cloudy, dark, and threatening, with occasional drizzling showers, +till we were west of Bouru, when it cleared up and we enjoyed the +bright sunny skies of the dry season for the rest of our voyage. +It is about here, therefore that the seasons of the eastern and +western regions of the Archipelago are divided. West of this line +from June to December is generally fine, and often very dry, the +rest of the year being the wet season. East of it the weather is +exceedingly uncertain, each island, and each side of an island, +having its own peculiarities. The difference seems to consist not +so much in the distribution of the rainfall as in that of the +clouds and the moistness of the atmosphere. In Aru, for example, +when we left, the little streams were all dried up, although the +weather was gloomy; while in January, February, and March, when +we had the hottest sunshine and the finest days, they were always +flowing. The driest time of all the year in Aru occurs in +September and October, just as it does in Java and Celebes. The +rainy seasons agree, therefore, with those of the western +islands, although the weather is very different. The Molucca sea +is of a very deep blue colour, quite distinct from the clear +light blue of the Atlantic. In cloudy and dull weather it looks +absolutely black, and when crested with foam has a stern and +angry aspect. The wind continued fair and strong during our whole +voyage, and we reached Macassar in perfect safety on the evening +of the 11th of July, having made the passage from Aru (more than +a thousand miles) in nine and a half days. + +My expedition to the Aru Islands had been eminently successful. +Although I had been for months confined to the house by illness, +and had lost much time by the want of the means of locomotion, +and by missing the right season at the right place, I brought +away with me more than nine thousand specimens of natural +objects, of about sixteen hundred distinct species. I had made +the acquaintance of a strange and little-known race of men; I had +become familiar with the traders of the far East; I had revelled +in the delights of exploring a new fauna and flora, one of the +most remarkable and most beautiful and least-known in the world; +and I had succeeded in the main object for which I had undertaken +the journey-namely, to obtain fine specimens of the magnificent +Birds of Paradise, and to be enabled to observe them in their +native forests. By this success I was stimulated to continue my +researches in the Moluccas and New Guinea for nearly five years +longer, and it is still the portion of my travels to which I look +back with the most complete satisfaction. + +CHAPTER XXXIII. + +THE ARU ISLANDS--PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ASPECTS OF NATURE. + +IN this chapter I propose to give a general sketch of the +physical geography of the Aru Islands, and of their relation to +the surrounding countries; and shall thus be able to incorporate +the information obtained from traders, and from the works of +other naturalists with my own observations in these exceedingly +interesting and little-known regions. + +The Aru group may be said to consist of one very large central +island with a number of small ones scattered round it. The great +island is called by the natives and traders "Tang-busar" (great +or mainland), to distinguish it as a whole from Dobbo, or any of +the detached islands. It is of an irregular oblong form, about +eighty miles from north to south, and forty or fifty from east to +west, in which direction it is traversed by three narrow +channels, dividing it into four portions. These channels are +always called rivers by the traders, which puzzled me much till I +passed through one of them, and saw how exceedingly applicable +the name was. The northern channel, called the river of Watelai, +is about a quarter of a mile wide at its entrance, but soon +narrows to abort the eighth of a mile, which width it retains, +with little variation, during its whole, length of nearly fifty +miles, till it again widens at its eastern mouth. Its course is +moderately winding, and the hanks are generally dry and somewhat +elevated. In many places there are low cliffs of hard coralline +limestone, more or less worn by the action of water; while +sometimes level spaces extend from the banks to low ranges of +hills a little inland. A few small streams enter it from right +and left, at the mouths of which are some little rocky islands. +The depth is very regular, being from ten to fifteen fathoms, and +it has thus every feature of a true river, but for the salt water +and the absence of a current. The other two rivers, whose names +are Vorkai and Maykor, are said to be very similar in general +character; but they are rather near together, and have a number +of cross channels intersecting the flat tract between them. On +the south side of Maykor the banks are very rocky, and from +thence to the southern extremity of Aru is an uninterrupted +extent of rather elevated and very rocky country, penetrated by +numerous small streams, in the high limestone cliffs bordering +which the edible birds' nests of Aru are chiefly obtained. All my +informants stated that the two southern rivers are larger than +Watelai. + +The whole of Aru is low, but by no means so flat as it has been +represented, or as it appears from the sea. Most of it is dry +rocky ground, with a somewhat undulating surface, rising here and +there into abrupt hillocks, or cut into steep and narrow ravines. +Except the patches of swamp which are found at the mouths of most +of the small rivers, there is no absolutely level ground, +although the greatest elevation is probably not more than two +hundred feet. The rock which everywhere appears in the ravines +and brooks is a coralline limestone, in some places soft and +pliable, in others so hard and crystalline as to resemble our +mountain limestone. + +The small islands which surround the central mass are very +numerous; but most of them are on the east side, where they form +a fringe, often extending ten or fifteen miles from the main +islands. On the west there are very few, Wamma and Palo Pabi +being the chief, with Ougia, and Wassia at the north-west +extremity. On the east side the sea is everywhere shallow, and +full of coral; and it is here that the pearl-shells are found +which form one of the chief staples of Aru trade. All the islands +are covered with a dense and very lofty forest. + +The physical features here described are of peculiar interest, +and, as far as I am aware, are to some extent unique; for I have +been unable to find any other record of an island of the size of +Aru crossed by channels which exactly resemble true rivers. How +these channels originated were a complete puzzle to me, till, +after a long consideration of the whole of the natural phenomena +presented by these islands, I arrived at a conclusion which I +will now endeavour to explain. There are three ways in which we +may conceive islands which are not volcanic to have been formed, +or to have been reduced to their present condition, by elevation, +by subsidence, or by separation from a continent or larger +island. The existence of coral rock, or of raised beaches far +inland, indicates recent elevation; lagoon coral-islands, and +such as have barrier or encircling reefs, have suffered +subsidence; while our own islands, whose productions are entirely +those of the adjacent continent, have been separated from it. Now +the Aru Islands are all coral rock, and the adjacent sea is +shallow and full of coral, it is therefore evident that they have +been elevated from beneath the ocean at a not very distant epoch. +But if we suppose that elevation to be the first and only cause +of their present condition, we shall find ourselves quite unable +to explain the curious river-channels which divide them. Fissures +during upheaval would not produce the regular width, the regular +depth, or the winding curves which characterise them; and the +action of tides and currents during their elevation might form +straits of irregular width and depth, but not the river-like +channels which actually exist. If, again, we suppose the last +movement to have been one of subsidence, reducing the size of the +islands, these channels are quite as inexplicable; for subsidence +would necessarily lead to the flooding of all low tracts on the +banks of the old rivers, and thus obliterate their courses; +whereas these remain perfect, and of nearly uniform width from +end to end. + +Now if these channels have ever been rivers they must have flowed +from some higher regions, and this must have been to the east, +because on the north and west the sea-bottom sinks down at a +short distance from the shore to an unfathomable depth; whereas +on the east. a shallow sea, nowhere exceeding fifty fathoms, +extends quite across to New Guinea, a distance of about a hundred +and fifty miles. An elevation of only three hundred feet would +convert the whole of this sea into moderately high land, and make +the Aru Islands a portion of New Guinea; and the rivers which +have their mouths at Utanata and Wamuka, might then have flowed +on across Aru, in the channels which are now occupied by salt +water. Then the intervening land sunk down, we must suppose the +land that now constitutes Aru to have remained nearly stationary, +a not very improbable supposition, when we consider the great +extent of the shallow sea, and the very small amount of +depression the land need have undergone to produce it. + +But the fact of the Aru Islands having once been connected with +New Guinea does not rest on this evidence alone. There is such a +striking resemblance between the productions of the two countries +as only- exists between portions of a common territory. I +collected one hundred species of land-birds in the Aru Islands, +and about eighty of them, have been found on the mainland of New +Guinea. Among these are the great wingless cassowary, two species +of heavy brush turkeys, and two of short winged thrushes; which +could certainly not have passed over the 150 miles of open sea to +the coast of New Guinea. This barrier is equally effectual in the +case of many other birds which live only in the depths of the +forest, as the kinghunters (Dacelo gaudichaudi), the fly-catching +wrens (Todopsis), the great crown pigeon (Goura coronata), and +the small wood doves (Ptilonopus perlatus, P. aurantiifrons, and +P. coronulatus). Now, to show the real effect of such barrier, +let us take the island of Ceram, which is exactly the same +distance from New Guinea, but separated from it by a deep sea. +Cut of about seventy land-birds inhabiting Ceram, only fifteen +are found in New Guinea, and none of these are terrestrial or +forest-haunting species. The cassowary is distinct; the +kingfishers, parrots, pigeons, flycatchers, honeysuckers, +thrushes, and cuckoos, are almost always quite distinct species. +More than this, at least twenty genera, which are common to New +Guinea and Aru, do not extend into Ceram, indicating with a force +which every naturalist will appreciate, that the two latter +countries have received their faunas in a radically different +manner. Again, a true kangaroo is found in Aru, and the same +species occurs in Mysol, which is equally Papuan in its +productions, while either the same, or one closely allied to it, +inhabits New Guinea; but no such animal is found in Ceram, which +is only sixty miles from Mysol. Another small marsupial animal +(Perameles doreyanus) is common to Aru and New Guinea. The +insects show exactly the same results. The butterflies of Aru are +all either New Guinea species, or very slightly modified forms; +whereas those of Ceram are more distinct than are the birds of +the two countries. + +It is now generally admitted that we may safely reason on such +facts as those, which supply a link in the defective geological +record. The upward and downward movements which any country has +undergone, and the succession of such movements, can be +determined with much accuracy; but geology alone can tell us +nothing of lands which have entirely disappeared beneath the +ocean. Here physical geography and the distribution of animals +and plants are of the greatest service. By ascertaining the depth +of the seas separating one country from another, we can form some +judgment of the changes which are taking place. If there are +other evidences of subsidence, a shallow sea implies a former +connexion of the adjacent lands; but iŖ this evidence is wanting, +or if there is reason to suspect a rising of the land, then the +shallow sea may be the result of that rising, and may indicate +that the two countries will be joined at some future time, but +not that they have previously been so. The nature of the animals +and plants inhabiting these countries will, however, almost +always enable us to determine this question. Mr. Darwin has shown +us how we may determine in almost every case, whether an island +has ever been connected with a continent or larger land, by the +presence or absence of terrestrial Mammalia and reptiles. What he +terms "oceanic islands "possess neither of these groups of +animals, though they may have a luxuriant vegetation, and a fair +number of birds, insects, and landshells; and we therefore +conclude that they have originated in mid-ocean, and have never +been connected with the nearest masses of land. St. Helena, +Madeira, and New Zealand are examples of oceanic islands. They +possess all other classes of life, because these have means of +dispersion over wide spaces of sea, which terrestrial mammals and +birds have not, as is fully explained in Sir Charles Lyell's +"Principles of Geology," and Mr. Darwin's "Origin of Species." On +the other hand, an island may never have been actually connected +with the adjacent continents or islands, and yet may possess +representatives of all classes of animals, because many +terrestrial mammals and some reptiles have the means of passing +over short distances of sea. But in these cases the number of +species that have thus migrated will be very small, and there +will be great deficiencies even in birds and flying insects, +which we should imagine could easily cross over. The island of +Timor (as I have already shown in Chapter XIII) bears this +relation to Australia; for while it contains several birds and +insects of Australian forms, no Australian mammal or reptile is +found in it, and a great number of the most abundant and +characteristic forms of Australian birds and insects are entirely +absent. Contrast this with the British Islands, in, which a large +proportion of the plants, insects, reptiles, and Mammalia of the +adjacent parts of the continent are fully represented, while +there are no remarkable deficiencies of extensive groups, such as +always occur when there is reason to believe there has been no +such connexion. The case of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, and the +Asiatic continent is equally clear; many large Mammalia, +terrestrial birds, and reptiles being common to all, while a +large number more are of closely allied forms. Now, geology has +taught us that this representation by allied forms in the same +locality implies lapse of time, and we therefore infer that in +Great Britain, where almost every species is absolutely identical +with those on the Continent, the separation has been very recent; +while in Sumatra and Java, where a considerable number of the +continental species are represented by allied forms, the +separation was more remote. + +From these examples we may see how important a supplement to +geological evidence is the study of the geographical distribution +of animals and plants, in determining the former condition of the +earth's surface; and how impossible it is to understand the +former without taking the latter into account. The productions of +the Aru Islands offer the strangest evidence, that at no very +distant epoch they formed a part of New Guinea; and the peculiar +physical features which I have described, indicate that they must +have stood at very nearly the same level then as they do now, +having been separated by the subsidence of the great plain which +formerly connected them with it. + +Persons who have formed the usual ideas of the vegetation of the +tropics who picture to themselves the abundance and brilliancy of +the flowers, and the magnificent appearance of hundreds of forest +trees covered with masses of coloured blossoms, will be surprised +to hear, that though vegetation in Aru is highly luxuriant and +varied, and would afford abundance of fine and curious plants to +adorn our hothouses, yet bright and showy flowers are, as a +general rule, altogether absent, or so very scarce as to produce +no effect whatever on the general scenery. To give particulars: I +have visited five distinct localities in the islands, I have +wandered daily in the forests, and have passed along upwards of a +hundred miles of coast and river during a period of six months, +much of it very fine weather, and till just as I was about to +leave, I never saw a single plant of striking brilliancy or +beauty, hardly a shrub equal to a hawthorn, or a climber equal to +a honeysuckle! It cannot be said that the flowering season had +not arrived, for I saw many herbs, shrubs, and forest trees in +flower, but all had blossoms of a green or greenish-white tint, +not superior to our lime-trees. Here and there on the river banks +and coasts are a few Convolvulaceae, not equal to our garden +Ipomaeas, and in the deepest shades of the forest some fine +scarlet and purple Zingiberaceae, but so few and scattered as to +be nothing amid the mass of green and flowerless vegetation. Yet +the noble Cycadaceae and screw-pines, thirty or forty feet high, +the elegant tree ferns, the lofty palms, and the variety of +beautiful and curious plants which everywhere meet the eye, +attest the warmth and moisture of the tropics, and the fertility +of the soil. + +It is true that Aru seemed to me exceptionally poor in flowers, +but this is only an exaggeration of a general tropical feature; +for my whole experience in the equatorial regions of the west and +the east has convinced me, that in the most luxuriant parts of +the tropics, flowers are less abundant, on the average less +showy, and are far less effective in adding colour to the +landscape than in temperate climates. I have never seen in the +tropics such brilliant masses of colour as even England can show +in her furze-clad commons, her heathery mountain-sides, her +glades of wild hyacinths, her fields of poppies, her meadows of +buttercups and orchises--carpets of yellow, purple, azure-blue, +and fiery crimson, which the tropics can rarely exhibit. We, have +smaller masses of colour in our hawthorn and crab trees, our +holly and mountain-ash, our boom; foxgloves, primroses, and +purple vetches, which clothe with gay colours the whole length +and breadth of our land, These beauties are all common. They are +characteristic of the country and the climate; they have not to +be sought for, but they gladden the eye at every step. In the +regions of the equator, on the other hand, whether it be forest +or savannah, a sombre green clothes universal nature. You may +journey for hours, and even for days, and meet with nothing to +break the monotony. Flowers are everywhere rare, and anything at +all striking is only to be met with at very distant intervals. + +The idea that nature exhibits gay colours in the tropics, and +that the general aspect of nature is there more bright and varied +in hue than with us, has even been made the foundation of +theories of art, and we have been forbidden to use bright colours +in our garments, and in the decorations of our dwellings, because +it was supposed that we should be thereby acting in opposition to +the teachings of nature. The argument itself is a very poor one, +since it might with equal justice be maintained, that as we +possess faculties for the appreciation of colours, we should make +up for the deficiencies of nature and use the gayest tints in +those regions where the landscape is most monotonous. But the +assumption on which the argument is founded is totally false, so +that even if the reasoning were valid, we need not be afraid of +outraging nature, by decorating our houses and our persons with +all those gay hues which are so lavishly spread over our fields +and mountains, our hedges, woods, and meadows. + +It is very easy to see what has led to this erroneous view of the +nature of tropical vegetation. In our hothouses and at our +flower-shows we gather together the finest flowering plants from +the most distant regions of the earth, and exhibit them in a +proximity to each other which never occurs in nature. A hundred +distinct plants, all with bright, or strange, or gorgeous +flowers, make a wonderful show when brought together; but perhaps +no two of these plants could ever be seen together in a state of +nature, each inhabiting a distant region or a different station. +Again, all moderately warm extra-European countries are mixed up +with the tropics in general estimation, and a vague idea is +formed that whatever is preeminently beautiful must come from the +hottest parts of the earth. But the fact is quite the contrary. +Rhododendrons and azaleas are plants of temperate regions, the +grandest lilies are from temperate Japan, and a large proportion +of our most showy flowering plants are natives of the Himalayas, +of the Cape, of the United States, of Chili, or of China and +Japan, all temperate regions. True, there are a great number of +grand and gorgeous flowers in the tropics, but the proportion +they bear to the mass of the vegetation is exceedingly small; so +that what appears an anomaly is nevertheless a fact, and the +effect of flowers on the general aspect of nature is far less in +the equatorial than in the temperate regions of the earth. + +CHAPTER XXXIV. + +NEW GUINEA.--DOREY, + +(MARCH TO JULY 1858.) + +AFTER my return from Gilolo to Ternate, in March 1858, I made +arrangements for my long-wished-for voyage to the mainland of New +Guinea, where I anticipated that my collections would surpass +those which I had formed at the Aru Islands. The poverty of +Ternate in articles used by Europeans was shown, by my searching +in vain through all the stores for such common things as flour, +metal spoons, wide-mouthed phials, beeswax, a penknife, and a +stone or metal pestle and mortar. I took with me four servants: +my head man Ali, and a Ternate lad named Jumaat (Friday), to +shoot; Lahagi, a steady middle-aged man, to cut timber and assist +me in insect-collecting; and Loisa, a Javanese cook. As I knew I +should have to build a house at Dorey, where I was going, I took +with me eighty cadjans, or waterproof mats, made of pandanus +leaves, to cover over my baggage on first landing, and to help to +roof my house afterwards. + +We started on the 25th of March in the schooner Hester Helena, +belonging to my friend Mr. Duivenboden, and bound on a trading +voyage along the north coast of New Guinea. Having calms and +light airs, we were three days reaching Gane, near the south end +of Gilolo, where we stayed to fill. up our water-casks and buy a +few provisions. We obtained fowls, eggs, sago, plantains, sweet +potatoes, yellow pumpkins, chilies, fish, and dried deer's meat; +and on the afternoon of the 29th proceeded on our voyage to Dorey +harbour. We found it, however, by no means easy to get along; for +so near to the equator the monsoons entirely fail of their +regularity, and after passing the southern point of Gilolo we had +calms, light puffs of wind, and contrary currents, which kept us +for five days in sight of the same islands between it and Poppa. +A squall them brought us on to the entrance of Dampier's Straits, +where we were again becalmed, and were three more days creeping +through them. Several native canoes now came off to us from +Waigiou on one side, and Batanta on the other, bringing a few +common shells, palm-leaf mats, cocoa-nuts, and pumpkins. They +were very extravagant in their demands, being accustomed to sell +their trifles to whalers and China ships, whose crews will +purchase anything at ten times its value. My only purchases were +a float belonging to a turtle-spear, carved to resemble a bird, +and a very well made palm-leaf box, for which articles I gave a +copper ring and a yard of calico. The canoes were very narrow and +furnished with an outrigger, and in some of them there was only +one man, who seemed to think nothing of coming out alone eight or +ten miles from shore. The people were Papuans, much resembling +the natives of Aru. + +When we had got out of the Straits, and were fairly in the great +Pacific Ocean, we had a steady wind for the first time since +leaving Ternate, but unfortunately it was dead ahead, and we had +to beat against it, tacking on and off the coast of New Guinea. I +looked with intense interest on those rugged mountains, +retreating ridge behind ridge into the interior, where the foot +of civilized man had never trod. There was the country of the +cassowary and the tree-kangaroo, and those dark forests produced +the most extraordinary and the most beautiful of the feathered +inhabitants of the earth--the varied species of Birds of +Paradise. A few days more and I hoped to be in pursuit of these, +and of the scarcely less beautiful insects which accompany them. +We had still, however, for several days only calms and light +head-winds, and it was not till the l0th of April that a fine +westerly breeze set in, followed by a squally night, which kept +us off the entrance of Dorey harbour. The next morning we +entered, and came to anchor off the small island of Mansinam, on +which dwelt two German missionaries, Messrs. Otto and Geisler. +The former immediately came on board to give us welcome, and +invited us to go on shore and breakfast with him. We were then +introduced to his companion who was suffering dreadfully from an +abscess on the heel, which had confined him to the house for six +months--and to his wife, a young German woman, who had been out +only three months. Unfortunately she could speak no Malay or +English, and had to guess at our compliments on her excellent +breakfast by the justice we did to it. + +These missionaries were working men, and had been sent out, as +being more useful among savages than persons of a higher class. +They had been here about two years, and Mr. Otto had already +learnt to speak the Papuan language with fluency, and had begun +translating some portions of the Bible. The language, however, is +so poor that a considerable number of Malay words have to be +used; and it is very questionable whether it is possible to +convey any idea of such a book, to a people in so low a state of +civilization. The only nominal converts yet made are a few of the +women; and some few of the children attend school, and are being +taught to read, but they make little progress. There is one +feature of this mission which I believe will materially interfere +with its moral effect. The missionaries are allowed to trade to +eke out the very small salaries granted them from Europe, and of +course are obliged to carry out the trade principle of buying +cheap and selling dear, in order to make a profit. Like all +savages the natives are quite careless of the future, and when +their small rice crops are gathered they bring a large portion of +it to the missionaries, and sell it for knives, beads, axes, +tobacco, or any other articles they may require. A few months +later, in the wet season, when food is scarce, they come to buy +it back again, and give in exchange tortoiseshell, tripang, wild +nutmegs, or other produce. Of course the rice is sold at a much +higher rate than it was bought, as is perfectly fair and just-- +and the operation is on the whole thoroughly beneficial to the +natives, who would otherwise consume and waste their food when it +was abundant, and then starve--yet I cannot imagine that the +natives see it in this light. They must look upon the trading +missionaries with some suspicion, and cannot feel so sure of +their teachings being disinterested, as would be the case if they +acted like the Jesuits in Singapore. The first thing to be done +by the missionary in attempting to improve savages, is to +convince them by his actions that lie comes among them for their +benefit only, and not for any private ends of his own. To do this +he must act in a different way from other men, not trading and +taking advantage of the necessities of those who want to sell, +but rather giving to those who are in distress. It would he well +if he conformed himself in some degree to native customs, and +then endeavoured to show how these customs might be gradually +modified, so as to be more healthful and more agreeable. A few +energetic and devoted men acting in this way might probably +effect a decided moral improvement on the lowest savage tribes, +whereas trading missionaries, teaching what Jesus said, but not +doing as He did, can scarcely be expected to do more than give +them a very little of the superficial varnish of religion. + +Dorey harbour is in a fine bay, at one extremity of which an +elevated point juts out, and, with two or three small islands, +forms a sheltered anchorage. The only vessel it contained when we +arrived was a Dutch brig, laden with coals for the use of a war- +steamer, which was expected daily, on an exploring expedition +along the coasts of New Guinea, for the purpose of fixing on a +locality for a colony. In the evening we paid it a visit, and +landed at the village of Dorey, to look out for a place where I +could build my house. Mr. Otto also made arrangements for me with +some of the native chiefs, to send men to cut wood, rattans, and +bamboo the next day. + +The villages of Mansinam and Dorey presented some features quite +new to me. The houses all stand completely in the water, and are +reached by long rude bridges. They are very low, with the roof +shaped like a large boat, bottom upwards. The posts which support +the houses, bridges, and platforms are small crooked sticks, +placed without any regularity, and looking as if they were +tumbling down. The floors are also formed of sticks, equally +irregular, and so loose and far apart that I found it almost +impossible to walls on them. The walls consist of bits of boards, +old boats, rotten mats, attaps, and palm-leaves, stuck in anyhow +here and there, and having altogether the most wretched and +dilapidated appearance it is possible to conceive. Under the +eaves of many of the houses hang human skulls, the trophies of +their battles with the savage Arfaks of the interior, who often +come to attack them. A large boat-shaped council-house is +supported on larger posts, each of which is grossly carved to +represent a naked male or female human figure, and other carvings +still more revolting are placed upon the platform before the +entrance. The view of an ancient lake-dweller's village, given as +the frontispiece of Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man," is +chiefly founded on a sketch of this very village of Dorey; but +the extreme regularity of the structures there depicted has no +place in the original, any more than it probably had in the +actual lake-villages. + +The people who inhabit these miserable huts are very similar to +the Ke and Aru islanders, and many of them are very handsome, +being tall and well-made, with well-cut features and large +aquiline noses. Their colour is a deep brown, often approaching +closely to black, and the fine mop-like heads of frizzly hair +appear to be more common than elsewhere, and are considered a +great ornament, a long six-pronged bamboo fork being kept stuck +in them to serve the purpose of a comb; and this is assiduously +used at idle moments to keep the densely growing mass from +becoming matted and tangled. The majority have short woolly hair, +which does not seem capable of an equally luxuriant development. +A growth of hair somewhat similar to this, and almost as +abundant, is found among the half-breeds between the Indian and +Negro in South America. Can this be an indication that the +Papuans are a mixed race? + +For the first three days after our arrival I was fully occupied +from morning to night building a house, with the assistance of a +dozen Papuans and my own men. It was immense trouble to get our +labourers to work, as scarcely one of them could speak a word of +Malay; and it was only by the most energetic gesticulations, and +going through a regular pantomime of what was wanted, that we +could get them to do anything. If we made them understand that a +few more poles were required, which two could have easily cut, +six or eight would insist upon going together, although we needed +their assistance in other things. One morning ten of them came to +work, bringing only one chopper between them, although they knew +I had none ready for use. + +I chose a place about two hundred yards from the beach, on an +elevated ground, by the side of the chief path from the village +of Dorey to the provision-grounds and the forest. Within twenty +yards was a little stream; which furnished us with excellent +water and a nice place to bathe. There was only low underwood to +clear away, while some fine forest trees stood at a short +distance, and we cut down the wood for about twenty yards round +to give us light and air. The house, about twenty feet by +fifteen; was built entirely of wood, with a bamboo floor, a +single door of thatch, and a large window, looking over the sea, +at which I fixed my table, and close beside it my bed, within a +little partition. I bought a number of very large palm-leaf mats +of the natives, which made excellent walls; while the mats I had +brought myself were used on the roof, and were covered over with +attaps as soon as we could get them made. Outside, and rather +behind, was a little hut, used for cooking, and a bench, roofed +over, where my men could sit to skin birds and animals. When all +was finished, I had my goods and stores brought up, arranged them +conveniently inside, and then paid my Papuans with knives and +choppers, and sent them away. The next day our schooner left for +the more eastern islands, and I found myself fairly established +as the only European inhabitant of the vast island of New Guinea. + +As we had some doubt about the natives, we slept at first with +loaded guns beside us and a watch set; but after a few days, +finding the people friendly, and feeling sure that they would not +venture to attack five well-armed men, we took no further +precautions. We had still a day or two's work in finishing up the +house, stopping leaks, putting up our hanging shelves for drying +specimens inside and out, and making the path down to the water, +and a clear dry space in front of the horse. + +On the 17th, the steamer not having arrived, the coal-ship left, +having lain here a month, according to her contract; and on the +same day my hunters went out to shoot for the first time, and +brought home a magnificent crown pigeon and a few common birds. +The next day they were more successful, and I was delighted to +see them return with a Bird of Paradise in full plumage, a pair +of the fine Papuan lories (Lorius domicella), four other lories +and parroquets, a grackle (Gracula dumonti), a king-hunter +(Dacelo gaudichaudi), a racquet-tailed kingfisher (Tanysiptera +galatea), and two or three other birds of less beauty. + +I went myself to visit the native village on the hill behind +Dorey, and took with me a small present of cloth, knives, and +beads, to secure the good-will of the chief, and get him to send +some men to catch or shoot birds for me. The houses were +scattered about among rudely cultivated clearings. Two which I +visited consisted of a central passage, on each side of which +opened short passages, admitting to two rooms, each of which was +a house accommodating a separate family. They were elevated at +least fifteen feet above the ground, on a complete forest of +poles, and were so rude and dilapidated that some of the small +passages had openings in the floor of loose sticks, through which +a child might fall. The inhabitants seemed rather uglier than +those at Dorey village. They are, no doubt, the true indigenes of +this part of New Guinea, living in the interior, and subsisting +by cultivation and hunting. The Dorey men, on the other hand, are +shore-dwellers, fishers and traders in a small way, and have thus +the character of a colony who have migrated from another +district. These hillmen or "Arfaks "differed much in physical +features. They were generally black, but some were brown like +Malays. Their hair, though always more or less frizzly, was +sometimes short and matted, instead of being long, loose, and +woolly; and this seemed to be a constitutional difference, not +the effect of care and cultivation. Nearly half of them were +afflicted with the scurfy skin-disease. The old chief seemed much +pleased with his present, and promised (through an interpreter I +brought with me) to protect my men when they came there shooting, +and also to procure me some birds and animals. While conversing, +they smoked tobacco of their own growing, in pipes cut from a +single piece of wood with a long upright handle. + +We had arrived at Dorey about the end of the wet season, when the +whole country was soaked with moisture The native paths were so +neglected as to be often mere tunnels closed over with +vegetation, and in such places there was always a fearful +accumulation of mud. To the naked Papuan this is no obstruction. +He wades through it, and the next watercourse makes him clean +again; but to myself, wearing boots and trousers, it was a most +disagreeable thing to have to go up to my knees in a mud-hole +every morning. The man I brought with me to cut wood fell ill +soon after we arrived, or I would have set him to clear fresh +paths in the worst places. For the first ten days it generally +rained every afternoon and all night r but by going out every +hour of fine weather, I managed to get on tolerably with my +collections of birds and insects, finding most of those collected +by Lesson during his visit in the Coquille, as well as many new +ones. It appears, however, that Dorey is not the place for Birds +of Paradise, none of the natives being accustomed to preserve +them. Those sold here are all brought from Amberbaki, about a +hundred miles west, where the Doreyans go to trade. + +The islands in the bay, with the low lands near the coast, seem +to have been formed by recently raised coral reef's, and are much +strewn with masses of coral but little altered. The ridge behind +my house, which runs out to the point, is also entirely coral +rock, although there are signs of a stratified foundation in the +ravines, and the rock itself is more compact and crystalline. It +is therefore, probably older, a more recent elevation having +exposed the low grounds and islands. On the other side of the bay +rise the great mass of the Arfak mountains, said by the French +navigators to be about ten thousand feet high, and inhabited by +savage tribes. These are held in great dread by the Dorey people, +who have often been attacked and plundered by them, and have some +of their skulls hanging outside their houses. If I was seem going +into the forest anywhere in the direction of the mountains, the +little boys of the village would shout after me, "Arfaki! +Arfaki?" just as they did after Lesson nearly forty years before. + +On the 15th of May the Dutch war-steamer Etna arrived; but, as +the coals had gone, it was obliged to stay till they came back. +The captain knew when the coalship was to arrive, and how long it +was chartered to stay at Dorey, and could have been back in time, +but supposed it would wait for him, and so did not hurry himself. +The steamer lay at anchor just opposite my house, and I had the +advantage of hearing the half-hourly bells struck, which was very +pleasant after the monotonous silence of the forest. The captain, +doctor, engineer, and some other of the officers paid me visits; +the servants came to the brook to wash clothes, and the son of +the Prince of Tidore, with one or two companions, to bathe; +otherwise I saw little of them, and was not disturbed by visitors +so much as I had expected to be. About this time the weather set +in pretty fine, but neither birds nor insects became much more +abundant, and new birds -were very scarce. None of the Birds of +Paradise except the common one were ever met with, and we were +still searching in vain for several of the fine birds which +Lesson had obtained here. Insects were tolerably abundant, but +were not on the average so fine as those of Amboyna, and I +reluctantly came to the conclusion that Dorey was not a good +collecting locality. Butterflies were very scarce, arid were +mostly the same as those which I had obtained at Aru. + +Among the insects of other orders, the most curious and novel +were a group of horned flies, of which I obtained four distinct +species, settling on fallen trees and decaying trunks. These +remarkable insects, which have been described by Mr. W. W. +Saunders as a new genus, under the name of Elaphomia or deer- +flies, are about half an inch long, slender-bodied, and with very +long legs, which they draw together so as to elevate their bodies +high above the surface they are standing upon. The front pair of +legs are much shorter, and these are often stretched directly +forwards, so as to resemble antenna. The horns spring from +beneath the eye, and seem to be a prolongation of the lower part +of the orbit. In the largest and most singular species, named +Elaphomia cervicornis or the stag-horned deer-fly, these horns +are nearly as long as the body, having two branches, with two +small snags near their bifurcation, so as to resemble the horns +of a stag. They are black, with the tips pale, while the body and +legs are yellowish brown, and the eyes (when alive) violet and +green. The next species (Elaphomia wallacei) is of a dark brown +colour, banded and spotted with yellow. The horns are about one- +third the length of the insect, broad, flat, and of an elongated +triangular foam. They are of a beautiful pink colour, edged with +black, and with a pale central stripe. The front part of the head +is also pink, and the eyes violet pink, with a green stripe +across them, giving the insect a very elegant and singular +appearance. The third species (Elaphomia alcicornis, the elk- +horned deer-fly) is a little smaller than the two already +described, but resembling in colour Elaphomia wallacei. The horns +are very remarkable, being suddenly dilated into a flat plate, +strongly toothed round the outer margin, and strikingly +resembling the horns of the elk, after which it has been named. +They are of a yellowish colour, margined with brown, and tipped +with black on the three upper teeth. The fourth species +(Elaphomia brevicornis, the short-horned deer-fly) differs +considerably from the rest. It is stouter in form, of a nearly +black colour, with a yellow ring at the base of the abdomen; the +wings have dusky stripes, and the head is compressed and dilated +laterally, with very small flat horns; which are black with a +pale centre, and look exactly like the rudiment of the horns of +the two preceding species. None of the females have any trace of +the horns, ane Mr. Saunders places in the same genus a species +which has no horns in either sex (Elaphomia polita). It is of a +shining black colour, and resembles Elaphomia cervicornis in +form, size, and general appearance. The figures above given +represent these insects of their natural size and in +characteristic attitudes. + +The natives seldom brought me anything. They are poor creatures, +and, rarely shoot a bird, pig, or kangaroo, or even the sluggish +opossum-like Cuscus. The tree-kangaroos are found here, but must +be very scarce, as my hunters, although out daily in the forest, +never once saw them. Cockatoos, lories, and parroquets were +really the only common birds. Even pigeons were scarce, and in +little variety, although we occasionally got the fine crown +pigeon, which was always welcome as an addition to our scantily +furnished larder. + +Just before the steamer arrived I had wounded my ankle by +clambering among the trunks and branches of fallen trees (which +formed my best hunting grounds for insects), and, as usual with +foot wounds in this climate, it turned into an obstinate ulcer, +keeping me in the house for several days. When it healed up it +was followed by an internal inflammation of the foot, which by +the doctor's advice I poulticed incessantly for four or five +days, bringing out a severe inflamed swelling on the tendon above +the heel. This had to be leeched, and lanced, and doctored with +ointments and poultices for several weeks, till I was almost +driven to despair,--for the weather was at length fine, and I was +tantalized by seeing grand butterflies flying past my door, and +thinking of the twenty or thirty new species of insects that I +ought to be getting every day. And this, too, in New Guinea--a +country which I might never visit again,--a country which no +naturalist had ever resided in before,--a country which contained +more strange and new and beautiful natural objects than any other +part of the globe. The naturalist will be able to appreciate my +feelings, sitting from morning to night in my little hut, unable +to move without a crutch, and my only solace the birds my hunters +brought in every afternoon, and the few insects caught by my +Ternate man, Lahagi, who now went out daily in my place, but who +of course did not get a fourth part of what I should have +obtained. To add to my troubles all my men were more or less ill, +some with fever, others with dysentery or ague; at one time there +were three of them besides myself all helpless, the coon alone +being well, and having enough to do to wait upon us. The Prince +of Tidore and the Resident of Panda were both on board the +steamer, and were seeking Birds of Paradise, sending men round in +every direction, so that there was no chance of my getting even +native skins of the rarer kinds; and any birds, insects, or +animals the Dorey people had to sell were taken on board the +steamer, where purchasers were found for everything, and where a +larger variety of articles were offered in exchange than I had to +show. + +After a month's close confinement in the house I was at length +able to go out a little, and about the same time I succeeded in +getting a boat and six natives to take Ali and Lahagi to +Amberbaki, and to bring them back at the end of a month. Ali was +charged to buy all the Birds of Paradise he could get, and to +shoot and skin all other rare or new birds; and Lahagi was to +collect insects, which I hoped might be more abundant than at +Dorey. When I recommenced my daily walks in search of insects, I +found a great change in the neighbourhood, and one very agreeable +to me. All the time I had been laid up the ship's crew and the +Javanese soldiers who had been brought in a tender (a sailing +ship which had arrived soon after the Etna), had been employed +cutting down, sawing, and splitting large trees for firewood, to +enable the steamer to get back to Amboyna if the coal-ship did +not return; and they had also cleared a number of wide, straight +paths through the forest in various directions, greatly to the +astonishment of the natives, who could not make out what it all +meant. I had now a variety of walks, and a good deal of dead wood +on which to search for insects; but notwithstanding these +advantages, they were not nearly so plentiful as I had found them +at Sarawak, or Amboyna, or Batchian, confirming my opinion that +Dorey was not a good locality. It is quite probable, however, +that at a station a few miles in the interior, away from the +recently elevated coralline rocks and the influence of the sea +air, a much more abundant harvest might be obtained. + +One afternoon I went on board the steamer to return the captain's +visit, and was shown some very nice sketches (by one of the +lieutenants), made on the south coast, and also at the Arfak +mountain, to which they had made an excursion. From these and the +captain's description, it appeared that the people of Arfak were +similar to those of Dorey, and I could hear nothing of the +straight-haired race which Lesson says inhabits the interior, but +which no one has ever seen, and the account of which I suspect +has originated in some mistake. The captain told me he had made a +detailed survey of part of the south coast, and if the coal +arrived should go away at once to Humboldt Pay, in longitude 141° +east, which is the line up to which the Dutch claim New Guinea. +On board the tender I found a brother naturalist, a German named +Rosenberg, who was draughtsman to the surveying staff. He had +brought two men with him to shoot and skin birds, and had been +able to purchase a few rare skins from the natives. Among these +was a pair of the superb Paradise Pie (Astrapia nigra) in +tolerable preservation. They were brought from the island of +Jobie, which may be its native country, as it certainly is of the +rarer species of crown pigeon (Goura steursii), one of which was +brought alive and sold on board. Jobie, however, is a very +dangerous place, and sailors are often murdered there when on +shore; sometimes the vessels themselves being attacked. +Wandammen, on the mainland opposite Jobie, inhere there are said +to be plenty of birds, is even worse, and at either of these +places my life would not have been worth a week's purchase had I +ventured to live alone and unprotected as at Dorey. On board the +steamer they had a pair of tree kangaroos alive. They differ +chiefly from the ground-kangaroo in having a more hairy tail, not +thickened at the base, and not used as a prop; and by the +powerful claws on the fore-feet, by which they grasp the bark and +branches, and seize the leaves on which they feed. They move +along by short jumps on their hind-feet, which do not seem +particularly well adapted for climbing trees. It has been +supposed that these tree-kangaroos are a special adaptation to +the swampy, half-drowned forests of, New Guinea, in place of the +usual form of the group, which is adapted only to dry ground. Mr. +Windsor Earl makes much of this theory, but, unfortunately for +it, the tree-kangaroos are chiefly found in the northern +peninsula of New Guinea, which is entirely composed of hills and +mountains with very little flat land, while the kangaroo of the +low flat Aru Islands (Dorcopsis asiaticus) is a ground species. A +more probable supposition seems to lie, that the tree-kangaroo +has been modified to enable it to feed on foliage in the vast +forests of New Guinea, as these form the great natural feature +which distinguishes that country from Australia. + +On June 5th, the coal-ship arrived, having been sent back from +Amboyna, with the addition of some fresh stores for the steamer. +The wood, which had been almost all taken on board, was now +unladen again, the coal taken in, and on the 17th both steamer +and tender left for Humboldt Bay. We were then a little quiet +again, and got something to eat; for while the vessels were here +every bit of fish or vegetable was taken on board, and I had +often to make a small parroquet serve for two meals. My men now +returned from Amberbaki, but, alas brought me almost nothing. +They had visited several villages, and even went two days' +journey into the interior, but could find no skins of Birds of +Paradise to purchase, except the common kind, and very few even +of those. The birds found were the same as at Dorey, but were +still scarcer. None of the natives anywhere near the coast shoot +or prepare Birds of Paradise, which come from far in the interior +over two or three ranges of mountains, passing by barter from +village to village till they reach the sea. There the natives of +Dorey buy them, and on their return home sell them .to the Bugis +or Ternate traders. It is therefore hopeless for a traveller to +go to any particular place on the coast of New Guinea where rare +Paradise birds may have been bought, in hopes of obtaining +freshly killed specimens from the natives; and it also shows the +scarcity of these birds in any one locality, since from the +Amberbaki district, a celebrated place, where at least five or +six species have been procured, not one of the rarer ones has +been obtained this year. The Prince of Tidore, who would +certainly have got them if any were to be had, was obliged to put +up with a few of the common yellow ones. I think it probable that +a longer residence at Dorey, a little farther in the interior, +might show that several of the rarer kinds were found there, as I +obtained a single female of the fine scale-breasted Ptiloris +magnificus. I was told at Ternate of a bird that is certainly not +yet known in Europe, a black King Paradise Bird, with the curled +tail and beautiful side plumes of the common species, but all the +rest of the plumage glossy black. The people of Dorey knew +nothing about this, although they recognised by description most +of the otter species. + +When the steamer left, I was suffering from a severe attack of +fever. In about a week I got over this, but it was followed by +such a soreness of the whole inside of the mouth, tongue, and +gums, that for many days I could put nothing solid between my +lips, but was obliged to subsist entirely on slops, although in +other respects very well. At the same time two of my men again +fell ill, one with fever, the other with dysentery, and both got +very bad. I did what I could for them with my small stock of +medicines, but they lingered on for some weeks, till on June 26th +poor Jumaat died. He was about eighteen years of age, a native, I +believe, of Bouton, and a quiet lad, not very active, but doing +his work pretty steadily, and as well as he was able. As my men +were all Mahometans, I let them bury him in their own fashion, +giving them some new cotton cloth for a shroud. + +On July 6th the steamer returned from the eastward. The weather +was still terribly wet, when, according to rule, it should have +been fine and dry. We had scarcely anything to eat, and were all +of us ill. Fevers, colds, and dysentery were continually +attacking us, and made me long I-o get away from New Guinea, as +much as ever I had longed to come there. The captain of the Etna +paid me a visit, and gave me a very interesting account of his +trip. They had stayed at Humboldt Bay several days, and found it +a much more beautiful and more interesting place than Dorey, as +well as a better harbour. The natives were quite unsophisticated, +being rarely visited except by stray whalers, and they were +superior to the Dorey people, morally and physically. They went +quite naked. Their houses were some in the water and some inland, +and were all neatly and well built; their fields were well +cultivated, and the paths to them kept clear and open, in which +respects Dorey is abominable. They were shy at first, and opposed +the boats with hostile demonstrations, beading their bows, and +intimating that they would shoot if an attempt was made to land. +Very judiciously the captain gave way, but threw on shore a few +presents, and after two or three trials they were permitted to +land, and to go about and see the country, and were supplied with +fruits and vegetables. All communication was carried on with them +by signs--the Dorey interpreter, who accompanied the steamer, +being unable to understand a word of their language. No new birds +or animals were obtained, but in their ornaments the feathers of +Paradise birds were seen, showing, as might be expected, that +these birds range far in this direction, and probably all over +New Guinea. + +It is curious that a rudimental love of art should co-exist with +such a very low state of civilization. The people of Dorey are +great carvers and painters. The outsides of the houses, wherever +there is a plank, are covered with rude yet characteristic +figures. The high-peaked prows of their boats are ornamented with +masses of open filagree work, cut out of solid blocks of wood, +and often of very tasteful design, As a figurehead, or pinnacle, +there is often a human figure, with a head of cassowary feathers +to imitate the Papuan "mop." The floats of their fishing-lines, +the wooden beaters used in tempering the clay for their pottery, +their tobacco-boxes, and other household articles, are covered +with carving of tasteful and often elegant design. Did we not +already know that such taste and skill are compatible with utter +barbarism, we could hardly believe that the same people are, in +other matters, utterly wanting in all sense of order, comfort, or +decency. Yet such is the case. They live in the most miserable, +crazy, and filthy hovels, which are utterly destitute of anything +that can be called furniture; not a stool, or bench, or board is +seen in them, no brush seems to be known, and the clothes they +wear are often filthy bark, or rags, or sacking. Along the paths +where they daily pass to and from their provision grounds, not an +overhanging bough or straggling briar ever seems to he cut, so +that you have to brush through a rank vegetation, creep under +fallen trees and spiny creepers, and wade through pools of mud +and mire, which cannot dry up because the sun is not allowed to +penetrate. Their food is almost wholly roots and vegetables, with +fish or game only as an occasional luxury, and they are +consequently very subject to various skin diseases, the children +especially being often miserable-looking objects, blotched all +over with eruptions and sores. If these people are not savages, +where shall we find any? Yet they have all a decided love for the +fine arts, and spend their leisure time in executing works whose +good taste and elegance would often be admired in our schools of +design! + +During the latter part of my stay in New Guinea the weather was +very wet, my only shooter was ill, and birds became scarce, so +that my only resource was insect-hunting. I worked very hard +every hour of fine weather, and daily obtained a number of new +species. Every dead tree and fallen log was searched and searched +again; and among the dry and rotting leaves, which still hung on +certain trees which had been cut down, I found an abundant +harvest of minute Coleoptera. Although I never afterwards found +so many large and handsome beetles as in Borneo, yet I obtained +here a great variety of species. For the first two or three +weeks, while I was searching out the best localities, I took +about 30 different kinds of beetles n day, besides about half +that number of butterflies, and a few of the other orders. But +afterwards, up to the very last week, I averaged 49 species a +day. On the 31st of May, I took 78 distinct sorts, a larger +number than I had ever captured before, principally obtained +among dead trees and under rotten bark. A good long walk on a +fine day up the hill, and to the plantations of the natives, +capturing everything not very common that came in my way, would +produce about 60 species; but on the last day of June I brought +home no less than 95 distinct kinds of beetles, a larger number +than I ever obtained in one day before or since. It was a fine +hot day, and I devoted it to a search among dead leaves, beating +foliage, and hunting under rotten bark, in all the best stations +I had discovered during my walks. I was out from ten in the +morning till three in the afternoon, and it took me six hours' +work at home to pin and set out all the specimens, and to +separate the species. Although T had already been working this +shot daily for two months and a half, and had obtained over 800 +species of Coleoptera, this day's work added 32 new ones. Among +these were 4 Longicorns, 2 Caribidae, 7 Staphylinidae, 7 +Curculionidae, 2 Copridae, 4 Chrysomelidae, 3 Heteromera, 1 +Elates, and 1 Buprestis. Even on the last day I went out, I +obtained 10 new species; so that although I collected over a +thousand distinct sorts of beetles in a space not much exceeding +a square mile during the three months of my residence at Dorey, I +cannot believe that this represents one half the species really +inhabiting the same spot, or a fourth of what might be obtained +in an area extending twenty miles in each direction. + +On the 22d of July the schooner Hester Helena arrived, and five +days afterwards we bade adieu to Dorey, without much regret, for +in no place which I have visited have I encountered more +privations and annoyances. Continual rain, continual sickness, +little wholesome food, with a plague of ants and files, +surpassing anything I had before met with, required all a +naturalist's ardour to encounter; and when they were +uncompensated by great success in collecting, became all the more +insupportable. This long thought-of and much-desired voyage to +New Guinea had realized none of my expectations. Instead of being +far better than the Aru Islands, it was in almost everything much +worse. Instead of producing several of the rarer Paradise birds, +I had not even seen one of them, and had not obtained any one +superlatively fine bird or insect. I cannot deny, however, that +Dorey was very rich in ants. One small black kind was excessively +abundant. Almost every shrub and tree was more or less infested +with it, and its large papery nests were everywhere to be seen. +They immediately took possession of my house, building a large +nest in the roof, and forming papery tunnels down almost every +post. They swarmed on my table as I was at work setting out my +insects, carrying them off from under my very nose, and even +tearing them from the cards on which they were gummed if I left +them for an instant. They crawled continually over my hands and +face, got into my hair, and roamed at will over my whole body, +not producing much inconvenience till they began to bite, which +they would do on meeting with any obstruction to their passage, +and with a sharpness which made me jump again and rush to undress +and turn out the offender. They visited my bed also, so that +night brought no relief from their persecutions; and I verily +believe that during my three and a half months' residence at +Dorey I was never for a single hour entirely free from them. They +were not nearly so voracious as many other kinds, but their +numbers and ubiquity rendered it necessary to be constantly on +guard against them. + +The flies that troubled me most were a large kind of blue-bottle +or blow-fly. These settled in swarms on my bird skins when first +put out to dry, filling their plumage with masses of eggs, which, +if neglected, the next day produced maggots. They would get under +the wings or under the body where it rested on the drying-board, +sometimes actually raising it up half an inch by the mass of eggs +deposited in a few hours; and every egg was so firmly glued to +the fibres of the feathers, as to make it a work of much time and +patience to get them off without injuring the bird. In no other +locality have I ever been troubled with such a plague as this. + +On the 29th we left Dorey, and expected a quick voyage home, as +it was the time of year when we ought to have had steady +southerly and easterly winds. Instead of these, however, we had +calms and westerly breezes, and it was seventeen days before we +reached Ternate, a distance of five hundred miles only, which, +with average winds, could have been done in five days. It was a +great treat to me to find myself back again in my comfortable +house, enjoying milk to my tea and coffee, fresh bread and +butter, and fowl and fish daily for dinner. This New Guinea +voyage had used us all up, and I determined to stay and recruit +before I commenced any fresh expeditions. My succeeding journeys +to Gilolo and Batchian have already been narrated, and if; now +only remains for me to give an account of my residence in +Waigiou, the last Papuan territory I visited in search of Birds +of Paradise. + +CHAPTER XXXV. + +VOYAGE FROM CERAM TO WAIGIOU. + +(JUNE AND JULY 1860.) + +IN my twenty-fifth chapter I have described my arrival at Wahai, +on my way to Mysol and Waigiou, islands which belong to the +Papuan district, and the account of which naturally follows after +that of my visit to the mainland of New Guinea. I now take up my +narrative at my departure from Wahai, with the intention of +carrying various necessary stores to my assistant, Mr. Allen, at +Silinta, in Mysol, and then continuing my journey to Waigiou. It +will be remembered that I was travelling in a small prau, which I +had purchased and fitted up in Goram, and that, having been +deserted by my crew on the coast of Ceram, I had obtained four +men at Wahai, who, with my Amboynese hunter, constituted my crew. + +Between Ceram and Mysol there are sixty miles of open sea, and +along this wide channel the east monsoon blows strongly; so that +with native praus, which will not lay up to the wind, it requires +some care in crossing. In order to give ourselves sufficient +leeway, we sailed back from Wahai eastward, along the coast of +Ceram, with the land-breeze; but in the morning (June 18th) had +not gone nearly so far as I expected. My pilot, an old and +experienced sailor, named Gurulampoko, assured me there was a +current setting to the eastward, and that we could easily lay +across to Silinta, in Mysol. As we got out from the land the wind +increased, and there was a considerable sea, which made my short +little vessel plunge and roll about violently. By sunset -we had +not got halfway across, but could see Mysol distinctly. All night +we went along uneasily, and at daybreak, on looking out +anxiously, I found that we had fallen much to the westward during +the night, owing, no doubt, to the pilot being sleepy and not +keeping the boat sufficiently close to the wind. We could see the +mountains distinctly, but it was clear we should not reach +Silinta, and should have some difficulty in getting to the +extreme westward point of the island. The sea was now very +boisterous, and our prau was continually beaten to leeward by the +waves, and after another weary day we found w e could not get to +Mysol at all, but might perhaps reach the island called Pulo +Kanary, about ten miles to the north-west. Thence we might await +a favourable wind to reach Waigamma, on the north side of the +island, and visit Allen by means of a small boat. + +About nine o'clock at night, greatly to my satisfaction, we got +under the lea of this island, into quite smooth water--for I had +been very sick and uncomfortable, and had eaten scarcely anything +since the preceding morning. We were slowly nearing the shore, +which the smooth dark water told us we could safely approach; and +were congratulating ourselves on soon being at anchor, with the +prospect of hot coffee, a good supper, and a sound sleep, when +the wind completely dropped, and we had to get out the oars to +row. We were not more than two hundred yards from the shore, when +I noticed that we seemed to get no nearer although the men were +rowing hard, but drifted to the westward, and the prau would not +obey the helm, but continually fell off, and gave us much trouble +to bring her up again. Soon a laud ripple of water told us we +were seized by one of those treacherous currents which so +frequently frustrate all the efforts of the voyager in these +seas; the men threw down the oars in despair, and in a few +minutes we drifted to leeward of the island fairly out to sea +again, and lost our last chance of ever reaching Mysol! Hoisting +our jib, we lay to, and in the morning found ourselves only a few +miles from the island, but wit, such a steady wind blowing from +its direction as to render it impossible for us to get back to +it. + +We now made sail to the northward, hoping soon to get a more +southerly wind. Towards noon the sea was much smoother, and with +a S.S.E. wind we were laying in the direction of Salwatty, which +I hoped to reach, as I could there easily get a boat to take +provisions and stores to my companion in Mysol. This wind did +not, however, last long, but died away into a calm; and a light +west wind springing up, with a dark bank of clouds, again gave us +hopes of reaching Mysol. We were soon, however, again +disappointed. The E.S.E. wind began to blow again with violence, +and continued all night in irregular gusts, and with a short +cross sea tossed us about unmercifully, and so continually took +our sails aback, that we were at length forced to run before it +with our jib only, to escape being swamped by our heavy mainsail. +After another miserable and anxious night, we found that we had +drifted westward of the island of Poppa, and the wind being again +a little southerly, we made all sail in order to reach it. This +we did not succeed in doing, passing to the north-west, when the +wind again blew hard from the E.S.E., and our last hope of +finding a refuge till better weather was frustrated. This was a +very serious matter to me, as I could not tell how Charles Allen +might act, if, after waiting in vain for me, he should return to +Wahai, and find that I had left there long before, and had not +since been heard of. Such an event as our missing an island forty +miles long would hardly occur to him, and he would conclude +either that our boat had foundered, or that my crew had murdered +me and run away with her. However, as it was physically +impossible now for me to reach him, the only thing to be done was +to make the best of my way to Waigiou, and trust to our meeting +some traders, who might convey to him the news of my safety. + +Finding on my map a group of three small islands, twenty-five +miles north of Poppa, I resolved, if possible, to rest there a +day or two. We could lay our boat's head N.E. by N.; but a heavy +sea from the eastward so continually beat us off our course, and +we made so much leeway, that I found it would be as much as we +could do to reach them. It was a delicate point to keep our head +in the best direction, neither so close to the wind as to stop +our way, or so free as to carry us too far to leeward. I +continually directed the steersman myself, and by incessant +vigilance succeeded, just at sunset, in bringing our boat to an +anchor under the lee of the southern point of one of the islands. +The anchorage was, however, by no means good, there being a +fringing coral reef, dry at low water, beyond which, on a bottom +strewn with masses of coral, we were obliged to anchor. We had +now been incessantly tossing about for four days in our small +undecked boat, with constant disappointments and anxiety, and it +was a great comfort to have a night of quiet and comparative +safety. My old pilot had never left the helm for more than an +hour at a time, when one of the others would relieve him for a +little sleep; so I determined the next morning to look out for a +secure and convenient harbour, and rest on shore for a day. + +In the morning, finding it would be necessary for us to get round +a rocky point, I wanted my men to go on shore and cut jungle- +rope, by which to secure us from being again drafted away, as the +wind was directly off shore. I unfortunately, however, allowed +myself to be overruled by the pilot and crew, who all declared +that it was the easiest thing possible, and that they would row +the boat round the point in a few minutes. They accordingly got +up the anchor, set the jib, and began rowing; but, just as I had +feared, we drifted rapidly off shore, and had to drop anchor +again in deeper water, and much farther off. The two best men, a +Papuan and a Malay now swam on shore, each carrying a hatchet, +and went into the jungle to seek creepers for rope. After about +an hour our anchor loosed hold, and began to drag. This alarmed +me greatly, and we let go our spare anchor, and, by running out +all our cable, appeared tolerably secure again. We were now most +anxious for the return of the men, and were going to fire our +muskets to recall them, when we observed them on the beach, some +way off, and almost immediately our anchors again slipped, and we +drifted slowly away into deep water. We instantly seized the +oars, but found we could not counteract the wind and current, and +our frantic cries to the men were not heard till we had got a +long way off; as they seemed to be hunting for shell-fish on the +beach. Very soon, however, they stared at us, and in a few +minutes seemed to comprehend their situation; for they rushed +down into the water, as if to swim off, but again returned on +shore, as if afraid to make the attempt. We had drawn up our +anchors at first not to check our rowing; but now, finding we +could do nothing, we let them both hang down by the full length +of the cables. This stopped our way very much, and we drifted +from shore very slowly, and hoped the men would hastily form a +raft, or cut down a soft-wood tree, and paddle out, to us, as we +were still not more than a third of a mile from shore. They +seemed, however, to have half lost their senses, gesticulating +wildly to us, running along the beach, then going unto the +forest; and just when we thought they had prepared some mode of +making an attempt to reach us, we saw the smoke of a fire they +had made to cook their shell-fish! They had evidently given up +all idea of coming after us, and we were obliged to look to our +own position. + +We were now about a mile from shore, and midway between two of +the islands, but we were slowly drifting out, to sea to the +westward, and our only chance of yet saving the men was to reach +the opposite shore. We therefore sot our jib and rowed hard; but +the wind failed, and we drifted out so rapidly that we had some +difficulty in reaching the extreme westerly point of the island. +Our only sailor left, then swam ashore with a rope, and helped to +tow us round the point into a tolerably safe and secure +anchorage, well sheltered from the wind, but exposed to a little +swell which jerked our anchor and made us rather uneasy. We were +now in a sad plight, having lost our two best men, and being +doubtful if we had strength left to hoist our mainsail. We had +only two days' water on board, and the small, rocky, volcanic +island did not promise us much chance of finding any. The conduct +of the men on shore was such as to render it doubtful if they +would make any serious attempt to reach us, though they might +easily do so, having two good choppers, with which in a day they +could male a small outrigger raft on which they could safely +cross the two miles of smooth sea with the wind right aft, if +they started from the east end of the island, so as to allow for +the current. I could only hope they would be sensible enough to +make the attempt, and determined to stay as long as I could to +give them the chance. + +We passed an anxious night, fearful of again breaking our anchor +or rattan cable. In the morning (23d), finding all secure, I +waded on shore with my two men, leaving the old steersman and the +cook on board, with a loaded musketto recall us if needed. We +first walked along the beach, till stopped by the vertical cliffs +at the east end of the island, finding a place where meat had +been smoked, a turtle-shell still greasy, and some cut wood, the +leaves of which were still green, showing that some boat had been +here very recently. We then entered the jungle, cutting our way +up to the top of the hill, but when we got there could see +nothing, owing to the thickness of the forest. Returning, we cut +some bamboos, and sharpened them to dig for water in a low spot +where some sago -trees were growing; when, just as we were going +to begin, Hoi, the Wahai man, called out to say he had found +water. It was a deep hole among the Sago trees, in stiff black +clay, full of water, which was fresh, but smelt horribly from the +quantity of dead leaves and sago refuse that had fallen in. +Hastily concluding that it was a spring, or that the water had +filtered in, we baled it all out as well as a dozen or twenty +buckets of mud and rubbish, hoping by night to have a good supply +of clean water. I then went on board to breakfast, leaving my two +men to make a bamboo raft to carry us on shore and back without +wading. I had scarcely finished when our cable broke, and we +bumped against the rocks. Luckily it was smooth and calm, and no +damage was done. We searched for and got up our anchor, and found +teat the cable had been cut by grating all night upon the coral. +Had it given way in the night, we might have drifted out to sea +without our anchor, or been seriously damaged. In the evening we +went to fetch water from the well, when, greatly to our dismay, +we found nothing but a little liquid mud at the bottom, and it +then became evident that the hole was one which had been made to +collect rain water, and would never fill again as long as the +present drought continued. As we did not know what we might +suffer for want of water, we filled our jar with this muddy stuff +so that it might settle. In the afternoon I crossed over to the +other side of the island, and made a large fire, in order that +our men might see we were still there. + +The next day (24th) I determined to have another search for +water; and when the tide was out rounded a rocky point and went +to the extremity of the island without finding any sign of the +smallest stream. On our way back, noticing a very small dry bed +of a watercourse, I went up it to explore, although everything +was so dry that my men loudly declared it was useless to expect +water there; but a little way up I was rewarded by finding a few +pints in a small pool. We searched higher up in every hole and +channel where water marks appeared, but could find not a drop +more. Sending one of my men for a large jar and teacup, we +searched along the beach till we found signs of another dry +watercourse, and on ascending this were so fortunate as to +discover two deep sheltered rock-holes containing several gallons +of water, enough to fill all our jars. When the cup came we +enjoyed a good drink of the cool pure water, and before we left +had carried away, I believe, every drop on the island. + +In the evening a good-sized prau appeared in sight, making +apparently for the island where our men were left, and we had +some hopes they might be seen and picked up, but it passed along +mid-channel, and did not notice the signals we tried to make. I +was now, however, pretty easy as to the fate of the men. There +was plenty of sago on our rocky island, and there world probably +be some on the fiat one they were left on. They had choppers, and +could cut down a tree and make sago, and would most likely find +sufficient water by digging. Shell-fish were abundant, and they +would be able to manage very well till some boat should touch +there, or till I could send and fetch them. The next day we +devoted to cutting wood, filling up our jars with all the water +we could find, and making ready to sail in the evening. I shot a +small lory closely resembling a common species at Ternate, and a +glossy starling which differed from the allied birds of Ceram and +Matabello. Large wood-pigeons and crows were the only other birds +I saw, but I did not obtain specimens. + +About eight in the evening of June 25th we started, and found +that with all hands at work we could just haul up our mainsail. +We had a fair wind during the night and sailed north-east, +finding ourselves in the morning about twenty miles west of the +extremity of Waigiou with a number of islands intervening. About +ten o'clock we ran full on to a coral reef, which alarmed us a +good deal, but luckily got safe off again. About two in the +afternoon we reached an extensive coral reef, and were sailing +close alongside of it, when the wind suddenly dropped, and we +drifted on to it before we could get in our heavy mainsail, which +we were obliged to let run down and fall partly overboard. We had +much difficulty in getting off, but at last got into deep water +again, though with reefs and islands all around us. At night we +did not know what to do, as no one on board could tell where we +were or what dangers might surround us, the only one of our crew +who was acquainted with the coast of Waigiou having been. left on +the island. We therefore took in all sail and allowed ourselves +to drift, as we were some miles from the nearest land. A light +breeze, however, sprang up, and about midnight we found ourselves +again bumping over a coral reef. As it was very dark, and we knew +nothing of our position, we could only guess how to get off +again, and had there been a little more wind we might have been +knocked to pieces. However, in about half an hour we did get off, +and then thought it best to anchor on the edge of the reef till +morning. Soon after daylight on the 7th, finding our prau had +received no damage, we sailed on with uncertain winds and +squalls, threading our way among islands and reefs, and guided +only by a small map, which was very incorrect and quite useless, +and by a general notion of the direction we ought to take. In the +afternoon we found a tolerable anchorage under a small island and +stayed for the night, and I shot a large fruit-pigeon new to me, +which I have since named Carpophaga tumida. I also saw and shot +at the rare white-headed kingfisher (Halcyon saurophaga), but did +not kill it. The next morning we sailed on, and having a fair +wind reached the shores of the large island of Waigiou. On +rounding a point we again ran full on to a coral reef with our +mainsail up, but luckily the wind had almost died away, and with +a good deal of exertion we managed get safely off. + +We now had to search for the narrow channel among islands, which +we knew was somewhere hereabouts, and which leads to the villages +on the south side ofWaigiou. Entering a deep bay which looked +promising, we got to the end of it, but it was then dusk, so we +anchored for the night, and having just finished all our water +could cook no rice for supper. Next morning early (29th) we went +on shore among the mangroves, and a little way inland found some +water, which relieved our anxiety considerably, and left us free +to go along the coast in search of the opening, or of some one +who could direct us to it. During the three days we had now been +among the reefs and islands, we had only seen a single small +canoe, which had approached pretty near to us, and then, +notwithstanding our signals, went off in another direction. The +shores seemed all desert; not a house, or boat, or human being, +or a puff of smoke was to be seen; and as we could only go on the +course that the ever-changing wind would allow us (our hands +being too few to row any distance), our prospects of getting to +our destination seemed rather remote and precarious. Having gone +to the eastward extremity of the deep bay we had entered, without +finding any sign of an opening, we turned westward; and towards +evening were so fortunate as to find a small village of seven +miserable houses built on piles in the water. Luckily the Orang- +kaya, or head man, could speak a little. Malay, and informed us +that the entrance to the strait was really in the bay we had +examined, but that it was not to be seen except when- close +inshore. He said the strait was often very narrow, and wound +among lakes and rocks and islands, and that it would take two +days to reach the large village of Muka, and three more to get to +Waigiou. I succeeded in hiring two men to go with us to Muka, +bringing a small boat in which to return; but we had to wait a +day for our guides, so I took my gun and made a little excursion +info the forest. The day was wet and drizzly, and I only +succeeded in shooting two small birds, but I saw the great black +cockatoo, and had a glimpse of one or two Birds of Paradise, +whose loud screams we had heard on first approaching the coast. +Leaving the village the next morning (July 1st) with a light +wind, it took us all day to reach the entrance to the channel, +which resembled a small river, and was concealed by a projecting +point, so that it was no wonder we did not discover it amid the +dense forest vegetation which everywhere covers these islands to +the water's edge. A little way inside it becomes bounded by +precipitous rocks, after winding among which for about two miles, +we emerged into what seemed a lake, but which was in fact a deep +gulf having a narrow entrance on the south coast. This gulf was +studded along its shores with numbers of rocky islets, mostly +mushroom shaped, from the `eater having worn away the lower part +of the soluble coralline limestone, leaving them overhanging from +ten to twenty feet. Every islet was covered will strange-looping +shrubs and trees, and was generally crowned by lofty and elegant +palms, which also studded the ridges of the mountainous shores, +forming one of the most singular and picturesque landscapes I +have ever seen. The current which had brought us through the +narrow strait now ceased, and we were obliged to row, which with +our short and heavy prau was slow work. I went on shore several +times, but the rocks were so precipitous, sharp, and honeycombed, +that Ifound it impossible to get through the tangled thicket with +which they were everywhere clothed. It took us three days to get +to the entrance of the gulf, and then the wind was such as to +prevent our going any further, and we might have had to wait for +days or weeps, when, much to my surprise and gratification, a +boat arrived from Muka with one of the head men, who had in some +mysterious manner heard I was on my way, and had come to my +assistance, bringing a present of cocoa-nuts and vegetables. +Being thoroughly acquainted with the coast, and having several +extra men to assist us, he managed to get the prau along by +rowing, poling, or sailing, and by night had brought us safely +into harbour, a great relief after our tedious and unhappy +voyage. We had been already eight days among the reefs and +islands of Waigiou, coming a distance of about fifty miles, and +it was just forty days since we had sailed from Goram. + +Immediately on our arrival at Muka, I engaged a small boat and +three natives to go in search of my lost men, and sent one of my +own men with them to make sure of their going to the right +island. In ten days they returned, but to my great regret and +disappointment, without the men. The weather had been very bad, +and though they had reached an island within sight of that in +which the men were, they could get no further. They had waited +there six days for better weather, and then, having no more +provisions, and the man I had sent with them being very ill and +not expected to live, they returned. As they now knew the island, +I was determined they should make another trial, and (by a +liberal payment of knives, handkerchiefs, and tobacco, with +plenty of provisions) persuaded them to start back immediately, +and make another attempt. They did not return again till the 29th +of July, having stayed a few days at their own village of Bessir +on the way; but this time they had succeeded and brought with +them my two lost men, in tolerable health, though thin and weak. +They had lived exactly a month on the island had found water, and +had subsisted on the roots and tender flower-stalks of a species +of Bromelia, on shell-fish. and on a few turtles' eggs. Having +swum to the island, they had only a pair of trousers and a shirt +between them, but had made a hut of palm-leaves, and had +altogether got on very well. They saw that I waited for them +three days at the opposite island, but had been afraid to cross, +lest the current should have carried them out to sea, when they +would have been inevitably lost. They had felt sure I would send +for them on the first opportunity, and appeared more grateful +than natives usually are for my having done so; while I felt much +relieved that my voyage, though sufficiently unfortunate, had not +involved loss of life. + +CHAPTER XXXVI. + +WAIGIOU. + +(JULY TO SEPTEMER 1860.) + +THE village of Muka, on the south coast of Waigiou, consists of a +number of poor huts, partly in the water and partly on shore, and +scattered irregularly over a space of about half a mile in a +shallow bay. Around it are a few cultivated patches, and a good +deal of second-growth woody vegetation; while behind, at the +distance of about half a mile, rises the virgin forest, through +which are a few paths to some houses and plantations a mile or +two inland. The country round is rather flat, and in places +swampy, and there are one or two small streams which run behind +the village into the sea below it. Finding that no house could be +had suitable to my purpose, and hawing so often experienced the +advantages of living close to or just within the forest, I +obtained the assistance of half-a-dozen men; and having selected +a spot near the path and the stream, and close to a fine fig- +tree, which stood just within the forest, we cleared the ground +and set to building a house. As I did not expect to stay here so +long as I had done at Dorey, I built a long, low, narrow shed, +about seven feet high on one side and four on the other, which +required but little wood, and was put up very rapidly. Our sails, +with a few old attaps from a deserted but in the village, formed +the walls, and a quantity of "cadjans," or palm-leaf mats, +covered in the roof. On the third day my house was finished, and +all my things put in and comfortably arranged to begin work, and +I was quite pleased at having got established so quickly and in +such a nice situation. + +It had been so far fine weather, but in the night it rained hard, +and we found our mat roof would not keep out water. It first +began to drop, and then to stream over everything. I had to get +up in the middle of the night to secure my insect-boxes, rice, +and other perishable articles, and to find a dry place to sleep +in, for my bed was soaked. Fresh leaks kept forming as the rain +continued, and w e all passed a very miserable and sleepless +night. In the morning the sun shone brightly, and everything was +put out to dry. We tried to find out why the mats leaked, and +thought we had discovered that they had been laid on upside down. +Having shifted there all, and got everything dry and comfortable +by the evening, we again went to bed, and before midnight were +again awaked by torrent of rain and leaks streaming in upon us as +bad as ever. There was no more sleep for us that night, and the +next day our roof was again taken to pieces, and we came to the +conclusion that the fault was a want of slope enough in the roof +for mats, although it would be sufficient for the usual attap +thatch. I therefore purchased a few new and some old attaps, and +in the parts these would not cover we put the mats double, and +then at last had the satisfaction of finding our roof tolerably +water-tight. + +I was now able to begin working at the natural history of the +island. When I first arrived I was surprised at being told that +there were no Paradise Birds at Muka, although there were plenty +at Bessir, a place where the natives caught them and prepared the +skins. I assured the people I had heard the cry of these birds +close to the village, but they world not believe that I could +know their cry. However, the very first time I went into the +forest I not only heard but saw them, and was convinced there +were plenty about; but they were very shy, and it was some time +before we got any. My hunter first shot a female, and I one day +got very close to a fine male. He was, as I expected, the rare +red species, Paradisea rubra, which alone inhabits this island, +and is found nowhere else. He was quite low down, running along a +bough searching for insects, almost like a woodpecker, and the +long black riband-like filaments in his tail hung down in the +most graceful double curve imaginable. I covered him with my gun, +and was going to use the barrel which had a very small charge of +powder and number eight shot, so as not to injure his plumage, +but the gun missed fire, and he was off in an instant among the +thickest jungle. Another day we saw no less than eight fine males +at different times, and fired four times at them; but though +other birds at the same distance almost always dropped, these all +got away, and I began to think we were not to get this +magnificent species. At length the fruit ripened on the fig-tree +close by my house, and many birds came to feed on it; and one +morning, as I was taking my coffee, a male Paradise Bird was seen +to settle on its top. I seized my gun, ran under the tree, and, +gazing up, could see it flying across from branch to branch, +seizing a fruit here and another there, and then, before I could +get a sufficient aim to shoot at such a height (for it was one of +the loftiest trees of the tropics), it was away into the forest. +They now visited the tree every morning; but they stayed so short +a time, their motions were so rapid, and it was so difficult to +see them, owing to the lower trees, which impeded the view, that +it was only after several days' watching, and one or two misses, +that I brought down my bird--a male in the most magnificent +plumage. + +This bird differs very much from the two large species which I +had already obtained, and, although it wants the grace imparted +by their long golden trains, is in many respects more remarkable +and more beautiful. The head, back, and shoulders are clothed +with a richer yellow, the deep metallic green colour of the +throat extends further over the head, and the feathers are +elongated on the forehead into two little erectile crests. The +side plumes are shorter, but are of a rich red colour, +terminating in delicate white points, and the middle tail- +feathers are represented by two long rigid glossy ribands, which +are black, thin, and semi-cylindrical, and droop gracefully in a +spiral curve. Several other interesting birds were obtained, and +about half-a-dozen quite new ones; but none of any remarkable +beauty, except the lovely little dove, Ptilonopus pulchellus, +which with several other pigeons I shot on the same fig-tree +close to my house. It is of a beautiful green colour above, with +a forehead of the richest crimson, while beneath it is ashy white +and rich yellow, banded with violet red. + +On the evening of our arrival at Muka I observed what appeared +like a display of Aurora Borealis, though I could hardly believe +that this was possible at a point a little south of the equator. +The night was clear and calm, and the northern sky presented a +diffused light, with a constant succession of faint vertical +flashings or flickerings, exactly similar to an ordinary aurora +in England. The next day was fine, but after that the weather was +unprecedentedly bad, considering that it ought to have been the +dry monsoon. For near a month we had wet weather; the sun either +not appearing at all, or only for an hour or two about noon. +Morning and evening, as well as nearly all night, it rained or +drizzled, and boisterous winds, with dark clouds, formed the +daily programme. With the exception that it was never cold, it +was just such weather as a very bad English November or February. + +The people of Waigiou are not truly indigenes of the island, +which possesses no "Alfuros," or aboriginal inhabitants. They +appear to be a mixed race, partly from Gilolo, partly from New +Guinea. Malays and Alfuros from the former island have probably +settled here, and many of them have taken Papuan wives from +Salwatty or Dorey, while the influx of people from those places, +and of slaves, has led to the formation of a tribe exhibiting +almost all the transitions from a nearly pure Malayan to an +entirely Papuan type. The language spoken by them is entirely +Papuan, being that which is used on all the coasts of Mysol, +Salwatty, the north-west of New Guinea, and the islands in the +great Geelvink Bay,--a fact which indicates the way in which the +coast settlements have been formed. The fact that so many of the +islands between New Guinea and the Moluccas--such as Waigiou, +Guebe, Poppa, Obi, Batchian, as well as the south and east +peninsulas of Gilolo--possess no aboriginal tribes, but are +inhabited by people who are evidently mongrels and wanderers, is +a remarkable corroborative proof of the distinctness of the +Malayan and Papuan races, and the separation of the geographical +areas they inhabit. If these two great races were direct +modifications, the one of the other, we should expect to find in +the intervening region some homogeneous indigenous race +presenting intermediate characters. For example, between the +whitest inhabitants of Europe and the black Klings of South +India, there are in the intervening districts homogeneous races +which form a gradual transition from one to the other; while in +America, although there is a perfect transition from the Anglo- +Saxon to the negro, and from the Spaniard to the Indian, there is +no homogeneous race forming a natural transition from one to the +other. In the Malay Archipelago we have an excellent example of +two absolutely distinct races, which appear to have approached +each other, and intermingled in an unoccupied territory at a very +recent epoch in the history of man; and I feel satisfied that no +unprejudiced person could study them on the spot without being +convinced that this is the true solution of the problem, rather +than the almost universally accepted view that they are but +modifications of one and the same race. + +The people of Muka live in that abject state of poverty that is +almost always found where the sago-tree is abundant. Very few of +them take the trouble to plant any vegetables or fruit, but live +almost entirely on sago and fish, selling a little tripang or +tortoiseshell to buy the scanty clothing they require. Almost all +of them, however, possess one or more Papuan slaves, on whose +labour they live in almost absolute idleness, just going out on +little fishing or trading excursions, as an excitement in their +monotonous existence. They are under the rule of the Sultan of +Tidore, and every year have to pay a small tribute of Paradise +birds, tortoiseshell, or sago. To obtain these, they go in the +fine season on a trading voyage to the mainland of New Guinea, +and getting a few goods on credit from some Ceram or Bugis +trader, make hard bargains with the natives, and gain enough to +pay their tribute, and leave a little profit for themselves. + +Such a country is not a very pleasant one to live in, for as +there are no superfluities, there is nothing to sell; and had it +not been for a trader from Ceram who was residing there during my +stay, who had a small vegetable garden, and whose men +occasionally got a few spare fish, I should often have had +nothing to eat. Fowls, fruit, and vegetables are luxuries very +rarely to be purchased at Muka; and even cocoa-nuts, so +indispensable for eastern cookery, are not to be obtained; for +though there are some hundreds of trees in the village, all the +fruit is eaten green, to supply the place of the vegetables the +people are too lazy to cultivate. Without eggs, cocoa-nuts, or +plantains, we had very short commons, and the boisterous weather +being unpropitious for fishing, we had to live on what few +eatable birds we could shoot, with an occasional cuscus, or +eastern opossum, the only quadruped, except pigs, inhabiting the +island. + +I had only shot two male Paradiseas on my tree when they ceased +visiting it, either owing to the fruit becoming scarce, or that +they were wise enough to know there was danger. We continued to +hear and see them in the forest, but after a month had not +succeeded in shooting any more; and as my chief object in +visiting Waigiou was to get these birds, I determined to go to +Bessir, where there are a number of Papuans who catch and +preserve them. I hired a small outrigger boat for this journey, +and left one of my men to guard my house and goods. We had to +wait several days for fine weather, and at length started early +one morning, and arrived late at night, after a rough and +disagreeable passage. The village of Bessir was built in the +water at the point of a small island. The chief food of the +people was evidently shell-fish, since great heaps of the shells +had accumulated in the shallow water between the houses and the +land, forming a regular "kitchen-midden "for the exploration of +some future archeologist. We spent the night in the chief's +house, and the next morning went over to the mainland to look out +for a place where I could reside. This part of Waigiou is really +another island to the south of the narrow channel we had passed +through in coming to Muka. It appears to consist almost entirely +of raised coral, whereas the northern island contains hard +crystalline rocks. The shores were a range of low limestone +cliffs, worn out by the water, so that the upper part generally +overhung. At distant intervals were little coves and openings, +where small streams came down from the interior; and in one of +these we landed, pulling our boat up on a patch of white sandy +beach. Immediately above was a large newly-made plantation of +yams and plantains, and a small hot, which the chief said we +might have the use of, if it would do for me. It was quite a +dwarf's house, just eight feet square, raised on posts so that +the floor was four and a half feet above the ground, and the +highest part of the ridge only five feet above the flour. As I am +six feet and an inch in my stockings, I looked at this with some +dismay; but finding that the other houses were much further from +water, were dreadfully dirty, and were crowded with people, I at +once accepted the little one, and determined to make the best of +it. At first I thought of taking out the floor, which would leave +it high enough to walk in and out without stooping; but then +there would not be room enough, so I left it just as it was, had +it thoroughly cleaned out, and brought up my baggage. The upper +story I used for sleeping in, and for a store-room. In the lower +part (which was quite open all round) I fixed up a small table, +arranged my boxes, put up hanging-shelves, laid a mat on the +ground with my wicker-chair upon it, hung up another mat on the +windward side, and then found that, by bending double and +carefully creeping in, I could sit on my chair with my head just +clear of the ceiling. Here I lived pretty comfortably for six +weeks, taking all my meals and doing all my work at my little +table, to and from which I had to creep in a semi-horizontal +position a dozen times a day; and, after a few severe knocks on +the head by suddenly rising from my chair, learnt to accommodate +myself to circumstances. We put up a little sloping cooking-but +outside, and a bench on which my lads could skin their birds. At +night I went up to my little loft, they spread their mats on the, +floor below, and we none of us grumbled at our lodgings. + +My first business was to send for the men who were accustomed to +catch the Birds of Paradise. Several came, and I showed them my +hatchets, beads, knives, and handkerchiefs; and explained to +them, as well as I could by signs, the price I would give for +fresh-killed specimens. It is the universal custom to pay for +everything in advance; but only one man ventured on this occasion +to take goods to the value of two birds. The rest were +suspicious, and wanted to see the result of the first bargain +with the strange white man, the only one who had ever come to +their island. After three days, my man brought me the first bird- +-a very fine specimen, and alive, but tied up in a small bag, and +consequently its tail and wing feathers very much crushed and +injured. I tried to explain to him, and to the others that came +with him, that I wanted them as perfect as possible, and that +they should either kill them, or keep them on a perch with a +string to their leg. As they were now apparently satisfied that +all was fair, and that I had no ulterior designs upon them, six +others took away goods; some for one bird, some for more, and one +for as many as six. They said they had to go a long way for them, +and that they would come back as soon as they caught any. At +intervals of a few days or a week, some of them would return, +bringing me one or more birds; but though they did not bring any +more in bags, there was not much improvement in their condition. +As they caught them a long way off in the forest, they would +scarcely ever come with one, but would tie it by the leg to a +stick, and put it in their house till they caught another. The +poor creature would make violent efforts to escape, would get +among the ashes, or hang suspended by the leg till the limb was +swollen and half-putrefied, and sometimes die of starvation and +worry. One had its beautiful head all defiled by pitch from a +dammar torch; another had been so long dead that its stomach was +turning green. Luckily, however, the skin and plumage of these +birds is so firm and strong, that they bear washing and cleaning +better than almost any other sort; and I was generally able to +clean them so well that they did not perceptibly differ from +those I had shot myself. + +Some few were brought me the same day they were caught, and I had +an opportunity of examining them in all their beauty and +vivacity. As soon as I found they were generally brought alive, I +set one of my men to make a large bamboo cage with troughs for +food and water, hoping to be able to keep some of them. I got the +natives to bring me branches of a fruit they were very fond of, +and I was pleased to find they ate it greedily, and would also +take any number of live grasshoppers I gave them, stripping off +the legs and wings, and then swallowing them. They drank plenty +of water, and were in constant motion, jumping about the cage +from perch to perch, clinging on the top and sides, and rarely +resting a moment the first day till nightfall. The second day +they were always less active, although they would eat as freely +as before; and on the morning of the third day they were almost +always found dead at the bottom of the cage, without any apparent +cause. Some of them ate boiled rice as well as fruit and insects; +but after trying many in succession, not one out of ten lived +more than three days. The second or third day they would be dull, +and in several cases they were seized with convulsions, and fell +off the perch, dying a few hours afterwards. I tried immature as +well as full-plumaged birds, but with no better success, and at +length gave it up as a hopeless task, and confined my attention +to preserving specimens in as good a condition as possible. + +The Red Birds of Paradise are not shot with blunt arrows, as in +the Aru Islands and some parts of New Guinea, but are snared in a +very ingenious manner. A large climbing Arum bears a red +reticulated fruit, of which the birds are very fond. The hunters +fasten this fruit on a stout forked stick, and provide themselves +with a fine but strong cord. They then seep out some tree in the +forest on which these birds are accustomed to perch, and climbing +up it fasten the stick to a branch and arrange the cord in a +noose so ingeniously, that when the bird comes to eat the fruit +its legs are caught, and by pulling the end of the cord, which +hangs down to the ground, it comes free from the branch and +brings down the bird. Sometimes, when food is abundant elsewhere, +the hunter sits from morning till night under his tree with the +cord in his hand, and even for two or three whole days in +succession, without even getting a bite; while, on the other +hand, if very lucky, he may get two or three birds in a day. +There are only eight or ten men at Bessir who practise this art, +which is unknown anywhere else in the island. I determined, +therefore, to stay as long as possible, as my only chance of +getting a good series of specimens; and although I was nearly +starved, everything eatable by civilized man being scarce or +altogether absent, I finally succeeded. + +The vegetables and fruit in the plantations around us did not +suffice for the wants of the inhabitants, and were almost always +dug up or gathered before they were ripe. It was very rarely we +could purchase a little fish; fowls there were none; and we were +reduced to live upon tough pigeons and cockatoos, with our rice +and sago, and sometimes we could not get these. Having been +already eight months on this voyage, my stock of all condiments, +spices and butter, was exhausted, and I found it impossible to +eat sufficient of my tasteless and unpalatable food to support +health. I got very thin and weak, and had a curious disease known +(I have since heard) as brow-ague. Directly after breakfast every +morning an intense pain set in on a small spot on the right +temple. It was a severe burning ache, as bad as the worst +toothache, and lasted about two hours, generally going off at +noon. When this finally ceased, I had an attack of fever, which +left me so weak and so unable to eat our regular food, that I +feel sure my life was saved by a couple of tins of soup which I +had long reserved for some such extremity. I used often to go out +searching after vegetables, and found a great treasure in a lot +of tomato plants run wild, and bearing little fruits about the +size of gooseberries. I also boiled up the tops of pumpkin plants +and of ferns, by way of greens, and occasionally got a few green +papaws. The natives, when hard up for food, live upon a fleshy +seaweed, which they boil till it is tender. I tried this also, +but found it too salt and bitter to be endured. + +Towards the end of September it became absolutely necessary for +me to return, in order to make our homeward voyage before the end +of the east monsoon. Most of the men who had taken payment from +me had brought the birds they had agreed for. One poor fellow had +been so unfortunate as not to get one, and he very honestly +brought back the axe he had received in advance; another, who had +agreed for six, brought me the fifth two days before I was to +start, and went off immediately to the forest again to get the +other. He did not return, however, and we loaded our boat, and +were just on the point of starting, when he came running down +after us holding up a bird, which he handed to me, saying with +great satisfaction, "Now I owe you nothing." These were +remarkable and quite unexpected instances of honesty among +savages, where it would have been very easy for them to have been +dishonest without fear of detection or punishment. + +The country round about Bessir was very hilly and rugged, +bristling with jagged and honey-combed coralline rocks, and with +curious little chasms and ravines. The paths often passed through +these rocky clefts, which in the depths of the forest were gloomy +and dark in the extreme, and often full of fine-leaved herbaceous +plants and curious blue-foliaged Lycopodiaceae. It was in such +places as these that I obtained many of my most beautiful small +butterflies, such as Sospita statira and Taxila pulchra, the +gorgeous blue Amblypodia hercules, and many others. On the skirts +of the plantations I found the handsome blue Deudorix despoena, +and in the shady woods the lovely Lycaena wallacei. Here, too, I +obtained the beautiful Thyca aruna, of the richest orange on the +upper side; while below it is intense crimson and glossy black; +and a superb specimen of a green Ornithoptera, absolutely fresh +and perfect, and which still remains one of the glories of my +cabinet. + +My collection of birds, though not very rich in number of +species, was yet very interesting. I got another specimen of the +rare New Guinea kite (Henicopernis longicauda), a large new +goatsucker (Podargus superciliaris), and a most curious ground- +pigeon of an entirely new genus, and remarkable for its long and +powerful bill. It has been named Henicophaps albifrons. I was +also much pleased to obtain a fine series of a large fruit-pigeon +with a protuberance on the bill (Carpophaga tumida), and to +ascertain that this was not, as had been hitherto supposed, a +sexual character, but was found equally in male and female birds. +I collected only seventy-three species of birds in Waigiou, but +twelve of them were entirely new, and many others very rare; and +as I brought away with me twenty-four fine specimens of the +Paradisea rubra, I did not regret my visit to the island, +although it had by no means answered my expectations. + +CHAPTER XXXVII. + +VOYAGE FROM WAIGIOU TO TERNATE. + +(SEPTEMBER 29 To NOVEMBER 5, 1860.) + +I HAD left the old pilot at Waigiou to take care of my house and +to get the prau into sailing order--to caulk her bottom, and to +look after the upper works, thatch, and ringing. When I returned +I found it nearly ready, and immediately began packing up and +preparing for the voyage. Our mainsail had formed one side of our +house, but the spanker and jib had been put away in the roof, and +on opening them to see if any repairs were wanted, to our horror +we found that some rats had made them their nest, and had gnawed +through them in twenty places. We had therefore to buy matting +and make new sails, and this delayed us till the 29th of +September, when we at length left Waigiou. + +It took us four days before we could get clear of the land, +having to pass along narrow straits beset with reefs and shoals, +and full of strong currents, so that an unfavourable wind stopped +us altogether. One day, when nearly clear, a contrary tide and +head wind drove us ten miles back to our anchorage of the night +before. This delay made us afraid of running short of water if we +should be becalmed at sea, and we therefore determined, if +possible, to touch at the island where our men had been lost, and +which lay directly in our proper course. The wind was, however, +as usual, contrary, being S.S.W. instead of S.S.E., as it should +have been at this time of the year, and all we could do was to +reach the island of Gagie, where we came to an anchor by +moonlight under bare volcanic hills. In the morning we tried to +enter a deep bay, at the head of which some Galela fishermen told +us there was water, but a head-wind prevented us. For the reward +of a handkerchief, however, they took us to the place in their +boat, and we filled up our jars and bamboos. We then went round +to their camping-place on the north coast of the island to try +and buy something to eat, but could only get smoked turtle meat +as black and as hard as lumps of coal. A little further on there +was a plantation belonging to Guebe people, but under the care of +a Papuan slave, and the next morning we got some plantains and a +few vegetables in exchange for a handkerchief and some knives. On +leaving this place our anchor had got foul in some rock or sunken +log in very deep water, and after many unsuccessful attempts, we +were forced to cut our rattan cable and leave it behind us. We +had now only one anchor left. + +Starting early, on the 4th of October, the same S.S.W wind +continued, and we began to fear that we should hardly clear the +southern point of Gilolo. The night of the 5th was squally, with +thunder, but after midnight it got tolerably fair, and we were +going along with a light wind arid looking out for the coast of +Gilolo, which we thought we must be nearing, when we heard a dull +roaring sound, like a heavy surf, behind us. In a short time the +roar increased, and we saw a white line of foam coming on, which +rapidly passed us without doing any harm, as our boat rose easily +over the wave. At short intervals, ten or a dozen others overtook +us with bleat rapidity, and then the sea became perfectly smooth, +as it was before. I concluded at once that these must be +earthquake waves; and on reference to the old voyagers we find +that these seas have been long subject to similar phenomena. +Dampier encountered them near Mysol and New Guinea, and describes +them as follows: "We found here very strange tides, that ran in +streams, making a great sea, and roaring so loud that we could +hear them before they came within a mile of us. The sea round +about them seemed all broken, and tossed the ship so that she +would not answer her helm. These ripplings commonly lasted ten or +twelve minutes, and then the sea became as still and smooth as a +millpond. We sounded often when in the midst of them, but found +no ground, neither could we perceive that they drove us any way. +We had in one night several of these tides, that came mostly from +the west, and the wind being from that quarter we commonly heard +them a long time before they came, and sometimes lowered our +topsails, thinking it was a gust of wind. They were of great +length, from north to south, but their breadth not exceeding 200 +yards, and they drove a great pace. For though we had little wind +to move us, yet these world soon pass away, and leave the water +very smooth, and just before we encountered them we met a great +swell, but it did not break." Some time afterwards, I learnt that +an earthquake had been felt on the coast of Gilolo the very day +we had encountered these curious waves. + +When daylight came, we saw the land of Gilolo a few miles off, +but the point was unfortunately a little to windward of us. We +tried to brace up all we could to round it, but as we approached +the shore we got into a strong current setting northward, which +carried us so rapidly with it that we found it necessary to stand +off again, in order to get out of its influence. Sometimes we +approached the point a little, and our hopes revived; then the +wind fell, and we drifted slowly away. Night found us in nearly +the same position as we had occupied in the morning, so we hung +down our anchor with about fifteen fathoms of cable to prevent +drifting. On the morning of the 7th we were however, a good way +up the coast, and we now thought our only chance would be to got +close in-shore, where there might be a return current, and we +could then row. The prau was heavy, and my men very poor +creatures for work, so that it took us six hours to get to the +edge of the reef that fringed the shore; and as the wind might at +any moment blow on to it, our situation was a very dangerous one. +Luckily, a short distance off there was a sandy bay, where a +small stream stopped the growth of the coral; and by evening we +reached this and anchored for the night. Here we found some +Galela men shooting deer and pigs; but they could not or would +not speak Malay, and we could get little information from them. +We found out that along shore the current changed with the tide, +while about a mile out it was always one way, and against us; and +this gave us some hopes of getting back to the point, from which +we were now distant twenty miles. Next morning we found that the +Galela men had left before daylight, having perhaps some vague +fear of our intentions, anal very likely taking me for a pirate. +During the morning a boat passed, and the people informed us +that, at a short distance further towards the point, there was a +much better harbour, where there were plenty of Galela men, from +whom we, might probably get some assistance. + +At three in the afternoon, when the current turned, we started; +but having a head-wind, made slow progress. At dusk we reached +the entrance of the harbour, but an eddy and a gust of wind +carried us away and out to sea. After sunset there was a land +breeze, and we sailed a little to the south-east. It then became +calm, and eve hung down our anchor forty fathoms, to endeavour to +counteract the current; but it was of little avail, and in the +morning we found ourselves a good way from shore, and just +opposite our anchorage of the day before, which we again reached +by hard rowing. I gave the men this day to rest and sleep; and +the next day (Oct. 10th) we again started at two in the morning +with a land breeze. After I had set them to their oars, and given +instructions to keep close in-shore, and on no account to get out +to sea, I went below, being rather unwell. At daybreak I found, +to my great astonishment, that we were again far off-shore, and +was told that the wind had gradually turned more ahead, and had +carried us out--none of them having the sense to take down the +sail and row in-shore, or to call me. As soon as it was daylight, +we saw that we had drifted back, and were again opposite our +former anchorage, and, for the third time, had to row hard to get +to it. As we approached the shore, I saw that the current was +favourable to us, and we continued down the coast till we were +close to the entrance to the lower harbour. Just as we were +congratulating ourselves on having at last reached it, a strong +south-east squall carne on, blowing us back, and rendering it +impossible for us to enter. Not liking the idea of again +returning, I determined on trying to anchor, and succeeded in +doing so, in very deep water and close to the reefs; but the +prevailing winds were such that, should we not hold, we should +have no difficulty in getting out to sea. By the time the squall +had passed, the current had turned against us, and we expected to +have to wait till four in the afternoon, when we intended to +enter the harbour. + +Now, however, came the climax of our troubles. The swell produced +by the squall made us jerk our cable a good deal, and it suddenly +snapped low down in the water. We drifted out to sea, and +immediately set our mainsail, but we were now without any anchor, +and in a vessel so poorly manned that it could not be rowed +against the most feeble current or the slightest wind, it word be +madness to approach these dangerous shores except in the most +perfect calm. We had also only three days' food left. It was +therefore out of the question making any further attempts to get +round the point without assistance, and I at once determined to +run to the village of Gani-diluar, about ten miles further north, +where we understood there was a good harbour, and where we might +get provisions and a few more rowers. Hitherto winds and currents +load invariably opposed our passage southward, and we might have +expected them to be favourable to us now we had turned our +bowsprit in an opposite direction. But it immediately fell calm, +and then after a time a westerly land breeze set in, which would +not serve us, and we had to row again for hours, and when night +came had not reached the village. We were so fortunate, however, +as to find a deep sheltered cove where the water was quite +smooth, and we constructed a temporary anchor by filling a sack +with stones from our ballast, which being well secured by a +network of rattans held us safely during the night. The next +morning my men went on shore to cut wood suitable for making +fresh anchors, and about noon, the current turning in our favour, +we proceeded to the village, where we found an excellent and +well-protected anchorage. + +On inquiry, we found that the head men resided at the other Gani +on the western side of the peninsula, and it was necessary to +send messengers across (about half a day's journey) to inform +them of my arrival, and to beg them to assist me. I then +succeeded in buying a little sago, some dried deer-meat and +cocoa-nuts, which at once relieved our immediate want of +something to eat. At night we found our bag of atones still held +us very well, and we slept tranquilly. + +The next day (October 12th), my men set to work making anchors +and oars. The native Malay anchor is ingeniously constructed of a +piece of tough forked timber, the fluke being strengthened by +twisted rattans binding it to the stem, while the cross-piece is +formed of a long flat stone, secured in the same manner. These +anchors when well made, hold exceedingly arm, and, owing to the +expense of iron, are still almost universally used on board the +smaller praus. In the afternoon the head men arrived, and +promised me as many rowers as I could put on the prau, and also +brought me a few eggs and a little rice, which were very +acceptable. On the 14th there was a north wind all day, which +would have been invaluable to us a few days earlier, but which +was now only tantalizing. On the 16th, all being ready, we +started at daybreak with two new anchors and ten rowers, who +understood their work. By evening we had come more than half-way +to the point, and anchored for the night in a small bay. At three +the next morning I ordered the anchor up, but the rattan cable +parted close to the bottom, having been chafed by rocks, and we +then lost our third anchor on this unfortunate voyage. The day +was calm, and by noon we passed the southern point of Gilolo, +which had delayed us eleven days, whereas the whole voyage during +this monsoon should not have occupied more than half that time. +Having got round the point our course was exactly in the opposite +direction to what it had been, and now, as usual, the wind +changed accordingly, coming from the north and north-west,--so +that we still had to row every mile up to the village of Gani, +which we did not reach till the evening of the 18th. A Bugis +trader who was residing there, and the Senaji, or chief, were +very kind; the former assisting me with a spare anchor and a +cable, and making me a present of some vegetables, and the latter +baking fresh sago cakes for my men; and giving rue a couple of +fowls, a bottle of oil, and some pumpkins. As the weather was +still very uncertain, I got four extra men to accompany me to +Ternate, for which place we started on the afternoon of the 20th. + +We had to keep rowing all night, the land breezes being too weak +to enable us to sail against the current. During the afternoon of +the 21st we had an hour's fair wind, which soon changed into a +heavy squall with rain, and my clumsy men let the mainsail get +taken aback and nearly upset us, tearing the sail; and, what was +worse, losing an hour's fair wind. The night was calm, and we +made little progress. + +On the 22d we had light head-winds. A little before noon we +passed, with the assistance of our oars, the Paciencia Straits, +the narrowest part of the channel between Batchian and Gilolo. +These were well named by the early Portuguese navigators, as the +currents are very strong, and there are so many eddies, that even +with a fair wind vessels are often quite unable to pass through +them. In the afternoon a strong north wind (dead ahead) obliged +us to anchor twice. At nigh it was calm, and we crept along +slowly with our oars. + +On the 23d we still had the wind ahead, or calms. We then crossed +over again to the mainland of Gilolo by the advice of our Gani +men, who knew the coast well. Just as we got across we had +another northerly squall with rain, and had to anchor on the edge +of a coral reef for the night. I called up my men about three on +the morning of the 24th, but there was no wind to help us, and we +rowed along slowly. At daybreak there was a fair breeze from the +south, but it lasted only an hour. All the rest of the day we had +nothing but calms, light winds ahead, and squalls, and made very +little progress. + +On the 25th we drifted out to the middle of the channel, but made +no progress onward. In the afternoon we sailed and rowed to the +south end of Kaiķa, and by midnight reached the village. I +determined to stay here a few days to rest and recruit, and in +hopes of getting better weather. I bought some onions and other +vegetables, and plenty of eggs, and my men baked fresh sago +cakes. I went daily to my old hunting-ground in search of +insects, but with very poor success. It was now wet, squally +weather, and there appeared a stagnation of insect life. We +Staved five days, during which time twelve persons died in the +village, mostly from simple intermittent fever, of the treatment +of which the natives are quite ignorant. During the whole of this +voyage I had suffered greatly from sunburnt lips, owing to having +exposed myself on deck all day to loon after our safety among the +shoals and reefs near Waigiou. The salt in the air so affected +them that they would not heal, but became excessively painful, +and bled at the slightest touch, and for a long time it was with +great difficulty I could eat at all, being obliged to open my +mouth very wide, and put in each mouthful with the greatest +caution. I kept them constantly covered with ointment, which was +itself very disagreeable, and they caused me almost constant pain +for more than a month, as they did not get well till I had +returned to Ternate, and was able to remain a week indoors. + +A boat which left for Ternate, the day after we arrived, was +obliged to return the next day, on account of bad weather. On the +31st we went out to the anchorage at the mouth of the harbour, so +as to be ready to start at the first favourable opportunity. + +On the 1st of November I called up my men at one in the morning, +and we started with the tide in our favour. Hitherto it had +usually been calm at night, but on this occasion we had a strong +westerly squall with rain, which turned our prau broadside, and +obliged us to anchor. When it had passed we went on rowing all +night, but the wind ahead counteracted the current in our favour, +and we advanced but little. Soon after sunrise the wind became +stronger and more adverse, and as we had a dangerous lee-shore +which we could not clear, we had to put about and get an offing +to the W.S.W. This series of contrary winds and bad weather ever +since we started, not having had a single day of fair wind, was +very remarkable. My men firmly believed there was something +unlucky in the boat, and told me I ought to have had a certain +ceremony gone through before starting, consisting of boring a +hole in the bottom and pouring some kind of holy oil through it. +It must be remembered that this was the season of the south-east +monsoon, and yet we had not had even half a day's south-east wind +since we left Waigiou. Contrary winds, squalls, and currents +drifted us about the rest of the day at their pleasure. The night +was equally squally and changeable, and kept us hard at work +taking in and making sail, and rowing in the intervals. + +Sunrise on the 2d found us in the middle of the ten-mile channel +between Kaiķa and Makian. Squalls and showers succeeded each +other during the morning. At noon there was a dead calm, after +which a light westerly breeze enabled us to reach a village on +Makian in the evening. Here I bought some pumelos (Citrus +decumana), kanary-nuts, and coffee, and let my men have a night's +sleep. + +The morning of the 3d was fine, and we rowed slowly along the +coast of Makian. The captain of a small prau at anchor, seeing me +on deck and guessing who I was, made signals for us to stop, and +brought me a letter from Charles Allen, who informed me he had +been at Ternate twenty days, and was anxiously waiting my +arrival. This was good news, as I was equally anxious about him, +and it cheered up my spirits. A light southerly wind now sprung +up, and we thought we were going to have fine weather. It soon +changed, however, to its old quarter, the west; dense clouds +gathered over the sky, and in less than half an hour we had the +severest squall we had experienced during our whole voyage. +Luckily we got our great mainsail down in time, or the +consequences might have been serious. It was a regular little +hurricane, and my old Bugis steersman began shouting out to +"Allah! il Allah!" to preserve us. We could only keep up our jib, +which was almost blown to rags, but by careful handling it kept +us before the wind, and the prau behaved very well. Our small +boat (purchased at Gani) was towing astern, and soon got full of +water, so that it broke away and we saw no more of it. In about +an hour the fury of the wind abated a little, and in two more we +were able to hoist our mainsail, reefed and half-mast high. +Towards evening it cleared up and fell calm, and the sea, which +had been rather high, soon went down. Not being much of a seaman +myself I had been considerably alarmed, and even the old +steersman assured me he had never been in a worse squall all his +life. He was now more than ever confirmed in his opinion of the +unluckiness of the boat, and in the efficiency of the holy oil +which all Bugis praus had poured through their bottoms. As it +was, he imputed our safety and the quick termination of the +squall entirely to his own prayers, saying with a laugh, "Yes, +that's the way we always do on board our praus; when things are +at the worst we stand up and shout out our prayers as loud as we +can, and then Tuwan Allah helps us." + +After this it took us two days more to reach Ternate, having our +usual calms, squalls, and head-winds to the very last; and once +having to return back to our anchorage owing to violent gusts of +wind just as we were close to the town. Looking at my whole +voyage in this vessel from the time when I left Goram in May, it +will appear that rely experiences of travel in a native prau have +not been encouraging. My first crew ran away; two men were lost +for a month on a desert island; we were ten times aground on +coral reefs; we lost four anchors; the sails were devoured by +rats; the small boat was lost astern; we were thirty-eight days +on the voyage home, which should not have taken twelve; we were +many times short of food and water; we had no compass-lamp, owing +to there not being a drop of oil in Waigiou when we left; and to +crown all, during the whole of our voyages from Goram by Ceram to +Waigiou, and from Waigiou to Ternate, occupying in all seventy- +eight days, or only twelve days short of three months (all in +what was supposed to be the favourable season), we had not one +single day of fair wind. We were always close braced up, always +struggling against wind, tide, and leeway, and in a vessel that +would scarcely sail nearer than eight points from the wind. Every +seaman will admit that my first voyage in my own boat was a most +unlucky one. + +Charles Allen had obtained a tolerable collection of birds and +insects at Mysol, but far less than be would have done if I had +not been so unfortunate as to miss visiting him. After waiting +another week or two till he was nearly starved, he returned to +Wahai in Ceram, and heard, much to his surprise, that I had left +a fortnight before. He was delayed there more than a month before +he could get back to the north side of Mysol, which he found a +much better locality, but it was not yet the season for the +Paradise Birds; and before he had obtained more than a few of the +common sort, the last prau was ready to leave for Ternate, and he +was obliged to take the opportunity, as he expected I would be +waiting there for him. + +This concludes the record of my wanderings. I next went to Timor, +and afterwards to Bourn, Java, and Sumatra, which places have +already been described. Charles Allen made a voyage to New +Guinea, a short account of which will be given in my next chapter +on the Birds of Paradise. On his return he went to the Sula +Islands, and made a very interesting collection which served to +determine the limits of the zoological group of Celebes, as +already explained in my chapter on the natural history of that +island. His next journey was to Flores and Solor, where he +obtained some valuable materials, which I have used in my chapter +on the natural history of the Timor group. He afterwards went to +Coti on the east coast of Borneo, from which place I was very +anxious to obtain collections, as it is a quite new locality as +far as possible from Sarawak, and I had heard very good accounts +of it. On his return thence to Sourabaya in Java, he was to have +gone to the entirely unknown Sumba or Sandal-wood Island. Most +unfortunately, however, he was seized with a terrible fever on +his arrival at Coti, and, after lying there some weeks, was taken +to Singapore in a very bad condition, where he arrived after I +had left for England. When he recovered he obtained employment in +Singapore, and I lost his services as a collector. + +The three concluding chapters of my work will treat of the birds +of Paradise, the Natural History of the Papuan (stands, and the +Races of Man in the Malay Archipelago. + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. + +THE BIRDS OF PARADISE. + +AS many of my journeys were made with the express object of +obtaining specimens of the Birds of Paradise, and learning +something of their habits and distribution; and being (as far as +I am aware) the only Englishman who has seen these wonderful +birds in their native forests, and obtained specimens of many of +them, I propose to give here, in a connected form, the result of +my observations and inquiries. + +When the earliest European voyagers reached the Moluccas in +search of cloves and nutmegs, which were then rare and precious +spices, they were presented with the dried shins of birds so +strange and beautiful as to excite the admiration even of those +wealth-seeking rovers. The Malay traders gave them the name of +"Manuk dewata," or God's birds; and the Portuguese, finding that +they had no feet or wings, and not being able to learn anything +authentic about then, called them "Passaros de Col," or Birds of +the Sun; while the learned Dutchmen, who wrote in Latin, called +them "Avis paradiseus," or Paradise Bird. John van Linschoten +gives these names in 1598, and tells us that no one has seen +these birds alive, for they live in the air, always turning +towards the sun, and never lighting on the earth till they die; +for they have neither feet nor wings, as, he adds, may be seen by +the birds carried to India, and sometimes to Holland, but being +very costly they were then rarely seen in Europe. More than a +hundred years later Mr. William Funnel, who accompanied Dampier, +and wrote an account of the voyage, saw specimens at Amboyna, and +was told that they came to Banda to eat nutmegs, which +intoxicated them and made them fall down senseless, when they +were killed by ants. Down to 1760, when Linnaeus named the +largest species, Paradisea apoda (the footless Paradise Bird), no +perfect specimen had been seen in Europe, and absolutely nothing +was known about them. And even now, a hundred years later, most +books state that they migrate annually to Ternate, Banda, and +Amboyna; whereas the fact is, that they are as completely unknown +in those islands in a wild state as they are in England. Linnaeus +was also acquainted with a small species, which he named +Paradisea regia (the King Bird of Paradise), and since then nine +or ten others have been named, all of which were first described +from skins preserved by the savages of New Guinea, and generally +more or less imperfect. These are now all known in the Malay +Archipelago as "Burong coati," or dead birds, indicating that the +Malay traders never saw them alive. + +The Paradiseidae are a group of moderate-sized birds, allied in +their structure and habits to crows, starlings, and to the +Australian honeysuckers; but they are characterised by +extraordinary developments of plumage, which are unequalled in +any other family of birds. In several species large tufts of +delicate bright-coloured feathers spring from each side of the +body beneath the wings, forming trains, or fans, or shields; and +the middle feathers of the tail are often elongated into wires, +twisted into fantastic shapes, or adorned with the most brilliant +metallic tints. In another set of species these accessory plumes +spring from the head, the back, or the shoulders; while the +intensity of colour and of metallic lustre displayed by their +plumage, is not to be equalled by any other birds, except, +perhaps, the humming-birds, and is not surpassed even by these. +They have been usually classified under two distinct families, +Paradiseidae and Epimachidae, the latter characterised by long +and slender beaks, and supposed to be allied to the Hoopoes; but +the two groups are so closely allied in every essential point of +structure and habits, that I shall consider them as forming +subdivisions of one family. I will now give a short description +of each of the known species, and then add some general remarks +on their natural history. + +The Great Bird of Paradise (Paradisea apoda of Linnaeus) is the +largest species known, being generally seventeen or eighteen +inches from the beak to the tip of +the tail. The body, wings, and tail are of a rich coffee-brown, +which deepens on the breast to a blackish-violet or purple-brown. +The whole top of the head and neck is of an exceedingly delicate +straw-yellow, the feathers being short and +close set, so as to resemble plush or velvet; the lower part of +the throat up to the eye clothed with scaly feathers of an +emerald, green colour, and with a rich metallic gloss, and +velvety plumes of a still deeper green extend in a band across +the forehead and chin as far as the eye, which is bright yellow. +The beak is pale lead blue; and the feet, which are rather large +and very strong and well formed, are of a pale ashy-pink. The two +middle feathers of the tail have no webs, except a very small one +at the base and at the extreme tip, forming wire-like cirrhi, +which spread out in an elegant double curve, and vary from +twenty-four to thirty-four inches long. From each side of the +body, beneath the wings, springs a dense tuft of long and +delicate plumes, sometimes two feet in length, of the most +intense golden-orange colour and very glossy, but changing +towards the tips into a pale brown. This tuft of plumage cam be +elevated and spread out at pleasure, so as almost to conceal the +body of the bird. + +These splendid ornaments are entirely confined to the male sex, +while the female is really a very plain and ordinary-looking bird +of a uniform coffee-brown colour which never changes, neither +does she possess the long tail wires, nor a single yellow or +green feather about the dead. The young males of the first year +exactly resemble the females, so that they can only be +distinguished by dissection. The first change is the acquisition +of the yellow and green colour on the head and throat, and at the +same time the two middle tail feathers grow a few inches longer +than the rest, but remain webbed on both sides. At a later period +these feathers arc replaced by the long bare shafts of the full +length, as in the adult bird; but there is still no sign of the +magnificent orange side-plumes, which later still complete the +attire of the perfect male. To effect these changes there must be +at least three successive moultings; and as the birds were found +by me in all the stages about the same time, it is probable that +they moult only once a year, and that the full plumage is not +acquired till the bird is four years old. It was long thought +that the fine train of feathers was assumed for a short time only +at the breeding season, but my own experience, as well as the +observation of birds of an allied species which I brought home +with me, and which lived two years in this country, show that the +complete plumage is retained during the whole year, except during +a short period of moulting as with most other birds. + +The Great Bird of Paradise is very active and vigorous and seems +to be in constant motion all day long. It is very abundant, small +flocks of females and young male being constantly met with; and +though the full-plumaged birds are less plentiful, their loud +cries, which are heard daily, show that they also are very +numerous. Their note is, "Wawk-wawk-wawk-Wok-wok-wok," and is so +loud and shrill as to be heard a great distance, and to form the +most prominent and characteristic animal sound in the Aru +Islands. The mode of nidification is unknown; but the natives +told me that the nest was formed of leaves placed on an ant's +nest, or on some projecting limb of a very lofty tree, and they +believe that it contains only one young bird. The egg is quite +unknown, and the natives declared they had never seen it; and a +very high reward offered for one by a Dutch official did not meet +with success. They moult about January or February, and in May, +when they are in full plumage, the males assemble early in the +morning to exhibit themselves in the singular manner already +described at p. 252. This habit enables the natives to obtain +specimens with comparative ease. As soon as they find that the +birds have fled upon a tree on which to assemble, they build a +little shelter of palm leaves in a convenient place among the +branches, and the hunter ensconces himself in it before daylight, +armed with his bow and a number of arrows terminating in a round +knob. A boy waits at the foot of the tree, and when the birds +come at sunrise, and a sufficient number have assembled, and have +begun to dance, the hunter shoots with his blunt arrow so +strongly as to stun the bird, which drops down, and is secured +and killed by the boy without its plumage being injured by a drop +of blood. The rest take no notice, and fall one after another +till some of them take the alarm. (See Frontispiece.) + +The native mode of preserving them is to cut off the wings and +feet, and then skin the body up to the beak, taking out the +skull. A stout stick is then run up through the specimen coming +out at the mouth. Round this some leaves are stuffed, and the +whole is wrapped up in a palm spathe and dried in the smoky hut. +By this plan the head, which is really large, is shrunk up almost +to nothing, the body is much reduced and shortened, and the +greatest prominence is given to the flowing plumage. Some of +these native skins are very clean, and often have wings and feet +left on; others are dreadfully stained with smoke, and all hive a +most erroneous idea of the proportions of the living bird. + +The Paradisea apoda, as far as we have any certain knowledge, is +confined to the mainland of the Aru Islands, never being found in +the smaller islands which surround the central mass. It is +certainly not found in any of the parts of New Guinea visited by +the Malay and Bugis traders, nor in any of the other islands +where Birds of Paradise are obtained. But this is by no means +conclusive evidence, for it is only in certain localities that +the natives prepare skins, and in other places the same birds may +be abundant without ever becoming known. It is therefore quite +possible that this species may inhabit the great southern mass of +New Guinea, from which Aru has been separated; while its near +ally, which I shall next describe, is confined to the north- +western peninsula. + +The Lesser Bird of Paradise (Paradisea papuana of Bechstein), "Le +petit Emeraude" of French authors, is a much smaller bird than +the preceding, although very similar to it. It differs in its +lighter brown colour, not becoming darker or purpled on the +breast; in the extension of the yellow colour all over the upper +part of the back and on the wing coverts; in the lighter yellow +of the side plumes, which have only a tinge of orange, and at the +tips are nearly pure white; and in the comparative shortness of +the tail cirrhi. The female differs remarkably front the same sex +in Paradisea apoda, by being entirely white on the under surface +of the body, and is thus a much handsomer bird. The young males +are similarly coloured, and as they grow older they change to +brown, and go through the same stages in acquiring the perfect +plumage as has already been described in the allied species. It +is this bird which is most commonly used in ladies' head-dresses +in this country, and also forms an important article of commerce +in the East. + +The Paradisea papuana has a comparatively wide range, being the +common species on the mainland of New Guinea, as well as on the +islands of Mysol, Salwatty, Jobie, Biak and Sook. On the south +coast of New Guinea, the Dutch naturalist, Muller, found it at +the Oetanata river in longitude 136° E. I obtained it myself at +Dorey; and the captain of the Dutch steamer Etna informed me that +he had seen the feathers among the natives of Humboldt Bay, in +141° E. longitude. It is very probable, therefore, that it ranges +over the whole of the mainland of New Guinea. + +The true Paradise Birds are omnivorous, feeding on fruits and +insects--of the former preferring the small figs; of the latter, +grasshoppers, locusts, and phasmas, as well as cockroaches and +caterpillars. When I returned home, in 1862, I was so fortunate +as to find two adult males of this species in Singapore; and as +they seemed healthy, and fed voraciously on rice, bananas, and +cockroaches, I determined on giving the very high price asked for +them--Ŗ100.--and to bring them to England by the overland route +under my own care. On my way home I stayed a week at Bombay, to +break the journey, and to lay in a fresh stock of bananas for my +birds. I had great difficulty, however, in supplying them with +insect food, for in the Peninsular and Oriental steamers +cockroaches were scarce, and it was only by setting traps in the +store-rooms, and by hunting an hour every night in the +forecastle, that I could secure a few dozen of these creatures,-- +scarcely enough for a single meal. At Malta, where I stayed a +fortnight, I got plenty of cockroaches from a bake-house, and +when I left, took with me several biscuit-tins' full, as +provision for the voyage home. We came through the Mediterranean +in March, with a very cold wind; and the only place on board the +mail-steamer where their large cage could be accommodated was +exposed to a strong current of air down a hatchway which stood +open day and night, yet the birds never seemed to feel the cold. +During the night journey from Marseilles to Paris it was a sharp +frost; yet they arrived in London in perfect health, and lived in +the Zoological Gardens for one, and two years, often displaying +their beautiful plumes to the admiration of the spectators. It is +evident, therefore, that the Paradise Birds are very hardy, and +require air and exercise rather than heat; and I feel sure that +if a good sized conservators` could be devoted to them, or if +they could be turned loose in the tropical department of the +Crystal Palace or the Great Palm House at Kew, they would live in +this country for many years. + +The Red Bird of Paradise (Paradisea rubra of Viellot), though +allied to the two birds already described, is much more distinct +from them than they are from each other. It is about the same +size as Paradisea papuana (13 to 14 inches long), but differs +from it in many particulars. The side plumes, instead of being +yellow, are rich crimson, and only extend about three or four +inches beyond the end of the tail; they are somewhat rigid, and +the ends are curved downwards and inwards, and are tipped with +white. The two middle tail feathers, instead of being simply +elongated and deprived of their webs, are transformed into stiff +black ribands, a quarter of an inch wide, but curved like a split +quill, and resembling thin half cylinders of horn or whalebone. +When a dead bird is laid on its back, it is seen that these +ribands take a curve or set, which brings them round so as to +meet in a double circle on the neck of the bird; but when they +hang downwards, during life, they assume a spiral twist, and form +an exceedingly graceful double curve. They are about twenty-two +inches long, and always attract attention as the most conspicuous +and extraordinary feature of the species. The rich metallic green +colour of the throat extends over the front half of the head to +behind the eyes, and on the forehead forms a little double crest +of scaly feathers, which adds much to the vivacity of the bird's +aspect. The bill is gamboge yellow, and the iris blackish olive. +(Figure at p. 353.) + +The female of this species is of a tolerably uniform coffee-brown +colour, but has a blackish head, and the nape neck, and shoulders +yellow, indicating the position of the brighter colours of the +male. The changes of plumage follow the same order of succession +as in the other species, the bright colours of the head and neck +being first developed, then the lengthened filaments of the tail, +and last of all, the red side plumes. I obtained a series of +specimens, illustrating the manner in which the extraordinary +black tail ribands are developed, which is very remarkable. They +first appear as two ordinary feathers, rather shorter than the +rest of the tail; the second stage would no doubt be that shown +in a specimen of Paradisea apoda, in which the feathers are +moderately lengthened, and with the web narrowed in the middle; +the third stage is shown by a specimen which has part of the +midrib bare, and terminated by a spatulate web; in another the +bare midrib is a little dilated and semi-cylindrical, and the +terminal web very small; in a fifth, the perfect black horny +riband is formed, but it bears at its extremity a brown spatulate +web, while in another a portion of the black riband itself bears, +for a portion of its length, a narrow brown web. It is only after +these changes are fully completed that the red side plumes begin +to appear. + +The successive stages of development of the colours and plumage +of the Birds of Paradise are very interesting, from the striking +manner in which they accord with the theory of their having been +produced by the simple action of variation, and the cumulative +power of selection by the females, of those male birds which were +more than usually ornamental. Variations of _colour_ are of all +others the most frequent and the most striking, and are most +easily modified and accumulated by man's selection of them. We +should expect, therefore, that the sexual differences of _colour_ +would be those most early accumulated and fixed, and would +therefore appear soonest in the young birds; and this is exactly +what occurs in the Paradise Birds. Of all variations in the +_form_ of birds' feathers, none are so frequent as those in the +head and tail. These occur more, or less in every family of +birds, and are easily produced in many domesticated varieties, +while unusual developments of the feathers of the body are rare +in the whole class of birds, and have seldom or never occurred in +domesticated species. In accordance with these facts, we find the +scale-formed plumes of the throat, the crests of the head, and +the long cirrhi of the tail, all fully developed before the +plumes which spring from the side of the body begin to mane their +appearance. If, on the other hand, the male Paradise Birds have +not acquired their distinctive plumage by successive variations, +but have been as they are mow from the moment they first appeared +upon the earth, this succession becomes at the least +unintelligible to us, for we can see no reason why the changes +should not take place simultaneously, or in a reverse order to +that in which they actually occur. + +What is known of the habits of this bird, and the way in which it +is captured by the natives, have already been described at page +362. + +The Red Bird of Paradise offers a remarkable case of restricted +range, being entirely confined to the small island of Waigiou, +off the north-west extremity of New Guinea, where it replaces the +allied species found in the other islands. + +The three birds just described form a well-marked group, agreeing +in every point of general structure, in their comparatively large +size, the brown colour of their bodies, wings, and tail, and in +the peculiar character of the ornamental plumage which +distinguishes the male bird. The group ranges nearly over the +whole area inhabited by the family of the Paradiseidae, but each +of the species has its own limited region, and is never found in +the same district with either of its close allies. To these three +birds properly belongs the generic title Paradisea, or true +Paradise Bird. + +The next species is the Paradisea regia of Linnaeus, or Ding Bird +of Paradise, which differs so much from the three preceding +species as to deserve a distinct generic name, and it has +accordingly been called Cicinnurus regius. By the Malays it is +called "Burong rajah," or King Bird, and by the natives of the +Aru Islands "Goby-goby." + +This lovely little bird is only about six and a half inches long, +partly owing to the very short tail, which does not surpass the +somewhat square wings. The head, throat, and entire upper surface +are of the richest glossy crimson red, shading to orange-crimson +on the forehead, where the feathers extend beyond the nostrils +more than half-way down the beak. The plumage is excessively +brilliant, shining in certain lights with a metallic or glassy +lustre. The breast and belly are pure silky white, between which +colour and the red of the throat there is a broad band of rich +metallic green, and there is a small spot of the same colour +close above each eye. From each side of the body beneath the +wing, springs a tuft of broad delicate feathers about an inch and +a half long, of an ashy colour, but tipped with a broad band of +emerald green, bordered within by a narrow line of buff: These +plumes are concealed beneath the wing, but when the bird pleases, +can be raised and spread out so as to form an elegant +semicircular fan on each shoulder. But another ornament still +more extraordinary, and if possible more beautiful, adorns this +little bird. The two middle tail feathers are modified into very +slender wirelike shafts, nearly six inches long, each of which +bears at the extremity, on the inner side only, a web of an +emerald green colour, which is coiled up into a perfect spiral +disc, and produces a most singular and charming effect. The bill +is orange yellow, and the feet and legs of a fine cobalt blue. +(See upper figure on the plate at the commencement of this +chapter.) + +The female of this little gem is such a plainly coloured bird, +that it can at first sight hardly be believed to belong to the +same species. The upper surface is of a dull earthy brown, a +slight tinge of orange red appearing only on the margins of the +quills. Beneath, it is of a paler yellowish brown, scaled and +banded with narrow dusky markings. The young males are exactly +like the female, and they no doubt undergo a series of changes as +singular as those of Paradisea rubra; but, unfortunately, I was +unable to obtain illustrative specimens. + +This exquisite little creature frequents the smaller trees in the +thickest parts of the forest, feeding on various fruits; often of +a very large size for so small a bird. It is very active both on +its wings and feet, and makes a whirring sound while flying, +something like the South American manakins. It often flutters its +wings and displays the beautiful fan which adorns its breast, +while the star-bearing tail wires diverge in an elegant double +curve. It is tolerably plentiful in the Aru Islands, which led to +it, being brought to Europe at an early period along with +Paradisea apoda. It also occurs in the island of Mysol and in +every part of New Guinea which has been visited by naturalists. + +We now come to the remarkable little bird called the +"Magnificent," first figured by Buffon, and named Paradisea +speciosa by Boddaert, which, with one allied species, has been +formed into a separate genus by Prince Buonaparte, under the name +of Diphyllodes, from the curious double mantle which clothes the +back. + +The head is covered with short brown velvety feathers, which +advance on the back so as to cover the nostrils. From the nape +springs a dense mass of feathers of a straw-yellow colour, and +about one and a half inches long, forming a mantle over the upper +part of the back. Beneath this, and forming a band about one- +third of an inch beyond it, is a second mantle of rich, glossy, +reddish-brown fathers. The rest of the bath is orange-brown, the +tail-coverts and tail dark bronzy, the wings light orange-buff: +The whole under surface is covered with an abundance of plumage +springing from the margins of the breast, and of a rich deep +green colour, with changeable hues of purple. Down the middle of +the breast is a broad band of scaly plumes of the same colour, +while the chin and throat are of a rich metallic bronze. From the +middle of the tail spring two narrow feathers of a rich steel +blue, and about ten inches long. These are webbed on the inner +side only, and curve outward, so as to form a double circle. + +From what we know of the habits of allied species, we may be sure +that the greatly developed plumage of this bird is erected and +displayed in some remarkable manner. The mass of feathers on the +under surface are probably expanded into a hemisphere, while the +beautiful yellow mantle is no doubt elevated so as to give the +bird a very different appearance from that which it presents in +the dried and flattened skins of the natives, through which alone +it is at present known. The feet appear to be dark blue. + +This rare and elegant little bird is found only on the mainland +of New Guinea, and in the island of Mysol. + +A still more rare and beautiful species than the last is the +Diphyllodes wilsoni, described by Mr. Cassin from a native skin +in the rich museum of Philadelphia. The same bird was afterwards +named "Diphyllodes respublica" by Prince Buonaparte, and still +later, "Schlegelia calva," by Dr. Bernstein, who was so fortunate +as to obtain fresh specimens in Waigiou. + +In this species the upper mantle is sulphur yellow, the lower one +and the wings pure red, the breast plumes dark green, and the +lengthened middle tail feathers much shorter than in the allied +species. The most curious difference is, however, that the top of +the head is bald, the bare skin being of a rich cobalt blue, +crossed by several lines of black velvety feathers. + +It is about the same size as Diphyllodes speciosa, and is no +doubt entirely confined to the island of Waigiou. The female, as +figured and described by Dr. Bernstein, is very like that of +Cicinnurus regius, being similarly banded beneath; and we may +therefore conclude that its near ally, the "Magnificent," is at +least equally plain in this sex, of which specimens have not yet +been obtained. + +The Superb Bird of Paradise was first figured by Buffon, and was +named by Boddaert, Paradisea atra, from the black ground colour +of its plumage. It forms the genus Lophorina of Viellot, and is +one of the rarest and most brilliant of the whole group, being +only known front mutilated native skins. This bird is a little +larger than the Magnificent. The ground colour of the plumage is +intense black, but with beautiful bronze reflections on the neck, +and the whole head scaled with feathers of brilliant metallic +green and blue. Over its breast it bears a shield formed of +narrow and rather stiff feathers, much elongated towards the +sides, of a pure bluish-green colour, and with a satiny gloss. +But a still more extraordinary ornament is that which springs +from the back of the neck,--a shield of a similar form to that on +the breast, but much larger, and of a velvety black colour, +glossed with bronze and purple. The outermost feathers of this +shield are half an inch longer than the wing, and when it is +elevated it must, in conjunction with the breast shield, +completely change the form and whole appearance of the bird. The +bill is black, and the feet appear to be yellow. + +This wonderful little bird inhabits the interior of the northern +peninsula of New Guinea only. Neither I nor Mr. Allen could hear +anything of it in any of the islands or on any part of the coast. +It is true that it was obtained from the coast-natives by Lesson; +but when at Sorong in 1861, Mr. Allen learnt that it is only +found three days' journey in the interior. Owing to these "Black +Birds of Paradise," as they are called, not being so much valued +as articles of merchandise, they now seem to be rarely preserved +by the natives, and it thus happened that during several years +spent on the coasts of New Guinea and in the Moluccas I was never +able to obtain a skin. We are therefore quite ignorant of the +habits of this bird, and also of its female, though the latter is +no doubt as plain and inconspicuous as in all the other species +of this family. + +The Golden, or Six-shafted, Paradise Bird, is another rare +species, first figured by Buffon, and never yet obtained in +perfect condition. It was named by Boddaert, Paradisea sexpennis, +and forms the genus Parotia of Viellot. This wonderful bird is +about the size of the female Paradisea rubra. The plumage appear, +at first sight black, but it glows in certain light with bronze +and deep purple. The throat and breast are scaled with broad flat +feathers of an intense golden hue, changing to green and blue +tints in certain lights. On the back of the head is a broad +recurved band of feathers, whose brilliancy is indescribable, +resembling the sheen of emerald and topaz rather than any organic +substance. Over the forehead is a large patch of pure white +feathers, which shine like satin; and from the sides of the head +spring the six wonderful feathers from which the bird receives +its name. These are slender wires, six inches long, with a small +oval web at the extremity. In addition to these ornaments, there +is also an immense tuft of soft feathers on each side of the +breast, which when elevated must entirely hide the wings, and +give the bird au appearance of being double its real bulk. The +bill is black, short, and rather compressed, with the feathers +advancing over the nostrils, as in Cicinnurus regius. This +singular and brilliant bird inhabits the same region as the +Superb Bird of Paradise, and nothing whatever is known about it +but what we can derive from an examination of the skins preserved +by the natives of New Guinea. + +The Standard Wing, named Semioptera wallacei by Mr. G. R. Gray, +is an entirely new form of Bird of Paradise, discovered by myself +in the island of Batchian, and especially distinguished by a pair +of long narrow feathers of a white colour, which spring from +among the short plumes which clothe the bend of the wing, and are +capable of being erected at pleasure. The general colour of this +bird is a delicate olive-brown, deepening to a loud of bronzy +olive in the middle of the back, and changing to a delicate ashy +violet with a metallic gloss, on the crown of the head. The +feathers, which cover the nostrils and extend half-way down the +beak, are loose and curved upwards. Beneath, it is much more +beautiful. The scale-like feathers of the breast are margined +with rich metallic blue-green, which colour entirely covers the +throat and sides of the neck, as well as the long pointed plumes +which spring from the sides of the breast, and extend nearly as +far as the end of the wings. The most curious feature of the +bird, however, and one altogether unique in the whole class, is +found in the pair of long narrow delicate feathers which spring +from each wing close to the bend. On lifting the wing-coverts +they are seen to arise from two tubular horny sheaths, which +diverge from near the point of junction of the carpal bones. As +already described at p. 41, they are erectile, and when the bird +is excited are spread out at right angles to the wing and +slightly divergent. They are from six to six and a half inches +long, the upper one slightly exceeding the lower. The total +length of the bird is eleven inches. The bill is horny olive, the +iris deep olive, and the feet bright orange. + +The female bird is remarkably plain, being entirely of a dull +pale earthy brown, with only a slight tinge of ashy violet on the +head to relieve its general monotony; and the young males exactly +resemble her. (See figures at p. 41.) + +This bird, frequents the lower trees of the forests, and, like +most Paradise Birds, is in constant motion--flying from branch to +branch, clinging to the twigs and even to the smooth and vertical +trunks almost as easily as a woodpecker. It continually utters a +harsh, creaking note, somewhat intermediate between that of +Paradisea apoda, and the more musical cry of Cicinnurus regius. +The males at short intervals open and flutter their wings, erect +the long shoulder feathers, and spread out the elegant green +breast shields. + +The Standard Wing is found in Gilolo as well as in Batchian, and +all the specimens from the former island have the green breast +shield rather longer, the crown of the head darker violet, and +the lower parts of the body rather more strongly scaled with +green. This is the only Paradise Bird yet found in the Moluccan +district, all the others being confined to the Papuan Islands and +North Australia. + +We now come to the Epimachidae, or Long-billed Birds of Paradise, +which, as before stated, ought not to be separated from the +Paradiseidae by the intervention of any other birds. One of the +most remarkable of these is the Twelve-wired Paradise Bird, +Paradises alba of Blumenbach, but now placed in the genus +Seleucides of Lesson. + +This bird is about twelve inches long, of which the compressed +and curved beak occupies two inches. The colour of the breast and +upper surface appears at first sight nearly black, but a close +examination shows that no part of it is devoid of colour; and by +holding it in various lights, the most rich and glowing tints +become visible. The head, covered with short velvety feathers, +which advance on the chic much further than on the upper part of +the beak, is of a purplish bronze colour; the whole of the back +and shoulders is rich bronzy green, while the closed wings and +tail are of the most brilliant violet purple, all the plumage +having a delicate silky gloss. The mass of feathers which cover +the breast is really almost black, with faint glosses of green +and purple, but their outer edges are margined with glittering +bands of emerald green. The whole lower part of the body is rich +buffy yellow, including the tuft of plumes which spring from the +sides, and extend an inch and a half beyond the tail. When skins +are exposed to the light the yellow fades into dull white, from +which circumstance it derived its specific name. About six of the +innermost of these plumes on each side have the midrib elongated +into slender black wires, which bend at right angles, and curve +somewhat backwards to a length of about ten inches, forming one +of those extraordinary and fantastic ornaments with which this +group of birds abounds. The bill is jet black, and the feet +bright yellow. (See lower figure on the plate at the beginning of +this chapter). + +The female, although not quite so plain a bird as in some other +species, presents none of the gay colours or ornamental plumage +of the male. The top of the head and back of the neck are black, +the rest of the upper parts rich reddish brown; while the under +surface is entirely yellowish ashy, somewhat blackish on the +breast, and crossed throughout with narrow blackish wavy bands. + +The Seleucides alba is found in the island of Salwatty, and in +the north-western parts of New Guinea, where it frequents +flowering trees, especially sago-palms and pandani, sucking the +flowers, round and beneath which its unusually large and powerful +feet enable it to cling. Its motions are very rapid. It seldom +rests more than a few moments on one tree, after which it flies +straight off, and with great swiftness, to another. It has a loud +shrill cry, to be heard a long way, consisting of "Cah, cah," +repeated five or six times in a descending scale, and at the last +note it generally flies away. The males are quite solitary in +their habits, although, perhaps, they assemble at pertain times +like the true Paradise Birds. All the specimens shot and opened +by my assistant Mr. Allen, who obtained this fine bird during his +last voyage to New Guinea, had nothing in their stomachs but a +brown sweet liquid, probably the nectar of the flowers on which +they had been feeding. They certainly, however, eat both fruit +and insects, for a specimen which I saw alive on board a Dutch +steamer ate cockroaches and papaya fruit voraciously. This bird +had the curious habit of resting at noon with the bill pointing +vertically upwards. It died on the passage to Batavia, and I +secured the body and formed a skeleton, which shows indisputably +that it is really a Bird of Paradise. The tongue is very long and +extensible, but flat and little fibrous at the end, exactly like +the true Paradiseas. + +In the island of Salwatty, the natives search in the forests till +they find the sleeping place of this bird, which they know by +seeing its dung upon the ground. It is generally in a low bushy +tree. At night they climb up the trap, and either shoot the birds +with blunt arrows, or even catch them alive with a cloth. In New +Guinea they are caught by placing snares on the trees frequented +by them, in the same way as the Red Paradise birds are caught in +Waigiou, and which has already been described at page 362. + +The great Epimaque, or Long-tailed Paradise Bird (Epimachus +magnus), is another of these wonderful creatures, only known by +the imperfect skins prepared by the +natives. In its dark velvety plumage, glowed with bronze and +purple, it resembles the Seleucides alba, but it bears a +magnificent tail more than two feet long, glossed on the upper +surface with the most intense opalescent blue. Its chief +ornament, however, consists in the group of broad plumes which +spring from the sides of the breast, and which are dilated at the +extremity, and banded with the most vivid metallic blue and +green. The bill is long and curved, and the feet black, and +similar to those of the allied forms. The total length of this +fine bird is between three and four feet. + +This splendid bird inhabits the mountains of New Guinea, in the +same district with the Superb and the Six-shafted Paradise Birds, +and I was informed is sometimes found in the ranges near the +coast. I was several times assured by different natives that this +bird makes its nest in a hole under ground, or under rocks, +always choosing a place with two apertures, so that it may enter +at one and go out at the other. This is very unlike what we +should suppose to be the habits of the bird, but it is not easy +to conceive how the story originated if it is not true; and all +travellers know that native accounts of the habits of animals, +however strange they may seem, almost invariably turn out to be +correct. + +The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird (Epimachus magnificus of Cuvier) +is now generally placed with the Australian Rifle birds in the +genus Ptiloris. Though very beautiful, these birds are less +strikingly decorated with accessory plumage than the other +species we have been describing, their chief ornament being a +more or less developed breastplate of stiff metallic green +feathers, and a small tuft of somewhat hairy plumes on the sides +of the breast. The back and wings of this species are of an +intense velvety black, faintly glossed in certain lights with +rich purple. The two broad middle tail feathers are opalescent +green-blue with a velvety surface, and the top of the head is +covered with feathers resembling scales of burnished steel. A +large triangular space covering the chin, throat, and breast, is +densely scaled with feathers, having a steel-blue or green +lustre, and a silky feel. This is edged below with a narrow band +of black, followed by shiny bronzy green, below which the body is +covered with hairy feathers of a rich claret colour, deepening to +black at the tail. The tufts of side plumes somewhat resemble +those of the true Birds of Paradise, but are scanty, about as +long as the tail, and of a black colour. The sides of the head +are rich violet, and velvety feathers extend on each side of the +beak over the nostrils. + +I obtained at Dorey a young male of this bird, in a state of +plumage which is no doubt that of the adult female, as is the +case in all the allied species. The upper surface, wings, and +tail are rich reddish brown, while the under surface is of a pale +ashy colour, closely barred throughout with narrow wavy black +bands. There is also a pale banded stripe over the eye, and a +long dusky stripe from the gape down each side of the neck. This +bird is fourteen inches long, whereas the native skins of the +adult male are only about ten inches, owing to the way in which +the tail is pushed in, so as to give as much prominence as +possible to the ornamental plumage of the breast. + +At Cape York, in North Australia, there is a closely allied +species, Ptiloris alberti, the female of which is very similar to +the young male bird here described. The beautiful Rifle Birds of +Australia, which much resemble those Paradise Birds, are named +Ptiloris paradiseus and Ptiloris victories, The Scale-breasted +Paradise Bird seems to be confined to the mainland of New Guinea, +and is less rare than several of the other species. + +There are three other New Guinea birds which are by some authors +classed with the Birds of Paradise, and which, being almost +equally remarkable for splendid plumage, deserve to be noticed +here. The first is the Paradise pie (Astrapia nigra of Lesson), a +bird of the size of Paradises rubra, but with a very long tail, +glossed above with intense violet. The back is bronzy black, the +lower parts green, the throat and neck bordered with loose broad +feathers of an intense coppery hue, while on the top of the head +and neck they are glittering emerald green, All the plumage round +the head is lengthened and erectile, and when spread out by the +living bird must lave an effect hardly surpassed by any of the +true Paradise birds. The bill is black and the feet yellow. The +Astrapia seems to me to be somewhat intermediate between the +Paradiseidae and Epimachidae. + +There is an allied species, having a bare carunculated head, +which has been called Paradigalla carunculata. It is believed to +inhabit, with the preceding, the mountainous, interior of New +Guinea, but is exceedingly rare, the only known specimen being in +the Philadelphia Museum. + +The Paradise Oriole is another beautiful bird, which is now +sometimes classed with the Birds of Paradise. It has been named +Paradises aurea and Oriolus aureus by the old naturalists, and is +now generally placed in the same genus as the Regent Bird of +Australia (Sericulus chrysocephalus). But the form of the bill +and the character of the plumage seem to me to be so different +that it will have to form a distinct genus. This bird is almost +entirely yellow, with the exception of the throat, the tail, and +part of the wings and back, which are black; but it is chiefly +characterised by a quantity of long feathers of an intense glossy +orange colour, which cover its neck down to the middle of the +back, almost like the hackles of a game-cock. + +This beautiful bird inhabits the mainland of New Guinea, and is +also found in Salwatty, but is so rare that I was only able to +obtain one imperfect native skin, and nothing whatever is known +of its habits. + +I will now give a list of all the Birds of Paradise yet known, +with the places they are believed to inhabit. + +1. Paradisea apoda (The Great Paradise Bird). Aru Islands. + +2. Paradisea papuana (The Lesser Paradise Bird). New Guinea, +Mysol, Jobie. + +3. Paradisea rubra (The Red Paradise Bird). Waigiou, + +4. Cicinnurus regius (The King Paradise Bird). New Guinea, Aru +Islands, Mysol, Salwatty. + +5. Diphyllodes speciosa (The Magnificent). New Guinea, Mysol, +Salwatty. + +6. Diphyllodes wilsoni (The Red Magnificent). Waigiou. + +7. Lophorina atra (The Superb). New Guinea. + +8. Parotia sexpennis (The Golden Paradise Bird). New Guinea. + +9. Semioptera wallacei (The Standard Wing). Batchian, Gilolo. + +10. Epimachus magnus (The Long-tailed Paradise Bird). New Guinea + +11. Seleucides albs (The Twelve-wired Paradise Bird).New Guinea, +Salwatty. + +12. Ptiloris magnifica (The Scale-breasted Paradise Bird). New +Guinea. + +13. Ptiloris alberti (Prince Albert's Paradise Bird). North +Australia. + +14. Ptiloris Paradisea (The Rifle Bird). East Australia. + +15. Ptiloris victoriae (The Victorian Rifle Bird). North-East +Australia. + +16. Astrapia nigra (The Paradise Pie). New Guinea. + +17. Paradigalla carunculata (The Carunculated Paradise Pie). New +Guinea. + +I8. (?) Sericulus aureus (The Paradise Oriole). New Guinea, +Salwatty. + +We see, therefore, that of the eighteen species which seem to +deserve a place among the Birds of Paradise, eleven are known to +inhabit the great island of New Guinea, eight of which are +entirely confined to it and the hardly separated island of +Salwatty. But if we consider those islands which are now united +to New Guinea by a shallow sea to really form a part of it, we +shall find that fourteen of the Paradise Birds belong to that +country, while three inhabit the northern and eastern parts of +Australia, and one the Moluccas. All the more extraordinary and +magnificent species are, however, entirely confined to the Papuan +region. + +Although I devoted so much time to a search after these wonderful +birds, I only succeeded myself in obtaining five species during a +residence of many months in the Aru Islands, New Guinea, and +Waigiou. Mr. Allen's voyage to Mysol did not procure a single +additional species, but we both heard of a place called Sorong, +on the mainland of New Guinea, near Salwatty, where we were told +that all the kinds we desired could be obtained. We therefore +determined that he should visit this place, and endeavour to +penetrate into the interior among the natives, who actually shoot +and skin the Birds of Paradise. He went in the small prau I had +fitted up at Goram, and through the kind assistance of the Dutch +Resident at Ternate, a lieutenant and two soldiers were sent by +the Sultan of Tidore to accompany and protect him, and to assist +him in getting men and in visiting the interior. + +Notwithstanding these precautions, Mr. Allen met with +difficulties in this voyage which we had neither of us +encountered before. To understand these, it is necessary to +consider that the Birds of Paradise are an article of commerce, +and are the monopoly of the chiefs of the coast villages, who +obtain them at a low rate from the mountaineers, and sell them to +the Bugis traders. A portion is also paid every year as tribute +to the Sultan of Tidore. The natives are therefore very jealous +of a stranger, especially a European, interfering in their trade, +and above all of going into the interior to deal with the +mountaineers themselves. They of course think he will raise the +prices in the interior, and lessen the supply on the coast, +greatly to their disadvantage; they also think their tribute will +be raised if a European takes back a quantity of the rare sorts; +and they have besides a vague and very natural dread of some +ulterior object in a white man's coming at so much trouble and +expense to their country only to get Birds of Paradise, of which +they know he can buy plenty (of the common yellow ones which +alone they value) at Ternate, Macassar, or Singapore. + +It thus happened that when Mr. Allen arrived at Sorong, and +explained his intention of going to seek Birds of Paradise in the +interior, innumerable objections were raised. He was told it was +three or four days' journey over swamps and mountains; that the +mountaineers were savages and cannibals, who would certainly kill +him; and, lastly, that not a man in the village could be found +who dare go with him. After some days spent in these discussions, +as he still persisted in making the attempt, and showed them his +authority from the Sultan of Tidore to go where be pleased and +receive every assistance, they at length provided him with a boat +to go the first part of the journey up a river; at the same time, +however, they sent private orders to the interior villages to +refuse to sell any provisions, so as to compel him to return. On +arriving at the village where they were to leave the river and +strike inland, the coast people returned, leaving Mr. Allen to +get on as he could. Here he called on the Tidore lieutenant to +assist him, and procure men as guides and to carry his baggage to +the villages of the mountaineers. This, however, was not so +easily done. A quarrel took place, and the natives, refusing to +obey the imperious orders of the lieutenant, got out their knives +and spears to attack him and his soldiers; and Mr. Allen himself +was obliged to interfere to protect those who had come to guard +him. The respect due to a white man and the timely distribution +of a few presents prevailed; and, on showing the knives, +hatchets, and beads he was willing to give to those who +accompanied him, peace was restored, and the next day, travelling +over a frightfully rugged country, they reached the villages of +the mountaineers. Here Mr. Allen remained a month without any +interpreter through whom he could understand a word or +communicate a want. However, by signs and presents and a pretty +liberal barter, he got on very well, some of them accompanying +him every day in the forest to shoot, and receiving a small +present when he was successful. + +In the grand matter of the Paradise Birds, however, little was +done. Only one additional species was found, the Seleucides alba, +of which be had already obtained a specimen in Salwatty; but he +learnt that the other kinds' of which be showed them drawings, +were found two or three days' journey farther in the interior. +When I sent my men from Dorey to Amberbaki, they heard exactly +the same story--that the rarer sorts were only found several +days' journey in the interior, among rugged mountains, and that +the skins were prepared by savage tribes who had never even been +seen by any of the coast people. + +It seems as if Nature had taken precautions that these her +choicest treasures should not be made too common, and thus be +undervalued. This northern coast of New Guinea is exposed to the +full swell of the Pacific Ocean, and is rugged and harbourless. +The country is all rocky and mountainous, covered everywhere with +dense forests, offering in its swamps and precipices and serrated +ridges an almost impassable barrier to the unknown interior; and +the people are dangerous savages, in the very lowest stage of +barbarism. In such a country, and among such a people, are found +these wonderful productions of Nature, the Birds of Paradise, +whose exquisite beauty of form and colour and strange +developments of plumage are calculated to excite the wonder and +admiration of the most civilized and the most intellectual of +mankind, and to furnish inexhaustible materials for study to the +naturalist, and for speculation to the philosopher. + +Thus ended my search after these beautiful birds. Five voyages to +different parts of the district they inhabit, each occupying in +its preparation and execution the larger part of a year, produced +me only five species out of the fourteen known to exist in the +New Guinea district. The kinds obtained are those that inhabit +the coasts of New Guinea and its islands, the remainder seeming +to be strictly confined to the central mountain-ranges of the +northern peninsula; and our researches at Dorey and Amberbaki, +near one end of this peninsula, and at Salwatty and Sorong, near +the other, enable me to decide with some certainty on the native +country of these rare and lovely birds, good specimens of which +have never yet been seen in Europe. + +It must be considered as somewhat extraordinary that, during five +years' residence and travel in Celebes, the Moluccas, and New +Guinea, I should never have been able to purchase skins of half +the species which Lesson, forty years ago, obtained during a few +weeks in the same countries. I believe that all, except the +common species of commerce, are now much more difficult to obtain +than they were even twenty years ago; and I impute it principally +to their having been sought after by the Dutch officials through +the Sultan of Tidore. The chiefs of the annual expeditions to +collect tribute have had orders to get all the rare sorts of +Paradise Birds; and as they pay little or nothing for them (it +being sufficient to say they are for the Sultan), the head men of +the coast villages would for the future refuse to purchase them +from the mountaineers, and confine themselves instead to the +commoner species, which are less sought after by amateurs, but +are a more profitable merchandise. The same causes frequently +lead the inhabitants of uncivilized countries to conceal minerals +or other natural products with which they may become acquainted, +from the fear of being obliged to pay increased tribute, or of +bringing upon themselves a new and oppressive labour. + +CHAPTER XXXIX. + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PAPUAN ISLANDS. + +NEW GUINEA, with the islands joined to it by a shallow sea, +constitute the Papuan group, characterised by a very close +resemblance in their peculiar forms of life. Having already, in +my chapters on the Aru Islands and on the Birds of Paradise, +given some details of the natural history of this district, I +shall here confine myself to a general sketch of its animal +productions, and of their relations to those of the rest of the +world. + +New Guinea is perhaps the largest island on the globe, being a +little larger than Borneo. It is nearly fourteen hundred miles +long, and in the widest part four hundred broad, and seems to be +everywhere covered with luxuriant forests. Almost everything that +is yet known of its natural productions comes from the north- +western peninsula, and a few islands grouped around it. These do +not constitute a tenth part of the area of the whole island, and +are so cut off from it, that their fauna may well he somewhat +different; yet they have produced us (with a very partial +exploration) no less than two hundred and fifty species of land +birds, almost all unknown elsewhere, and comprising some of the +most curious and most beautiful of the feathered tribes. It is +needless to say how much interest attaches to the far larger +unknown portion of this great island, the greatest terra +incognita that still remains for the naturalist to explore, and +the only region where altogether new and unimagined forms of life +may perhaps be found. There is now, I am happy to say, some +chance that this great country will no longer remain absolutely +unknown to us. The Dutch Government have granted well-equipped +steamer to carry a naturalist (Mr. Rosenberg, already mentioned +in this work) and assistants to New Guinea, where they are to +spend some years in circumnavigating the island, ascending its +large rivers a< far as possible into the interior, and making +extensive collections of its natural productions. + +The Mammalia of New Guinea and the adjacent islands, yet +discovered, are only seventeen in number. Two of these are bats, +one is a pig of a peculiar species (Sus papuensis), and the rest +are all marsupials. The bats are, no doubt, much more numerous, +but there is every reason to believe that whatever new land +Mammalia man be discovered will belong to the marsupial order. +One of these is a true kangaroo, very similar to some of middle- +sized kangaroos of Australia, and it is remarkable as being the +first animal of the kind ever seen by Europeans. It inhabits +Mysol and the Aru Islands (an allied species being found in New +Guinea), and was seen and described by Le Brun in 1714, from +living specimens at Batavia. A much more extraordinary creature +is the tree-kangaroo, two species of which are known from New +Guinea. These animals do not differ very strikingly in form from +the terrestrial kangaroos, and appear to be but imperfectly +adapted to an arboreal life, as they move rather slowly, and do +not seem to have a very secure footing on the limb of a tree. The +leaping power of the muscular tail is lost, and powerful claws +have been acquired to assist in climbing, but in other respects +the animal seems better adapted to walls on terra firma. This +imperfect adaptation may be due to the fact of there being no +carnivore in New Guinea, and no enemies of any kind from which +these animals have to escape by rapid climbing. Four species of +Cuscus, and the small flying opossum, also inhabit New Guinea; +and there are five other smaller marsupials, one of which is the +size of a rat, and takes its place by entering houses and +devouring provisions. + +The birds of New Guinea offer the greatest possible contrast to +the Mammalia, since they are more numerous, more beautiful, and +afford more new, curious, and elegant forms than those of any +other island on the globe. Besides the Birds of Paradise, which +we have already sufficiently considered, it possesses a number of +other curious birds, which in the eyes of the ornithologist +almost serves to distinguish it as one of the primary divisions +of the earth. Among its thirty species of parrots are the Great +Pluck Cockatoo, and the little rigid-tailed Nasiterna, the giant +and the dwarf of the whole tribe. The bare-headed Dasyptilus is +one of the most singular parrots known; while the beautiful +little long-tailed Charmosyna, and the great variety of +gorgeously-coloured lories, have no parallels elsewhere. Of +pigeons it possesses about forty distinct species, among which +are the magnificent crowned pigeons, now so well known in our +aviaries, and pre-eminent both for size and beauty; the curious +Trugon terrestris, which approaches the still more strange +Didunculus of Samoa; and a new genus (Henicophaps), discovered by +myself, which possesses a very long and powerful bill, quite +unlike that of any other pigeon. Among its sixteen kingfishers, +it possesses the carious hook-billed Macrorhina, and a red and +blue Tanysiptera, the most beautiful of that beautiful genus. +Among its perching birds are the fine genus of crow-like +starlings, with brilliant plumage (Manucodia); the carious pale- +coloured crow (Gymnocorvus senex); the abnormal red and black +flycatcher (Peltops blainvillii); the curious little boat-billed +flycatchers (Machaerirhynchus); and the elegant blue flycatcher- +wrens (Todopsis). + +The naturalist will obtain a clearer idea of the variety and +interest of the productions of this country, by the statement, +that its land birds belong to 108 genera, of which 20 are +exclusively characteristic of it; while 35 belong to that limited +area which includes the Moluccas and North Australia, and whose +species of these genera have been entirely derived from New +Guinea. About one-half of the New Guinea genera are found also in +Australia, about one-third in India and the Indo-Malay islands. + +A very curious fact, not hitherto sufficiently noticed, is the +appearance of a pure Malay element in the birds of New Guinea. We +find two species of Eupetes, a curious Malayan genus allied to +the forked-tail water-chats; two of Alcippe, an Indian and Malay +wren-like form; an Arachnothera, quite resembling the spider- +catching honeysuckers of Malacca; two species of Gracula, the +Mynahs of India; and a curious little black Prionochilus, a saw- +billed fruit pecker, undoubtedly allied to the Malayan form, +although perhaps a distinct genus. Now not one of these birds, or +anything allied to them, occurs in the Moluccas, or (with one +exception) in Celebes or Australia; and as they are most of them +birds of short flight, it is very difficult to conceive how or +when they could have crossed the space of more than a thousand +miles, which now separates them from their nearest allies. Such +facts point to changes of land and sea on a large scale, and at a +rate which, measured by the time required for a change of +species, must be termed rapid. By speculating on such changes, we +may easily see how partial waves of immigration may have entered +New Guinea, and how all trace of their passage may have been +obliterated by the subsequent disappearance of the intervening +land. + +There is nothing that the study of geology teaches us that is +more certain or more impressive than the extreme instability of +the earth's surface. Everywhere beneath our feet we find proofs +that what is land has been sea, and that where oceans now spread +out has once been land; and that this change from sea to land, +and from land to sea, has taken place, not once or twice only, +but again and again, during countless ages of past time. Now the +study of the distribution of animal life upon the present surface +of the earth, causes us to look upon this constant interchange of +land and sea--this making and unmaking of continents, this +elevation and disappearance of islands--as a potent reality, +which has always and everywhere been in progress, and has been +the main agent in determining the manner in which living things +are now grouped and scattered over the earth's surface. And when +we continually come upon such little anomalies of distribution as +that just now described, we find the only rational explanation of +them, in those repeated elevations and depressions which have +left their record in mysterious, but still intelligible +characters on the face of organic nature. + +The insects of New Guinea are less known than the birds, but they +seem almost equally remarkable for fine forms and brilliant +colours. The magnificent green and yellow Ornithopterae are +abundant, and have most probably spread westward from this point +as far as India. Among the smaller butterflies are several +peculiar genera of Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae, remarkable for +their large size, singular markings, or brilliant coloration. The +largest and most beautiful of the clear-winged moths (Cocytia +d'urvillei) is found here, as well as the large and handsome +green moth (Nyctalemon orontes). The beetles furnish us with many +species of large size, and of the most brilliant metallic lustre, +among which the Tmesisternus mirabilis, a longicorn beetle of a +golden green colour; the excessively brilliant rose-chafers, +Lomaptera wallacei and Anacamptorhina fulgida; one of the +handsomest of the Buprestidae, Calodema wallacei; and several +fine blue weevils of the genus Eupholus, are perhaps the most +conspicuous. Almost all the other orders furnish us with large or +extraordinary forms. The curious horned flies have already been +mentioned; and among the Orthoptera the great shielded +grasshoppers are the most remarkable. The species here figured +(Megalodon ensifer) has the thorax covered by a large triangular +horny shield, two and a half inches long, with serrated edges, a +somewhat wavy, hollow surface, and a faun median line, so as very +closely to resemble a leaf. The glossy wing-coverts (when fully +expanded, more than nine inches across) are of a fine green +colour and so beautifully veined as to imitate closely some of +the large shining tropical leaves. The body is short, and +terminated in the female by a long curved sword-like ovipositor +(not seen in the cut), and the legs are all long and strongly- +spined. These insects are sluggish in their motions, depending +for safety on their resemblance to foliage, their horny shield +and wing-coverts, and their spiny legs. + +The large islands to the east of New Guinea are very little +known, but the occurrence of crimson lories, which are quite +absent from Australia, and of cockatoos allied to those of New +Guinea and the Moluccas, shows that they belong to the Papuan +group; and we are thus able to define the Malay Archipelago as +extending eastward to the Solomon's Islands. New Caledonia and +the New Hebrides, on the other hand, seem more nearly allied to +Australia; and the rest of the islands of the Pacific, though +very poor in all forms of life, possess a few peculiarities which +compel us to class them as a separate group. Although as a matter +of convenience I have always separated the Moluccas as a distinct +zoological group from New Guinea, I have at the same time pointed +out that its fauna was chiefly derived from that island, just as +that of Timor was chiefly derived from Australia. If we were +dividing the Australian region for zoological purposes alone, we +should form three great groups: one comprising Australia, Timor, +and Tasmania; another New Guinea, with the islands from Bouru to +the Solomon's group; and the third comprising the greater part of +the Pacific Islands. + +The relation of the New Guinea fauna to that of Australia is very +close. It is best marked in the Mammalia by the abundance of +marsupials, and the almost complete absence of all other +terrestrial forms. In birds it is less striking, although still +very clear, for all the remarkable old-world forms which are +absent from the one are equally so from the other, such as +Pheasants, Grouse, Vultures, and Woodpeckers; while Cockatoos, +Broad-tailed Parrots, Podargi, and the great families of the +Honeysuckers and Brush-turkeys, with many others, comprising no +less than twenty-four genera of land-birds, are common to both +countries, and are entirely confined to them. + +When we consider the wonderful dissimilarity of the two regions +in all those physical conditions which were once supposed to +determine the forms of life-Australia, with its open plains, +stony deserts, dried up rivers, and changeable temperate climate; +New Guinea, with its luxuriant forests, uniformly hot, moist, and +evergreen--this great similarity in their productions is almost +astounding, and unmistakeably points to a common origin. The +resemblance is not nearly so strongly marked in insects, the +reason obviously being, that this class of animals are much more +immediately dependent on vegetation and climate than are the more +highly organized birds and Mammalia. Insects also have far more +effective means of distribution, and have spread widely into +every district favourable to their development and increase. The +giant Ornithopterae have thus spread from New Guinea over the +whole Archipelago, and as far as the base of the Himalayas; while +the elegant long-horned Anthribidae have spread in the opposite +direction from Malacca to New Guinea, but owing to unfavourable +conditions have not been able to establish themselves in +Australia. That country, on the other hand, has developed a +variety of flower-haunting Chafers and Buprestidae, and numbers +of large and curious terrestrial Weevils, scarcely any of which +are adapted to the damp gloomy forests of New Guinea, where +entirely different forms are to be found. There are, however, +some groups of insects, constituting what appear to be the +remains of the ancient population of the equatorial parts of the +Australian region, which are still almost entirely confined to +it. Such are the interesting sub-family of Longicorn coleoptera-- +Tmesisternitae; one of the best-marked genera of Buprestidae-- +Cyphogastra; and the beautiful weevils forming the genus +Eupholus. Among butterflies we have the genera Mynes, Hypocista, +and Elodina, and the curious eye-spotted Drusilla, of which last +a single species is found in Java, but in no other of the western +islands. + +The facilities for the distribution of plants are still greater +than they are for insects, and it is the opinion of eminent +botanists, that no such clearly-defined regions pan be marked out +in botany as in zoology. The causes which tend to diffusion are +here most powerful, and have led to such intermingling of the +floras of adjacent regions that none but broad and general +divisions can now be detected. These remarks have an important +bearing on the problem of dividing the surface of the earth into +great regions, distinguished by the radical difference of their +natural productions. Such difference we now know to be the direct +result of long-continued separation by more or less impassable +barriers; and as wide oceans and great contrast: of temperature +are the most complete barriers to the dispersal of all +terrestrial forms of life, the primary divisions of the earth +should in the main serve for all terrestrial organisms. However +various may be the effects of climate, however unequal the means +of distribution; these will never altogether obliterate the +radical effects of long-continued isolation; and it is my firm +conviction, that when the botany and the entomology of New Guinea +and the surrounding islands become as well known as are their +mammals and birds, these departments of nature will also plainly +indicate the radical distinctions of the Indo-Malayan and Austro- +Malayan regions of the great Malay Archipelago. + + +CHAPTER XL. + +THE RACES OF MAN IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. + +PROPOSE to conclude this account of my Eastern travels, with a +short statement of my views as to the races of man which inhabit +the various parts of the Archipelago, their chief physical and +mental characteristics, their affinities with each other and with +surrounding tribes, their migrations, and their probable origin. + +Two very strongly contrasted races inhabit the Archipelago--the +Malays, occupying almost exclusively the larger western half of +it, and the Papuans, whose headquarters are New Guinea and +several of the adjacent islands. Between these in locality, are +found tribes who are also intermediate in their chief +characteristics, and it is sometimes a nice point to determine +whether they belong to one or the other race, or have been formed +by a mixture of the two. + +The Malay is undoubtedly the most important of these two races, +as it is the one which is the most civilized, which has come most +into contact with Europeans, and which alone has any place in +history. What may be called the true Malay races, as +distinguished from others who have merely a Malay element in +their language, present a considerable uniformity of physical and +mental characteristics, while there are very great differences of +civilization and of language. They consist of four great, and a +few minor semi-civilized tribes, and a number of others who may +be termed savages. The Malays proper inhabit the Malay peninsula, +and almost all the coast regions of Borneo and Sumatra. They all +speak the Malay language, or dialects of it; they write in the +Arabic character, and are Mahometans in religion. The Javanese +inhabit Java, part of Sumatra, Madura, Bali, and Bart of Lombock. +They speak the Javanese and Kawi languages, which they write in a +native character. They are now Mahometans in Java, but Brahmins +in Bali and Lombock. The Bugis are the inhabitants of the greater +parts of Celebes, and there seems to be an allied people in +Sumbawa. They speak the Bugis and Macassar languages, with +dialects, and have two different native characters in which they +write these. They are all Mahometans. The fourth great race is +that of the Tagalas in the Philippine Islands, about whom, as I +did not visit those Islands, I shall say little. Many of them are +now Christians, and speak Spanish as well as their native tongue, +the Tagala. The Moluccan-Malays, who inhabit chiefly Ternate, +Tidore, Batchian, and Amboyna, may be held to form a fifth +division of semi-civilized Malays. They are all Mahometans, but +they speak a variety of curious languages, which seem compounded +of Bugis and Javanese, with the languages of the savage tribes of +the Moluccas. + +The savage Malays are the Dyaks of Borneo; the Battaks and other +wild tribes of Sumatra; the Jakuns of the Malay Peninsula; the +aborigines of Northern Celebes, of the Sula island, and of part +of Bouru. + +The colour of all these varied tribes is a light reddish brown, +with more or less of an olive tinge, not varying in any important +degree over an extent of country as large as all Southern Europe. +The hair is equally constant, being invariably black and +straight, and of a rather coarse texture, so that any lighter +tint, or any wave or curl in it, is an almost certain proof of +the admixture of some foreign blood. The face is nearly destitute +of beard, and the breast and limbs are free from hair. The +stature is tolerably equal, and is always considerably below that +of the average European; the body is robust, the breast well +developed, the feet small, thick, and short, the hands small and +rather delicate. The face is a little broad, and inclined to be +flat; the forehead is rather rounded, the brows low, the eyes +black and very slightly oblique; the nose is rather small, not +prominent, but straight and well-shaped, the apex a little +rounded, the nostrils broad and slightly exposed; the cheek-bones +are rather prominent, the mouth large, the lips broad and well +cut, but not protruding, the chin round and well-formed. + +In this description there seems little to object to on the score +of beauty, and yet on the whole the Malays are certainly not +handsome. In youth, however, they are often very good-looking, +and many of the boys and girls up to twelve or fifteen years of +age are very pleasing, and some have countenances which are in +their way almost perfect. I am inclined to think they lose much +of their good looks by bad habits and irregular living. At a very +early age. they chew betel and tobacco almost incessantly; they +suffer much want and exposure in their fishing and other +excursions; their lives are often passed in alternate starvation +and feasting, idleness and excessive labour,--and this naturally +produces premature old age and harshness of features. + +In character the Malay is impassive. He exhibits a reserve, +diffidence, and even bashfulness, which is in some degree +attractive, and leads the observer to thinly that the ferocious +and bloodthirsty character imputed to the race must be grossly +exaggerated. He is not demonstrative. His feelings of surprise, +admiration, or fear, are never openly manifested, and are +probably not strongly felt. He is slow and deliberate in speech, +and circuitous in introducing the subject he has come expressly +to discuss. These are the main features of his moral nature, and +exhibit themselves in every action of his life. + +Children and women are timid, and scream and run at the +unexpected sight of a European. In the company of men they are +silent, and are generally quiet and obedient. When alone the +Malay is taciturn; he neither talks nor sings to himself. When +several are paddling in a canoe, they occasionally chant a +monotonous and plaintive song. He is cautious of giving offence +to his equals. He does not quarrel easily about money matters; +dislikes asking too frequently even for payment of his just +debts, and will often give them up altogether rather than quarrel +with his debtor. Practical joking is utterly repugnant to his +disposition; for he is particularly sensitive to breaches of +etiquette, or any interference with the personal liberty of +himself or another. As an example, I may mention that I have +often found it very difficult to get one Malay servant to waken +another. He will call as loud as he can, but will hardly touch, +much less shake his comrade. I have frequently had to waken a +hard sleeper myself when on a land or sea journey. + +The higher classes of Malays are exceedingly polite, and have all +the quiet ease and dignity of the best-bred Europeans. Yet this +is compatible with a reckless cruelty and contempt of human life, +which is the dark side of their character. It is not to be +wondered at, therefore, that different persons give totally +opposite accounts of them--one praising them for their soberness, +civility, and good-nature; another abusing them for their deceit, +treachery, and cruelty. The old traveller Nicolo Conti, writing +in 1430, says: "The inhabitants of Java and Sumatra exceed every +other people in cruelty. They regard killing a man as a mere +jest; nor is any punishment allotted for such a deed. If any one +purchase a new sword, and wish to try it, he will thrust it into +the breast of the first person he meets. The passers-by examine +the wound, and praise the skill of the person who inflicted it, +if he thrust in the weapon direct." Yet Drake says of the south +of Java: "The people (as are their kings) are a very loving, +true, and just-dealing people;" and Mr. Crawfurd says that the +Javanese, whom he knew thoroughly, are "a peaceable, docile, +sober, simple, and industrious people." Barbosa, on the other +hand, who saw them at Malacca about 1660, says: "They are a +people of great ingenuity, very subtle in all their dealings; +very malicious, great deceivers, seldom speaking the truth; +prepared to do all manner of wickedness, and ready to sacrifice +their lives." + +The intellect of the Malay race seems rather deficient. They are +incapable of anything beyond the simplest combinations of ideas, +and have little taste or energy for the acquirement of knowledge. +Their civilization, such as it is, does not seem to be +indigenous, as it is entirely confined to those nations who have +been converted to the Mahometan or Brahminical religions. + +I will now give an equally brief sketch of the other great race +of the Malay Archipelago, the Papuan. + +The typical Papuan race is in many respects the very opposite of +the Malay, and it has hitherto been very imperfectly described. +The colour of the body is a deep sooty-brown or black, sometimes +approaching, but never quite equalling, the jet-black of some +negro races. It varies in tint, however, more than that of the +Malay, and is sometimes a dusky-brown. The hair is very peculiar, +being harsh, dry, and frizzly, growing in little tufts or curls, +which in youth are very short and compact, but afterwards grow +out to a, considerable length, forming the compact frizzled mop +which is the Papuans' pride and glory. The face is adorned with a +beard of the same frizzly nature as the hair of the head. The +arms, legs, and breast are also more or less clothed with hair of +a similar nature. + +In stature the Papuan decidedly surpasses the Malay, and is +perhaps equal, or even superior, to the average of Europeans. The +legs are long and thin, and the hands and feet larger than in the +Malays. The face is somewhat elongated, the forehead flatfish, +the brows very prominent; the nose is large, rather arched and +high, the base thick, the nostrils broad, with the aperture +hidden, owing to the tip of the nose being elongated; the mouth +is large, the lips thick and protuberant. The face has thus an +altogether more European aspect than in the Malay, owing to the +large nose; and the peculiar form of this organ, with the more +prominent brows and the character of the hair on the head, face, +and body, enable us at a glance to distinguish the two races. I +have observed that most of these characteristic features are as +distinctly visible in children of ten or twelve years old as in +adults, and the peculiar form of the nose is always shown in the +figures which they carve for ornaments to their houses, or as +charms to wear round their necks. + +The moral characteristics of the Papuan appear to me to separate +him as distinctly from the Malay as do his form and features. He +is impulsive and demonstrative in speech and action. His emotions +and passions express themselves in shouts and laughter, in yells +and frantic leapings. Women and children take their share in +every discussion, and seem little alarmed at the sight of +strangers and Europeans. + +Of the intellect of this race it is very difficult to judge, but +I am inclined to rate it somewhat higher than that of the Malays, +notwithstanding the fact that the Papuans have never yet made any +advance towards civilization. It must be remembered, however, +that for centuries the Malays have been influenced by Hindoo, +Chinese, and Arabic immigration, whereas the Papuan race has only +been subjected to the very partial and local influence of Malay +traders. The Papuan has much more vital energy, which would +certainly greatly assist his intellectual development. Papuan +slaves show no inferiority of intellect. compared with Malays, +but rather the contrary; and in the Moluccas they are often +promoted to places of considerable trust. The Papuan has a +greater feeling for art than the Malay. He decorates his canoe, +his house, and almost every domestic utensil with elaborate +carving, a habit which is rarely found among tribes of the Malay +race. + +In the affections and moral sentiments, on the other hand, the +Papuans seem very deficient. In the treatment of their children +they are often violent and cruel; whereas the Malays are almost +invariably kind and gentle, hardly ever interfering at all with +their children's pursuits and amusements, and giving them perfect +liberty at whatever age they wish to claim it. But these very +peaceful relations between parents and children are no doubt, in +a great measure, due to the listless and apathetic character of +the race, which never leads the younger members into serious +opposition to the elders; while the harsher discipline of the +Papuans may be chiefly due to that greater vigour and energy of +mind which always, sooner or later, leads to the rebellion of the +weaker against the stronger,--the people against their rulers, +the slave against his master, or the child against its parent. + +It appears, therefore, that, whether we consider their physical +conformation, their moral characteristics, or their intellectual +capacities, the Malay and Papuan races offer remarkable +differences and striking contrasts. The Malay is of short +stature, brown-skinned, straight-haired, beardless, and smooth- +bodied. The Papuan is taller, is black-skinned, frizzly-haired, +bearded, and hairy-bodied. The former is broad-faced, has a small +nose, and flat eyebrows; the latter is long-faced, has a large +and prominent nose, and projecting eyebrows. The Malay is +bashful, cold, undemonstrative, and quiet; the Papuan is bold, +impetuous, excitable, and noisy. The former is grave and seldom +laughs; the latter is joyous arid laughter-loving,--the one +conceals his emotions, the other displays them. + +Having thus described in some detail, the great physical, +intellectual, and moral differences between the Malays and +Papuans, we have to consider the inhabitants of the numerous +islands which do not agree very closely with either of these +races. The islands of Obi, Batchian, and the three southern +peninsulas of Gilolo, possess no true indigenous population; but +the northern peninsula is inhabited by a native race, the so- +called Alfuros of Sahoe and Galela. These people are quite +distinct from the Malays, and almost equally so from the Papuans. +They are tall and well-made, with Papuan features, and curly +hair; they are bearded and hairy-limbed, but quite as light in +colour as the Malays. They are an industrious and enterprising +race, cultivating rice and vegetables, and indefatigable in their +search after game, fish, tripang, pearls, and tortoiseshell. + +In the great island of Ceram there is also an indigenous race +very similar to that of Northern Gilolo. Bourn seems to contain +two distinct races,--a shorter, round-faced people, with a Malay +physiognomy, who may probably have come from Celebes by way of +the Sula islands; and a taller bearded race, resembling that of +Ceram. + +Far south of the Moluccas lies the island of Timor, inhabited by +tribes much nearer to the true Papuan than those of the Moluccas. + +The Timorese of the interior are dusky brown or blackish, with +bushy frizzled hair, and the long Papuan nose. They are of medium +height, and rather slender figures. The universal dress is a long +cloth twisted round the waist, the fringed ends of which hang +below the knee. The people are said to be great thieves, and the +tribes are always at war with each other, but they are not very +courageous or bloodthirsty. The custom of "tabu," called here +"pomali," is very general, fruit trees, houses, crop, and +property of all kinds being protected from depredation by this +ceremony, the reverence for which is very great. A palm branch +stuck across an open door, showing that the house is tabooed, is +a more effectual guard against robbery than any amount of locks +and bars. The houses in Timor are different from those of most of +the other islands; they seem all roof, the thatch overhanging the +low walls and reaching the ground, except where it is cut away +for an entrance. In some parts of the west end of Timor, and on +the little island of Semau, the houses more resemble those of the +Hottentots, being egg-shaped, very small, and with a door only +about three feet high. These are built on the ground, while those +of the eastern districts art, raised a few feet on posts. In +their excitable disposition, loud voices, and fearless demeanour, +the Timorese closely resemble the people of New Guinea. + +In the islands west of Timor, as far as Flores and Sandalwood +Island, a very similar race is found, which also extends eastward +to Timor-laut, where the true Papuan race begins to appear. The +small islands of Savu and Rotti, however, to the west of Timor, +are very remarkable in possessing a different and, in some +respects, peculiar race. These people are very handsome, with +good features, resembling in many characteristics the race +produced by the mixture of the Hindoo or Arab with the Malay. +They are certainly distinct from the Timorese or Papuan races, +and must be classed in the western rather than the eastern +ethnological division of the Archipelago. + +The whole of the great island of New Guinea, the Ke arid Aru +Islands, with Mysol, Salwatty, and Waigiou, are inhabited almost +exclusively by the typical Papuans. I found no trace of any other +tribes inhabiting the interior of New Guinea, but the coast +people are in some places mixed with the browner races of the +Moluccas. The same Papuan race seems to extend over the islands +east of New Guinea as far as the Fijis. + +There remain to be noticed the black woolly-haired races of the +Philippines and the Malay peninsula, the former called +"Negritos," and the latter "Semangs." I have never seen these +people myself, but from the numerous accurate descriptions of +them that have been published, I have had no difficulty in +satisfying myself that they have little affinity or resemblance +to the Papuans, with which they have been hitherto associated. In +most important characters they differ more from the Papuan than +they do from the Malay. They are dwarfs in stature, only +averaging four feet six inches to four feet eight inches high, or +eight inches less than the Malays; whereas the Papuans are +decidedly taller than the -Malays. The nose is invariably +represented as small, flattened, or turned up at the apex, +whereas the most universal character of the Papuan race is to +have the nose prominent and large, with the apex produced +downwards, as it is invariably represented in their own rude +idols. The hair of these dwarfish races agrees with that of the +Papuans, but so it does with that of the negroes of Africa. The +Negritos and the Semangs agree very closely in physical +characteristics with each other and with the Andaman Islanders, +while they differ in a marked manner from every Papuan race. + +A careful study of these varied races, comparing them with those +of Eastern Asia, the Pacific Islands, and Australia, has led me +to adopt a comparatively simple view as to their origin and +affinities. + +If we draw a line (see Physical Map, Vol. 1. p. 14), commencing +to the east of the Philippine Islands, thence along the western +coast of Gilolo, through the island of Bouru, and curving round +the west end of Mores, then bending back by Sandalwood Island to +take in Rotti, we shall divide the Archipelago into two portions, +the races of which have strongly marked distinctive +peculiarities. This line will separate the Malayan and all the +Asiatic races, from the Papuans and all that inhabit the Pacific; +and though along the line of junction intermigration and +commixture have taken place, yet the division is on the whole +almost as well defined and strongly contrasted, as is the +corresponding zoological division of the Archipelago, into an +Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan region. + +I must briefly explain the reasons that have led me to consider +this division of the Oceanic races to be a true and natural one. +The Malayan race, as a whole, undoubtedly very closely resembles +the East Asian populations, from Siam to Mandchouria. I was much +struck with this, when in the island of Bali I saw Chinese +traders who had adopted the costume of that country, and who +could then hardly be distinguished from Malays; and, on the other +hand, I have seen natives of Java who, as far as physiognomy was +concerned, would pass very well for Chinese. Then, again, we have +the most typical of the Malayan tribes inhabiting a portion of +the Asiatic continent itself, together with those great islands +which, possessing the same species of large Mammalia with the +adjacent parts of the continent, have in all probability formed a +connected portion of Asia during the human period. The Negritos +are, no doubt, quite a distinct race from the Malay; but yet, as +some of them inhabit a portion of the continent, and others the +Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal, they must be considered to +have had, in all probability, an Asiatic rather than a Polynesian +origin. + +Now, turning to the eastern parts of the Archipelago, I find, by +comparing my own observations with those of the most trustworthy +travellers and missionaries, that a race identical in all its +chief features with the Papuan, is found in all the islands as +far east as the Fijis; beyond this the brown Polynesian race, or +some intermediate type, is spread everywhere over the Pacific. +The descriptions of these latter often agree exactly with the +characters of the brown indigenes of Gilolo and Ceram. + +It is to be especially remarked that the brown and the black +Polynesian races closely resemble each other. Their features are +almost identical, so that portraits of a New Zealander or +Otaheitan will often serve accurately to represent a Papuan or +Timorese, the darker colour and more frizzly hair of the latter +being the only differences. They are both tall races. They agree +in their love of art and the style of their decorations. They are +energetic, demonstrative, joyous, and laughter-loving, and in all +these particulars they differ widely from the Malay. + +I believe, therefore, that the numerous intermediate forms that +occur among the countless islands of the Pacific, are not merely +the result of a mixture of these races, but are, to some extent, +truly intermediate or transitional; and that the brown and the +black, the Papuan, the natives of Gilolo and Ceram, the Fijian, +the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands and those of New Zealand, +are all varying forms of one great Oceanic or Polynesian race. + +It is, however, quite possible, and perhaps probable, that the +brown Polynesians were originally the produce of a mixture of +Malays, or some lighter coloured Mongol race with the dark +Papuans; but if so, the intermingling took place at such a remote +epoch, and has been so assisted by the continued influence of +physical conditions and of natural selection, leading to the +preservation of a special type suited to those conditions, that +it has become a fixed and stable race with no signs of +mongrelism, and showing such a decided preponderance of Papuan +character, that it can best be classified as a modification of +the Papuan type. The occurrence of a decided Malay element in the +Polynesian languages, has evidently nothing to do with any such +ancient physical connexion. It is altogether a recent phenomenon, +originating in the roaming habits of the chief Malay tribes; and +this is proved by the fact that we find actual modern words of +the Malay and Javanese languages in use in Polynesia, so little +disguised by peculiarities of pronunciation as to be easily +recognisable--not mere Malay roots only to be detected by the +elaborate researches of the philologist, as would certainly have +been the case had their introduction been as +remote as the origin of a very distinct race--a race as different +from the Malay in mental and moral, as it is in physical +characters. + +As bearing upon this question it is important to point out the +harmony which exists, between the line of separation of the human +races of the Archipelago and that of the animal productions of +the same country, which I have already so fully explained and +illustrated. The dividing lines do not, it is true, exactly +agree; but I think it is a remarkable fact, and something more +than a mere coincidence, that they should traverse the same +district and approach each other so closely as they do. If, +however, I am right in my supposition that the region where the +dividing line of the Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan regions of +zoology can now be drawn, was formerly occupied by a much wider +sea than at present, and if man existed on the earth at that +period, we shall see good reason why the races inhabiting the +Asiatic and Pacific areas should now meet and partially +intermingle in the vicinity of that dividing line. + +It has recently been maintained by Professor Huxley, that the +Papuans are more closely allied to the negroes of Africa than to +any other race. The resemblance both in physical and mental +characteristics had often struck myself, but the difficulties in +the way of accepting it as probable or possible, have hitherto +prevented me front giving full weight to those resemblances. +Geographical, zoological, and ethnological considerations render +it almost certain, that if these two races ever had a common +origin, it could only have been at a period far more remote than +any which has yet been assigned to the antiquity of the human +race. And even if their lenity could be proved, it would in no +way affect my argument for the close affinity of the Papuan and +Polynesian races, and the radical distinctness of both from the +Malay. + +Polynesia is pre-eminently an area of subsidence, and its goat +widespread groups of coral-reefs mark out tile position of former +continents and islands. The rich and varied, yet strangely +isolated productions of Australia and New Guinea, also indicate +an extensive continent where such specialized forms were +developed. The races of men now inhabiting these countries are, +therefore, most probably the descendants of the races which +inhabited these continents and islands. This is the most simple +and natural supposition to make. And if we find any signs of +direct affinity between the inhabitants of any other part of the +world and those of Polynesia, it by no means follows that the +latter were derived from the former. For as, when a Pacific +continent existed, the whole geography of the earth's surface +would probably be very different from what it now is, the present +continents may not then have risen above the ocean, and, when +they were formed at a subsequent epoch, may have derived some of +their inhabitants from the Polynesian area itself. It is +undoubtedly true that there are proofs of extensive migrations +among the Pacific islands, which have led to community of +language from the sandwich group to New Zealand; but there are no +proofs whatever of recent migration from any surrounding country +to Polynesia, since there is no people to be found elsewhere +sufficiently resembling the Polynesian race in their chief +physical and mental characteristics. + +If the past history of these varied races is obscure and +uncertain, the future is no less so. The true Polynesians, +inhabiting the farthest isles of the Pacific, are no doubt doomed +to an early extinction. But the more numerous Malay race seems +well adapted to survive as the cultivator of the soil, even when +his country and government have passed into the hands of +Europeans. If the tide of colonization should be turned to New +Guinea, there can be little doubt of the early extinction of the +Papuan race. A warlike and energetic people, who will not submit +to national slavery or to domestic servitude, must disappear +before the white man as surely as do the wolf and the tiger. + +I have now concluded my task. I have given, in more or less +detail, a sketch of my eight years' wanderings among the largest +and the most luxuriant islands which adorn our earth's surface. I +have endeavoured to convey my impressions of their scenery, their +vegetation, their animal productions, and their human +inhabitants. I have dwelt at some length on the varied and +interesting problems they offer to the student of nature. Before +bidding my reader farewell, I wish to make a few observations on +a subject of yet higher interest and deeper importance, which the +contemplation of savage life has suggested, and on which I +believe that the civilized can learn something from the savage +man. + +We most of us believe that we, the higher races have progressed +and are progressing. If so, there must be some state of +perfection, some ultimate goal, which we may never reach, but to +which all true progress must bring nearer. What is this ideally +perfect social state towards which mankind ever has been, and +still is tending? Our best thinkers maintain, that it is a state +of individual freedom and self-government, rendered possible by +the equal development and just balance of the intellectual, +moral, and physical parts of our nature,--a state in which we +shall each be so perfectly fitted for a social existence, by +knowing what is right, and at the same time feeling an +irresistible impulse to do what we know to be right., that all +laws and all punishments shall be unnecessary. In such a state +every man would have a sufficiently well-balanced intellectual +organization, to understand the moral law in all its details, and +would require no other motive but the free impulses of his own +nature to obey that law. + +Now it is very remarkable, that among people in a very low stage +of civilization, we find some approach to such a perfect social +state. I have lived with communities of savages in South America +and in the East, who have no laws or law courts but the public +opinion of the village freely expressed. Each man scrupulously +respects the rights of his fellow, and any infraction of those +rights rarely or never takes place. In such a community, all are +nearly equal. There are cone of those wide distinctions, of +education and ignorance, wealth and poverty, master and servant, +which are the product of our civilization; there is none of that +wide-spread division of labour, which, while it increases wealth, +products also conflicting interests; there is not that severe +competition and struggle for existence, or for wealth, which the +dense population of civilized countries inevitably creates. All +incitements to great crimes are thus wanting, and petty ones are +repressed, partly by the influence of public opinion, but chiefly +by that natural sense of justice and of his neighbour's right, +which seems to be, in some degree, inherent in every race of man. + +Now, although we have progressed vastly beyond the savage state +in intellectual achievements, we have not advanced equally in +morals. It is true that among those classes who have no wants +that cannot be easily supplied, and among whom public opinion has +great influence; the rights of others are fully respected. It is +true, also, that we have vastly extended the sphere of those +rights, and include within them all the brotherhood of man. But +it is not too much to say, that the mass of our populations have +not at all advanced beyond the savage code of morals, and have in +many cases sunk below it. A deficient morality is the great blot +of modern civilization, and the greatest hindrance to true +progress. + +During the last century, and especially in the last thirty years, +our intellectual and material advancement has been too quickly +achieved for us to reap the full benefit of it. Our mastery over +the forces of mature has led to a rapid growth of population, and +a vast accumulation of wealth; but these have brought with them +such au amount of poverty and crime, and have fostered the growth +of so much sordid feeling and so many fierce passions, that it +may well be questioned, whether the mental and moral status of +our population has not on the average been lowered, and whether +the evil has not overbalanced the good. Compared with our +wondrous progress in physical science and its practical +applications, our system of government, of administering justice, +of national education, and our whole social and moral +organization, remains in a state of barbarism. [See note next +page.] And if we continue to devote our chief energies to the +utilizing of our knowledge the laws of nature with the view of +still further extending our commerce and our wealth, the evils +which necessarily accompany these when too eagerly pursued, may +increase to such gigantic dimensions as to be beyond cur power to +alleviate. + +We should now clearly recognise the fact, that the wealth and +knowledge and culture of the few do not constitute civilization, +and do not of themselves advance us towards the "perfect social +state." Our vast manufacturing system, our gigantic commerce, our +crowded towns and cities, support and continually renew a mass of +human misery and crime absolutely greater than has ever existed +before. They create and maintain in life-long labour an ever- +increasing army, whose lot is the more hard to bear, by contrast +with the pleasures, the comforts, and the luxury which they see +everywhere around them, but which they can never hope to enjoy; +and who, in this respect, are worse off than the savage in the +midst of his tribe. + +This is not a result to boast of, or to be satisfied with; and, +until there is a more general recognition of this failure of our +civilization--resulting mainly from our neglect to train and +develop more thoroughly the sympathetic feelings and moral +faculties of our nature, and to allow them a larger share of +influence in our legislation, our commerce, and our whole social +organization--we shall never, as regards the whole community, +attain to any real or important superiority over the better class +of savages. + +This is the lesson I have been taught by my observations of +uncivilized man. I now bid my readers--Farewell! + + +NOTE. + +THOSE who believe that our social condition approaches +perfection, will think the above word harsh and exaggerated, but +it seems to me the only word that can be truly applied to us. We +are the richest country in the world, and yet cue-twentieth of +our population are parish paupers, and one-thirtieth known +criminals. Add to these, the criminals who escape detection; and +the poor who live mainly on private charity, (which, according to +Dr. Hawkesley, expends seven millions sterling annually is London +alone,) and we may be sure that more than ONE-TENTH of our +population are actually Paupers and Criminals. Both these classes +we keep idle or at unproductive labour, and each criminal costs +us annually in our prisons more than the wages of an honest +agricultural labourer. We allow over a hundred thousand persons +known to have no means of subsistence but by crime, to remain at +large and prey upon the community, and many thousand children to +grow up before our eyes in ignorance and vice, to supply trained +criminals for the next generation. This, in a country which +boasts of its rapid increase in wealth, of its enormous commerce +and gigantic manufactures, of its mechanical skill and scientific +knowledge, of its high civilization and its pure Christianity,--I +can but term a state of social barbarism. We also boast of our +love of justice, and that the law protects rich and. poor alike, +yet we retain money fines as a punishment, and male the very +first steps to obtain justice a. matter of expense-in both cases +a barbarous injustice, or denial of justice to the poor. Again, +our laws render it possible, that, by mere neglect of a legal +form, and contrary to his own wish and intention, a man's +property may all go to a stranger, and his own children be left +destitute. Such cases have happened through the operation of the +laws of inheritance of landed property; and that such unnatural +injustice is possible among us, shows that we are in a state of +social barbarism. Ono more example to justify my use of the term, +and I have done. We permit absolute possession of the soil of our +country, with no legal rights of existence on the soil, to the +vast majority who do not possess it. A great landholder may +legally convert his whole property into a forest or a hunting- +ground, and expel every human being who has hitherto lived upon +it. In a thickly-populated country like England, where every acre +has its owner and its occupier, this is a power of legally +destroying his fellow-creatures; and that such a power should +exist, and be exercised by individuals, in however small a +degree, indicates that, as regards true social science, we are +still in a state of barbarism. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg Etext The Malay Archipelago by Alfred R. Wallace + diff --git a/old/2malay10.zip b/old/2malay10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4cc11d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/2malay10.zip |