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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/25389-h.zip b/25389-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fcc9b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/25389-h.zip diff --git a/25389-h/25389-h.htm b/25389-h/25389-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a74f3e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/25389-h/25389-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2708 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Right Use of Lime In Soil Improvement, by Alva Agee. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + div.centered {text-align: center;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 1 */ + div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 2 */ + + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; margin-top: 3em;} + + + + ul.none {list-style-type: none;} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Right Use of Lime in Soil Improvement, by Alva Agee + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Right Use of Lime in Soil Improvement + +Author: Alva Agee + +Release Date: May 8, 2008 [EBook #25389] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RIGHT USE OF LIME IN SOIL *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Janet Blenkinship and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net +(This file was produced from images produced by Core +Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell +University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime00" id="lime00"></a> +<img src="images/lime00.jpg" width="600" height="343" alt="Applying Lime" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Applying Lime</span> +</div> + + +<h1>Right Use of Lime In Soil Improvement</h1> + +<h4><i>By</i></h4> + +<h2>ALVA AGEE</h2> + +<h4>Secretary New Jersey State Department of Agriculture</h4> + +<p class="center">Formerly director of agricultural extension in the Pennsylvania State +College and New Jersey State College of Agriculture.</p> + +<h3><i>Illustrated</i></h3> + +<p class="center">NEW YORK<br /> + +ORANGE JUDD COMPANY<br /> + +LONDON<br /><br /> + +KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LIMITED<br /> + +1919<br /> + +Copyright 1919, by<br /> + +ORANGE JUDD COMPANY<br /> + +<i>All Rights Reserved</i><br /><br /> + + +Printed in U. S. A.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>CHAPTER</td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Lime in Soils</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Sour Soils</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Evidences of Acidity</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Tests for Acidity</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Sources of Lime</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Definitions</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_28'><b>28</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Ground Limestone</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_33'><b>33</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Storing Lime in the Soil</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>10.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fresh Burned Lime</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Burning Lime</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>12.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Lime Hydrate</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>13.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Other Forms of Lime</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>14.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Magnesian Lime</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>15.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">What Shall One Buy</span>?</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>16.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Methods of Application</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>17.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Amount of Lime per Acre</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>18.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Special Crop Demands</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="ILLUSTRATIONS"> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Applying Lime</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime00'><b>Frontispiece</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">1.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Clover and Timothy Unfertilized at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded 2,460 pounds per acre</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime01'><b>10</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">II.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Clover and Timothy with Lime alone at the +the Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded 3,900 pounds per acre</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime02'><b>11</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">III.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Clover and Timothy with Lime alone at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded 4,900 pounds per acre</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime03'><b>14</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">IV.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Clover and Timothy with Fertilizer and Lime +at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station yielded 6,290 pounds per acre</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime04'><b>15</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">V.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Limed and Unlimed Ends of a Plot at the +Ohio Experiment Station</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime05'><b>16</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">VI.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Effect of Finely Pulverized Limestone on Clover +in a Soil having a Lime Requirement of 5,200 Pounds of Limestone per Acre, at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime06'><b>17</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">VII.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Lime Favors Clover at the Ohio Experiment +Station</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime07'><b>24</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Lime Affects Growth of Corn at the Ohio Experiment +Station</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime08'><b>25</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">IX.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">An Indiana Limestone Quarry</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime09'><b>32</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">X.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top"> A Limestone Plant<br /> +(Courtesy of the Michigan Limestone Company.)</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime10'><b>33</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XI.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">A Limestone Pulverizer for Farm Use<br /> +(Courtesy of the Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ohio.)</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime11'><b>38</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XII.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">A Lime Pulver in Operation<br /> +(Courtesy of the Jeffrey Manufacturing Company.)</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime12'><b>39</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XIII.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Laying Foundation for a Lime Stack at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime13'><b>48</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XIV.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">A Stack nearly Completed at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime14'><b>49</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XV.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Effect of Excessive Use of Burned Lime without +Manure at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime15'><b>52</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XVI.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">A Hydrated Lime Plant<br /> +(Courtesy of the Palmer Lime and Cement Company, York, Pa.</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime16'><b>53</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XVII.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Filling the Lime Spreader at the Ohio Experiment +Station</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime17'><b>78</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XVIII.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top"> Lime Distributors +</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime18'><b>79</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XIX.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top"> Remarkable Effect of Lime on Sweet Clover at the Ohio Experiment Station +</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime19'><b>86</b></a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top">XX.</td> +<td align="left" style="width: 80%;" valign="top">Sweet Clover Thrives When Lime and Manure +are Supplied, Ohio Experiment Station</td> +<td align="right" style="width: 10%;" valign="top"><a href='#lime20'><b>87</b></a></td> +</tr> + + + +</table></div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_1" id="CHAPTER_1"></a>CHAPTER 1</h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTION</h3> + + +<p>There is much in the action of lime in the soil that is not known, but +all that we really need to know is simple and easily comprehended. The +purpose of this little book is to set down the things that we need to +know in order that we may make and keep our land friendly to plant life +so far as lime is necessarily concerned with such an undertaking. +Intelligent men like to reason matters out for themselves so far as +practicable, taking the facts and testing them in their own thinking by +some truth they have gained in their own experience and observation, and +then their convictions stay by them and are acted upon. The whole story +of the right use of lime on land is so simple and reasonable, when we +stick only to the practical side, that we should easily escape the +confusion of thought that seems to stand in the way of action. The +experiment stations have been testing the value of lime applications to +acid soils, and the government has been finding that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> greater part +of our farming lands is deficient in lime. Tens of thousands of farmers +have confirmed the results of the stations that the application of lime +is essential to profitable crop production on their farms. The confusion +is due to some results of the misuse of lime before the needs of soils +were understood, and to the variety of forms in which lime comes to us +and the rather conflicting claims made for these various forms. It is +unfortunate and unnecessary.</p> + +<p>The soil is a great chemical laboratory, but exact knowledge of all its +processes doubtless would enrich the farmer's vocabulary more than his +pocketbook. We are concerned in knowing that lime's field of usefulness +is broad in that it is an essential plant food and provides the active +means of keeping the feeding ground of plants in sanitary condition. We +want to know how it comes about that our soils are deficient in lime, +and how we may determine the fact that they are deficient. We wish to +know the relative values of the various forms of lime and how we may +choose in the interest of our soil and our pocketbook. The time and +method of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> application are important considerations to us. There are +many details of knowledge, it is true, and yet all fit into a rational +scheme that shows itself to be simple enough when the facts arrange +themselves in an orderly way in our minds.</p> + +<p>Lime cannot take the place of nitrogen, nor phosphorus, nor any other of +the essential plant foods. It is not a substitute for any other +essential factor in plant growth. It would be folly to try to depend +upon lime as a sole source of soil fertility. On the other hand, we have +learned very definitely within the last quarter of a century that it is +foolish to depend upon commercial fertilizers and tillage and good seeds +for full production of most crops from great areas of our farming +country that have a marked lime deficiency. The obvious need of our +soils is the rich organic matter that clover and grass sods could +furnish, and their fundamental need is lime. Most farms cannot possibly +make full returns to their owners until the land's hunger for lime has +been met. The only question is that regarding the best way of meeting +it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE LIME IN SOILS</h3> + + +<p><i>Limestone Land.</i> Soil analyses are serviceable only within certain +limits, and in the case of the normal soils that comprise the very great +part of the entire humid region of the United States the practical man +gives little heed to what special analyses might show him when deciding +upon the purchase of a farm. He does know, however, that a limestone +soil has great natural strength, and recovers from mistreatment more +readily than land low in lime. It has staying powers, and is dependable, +unless through natural processes the lime leaches out or loses +availability. All limestone areas have gained reputation for themselves +as producers of grain and grass.</p> + +<p><i>Other Calcareous Soils.</i> It is not only the limestone areas that stand +high in esteem. There are types of soil with every varying percentage of +lime down to clear sand or to peat, and some of the types are finely +calcareous, containing such a high<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> percentage of lime that nothing more +could be desired.</p> + +<p>The actual percentage is not the determining factor, a clay soil needing +greater richness in this material than a loam, and a sandy soil giving a +good account of itself with an even less total content of lime, but in +its way the particular soil type must be well supplied by nature with +lime if its trees and other vegetation bear evidences of its strength +and good agricultural value.</p> + +<p><i>Natural Deficiency.</i> It is interesting to note the differences in +evidences of prosperity that are associated with lime percentages. The +areas that are able to produce the vegetation characteristic of +calcareous soils are obviously the most prosperous. The decidedly +lime-deficient sections, advertising their state by the kind of original +timber, and later by unfriendliness to the clovers, do not attract +buyers except through relatively low prices for farms. Such areas are +extensive and have well marked boundaries in places.</p> + +<p>It does not follow that every farm in such limestone valleys as the +Shenandoah, Cumberland, and Lebanon, or in the great corn belt having a +naturally calcareous soil, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> prosperous, or that a multitude of owners +of such lime-deficient areas as the belt in a portion of southern New +York and northern Pennsylvania, or the sandstone and shale regions of +many states, have not overmatched natural conditions with fine skill. We +treat only of averages when saying that a "lime country" shows a +prosperity in its farm buildings and general appearance that does not +come naturally and easily to any lime-deficient territory. In the latter +a man rows against the current, and if livestock farming is not employed +to furnish manure, and if the manure is not supplemented by tillage and +drainage to secure aeration, or if lime is not applied, the land reaches +such a degree of acidity that it loses the power to yield any profit.</p> + +<p><i>Nature's Short Supply.</i> The total area of lime-deficient soil is large, +comprising certainly much more than half of all the land east of the +semi-arid belt of the United States. No small part of this area was not +deficient at one time, as the nature of the original timber indicates, +and it is well within the knowledge of practical men that land which +once produced the walnut and ash and shellbark hickory can be brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +back to productivity with reasonable ease after very hard usage. It has +a good inheritance. It is a disconcerting fact in our American +agriculture that, fertile as our country is as a whole, very great areas +were so deficient in lime before they came under man's control that the +chestnut, pine, and the oaks of mean growth were fully at home. The +gradation from low lime content to high, and its relation to soil type, +give us all sorts of mixtures of lime-loving and acid-resistant +varieties of trees in original forests, but our agriculture is hampered +by the high percentage of land for which nature made no great provision +of lime, and on this land farming lags.</p> + +<p><i>Effect of Irrational Farming.</i> Interest in liming might well have been +due to the amendment of all this soil, but the rational use of lime that +has been the subject of much study in the last quarter of a century +concerns chiefly great areas that probably could have been kept in +alkaline condition and friendly to the clovers for a long time despite a +short natural supply as compared with the content of our limestone +lands. The success of individual farmers in areas now admittedly acid as +a whole is con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>vincing on this point. Nature tries constantly to cure +the ills of her soil through the addition of vegetable matter. An excess +of water or a deficiency is atoned for in a degree by the leaves and +rotted wood of her forests. Aeration is kept possible. The lime in the +product of the soil goes back to it. A system of farming that involves +the application of manure, thorough tillage, drainage where needed, and +the free use of sods in some way, has kept portions of these +non-calcareous soils out of the distinctly acid class. Clover grows +satisfactorily, grass sods are heavy, and there is no acute lime +problem. Such farms are relatively few in the great stretches of land +now classed as acid soil, and probably the most of the lime that is +being applied goes only on ground that once was sufficiently alkaline to +grow the clovers. The loss of organic matter through failure to use the +best methods of farming is responsible for no small part of the +widespread need of lime today. This subtracts nothing from the urgency +of its use to restore a condition favoring clover and grass sods, but it +does teach a lesson of the highest value. The day of destructive soil +acidity can be re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>tarded by good farming, but in the long run the +inevitable losses of lime from most soils must be met by applications.</p> + +<p><i>Limestone Soils.</i> The old-time practice of making heavy applications of +fresh burned lime to stiff limestone soils to make them friable, and to +make their plant food available, led to disuse of all lime in some +sections on account of the exhaustion that followed dependence upon +these large amounts as a manure. Queerly enough, these original +limestone soils have latterly been going into the acid class through +loss of their distinctive elements, and they, too, have become dependent +upon means for the correction of acidity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>SOUR SOILS</h3> + + +<p><i>Loss of Lime.</i> Nature made the value of land as a producer of food +utterly dependent upon the activity of lime, and at the same time gave +it some power to shirk its work. In a normal soil is a percentage of +lime that came from the disintegration of rock of the region or was +transported by action of water on a huge scale. Possibly rarely would it +be in insufficient amount to keep a soil in a condition friendly to +plant life, and to feed the plant, if it stayed where nature placed it +and kept in form available for the needs it was intended to meet. There +is land that always was notably deficient in this material, and there is +land that was known in the early history of the world's agriculture to +be "sour," but the troubles of our present day in the case of the +farming country in the humid region of the United States is less due to +any natural absolute shortage than to combination that destroys value +and to escape by action of water.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime01" id="lime01"></a> +<img src="images/lime01.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="Clover and Timothy Unfertilized at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station Yielded 2460 Pounds per Acre" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Clover and Timothy Unfertilized at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station Yielded 2460 Pounds per Acre</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime02" id="lime02"></a> +<img src="images/lime02.jpg" width="600" height="357" alt="Clover and Timothy with Fertilizer alone at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded 3900 Pounds per Acre" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Clover and Timothy with Fertilizer alone at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded 3900 Pounds per Acre</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Prevalence of Acidity.</i> The results of experiment station and farm +tests are conclusive that the soils of the greater part of all the humid +region of the United States show lime deficiency. Formerly, acidity was +associated in our minds with wet, low-lying land, but within the last +twenty years we have learned that it prevails in light seashore sands +along the Atlantic shore, in clays, loams and shales stretching to the +Appalachian system of mountains, on top of mountain ranges and across +foothills to our central states, and through them in stretches to the +semi-arid lands of the west. While not all this land has fallen into the +lime-deficient class, and the great part of some states remains +alkaline, the tendency toward acidity is continuous.</p> + +<p>Crop production in great portions of the Mississippi valley is +restricted by lack of lime in the soil, and some states to the eastward +have one-half to nine-tenths of their acreage too low in lime for the +best results. Calcareous soils have been losing their distinctive +feature, and the immense areas of land naturally low in lime have +remained hampered in ability to make full returns for labor, fertilizer +and seed. It is this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> situation that brings the right use of lime on +land to the front as a matter of fundamental importance to the farmer.</p> + +<p><i>Causes of Soil Acidity.</i> If any discussion of the causes of soil +acidity would delay a decision to apply lime where needed, the time +given to such discussion would be worse than wasted. It is much more +important to be able to detect the presence of harmful acids and to +neutralize them than it is to know why the soil should be in such plight +that it could not supply the required lime and had become dependent upon +its owner for assistance. On the other hand, some of us find it +difficult to accept a fact without seeing a reason for it, and we may do +well to consider several causes that may be at work to put a soil out of +the alkaline class.</p> + +<p><i>Leaching.</i> One cause that appears obvious and easy of acceptance is +leaching. In the case of one Pennsylvania farm, lying in a limestone +valley, the lime had been washed out by action of water so freely that +caverns formed under the surface, and a test showed a marked deficiency +in the top soil. This land ceased to grow clover, and plantain and +sorrel abounded. This case,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> which is not an isolated one, showed an +unusually rapid loss, but we always expect to find the water from wells +and springs in a limestone country strongly impregnated with lime. +Drainage waters contain it. The draft by action of water is continuous, +and in some types could easily account for sufficient loss to change the +nature of the soil. We may place undue emphasis upon this factor, as +other causes are at work, but leaching is a leading source of loss.</p> + +<p><i>Chemical Compounds.</i> A serious cause of lime exhaustion that is being +studied by soil chemists is the presence of compounds in the soil that +combine with the lime and rob it of ability to serve the soil when new +acids form. The practical farmer accepts the statements of the chemists +on this point, and probably would not have his interests served by any +exact knowledge of the nature of these agents.</p> + +<p><i>Decaying Vegetation.</i> A cause of acid conditions that is widely known +and accepted, and that may therefore stand out in our thinking with +undue prominence, is connected with the decay of green vegetable matter +in the soil. Many of us have seen fields rendered temporarily +unproduc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>tive by the plowing down of a mass of immature plants in +midsummer. All organic matter, indeed, in its decay makes a draft upon +the lime content of the soil in which it may be buried.</p> + +<p><i>Removal in Crops.</i> Lime is taken out of land by plants, and the loss is +a considerable item, but our interest is in the form of lime that can +correct soil acidity, and we know that compounds of lime that are +worthless for this purpose may be the chief source of the lime in our +crops. A determination of the lime in the ash of a crop does not give +data of much practical value.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime03" id="lime03"></a> +<img src="images/lime03.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="Clover and Timothy with Lime Alone at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station Yielded 4900 Pounds per Acre" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Clover and Timothy with Lime Alone at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station Yielded 4900 Pounds per Acre</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime04" id="lime04"></a> +<img src="images/lime04.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="Clover and Timothy with Fertilizer and Lime at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded 6290 Pounds per Acre" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Clover and Timothy with Fertilizer and Lime at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded 6290 Pounds per Acre</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>EVIDENCES OF ACIDITY</h3> + + +<p><i>Character of Vegetation.</i> The character of the original forests is +determined much by the lime-content, and the practical man, when buying +a farm, rates its productive power by the kinds of timber it has +produced. The black walnut, ash, shellbark hickory, black and white oak, +sturdily grown, evidence a soil rich in lime, while the pines, small +blackjack and post oaks, and the chestnut are at home in non-calcareous +soils. The latter class of lands gains nothing in lime as time passes, +and the timber continues to be a sure index, but in the former class the +surface soil may have lost enough lime to limit crop production +materially while the trees continue to find in the subsoil all that they +need. It does not follow that the land has gone down in value to the +naturally lime-deficient class, but its power to produce is impaired, +and will remain so until there has been restoration of its original +alkaline state.</p> + +<p><i>Sorrel and Plantain.</i> We determine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> quite surely the state of the soil +by observance of the vegetation that roots in the surface soil and the +immediate subsoil. Sorrel is a plant popularly associated with soil +acidity, but this is not through any dislike for lime. It has been +observed growing in the edge of a heap. Its presence suggests acidity +because it can thrive in a sour soil that will not produce plants of +value which on even terms could crowd the sorrel out. There is constant +competition among plants for food and water and space, and some of our +worst weeds are not strong competitors of clover and grass where soil +conditions are not unfavorable to the latter.</p> + +<p>Blue grass, the clovers and timothy give a good account of themselves in +a contest with sorrel and plantain where lime is abundant. This does not +mean that the seeds of these weeds may not be so numerous that an +application of lime cannot cause the clover and grasses immediately to +take the ground to the exclusion of other plants, but it is true that +the crowding process will continue until the time comes in the crop +rotation that these weeds cease to be feared, and clean sods can be +made. It is the absence of lime that permits such weeds to maintain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +their reputation for good fighting qualities.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime05" id="lime05"></a> +<img src="images/lime05.jpg" width="600" height="342" alt="Limed and Unlimed Ends of a Plot at the Ohio Experiment +Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Limed and Unlimed Ends of a Plot at the Ohio Experiment +Station</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime06" id="lime06"></a> +<img src="images/lime06.jpg" width="600" height="341" alt="Effect of Finely Pulverised Limestone on Clover in a Soil +Having a Lime Requirement of 5200 Pounds of Limestone per Acre at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Effect of Finely Pulverised Limestone on Clover in a Soil +Having a Lime Requirement of 5200 Pounds of Limestone per Acre at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Clovers.</i> Red clover can make growth in some soils that have a lime +deficiency. If all other conditions are favorable, the lime requirement +may exceed one-half a ton per acre of fresh burned lime and not affect +the clover adversely, but farm experience throughout the country has +demonstrated that when soil acidity is only slight and clover grows with +difficulty, an application rarely fails to favor the clover in a marked +degree. Experience has taught the land owners to fear soil acidity when +red clover does not thrive where formerly it made good growth.</p> + +<p>The prevalence of alsike clover in a farming region is indicative of +lack of lime. This clover thrives in a calcareous soil, but is more +indifferent to a small lime supply than is the red clover. As red clover +seedings begin to fail, the alsike gains in popularity, and where a soil +is decidedly sour the alsike is most in evidence. The latter has less +value to the farmer, rooting nearer the surface of the soil, and making +less growth of top, but it has gained in favor with farmers as soil +acidity has increased.</p> + +<p><i>The Grasses.</i> Timothy is more resistant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> to acidity than red clover, +but often fails to make a heavy sod where the deficiency in lime is +marked. Rhode Island Bent, known as redtop, is less exacting, and where +it thrives to the exclusion of timothy, or is in evidence in grass +lands, the inference is fairly safe that a test would show that the soil +is sour.</p> + +<p><i>When Production Decreases.</i> It is not a matter of any moment to the +owner of a productive soil whether or not his soil would give an acid or +an alkaline reaction under test. Returns from his labor are +satisfactory. Some land in this class is not strictly alkaline. The man +most interested in the effects of lime applications is the one who is +not satisfied with yields. The tests for acidity have been so many +throughout our eastern and central states that the owner of land which +is not productive has reason for the presumption that its percentage of +lime is too low. There is danger of error, and a scientific test is +surer, but in most cases the land which has been reduced from a fertile +to an unproductive state has lost its alkaline nature.</p> + +<p><i>Naturally Thin Soils.</i> Nature may be prodigal in supplies of nearly all +the ele<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>ments of plant food to land and yet skimp its supply of lime, +but naturally poor soils are quite surely in the acid class. The +exceptions in our humid region are not extensive. When improvement is +planned for, involving additions of organic matter and plant food, the +application of lime to correct acidity is the first requirement. If such +land could be given the characteristics of a limestone soil so far only +as the lime factor is concerned, the building up of fertility would be +relatively easy. Liming must form the foundation of a new order of +things. The ability to grow the clovers and to furnish rich vegetable +matter to the soil, which naturally is poor in humus, rests upon lime +application first, and then upon any supply of plant food that may +continue to be lacking.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>TESTS FOR ACIDITY</h3> + + +<p><i>The Litmus Paper Test.</i> A method of testing soils for acidity, which +has been in use for many years, is the simple litmus paper method. +Because of its simplicity and fair degree of accuracy, the litmus paper +test is still used to a considerable extent in estimating the degree of +acidity of certain soils. The best manner of using litmus is to place a +strip of the blue paper in the bottom of a glass saucer, covering it +with filter paper or other paper which is neutral—that is, paper which +is neither acid nor alkaline.</p> + +<p>A small quantity of the soil to be tested is moistened with rain or +distilled water and placed on this paper. If the acid is present the +blue paper will be changed to a reddish color, varying in intensity +according to the degree of acidity in the soil. Two objections to the +use of litmus paper are to be noted: One of these is that the red color +may be produced by carbonic acid gas without a trace of more powerful +acids being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> present, and this may give a wrong impression to the +operator. Another objection to the use of litmus is that the degree of +acidity is not accurately indicated, and therefore the farmer is +sometimes at a loss to know just how much lime should be applied to make +soil conditions favorable for growing crops.</p> + +<p><i>A More Accurate Method.</i> Within the last few years improved methods for +determining the presence of acidity in soil have been developed. Some of +these are suitable only for the chemist with his complete laboratory +equipment, while others are more simple and can be used by anyone +willing to exercise reasonable care.</p> + +<p>One of the simplest and most accurate tests to date is that devised by +Professor E. Truog of the agricultural experiment station of the +University of Wisconsin. This test not only detects positively the +presence of soil acidity, but also gives definite information as to the +degree of acidity. The test is based upon the principle that when zinc +sulfid comes in contact with the acid, hydrogen sulfid gas is formed, +and when this gas comes in contact with lead acetate, lead sulfid, a +black chemical, is formed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> + +<p>The method of making this test is simple, and consists in placing a +measured quantity of soil in a flask, to which is added a solution +composed of 20% calcium chlorid and 2% zinc sulfid. The mixture of soil +and chemical solution is heated to the boiling point by means of an +alcohol lamp, and the boiling continued for a minute for the purpose of +driving off the carbonic acid gas, which is liberated first. The boiling +is continued and a piece of moistened paper, previously impregnated with +lead acetate, is placed over the mouth of the flask. If the soil +contains acid, a chemical reaction occurs between it and zinc sulfid, +and hydrogen sulfid gas is liberated. The quantity of acidity in the +soil determines the quantity of gas which comes in contact with the lead +acetate paper, and this determines the depth of color produced on the +paper. A slight brownish color indicates the presence of very little +acidity, while an intense black signifies the presence of injurious +amounts of acidity. There are various degrees of coloration between +these two extremes, and each gives an accurate indication as to the +quantity of lime required to correct the acidity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> + +<p>This test is simple and inexpensive, and at the present time most county +agent offices are equipped with this apparatus or a similar one for +testing soils for farmers. Some newer methods are being devised, and +doubtless this method will be improved upon as time passes, but the +Truog test has qualities of accuracy and simplicity which will always +make it valuable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>SOURCES OF LIME</h3> + + +<p><i>Nature's Provision.</i> Soils are composed of pulverized stone and organic +matter. Much of the original stone contained little lime, and the human +race would become nearly helpless if there were no stores of supply in +the form of limestone, chalk, marl, etc. The day would come when the +surface soil could not produce our staple crops if its loss of lime +continued, and a means of replenishing the stock were not at hand. The +huge deposits of limestone that have not been disintegrated by processes +of weathering are assurance that the soil's need can be met forever. The +calcium and magnesium in the stone are in chemical combination with +carbonic acid forming carbonates, and there is an additional mixture of +other earthy material that was deposited by the water when the stone was +being formed, but much limestone possesses an excellent degree of +purity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime07" id="lime07"></a> +<img src="images/lime07.jpg" width="600" height="341" alt="Lime Favors Clover at the Ohio Experiment Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Lime Favors Clover at the Ohio Experiment Station</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime08" id="lime08"></a> +<img src="images/lime08.jpg" width="600" height="348" alt="Lime Affects Growth of Corn at the Ohio Experiment +Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Lime Affects Growth of Corn at the Ohio Experiment +Station</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Confusion Respecting Forms.</i> In the public mind there is much confusion +re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>specting the sources and forms of lime most to be desired. Wood +ashes appealed to people, especially in an early day in our agriculture, +partly because the ashes were so universally present that tests had been +made voluntarily and otherwise in millions of instances. The value of +such tests had been obscured by the fact that the ashes contained +potash, and much of the credit of any good effect was attributed to that +fact. It has been generally known, however, that lime in peculiarly +effective form is in wood ashes, and the favor in which ashes have been +held rested not a little upon the curious preference for an organic +source of all soil amendments. This is seen in the case of direct +fertilizers.</p> + +<p><i>Dealers' Interests.</i> The doubts regarding the wisdom of selecting any +one form of lime for the betterment of soil conditions have been +promoted very naturally by the conflicting interests of men who would +furnish the supply. Some dealers in fresh burned lime have asserted that +it was folly to expect any appreciable result from the use of unburned +limestone. The manufacturer of ground limestone has pointed out the +possibility of injuring a soil by the use<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> of caustic lime, and +oftentimes has so emphasized his point that farmers have become +unwilling to apply fresh or water-slaked lime to their land. +Manufacturers of hydrated lime in some instances have made a confused +situation worse by insisting upon the claim that there was a fertilizing +quality in their goods. Some dealers in lime marls have been unwilling +to have the value of their goods rated according to the content of +carbonate of lime, and have emphasized the value of fine division of the +particles and the absence of any caustic properties. The presence of +shells, evidencing an organic source of the material, has helped in the +appeal to buyers.</p> + +<p>The rightful place of magnesia, and the possible danger of injury from +its use, have been a fruitful cause of perplexity, making price per ton +only a secondary consideration to the man wanting to supply his soil's +needs.</p> + +<p><i>Scientists' Failure to Agree.</i> It is only fair to say that much of the +doubt and indecision on the part of the public is directly attributable +to the conflicting statements of our scientists. It should be borne in +mind that careful investigation in respect to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> relative values of +the various forms and sources of lime has been confined largely to the +short period of time that has elapsed since recognition of the lime +deficiency of our country's soils. Our agricultural literature contained +little about soil acidity 20 years ago, and our experiment station tests +afford only relatively recent results. Some knowledge of sour soils and +the efficacy of lime in their amendment is nearly as old as the history +of agriculture, it is true, but answers to the questions uppermost in +the minds of men wanting to apply lime to land have been sought only +within recent years. The variation in soil types, and in sources of +lime, and in preconceived ideas of men drawing conclusions from +incomplete data may easily account for failure of our soil scientists to +be in the close agreement in statement that would remove all confusion +in the public mind. However, the agreement respecting the facts is +becoming better assured with every added year of investigation, as a +study of station bulletins shows.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>DEFINITIONS</h3> + + +<p><i>Technical Terms.</i> The practical man uses a great number of technical +terms in his own field of labor, and often fails to recognize the fact +that they are technical, and may be puzzling to many other people. He +uses such terms for the sake of accuracy, desiring to express to his +fellow-workmen exactly what he means. The farmer, stockman, carpenter, +banker—all have command of such terms, and need them, but the chemist +who, in a way, must come even nearer to accuracy in expression, finds +that many people who want his assistance do not care to master and use +any of his terms. Failure to do so compels misunderstanding. Anyone who +is interested in the right use of lime should be willing to add a few of +the chemists' technical terms to the scores in his own line of work that +he uses constantly, and thus let the whole matter of liming land come to +appear more simple to him. Acquaintance with a few terms is necessary +to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> any understanding of statements of analyses upon which purchase +should be made.</p> + +<p><i>An Element</i> is a substance that cannot be divided into simpler +substances. The number of elements necessary to the growth of plants is +small, and of this number calcium is one and magnesium is another.</p> + +<p><i>Compounds.</i> We do not find these elements merely mixed with other +elements to form a soil. They unite in definite proportions by weight to +form chemical compounds. As conditions change, many of these compounds +undergo change, giving up one element, or group of elements, and uniting +with another element or group from a different compound. Heat, moisture +and the action of bacteria are factors in promoting the changes. There +is no more restless activity than may be found among the elements +composing a productive soil.</p> + +<p><i>Calcium</i> is an element which will unite with oxygen and carbon dioxide +to form a compound known as calcium carbonate. The chemist's symbol for +calcium is Ca.</p> + +<p><i>Calcium Oxide</i> is a compound left after the burning of limestone, and +is known as fresh burned lime, or quick lime. Its formula is CaO. It +contains, when pure,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> 40 parts of calcium and 16 parts oxygen by weight.</p> + +<p><i>Carbon Dioxide</i> is a compound whose formula is CO<sub>2</sub>.</p> + +<p><i>Calcium Carbonate</i>, known also as carbonate of lime, has a definite +composition, containing, when pure, 56 parts CaO and 44 parts CO<sub>2</sub>. It +is known to the chemist as CaCO<sub>3</sub>, and forms practically all of very +pure limestones. Impure limestones contain some earthy materials that +became mixed with the lime carbonate when the rock was being formed.</p> + +<p><i>Calcium Hydroxide</i> is a compound made by permitting calcium oxide to +combine with water, and is known as lime hydrate. It contains 56 parts +by weight CaO and 18 parts water, and has the formula Ca(OH)<small>2</small>.</p> + +<p><i>Magnesium</i> is an element, and is found in magnesium carbonate, a +compound that is effective in correcting soil acidity.</p> + +<p><i>Magnesian Limestone.</i> Magnesium carbonate is usually found in +combination with calcium carbonate, and when about 47 per cent of the +total carbonates is magnesium carbonate, the limestone is known as +dolomite.</p> + +<p><i>Ground Limestone</i> is the stone pulver<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>ized so that it can be +distributed. It is carbonate of lime (CaCO<sub>3</sub>), or a combination of +calcium and magnesium carbonate, and in a way has a right to be +designated as "lime," but such use leads to confusion.</p> + +<p><i>Fresh Burned Lime</i>. Calcium oxide (CaO) formerly was accurately +designated as "lime," but the words "fresh burned" are often prefixed to +prevent confusion with lime carbonate or the hydrate. It is known as +"lump lime," "caustic lime" and "stone lime."</p> + +<p><i>Ground or Pulverized Lime</i>. Fresh burned lime may be ground fine, so +that it can be spread on land without slaking. This product should not +be confused with ground limestone or hydrated lime. Fresh ground lime is +worth nearly twice as much per ton as ground limestone, but some of the +product on the market is far from pure. There is opportunity to grind up +unburned and waste material with the caustic lime, and this form of lime +usually contains some hydrated material.</p> + +<p><i>Hydrated Lime</i> is the compound formed by the action of water or steam +on fresh burned lime.</p> + +<p><i>Air-Slaked Lime</i> is a compound formed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> by the action of carbon dioxide +from the air on hydrated lime, and its formula is CaCO<sub>3</sub>, which is +that of pure limestone.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime09" id="lime09"></a> +<img src="images/lime09.jpg" width="600" height="340" alt="An Indiana Limestone Quarry" title="" /> +<span class="caption">An Indiana Limestone Quarry</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime10" id="lime10"></a> +<img src="images/lime10.jpg" width="600" height="340" alt="A Limestone Plant (Courtesy of the Michigan Limestone +Company)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A Limestone Plant (Courtesy of the Michigan Limestone +Company)</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>GROUND LIMESTONE</h3> + + +<p><i>Variation in Quality.</i> Limestones vary widely in purity. They were +formed under water, and clay and sand were laid down with the lime in +such quantity in some cases that the resulting stone is not worth +handling for soil improvement. A stone that is practically all carbonate +of calcium, or a combination of calcium and magnesium, is wanted because +it is these two elements that give value to the material. If a poor +stone is used, too much waste matter must be handled. Twenty-five per +cent more ground limestone of 80% purity must be applied than would be +required in the case of an absolutely pure limestone. Any stone above +90% pure in carbonate of lime and magnesia is rated as good, but the +best stone runs from 96% to 99%.</p> + +<p>Limestones vary greatly in ability to resist disintegration, and this +variation is a big factor in determining the agricultural value of +ground limestone that has not been reduced to a fine powder. Particles +of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> hard limestone may lie inert in the soil for many years. Hardness +also affects the cost of grinding.</p> + +<p><i>A Matter of Distribution.</i> Nature has used various agencies in reducing +limestone for the making of soils. The stone contained its lime in +carbonate form, and when reduced to good physical condition for +distribution it helped to make highly productive land. We know that lime +carbonate does the needed work in the soil so far as correction of +acidity is concerned, but in the form of blocks of limestone it has no +particular value to the land. Burning and slaking afforded to man a +natural means of putting it into form for distribution, and it is only +within recent years that the pulverization of limestone for land has +become a business of considerable magnitude. The ground limestone used +on land continues to be in part a by-product of the preparation of +limestone for the manufacture of steel, glass, etc., and the making of +roads, the fine dust being screened out for agricultural purposes. These +sources of supply are very inadequate, and too remote from much land +that requires treatment. Large plants have been established in vari<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>ous +parts of the country for the purpose of crushing limestone for use on +land, and quite recently low-priced pulverizers for farm use have come +upon the market and are meeting a wide need.</p> + +<p><i>Low-Priced Pulverizers.</i> A serious drawback to the liming of land is +the transportation charge that must be paid where no available stone can +be found in the region. Great areas do have some beds that should be +used, and a low-priced machine for pulverizing it is the solution of the +problem. Such a machine must be durable, have ability to crush the stone +to the desired fineness and be offered at a price that does not seem +prohibitive to a farmer who would meet the demands of a small farming +community. In this way freight charges are escaped, and a long and +costly haul from a railway point is made unnecessary. The limestone of +the locality will be made available more and more by means of this type +of machine, and the inducement to correct the acidity of soils will be +given to tens of thousands of land-owners who would not find it feasible +to pay freight and cartage on supplies coming a long distance. There +should be a market many times greater than now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> exists for the product +of all large plants, while the number of small pulverizers multiplies +rapidly. The very large areas that have no limestone at hand must +continue to buy from manufacturers equipped to supply them, and farmers +within a zone of small freight charges should be able to buy from such +manufacturers more cheaply than they could pulverize stone on their own +farms.</p> + +<p>An individual, or a group of farmers, will buy a machine for pulverizing +limestone at a cost of a few hundred dollars when costly equipment would +be out of the question. If he has a bed of limestone of fair quality, +and the soil of the region is lacking in lime, an efficient grinder or +pulverizer solves the problem and makes prosperity possible to the +region. Within the last few years much headway has been made in +perfecting such machines, and their manufacturers have them on the +market. Any type should be bought only after a test that shows capacity +per hour and degree of fineness of the product. As a high degree of +fineness is at the expense of power or time, and as the transportation +charge on the product to the farm is small, there is no re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>quirement for +the fineness wanted in a high-priced article that must be used +sparingly.</p> + +<p>The aim should be to store in the soil for a term of years, and the +coarse portion is preferable to the fine for this purpose because it +will not leach out. The heavy application will furnish enough fine stuff +to take care of present acidity. If nearly all the product of such a +pulverizer will pass through a 10-mesh screen, and the amount applied is +double that of very fine limestone, it should give immediate results and +continue effective nearly twice as long as the half amount of finer +material. There could hardly be a practical solution of the liming +problem for many regions without the development of such devices for +preparing limestone for distribution, and it is a matter of +congratulation that some manufacturers have awakened to the market +possibilities our country affords.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>STORING LIME IN THE SOIL</h3> + + +<p><i>Liberal Use of Limestone.</i> Land never does its best when skimped in any +way. As we raise the percentage of carbonate of lime in land that +naturally is deficient, we give increasing ability to such land to take +on some of the desirable characteristics of a limestone soil. It is poor +business to be making a hand-to-mouth fight against a state of actual +acidity unless the cost of more liberal treatment is prohibitive. The +most satisfactory liming is done where the expense is light enough to +justify the free use of material. When this is the case, extreme +fineness of all the stone is undesirable. There is the added cost due to +such fineness and no gain if the finer portion is sufficient to correct +the acidity, and the coarser particles disintegrate as rapidly as needed +in later years.</p> + +<p><i>Loss by Leaching.</i> Another valid argument against extreme fineness of +the stone used in liberal applications is the danger of loss by +leaching. Soils are so variable in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> their ability to hold what may be +given them that it is idle to offer any estimate on this point. The +amount of lime found in the drainage waters of limestone land teaches no +lesson of value for other land, the excessive loss in the former case +being due oftentimes to erosion that creates channels through the +subsoil, through which soil and lime pass.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime11" id="lime11"></a> +<img src="images/lime11.jpg" width="600" height="336" alt="A Limestone Pulverizer for Farm Use (Courtesy of the +Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ohio)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A Limestone Pulverizer for Farm Use (Courtesy of the +Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ohio)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime12" id="lime12"></a> +<img src="images/lime12.jpg" width="600" height="338" alt="A Lime Pulver in Operation (Courtesy of the Jeffrey +Manufacturing Company)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A Lime Pulver in Operation (Courtesy of the Jeffrey +Manufacturing Company)</span> +</div> + +<p>But we do know the tendency of lime to get away, and the use of several +tons of fine stone per acre may easily be followed by loss in many types +of soil. It is wholly reasonable to believe that some portion of such an +application should be coarse enough to stay where put until needed by +exhaustion of the finer portion. It is upon this theory that coarser +material often is preferred to the very finest.</p> + +<p><i>What Degree of Fineness?</i> Assuming that the farmer is in a position to +store some carbonate of lime in his land for future use, giving the soil +an alkaline character for five or 10 years, the degree of fineness of +the stone is important, partly because there will be distinct loss by +leaching from many types of soils if all the material is fine as dust, +and specially because less finely pul<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>verized material can be supplied +him at a lower price per ton. Much by-product in the manufacture of +coarse limestone for other purposes contains a considerable percentage +of material that would not pass through a 60-, or 40-, or 10-mesh +screen, but it does contain a big percentage of immediately available +lime, and a more complete pulverization of this by-product would add +greatly to its cost.</p> + +<p>It is quite possible that a ton of such stone may be bought at a price +that would cover the value only of the fine portion, estimated on the +basis of the prevailing price of finely ground material, the coarse +material being obtained without any cost at all. It is this situation, +or an approach to it, that leads some authorities to become strenuous +advocates of the use of coarsely pulverized stone. The advice is right +for those who are in a position to accept it. If the money available for +liming an acre of land can buy all the fine stone needed for the present +and some coarser stone mixed with it for later use by the soil, the +purchase is much more rational than the investment of the same amount of +money in very fine stone that has no admixture of coarser material. If +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> investment in the former case is larger than in the latter, it +continues to be good business up to a certain point, and the room for +some uncertainty is wide enough to provide for much difference in +judgment.</p> + +<p><i>Quality of the Stone.</i> Another factor of uncertainty is the hardness of +the stone. A limestone may have such flinty characteristics that a piece +barely able to pass through a 10-mesh screen will not disintegrate in +the soil for years, and there are other types of limestone that go into +pieces rapidly. The variation in quality of stone accounts for no little +difference in opinion that is based upon limited observation.</p> + +<p><i>Using One's Judgment.</i> It is evident that no hard and fast rule +respecting fineness may be laid down, and yet a rather definite basis +for judgment is needed. There is much good experience to justify the +requirement that when all ground lime is high-priced in any section for +any reason, and the amount applied per acre is thereby restricted, the +material should be able to pass through a screen having 60 wires to the +linear inch, and that the greater part should be much finer. Usually +some part of such stone will pass through a 200-mesh screen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> When a +limestone on the market will not meet this test, some concession in +price should be expected. If the stone is not very flinty, a 40-mesh +screen may be regarded as affording a reasonably satisfactory test.</p> + +<p>An increasing percentage of coarser material makes necessary an increase +in amount to meet the lime deficiency, and a distinct concession in +price is to be expected when a 10-mesh screen is used in testing. At the +same time a careful buyer will use a 60-mesh screen to determine the +percentage that probably has availability for the immediate future. A +coarsely ground article, containing any considerable percentage that +will not pass through a 10-mesh screen, must sell at a price justifying +an application sufficient to meet the need of the soil for a long term +of years, as the greater part has no immediate availability, and only a +heavy application can provide a good supply for immediate need.</p> + +<p><i>New York State Experience.</i> A bulletin of the New York agricultural +experiment station, published early in 1917, calls attention to the +rapid increase in demand for ground limestone in New York. Within the +last five years the number of grinding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> plants within the state had +increased from one to 56, and more than a dozen outside plants are +shipping extensively into the state. The bulletin says: "Farmers who +have had experience with the use of ground limestone are as a rule +satisfied with only a reasonable degree of fineness, and are able to +judge the material by inspection. When limestone is ground so the entire +product will pass a 10-mesh (or 2 mm.) sieve, the greater part of it +will be finer than a 40-mesh (or ½ mm.) sieve.... There are now in +operation in this State more than a dozen small portable community +grinders; they are doing much to help solve the ground limestone problem +and their use is rapidly increasing. In the practical operation of these +machines they grind only to medium fineness (2 mm.). To insist upon +extreme fineness is to discourage their use."</p> + +<p>This State experiment station is only one of many scientific authorities +approving the use of limestone reduced only to such fineness that it +will pass through a 10-mesh screen, the cost of the grinding being +sufficiently small to permit heavy applications.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>FRESH BURNED LIME</h3> + + +<p><i>An Old Practice.</i> The beneficial effect of caustic lime on land is +mentioned in some ancient writings. Burning and slaking afforded the +only known method of reducing stone for use in sour soils. Lime in this +form not only is an effective agent for correcting soil acidity, but it +improves the physical condition of tough and intractable clays, +rendering them more friable and easy of tillage. Caustic lime also +renders the organic matter in the soil more quickly available, an +increase in yield quickly following an application. These three effects +of burned lime brought it into favor, and a rational use would have +continued it in favor.</p> + +<p><i>Irrational Use.</i> The ability of caustic lime to improve the physical +condition of land and to make inert plant food available has led many +farmers to treat it as a substitute for manure, sods and commercial +fertilizers. Immoderate use gave increased crop yields for a time, and +the inference was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> easy that lime could displace the old sources of +plant food supplies. It became the custom in some regions to apply 200 +to 300 bushels per acre to stiff limestone soils that had no lime +deficiency, as a test for acidity would have shown. The lime not only +made some mineral plant available, but it attacked the organic matter of +the soil, making it ready for immediate use and leaving the land +deficient in humus. Wherever stable manure and clover sods were not +freely used, the heavy application of caustic lime was followed +ultimately by decline in productive power. Such practice has come under +the condemnation of people who have not seen that the ill results have +no relation to the rational use of lime.</p> + +<p><i>What Lime Is.</i> There is abundant evidence that pulverized limestone, or +lime marl, or oystershell, or any other form of carbonate of lime, +corrects soil acidity and helps to make a soil productive. It is good, +no matter whether nature mixed the lime carbonate with clay, etc., to +make a choice limestone soil, or man applied it. Fresh burned lime is +only the stone after some worthless matter has been driven off by use of +heat. The limestone, carbonate of lime,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> is represented by the formula +CaCO<small>3</small>. When heat is applied under right conditions the carbon dioxide, +CO<small>2</small>, is driven off, and there remains CaO, which is calcium oxide, +called fresh burned lime.</p> + +<p>If there were 100 pounds of the stone, and it was absolutely pure, 44 +pounds would escape in form of the carbon dioxide, which had no value, +and 56 pounds would remain. The 56 pounds calcium oxide, or fresh burned +lime, have the same power to correct acidity as this same material had +when it was bound up in the 100 pounds of limestone. The 44 pounds were +driven off by heat, while if the limestone had not been burned the 44 +would have separated from the 56 pounds in an acid soil, leaving the +actual lime to do the needed work of correcting acidity.</p> + +<p><i>Affecting Physical Condition.</i> While burning the stone does not affect +the ability to correct acidity, it does increase the power to make a +stiff soil friable and to bind a sandy soil. No one may say how much +this power to influence soil texture is increased, but it is marked, and +when improved physical condition is the chief reason for applying lime, +there is no question that fresh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> burned material is to be preferred to +pulverized stone or marl, or any other carbonate form. A light +application is not markedly effective in this respect, and the chief use +for this purpose has been in limestone areas that may not have had any +lime deficiency, but did have a stiff soil. The presence of the stone in +great quantity for burning on the farm made heavy applications possible.</p> + +<p><i>Using Up Organic Matter.</i> The presence of carbonate of lime in the form +of pulverized limestone or marl favors the disintegration of any organic +matter, but the action is so slow that it may not be observed. While the +use of limestone in manure piles is inadvisable for this reason, the +loss is not comparable to that resulting from mixing caustic lime with +manure. The caustic lime in a soil hastens decay of vegetable matter in +a degree impossible to the limestone or marl. Irrational use of the +former has produced such destructive action in many instances that the +failure to add manure or heavy sods for a long term of years has led to +heavy decline in producing power.</p> + +<p>We are naturally so lacking in judicial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> temper that opinion has swung +violently from favor to disfavor. As most soils need organic matter, we +seize upon the thought that anything evidently inclined to use it up is +an evil. The purpose of tillage is in no small degree to bring about +disintegration and resulting exhaustion of vegetable matter. The latter +is a storehouse of plant food, and some of it is needed to feed the crop +desired. Tillage is no more to be commended for this purpose than a +quantity of lime equivalent in power to do the needed work. Excepting +the case of raw soils rich in the remains of plants, most land hardly +needs lime for this purpose, it may be, the tillage required for making +a seed bed retentive of moisture and for control of weeds being +effective, but the point is emphasized that the disintegration of +organic matter into available plant food is one of the chief aims of a +good farmer. It is only the excessive use of caustic lime that causes +loss.</p> + +<p>The use of caustic lime in sufficient amount to correct all acidity, and +the use of such material to free plant food in humus sufficiently to +produce heavy sods, are just as good farm practices as drainage and the +application of manure.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime13" id="lime13"></a> +<img src="images/lime13.jpg" width="600" height="338" alt="Laying Foundation for a Lime Stack at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Laying Foundation for a Lime Stack at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime14" id="lime14"></a> +<img src="images/lime14.jpg" width="600" height="340" alt="A Stack Nearly Completed at the Pennsylvania Experiment +Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A Stack Nearly Completed at the Pennsylvania Experiment +Station</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>BURNING LIME</h3> + + +<p><i>Methods of Burning.</i> Limestone contains the calcium and magnesium that +must be the chief source of supply of American soils, though marls, +ashes, etc., have their place. The burning of the stone has been the +leading means of bringing it to a condition of availability to the soil, +excepting, of course, the vast work of disintegration carried on through +all the ages by nature. Pulverization of the rock by machinery for use +on land is recent.</p> + +<p>The devices for burning are various, a modern lime plant containing +immense kilns, cylindrical in form, the stone being fed into them at the +top continuously, and the lime removed at the bottom. A large part of +the lime that is sold for use on land is made in plants of this kind. +Some is burned in kilns of cheap construction, but a traveler through a +limestone country finds few such kilns now in use.</p> + +<p><i>The Farm Lime Heap.</i> A common method of producing lime for farm use +has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> been, and continues to be, a simple and inexpensive one, involving +the use only of wood, coal and limestone, with earth as a covering. Dr. +Wm. Frear, chemist of the Pennsylvania station, in Bulletin 261 of the +Pennsylvania department of agriculture, describes a method of burning +lime on the farm as follows: "A convenient oblong piece of ground is +cleared, and leveled if need be, to secure a fit platform. Upon this +level is placed a layer or two of good cord wood, better well seasoned, +arranged in such manner as to afford horizontal draught passages into +the interior of the heap. Between the chinks in the cord wood, shavings, +straw or other light kindling is placed. The stone having been reduced +to the size of a double fist, sometimes not so small, is laid upon the +cord wood, care being taken to leave chinks between the stones just as +between the bricks in a brick kiln. It is preferred that this layer of +stone should not exceed six to ten inches in thickness.</p> + +<p>"In some cases, temporary wooden flues, filled with straw, are erected, +either one at the center or, if the heap is elliptical, one near each +end, and the stone and coal are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> built up around them; thus, when they +are burned out, a chimney or two is secured, which may be damped by +pieces of stone or sod. Upon this first layer of stone is spread a layer +of coal, and upon that a thicker layer of stone (12 inches), and so on, +coal and stone alternating until the heap is topped with smaller stone. +The largest stones should be placed near the top of the heap, but not +near the outside, so that they may be exposed to the highest heat. The +proportion of coal is diminished in the upper layers, the effort being +to distribute one-half of the total coal employed in the two lower +layers, so as to secure the highest economy possible in the use of the +fuel.</p> + +<p>"Fire is then kindled in the straw or shavings; when the flames have +communicated themselves to the cord wood and lowermost layer of coal, +and tongues of flame shoot out from the crevices in the sides of the +heap, earth, previously loosened by a few turns of the plow about the +heap, is rapidly spread over the entire heap, thus damping the drafts +and retarding the combustion. Steam and smoke slowly escape during the +first hours, but later the entire heap, including the outer covering of +earth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> is heated to a dull red glow. The burning goes on slowly for +several days, the interior often being hot for several weeks. When the +lower portion of the heap has reached an advanced stage of calcination, +a portion of the outer layer of lime sometimes slips down; if so, a +fresh covering of earth must promptly be applied at the exposed point; +otherwise it will serve as a vent for the heat, and the top and other +sides will fail of proper calcination."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime15" id="lime15"></a> +<img src="images/lime15.jpg" width="600" height="336" alt="Effect of Excessive Use of Burned Lime Without Manure at +the Pennsylvania Experiment Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Effect of Excessive Use of Burned Lime Without Manure at +the Pennsylvania Experiment Station</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime16" id="lime16"></a> +<img src="images/lime16.jpg" width="600" height="340" alt="A Hydrated Lime Plant + +(Courtesy of the Palmer Lime and Cement Company, York, Pa.)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A Hydrated Lime Plant + +(Courtesy of the Palmer Lime and Cement Company, York, Pa.)</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3>LIME HYDRATE</h3> + + +<p><i>Slaking Lime.</i> The usual means of reducing fresh burned stone lime to a +condition that makes even distribution upon land possible is by slaking. +A few years ago considerable effort was made to create a market for lime +pulverized by machinery, but the difficulty in excluding the moisture of +the air so that packages would not burst has been in the way of +developing a market. Slaking, by the addition of water to the fresh +burned lime, is the common method of getting the required physical +condition. When the slaking is done on the farm, the custom has been to +distribute the lime in small piles in the field, placing the piles at +such convenient distance apart that the lime, after slaking, could be +spread easily with a shovel.</p> + +<p>The water for slaking comes from rains, or from moisture in the air and +earth. The method is wasteful and can be justified, if ever, only where +farm-burned lime costs little per ton, and the nature of the soil is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +such that a relatively heavy application can be safely made. The +distribution is necessarily uneven, and if the required amount goes upon +all the surface, a great excess is sure to go upon a portion of it. Very +often an excess of water puddles much of the lime in the pile, and lumps +may be seen lying in ineffective form in the soil for years. The +practice is responsible for much of the excessive application that +brought the use of caustic lime into disrepute.</p> + +<p><i>Slaking in Large Heaps.</i> A preferable method is to put the lime in flat +heaps of large size and about four feet deep, so that water may be +applied or advantage be taken of rainfall. The value of the lime is so +great that one can well afford to draw water and apply with a hose so +that the quantity can be controlled with exactness. When fresh burned +lime is perfectly slaked, each 56 pounds of pure lime becomes 74 pounds +of hydrated lime, water furnishing the added weight.</p> + +<p><i>Hydrated Lime on the Market.</i> A popular form of lime on the market is +the hydrate. Manufacturers first burn the stone, and in the case of a +pure limestone they drive off 44 pounds of each 100 pounds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> of the +weight in burning. Then, they combine enough water with the lime to +change it to hydrate form, and that adds 18 pounds weight. It is run +through a sieve to remove any coarse material, and then packed in bags +which help to exclude the air. The small packages in which it comes upon +the market make handling easy, and this helps to bring it into demand. +Its good physical condition makes even distribution possible, and thus +permits maximum effectiveness to be obtained. It is only slaked lime, +identical in composition and value with lime of the same purity slaked +on the farm, but some dealers have been able to create the impression +that it has some added quality and peculiar power. This does no credit +to the public intelligence, but the hunger of soils for lime is so great +that investment at a price wholly out of proportion to the price of +farm-slaked lime has rarely failed to yield some profit.</p> + +<p><i>Degree of Purity.</i> It is always a reasonable assumption that hydrated +lime has been made from stone of a good degree of purity. A local stone, +burned on the farm, may be of low grade, but no man of business judgment +would erect a costly plant for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> burning and hydrating lime where the +purity of the stone would not afford a good advertisement in itself.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, we find very little hydrated lime on the market that +has not had sufficient exposure to the air to become changed in some +part to an air-slaked condition, or has had refuse mixed with it. +Air-slaked lime is not worth as much per ton as the hydrate because it +cannot correct as much soil acidity, and the percentage of the former +cannot be determined by the buyer. Its presence may not be due to any +wrong-doing of the manufacturer, and, on the other hand, the increase in +weight that attends air-slaking may be welcomed in some degree by a +dishonest manufacturer before the goods are shipped. The difficulty in +preventing hydrated lime from adding to its weight by becoming +air-slaked is a point to be taken into consideration.</p> + +<p>The percentages of air-slaked material in hydrated limes are widely +variable, and no manufacturer can standardize his product on the market +surely for the benefit of the farmer. In some instances the product is +adulterated with refuse material in finely pulverized condition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>OTHER FORMS OF LIME</h3> + + +<p><i>Air-Slaked Lime.</i> A pure limestone is a carbonate, and the chemical +formula is CaCO<small>3</small>. When it is burned, the carbon dioxide (CO<small>2</small>) is +driven off, leaving CaO, which is calcium oxide, called fresh burned +lime. In this process 44 pounds of a stone weighing 100 pounds passes +into the air, and there remain 56 pounds of lime. When it air-slakes, it +takes back the carbon dioxide from the air, and the new product becomes +CaCO<small>3</small>, or carbonate of lime, and regains its original weight of 100 +pounds. This is what would happen if the process were complete, and it +is nearly so when the exposure to the air is as perfect as possible.</p> + +<p>Fifty-six pounds of valuable material are in the 100 pounds of +air-slaked lime, just as is the case with limestone, and there is no +difference in effectiveness except in so far as the air-slaked material +is absolutely fine and available, while most pulverized limestone is +less so. In making purchase for use of land the buyer cannot afford to +make any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> appreciable difference in price in favor of air-slaked lime, +as compared with a fine stone.</p> + +<p><i>Air-Slaking a Slow Process.</i> Lime changes to an air-slaked condition +slowly unless it has full exposure. Old heaps will remain in hydrate +form for many years, excepting the outside coat, which excludes the air. +Complete air-slaking would not reduce ability to correct soil acidity, +the total amount of calcium and magnesium remaining constant, but weight +would be added in the slaking, and therefore the value per ton would be +reduced. The slowness with which air-slaking proceeds gives reason to +expect that any bulk of old lime may contain a considerable percentage +of the hydrate, and therefore have greater strength than a true +carbonate like limestone. This is a consideration of value to a buyer.</p> + +<p><i>Agricultural Lime.</i> Some manufacturers have found in the demand for +lime by farmers an opportunity of disposing of much material that would +not be satisfactory to manufacturers and builders. In some cases this +so-called agricultural lime is sold at a price that is not beyond value, +but it varies much in its content of pure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> lime. If the unburned cores +of kilns are ground up, the material simply retains the value of +unburned stone. Any air-slaked material put into it has like value. +Forkings, ground up, have less value, and sometimes no value at all. +Some better material may go into this mixture that is given the name +"agricultural lime," and the product cannot be standardized or have a +valuation given it that would be true for another lot.</p> + +<p>Some manufacturers are marketing limes of fair values under this +designation, but the values change as the material changes. There are +other manufacturers who are putting poor stuff on the market. Unless one +knows the manufacturer and his processes, he should not pay a great deal +for "agricultural lime." It is much better to buy a high-grade lime or +limestone that is more nearly constant in composition. When the word +"agricultural" is part of the brand, there is assurance that the +percentage of waste stuff in it is relatively high. Unless one knows to +the contrary, he should assume that a ton of finely pulverized limestone +is worth more per ton than "agricultural lime."</p> + +<p><i>Marl.</i> Marls vary in composition, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> limestones do, but there are beds +of chalky marl that contain very little clay and sand and are nearly a +pure carbonate. It is only marls of high degree of purity that can be +put on the market with profit, but beds of less pure marl furnish +dressings for farms of the locality in many sections of the country. +Some of these inferior marls have had so much clay and sand mixed with +the lime carbonate that dressings must be heavy. The best lime marls +provide excellent material for the correction of soil acidity, the +actual value per ton being practically the same as that of the finest +pulverized limestone. Some dealers in marl make extravagant claims for +their goods, but any farmer may easily put these claims to the test and +learn that he should not expect more than a fairly good carbonate of +lime can do.</p> + +<p>Marl improves the physical condition of stiff soils only when used in +large amount per acre, and this is true of any carbonate form, such as +limestone. Little effect upon physical condition should be expected from +the light application usually given when marl is purchased and +transported some distance to the farm. The chalk marl on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> the market is +used to correct soil acidity, and at the best it is worth only what good +lime carbonate is worth. It has no hidden virtues, and cannot take the +place of fertilizers. It is an excellent means of meeting the +lime-requirement of land when bought right, and its fine division makes +it distinctly superior to coarse stone.</p> + +<p>There should be no confusion of a lime marl with the so-called "green +sand" marl. The latter is low in lime, and may be acid, the value of the +marl being in a considerable percentage of plant food contained.</p> + +<p><i>Oyster Shell.</i> Ground oyster shell is a good source of carbonate of +lime. The percentage falls below that of limestone, but in addition +there is a little nitrogen and phosphoric acid. An analysis of a good +quality of oyster shell, as found on the market, will show 90% carbonate +of lime.</p> + +<p>Burned oyster shell has something near the same composition as lime made +from stone, but it goes back to hydrate and air-slaked forms rapidly. +There is no large amount of burned shell lime on the market, the +material known as shell lime being the ground shell, or lime carbonate.</p> + +<p><i>Wood Ashes.</i> A large supply of lime in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> excellent form was afforded by +hardwood ashes, but this product has ceased to have any important value +to our agriculture. The chief supply on the market is low in quality, +containing moisture and dirt in considerable amount, the form of lime +being changed from an oxide to the hydrate and carbonate.</p> + +<p><i>Gas Lime.</i> Prof. E. B. Voorhees, in "First Principles of Agriculture," +says: "Gas lime is also frequently used as manure; in gas works, +quicklime is used for removing the impurities from the gas. Gas lime, +therefore, varies considerably in composition, and consists really of a +mixture of slaked lime, or calcium hydrate, and carbonate of lime, +together with sulfites and sulfides of lime. These last are injurious to +young plant life, and gas lime should be applied long before the crop is +planted, or at least exposed to the air some time before its +application. The action of air converts the poisonous substances in it +into non-injurious products. Gas lime contains on an average 40% of +calcium oxide, and usually a small percentage of nitrogen."</p> + +<p><i>Lime After Magnesium Removal.</i> A by-product in the removal of +magnesium<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> from a magnesian limestone is an excellent material for +correction of soil acidity, on account of its physical condition. Its +exposure to the air causes much of the hydrate to change to an +air-slaked form, and its value per ton lies somewhere between that of +very finely pulverized limestone and hydrated lime.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3>MAGNESIAN LIME</h3> + + +<p><i>Magnesium.</i> As an element of plant food, magnesium is as essential as +calcium. It leaches out of the soil less readily, and there may be even +less need of its application as a plant food, though the need of calcium +applications for this purpose is assumed to be small. In the correction +of soil acidity magnesium is more effective than calcium, 84 pounds of +the carbonate being equal to 100 pounds of calcium carbonate. It is a +curious fact, however, that there is widespread fear of magnesium as a +soil amendment. This is not traceable to any considerable experience by +practical farmers that inspires caution in its use, although immense +quantities of magnesian limestone and lime have been used. Neither is it +due to any weight of evidence against it in the experience or teachings +of soil chemists and experiments. The facts of the case appear to be as +follows:</p> + +<p>1. An investigator found in his laboratory that a plant growing in a +water solution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> was injured when magnesium was added, and that the +injury was checked when calcium in equal amount was added to the water. +The theory was worked out that a soil should not contain a greater total +amount of magnesium than of calcium, and as the soil's supply of calcium +tends to leach out more readily than the supply of magnesium, it was +best to use a high-calcium lime. If this discovery of the laboratory had +been carried into the field, its significance would have dwindled to +zero in the case of normal soils, and a lot of exploitation would have +been rendered impossible. As it was, the discussion went merrily along +until it occurred to some one to test the matter in the soils where +plants grow, and one would now hear little of it if commercial interests +were not at stake.</p> + +<p>2. Very much of our limestone supply is high in magnesium, and some men +who have limestone very low in magnesium and high in calcium have done a +good stroke of business for themselves by deepening the public's +impression, due to laboratory tests with water cultures, that magnesium +in lime is injurious.</p> + +<p>3. Many people knew "lime," but had no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> knowledge of magnesia, and if it +was an impurity like clay or sand, cutting down value per ton, and if it +was worse because harmful, they wanted none of it.</p> + +<p><i>The Fact's Importance.</i> If every farm could get its supply of pure +calcium lime as cheaply as it can have magnesian lime, the truth +respecting the value of the latter would have small agricultural +importance, but as a great bulk of farm and commercial supplies of lime +is magnesian, financial injury has been done consumers who have paid +more than should have been paid for relatively pure calcium lime and +limestone, being afraid to use goods whose content of magnesium was not +small. It is poor policy to use either kind of burned lime in great +excess, but when rationally used on all soils except sandy ones, there +is no preference to be exercised that can be based upon performance. A +magnesian lime corrects as much acidity as a high calcium lime, and a +little more, and its use is to be recommended if there is any advantage +in the matter of price, except in the case of distinctly sandy soils.</p> + +<p><i>Magnesian Limestone.</i> Leading scientists making tests of limestone for +normal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> soils, use magnesian limestone freely. They recommend its use to +farmers wherever there is advantage in point of price. The advice is +safe that the limestone of a given fineness should be chosen whose total +percentage of carbonates of calcium and magnesium is the highest. The +example of these scientists, buying pulverized limestone for +agricultural colleges and experiment farms, and for their own farms, +should loosen the curious hold that the early warnings of a laboratory +experimenter took upon public imagination. The farmer should buy +limestone on a basis of ability to correct soil acidity, and make each +dollar do the most possible toward that end.</p> + +<p>Most limestones contain some percentage of magnesium, and in the case of +a pure dolomite over 45% carbonate is present in combination with +calcium carbonate. A stone rich in magnesium slakes less readily than +one high in calcium, and therefore is preferred by manufacturers +shipping pulverized burnt lime to reach its destination before slaking.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>WHAT SHALL ONE BUY?</h3> + + +<p><i>Relative Values.</i> The relative strengths of the various materials +containing lime may be known and yet doubt continue respecting the +choice to be made. The conflicting claims of dealers, and inaccurate +deductions from a single test made by some individual, aid the +confusion. If there were always the single purpose of correcting soil +acidity, and if there were the same ease of application in case of all +the materials, the choice would present much less difficulty. +Notwithstanding this, most land now has a lime requirement, or will have +one as leaching, crop removal and chemical change within the soil +continue, and the puzzle is no worse than a score of others that present +themselves continuously in farming.</p> + +<p><i>Destroying Acids.</i> The cost of liming to improve the physical condition +of land is prohibitive for most farms remote from supplies of stone that +can be burned and put upon the land at a low price per ton. Where stone +is at hand, and soils are in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>tractable, lime burned on the farm should +be used. Some slight benefit to a stiff soil may be obtained from the +light application that is deemed practicable where all forms are costly, +but this benefit is not usually marked in case of an application of a +ton or less of burned lime. It is a safe statement that most buyers of +lime in some form or other will profit chiefly through the correction of +soil acidity and promotion of bacterial life. This renders the situation +more simple as any carbonate, hydrate or oxide of lime will accomplish +these purposes.</p> + +<p><i>Composition.</i> The first consideration is the actual content of calcium +and magnesium. A guaranteed analysis is the only safe basis of purchase. +The unstable nature of fresh burned and hydrated forms makes an exact +statement of percentages impossible for goods not wholly fresh, but at +least the purity of the original limestone can be judged.</p> + +<p><i>Equivalents.</i> One ton of fresh burned lime, made from pure stone, is +equivalent to 2640 pounds of the hydrate, and to 3570 pounds of +pulverized limestone or of air-slaked lime. It is easy to carry in mind +the proportions expressed by 1, 1⅓ and 1¾.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> If there were no other +considerations, such as convenience in handling, evenness of +distribution, etc., to take into account, one ton of fresh burned lime, +one and a third tons hydrated and one and three-quarters tons finely +pulverized limestone would have the same value when delivered in the +field. Lime fully air-slaked, high-grade marl, and finely pulverized +limestone would have the same value, ton for ton.</p> + +<p><i>Even Distribution.</i> The value of even distribution is not easily +overestimated. If lime in proper amount does not go into each square +foot of an acid soil, some of the soil will remain sour unless mixing is +done by implements of tillage. Lime is diffused laterally through the +soil in a very slight degree. If a strip of sour land is protected by +canvas, so that no dust from lime applied to uncovered land can blow +upon it, a seeding to clover will show that plants a few inches from the +edge of the limed area will fail to start thriftily and may die before +their roots reach the lime. Full effectiveness of an application is +possible only through even distribution.</p> + +<p><i>Using Lump Lime.</i> Lump lime, slaked on the farm, is difficult to apply +satisfac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>torily. Spreading with a shovel from small heaps is bad +practice, and when the lime is slaked in a large heap, it cannot be +handled as well as pulverized stone or commercial hydrated lime. The +latter two are in condition for application by means of a lime +distributor, or even a fertilizer attachment of a grain drill. The +farm-slaked lime contains impurities that interfere with distribution.</p> + +<p><i>An Estimate.</i> It is always hazardous to attempt an estimate of cost of +labor without knowing the particular farm conditions, but the expense +and discomfort attending the slaking and use of lime bought in lump +state justify a willingness to pay as much for a ton of hydrated lime as +lump lime would cost, although the former has only three-fourths as much +strength as the latter. Some farmers pay nearly twice as much for the +hydrated, partly to escape the inconvenience and partly because they +hope that the extraordinary claims for superiority made by some dealers +may prove true. They should know that it is only fresh burned lime +slaked, but incline to credit a claim that special treatment enhances +value in some mysterious way.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p> + +<p>Comparing lump lime with finely pulverized limestone, the factors of +expense and discomfort and final lack of perfect distribution of the +former remain important. The stone is relatively easy to handle, being +slightly granular and passing through a distributor without trouble. The +fact that it is not caustic, like the hydrated, is in its favor. When +everything is taken into account, one is justified in using limestone or +air-slaked lime at a cost per ton three-fourths as great as that of lump +lime. It is to be borne in mind that in these estimates the cost per ton +is not that at the factory or at one's own railway station, but on the +farm. The freight and cartage to the farm are based on weight of +material, and more material per acre is required when the worthless +portion has not been driven off by burning. If one must use one and +three-quarters tons of limestone to have the equivalent of one ton of +fresh burned lime, it is evident that the cost of freight and cartage of +the worthless portion might make cost prohibitive if distances were very +great. Farms lying a long distance from a railway station may easily +find that fresh burned lime is the only form of lime they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> can afford. +The basis for correct estimate is cost delivered in the field.</p> + +<p><i>Storage.</i> One advantage possessed by the limestone is ease of storage. +There is no inconvenience or loss. The stone may be ordered at any time +of the year when teams are least busy upon other work, and it can be +held till wanted. In this way the cost of cartage to the farm may be +kept relatively low, and the material is at hand when wanted, regardless +of rush of work or delays of railroads. This advantage is partial +counterbalance to the cost of freight on the worthless portion of +unburned stone.</p> + +<p><i>Valuing Limestone.</i> The estimates, so far as labor and convenience are +concerned, are merely suggestive, and rest upon the presumption that the +stone is satisfactorily fine. It has been urged in another chapter that +immediate effectiveness is determined by fineness, but as a working +basis we assumed that when all the stone would pass through a screen +having sixty wires to the inch it would give the desired results. The +coarsest portion would not be available at once, but when an application +is heavy enough to serve for a year or more, we have enough very fine +material in such a grade of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> stone to meet immediate need. When +estimating values of such a grade and coarser grades, the amount per +acre to be used is a factor. The coarse is unsatisfactory if the price +is not low enough to permit an application sufficient for a considerable +term of years, so that it will contain all the fine material needed at +once. In that case the coarser material may be expected to meet later +need, and may be even more desirable for such purpose, as it would not +be subject to leaching.</p> + +<p>Coarse grinding costs much less than fine grinding, and it is the +resulting low price that permits the heavy application. As stone varies +in hardness and ability of the small particles to withstand +disintegrating forces in the soil, an estimate of the difference in +price between a 60-mesh limestone and a 10-mesh one could not serve as a +safe guide. The buyer should know the percentages of a limestone passing +through screens of various sizes before he makes a purchase, and should +demand part of the saving in cost of production that attends coarse +grinding.</p> + +<p><i>Oyster Shell.</i> Ground oyster shell should be given about the same +valuation as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> limestone. It is a lime carbonate, and the percentage of +worthless material in it varies somewhat It is coarsely ground, but the +large pieces disintegrate in the soil much more rapidly than limestone +would do. It contains a little nitrogen and phosphoric acid, partially +available, as an offset to coarseness and some lack of purity, as +compared with the highest grade of fine stone. It is profitable to buy +oyster shell at limestone prices if used liberally enough to furnish a +supply for a term of years. The oxide, or burned shell lime, would be +nearly the equivalent of burned stone if it did not change to hydrate +and air-slaked forms so rapidly that it rarely is on the market in the +<b>full</b> strength of fresh burned lime.</p> + +<p><i>Hardwood Ashes.</i> As a source of lime, ashes have become far too +expensive. The composition of ashes on the market is widely variable, +dirt and moisture often accounting for much of the weight. The lime in +fresh burned ashes is peculiarly effective, being finely divided and in +oxide form, but the ashes on the market have much of the lime +water-slaked and air-slaked. Unless analysis is made at time of +purchase, a buyer should not estimate the content of lime in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> ton at a +value greater than assigned to one-half of a ton of limestone. The +additional value of the ashes, due to the potash content, is wholly +another consideration.</p> + +<p><i>Marl.</i> No more should be paid for a ton of good chalk marl than an +equal weight of fine limestone would cost. Each is a good carbonate of +lime, with the same capacity for destruction of acids.</p> + +<p><i>Agricultural Lime.</i> This variable product should not be bought unless +actual composition is known, or the cost is as low as that of pulverized +limestone, and even then it may be a bad purchase, the methods of the +manufacturer being the determining factor. If such lime is chiefly a +dumping place for low-grade stone and forkings, it has small +agricultural value.</p> + +<p><i>Land Plaster.</i> The soil wants lime in carbonate form. The oxide and +hydrate change to carbonate, and therefore are good. Land plaster is a +sulphate, and its tendency is to make a soil sour. It should not be +considered as a means of correcting soil acidity.</p> + +<p><i>Basic Slag.</i> The amount of effective lime in basic slag, as made by +modern methods, is so small that its value is nearly negligible. Basic +slag is a good source of phos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>phorus, and in addition has a tendency +toward correction of soil acidity, but such tendency has little cash +value for land that requires a considerable dressing of lime to furnish +a base with which soil acids may combine.</p> + +<p>An expression of opinion was obtained recently from some leading soil +chemists of this country, and upon such expression we base the estimate +that when pulverized limestone costs three dollars a ton, the value of +the lime in a ton of basic slag should not be placed higher than 50 +cents, and some chemists believe that the lime content is entirely +negligible as an agent in soil amendment.</p> + +<p><i>Lime in Other Fertilizers.</i> The demand for lime is leading some men to +state a lime content for their goods that is designed to mislead. Such +lime is not in a form to combine with soil acids, and is as valueless as +the very large amount of lime in acid soils that is in compounds having +no power to affect free acids.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h3>METHODS OF APPLICATION</h3> + + +<p><i>A Controlling Principle.</i> The chief purpose of liming land is to +provide a base with which acid may combine, so that the soil may be +friendly to plant life. Lime has little power to distribute itself +through a soil, and harmful acid may remain only a few inches distant +from the point where lime has been placed. In a general way, the +tendency of lime is downward, especially when the application at the +surface is heavy. Economical use demands even distribution through the +soil so that a sufficient amount is in every part. Means to that end are +good means of distribution.</p> + +<p><i>Spreading on Grass.</i> Where lime is burned on the farm, and little +account of labor is taken, it has been a common custom to spread the +lime on grass sods the year previous to breaking the sod for corn, using +100 to 300 bushels per acre. Rains carried some of the lime through the +soil, and the increased yields for a few years were due to the improved +physical condition of a stiff<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> soil that a heavy application of +caustic lime produces, and to the disintegration of organic matter and +to change in compounds of mineral plant food. The practice is rightly +going into disrepute, being wasteful and harmful.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime17" id="lime17"></a> +<img src="images/lime17.jpg" width="600" height="342" alt="Filling the Lime Spreader at the Ohio Experiment Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Filling the Lime Spreader at the Ohio Experiment Station</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;"><a name="lime18" id="lime18"></a> +<img src="images/lime18.jpg" width="376" height="500" alt="Lime Distributors" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Lime Distributors</span> +</div> + +<p>The smaller application of any form of lime to correct soil acidity may +be made on grass land that should not be plowed, but the full +effectiveness of an application is not secured in top-dressings. If the +land is under a crop rotation, it is better practice not to apply the +lime on grass, but to defer application until the sod has been broken, +when the lime can be intimately mixed with the soil by use of harrows. +It is the rule that it should go on plowed land, and should be mixed +with the soil before rain puddles it. In no case should it be plowed +down.</p> + +<p>When clover or alfalfa shows a lime deficiency, it is advisable to make +an application, either in the spring or after a cutting, obtaining +whatever degree of effectiveness may be possible to this way, but the +fact remains that full return from an application is secured only after +intimate mixture with the soil particles. On the other hand,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> if land +needs lime, and there is not time or labor for the application when the +soil can be stirred, it is far better to apply on the surface during any +idle time than to leave the soil deficient in lime.</p> + +<p><i>Distributors.</i> The most satisfactory means of distribution is a machine +made for the purpose. A number of good distributors are on the market. +They are designed to handle a large quantity of material after the +fashion of a fertilizer distributor ordinarily attached to a grain +drill. A V-shaped box, with openings at the bottom, and a device to +regulate the quantity per acre, enables the workman to cover the surface +of the ground with an even coat, and the mixing with the soil is done by +harrows.</p> + +<p>Light applications can be made with a drill having a fertilizer +attachment. Some makes of drill have much more capacity than others. +Granular lime, such as limestone, is handled more satisfactorily than a +floury slaked lime.</p> + +<p><i>Farm-Slaked Lime.</i> Lime slaked on the farm must continue to be a +leading source of supply to land. If there is stone on the farm, and +labor in the winter is available, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> is not a costly source of supply. +The chief drawback to the use of farm-slaked lime is the difficulty in +securing even distribution. The loss from spreading with shovels from +small piles slaked in the field is heavy. The quantity per acre must be +large to insure sufficient material for every square foot of surface. +The lime slaked in a large heap can be put through distributors only +after screening to remove pieces of stone, unless they are made with a +screening device, and the caustic character and floury condition make +handling disagreeable, but no other method is as economical when lime is +high in price.</p> + +<p><i>Use of the Manure Spreader.</i> The next best device is the manure +spreader. The makes on the market vary in ability to do satisfactory +work with lime, and none does even work with a small quantity per acre. +An addition to the bulk to be handled by placing a layer of other +material in the spreader before filling with lime helps, but some +spreaders do fair work in spreading as little as 3000 pounds of slaked +lime per acre, and certainly far better work than usually is done with +shovels from a wagon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h3>AMOUNT OF LIME PER ACRE</h3> + + +<p><i>Soils Vary in Requirement.</i> There is always the insistent question +respecting the amount of lime that should be used on a particular field. +Usually <i>no</i> definite reply can be safely made. The requirement of the +present, and probably of the <i>next</i> few years, should be met by one +application. The existing degree of acidity is an unknown quantity until +a careful test has been made. There are soils so sour that several tons +of fresh burned lime per acre would only meet present requirement, and +there are soils so soundly alkaline that they need none at all. This +uncertainty regarding amount required is responsible for much failure to +do anything, even when some acidity is indicated by general appearance.</p> + +<p><i>A Working Basis.</i> If land has once been productive and in later years +clover has ceased to grow and grass sods are thin, there is a strong +probability that liming will pay, and the experience of farmers on +normal soils, and the tests of experiment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> stations, justify the +estimate that two tons of fine stone, or one and a quarter tons of fresh +burned lime per acre, can be used with profit. This amount probably will +permit fertilizers and tillage to make their full return in heavy sods +that will provide humus. It is a reasonable expectation that the +application will serve through a crop rotation of four or five years.</p> + +<p>If the soil was not very sour, the second application at the end of four +or five years may be reduced somewhat, and even a ton of stone given +once in the crop rotation may fully meet the requirement.</p> + +<p>In the case of the normal soil that has ceased to grow clover, and does +grow plants that are acid-resistant, it is better practice to secure a +relatively low-priced supply of coarsely pulverized stone and apply +three or four tons per acre, and thus lengthen the interval between +applications to eight or 10 years. The fine material in the heavy +application will take care of present need, and the coarser particles +will disintegrate later on.</p> + +<p>The quantities suggested may not be the most economical for the reader, +but their use cannot be attended by loss if a soil is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> sour, and there +is reason to believe that it is much better to use such quantities +without question than to defer liming for a year in the hope that some +more definite knowledge of a particular field's needs may be secured.</p> + +<p><i>Small Amounts Per Acre.</i> There is much experience as a basis for the +claim that a few hundred pounds of burned lime per acre may have marked +results. Fields that indicated an actual lime requirement of a ton of +fresh lime per acre have had a test of 500 pounds per acre made in +strips, and the clover later on was so superior to that which was +struggling to live in the untreated portion that the light application +appeared almost to be adequate. In such land there cannot be full +bacterial activity or continuing friendliness to plants unless the need +is met fully. A larger application would have paid better. It is the +soil rich in lime that can make the best response to tillage and +fertilization.</p> + +<p><i>A Heavy Soil.</i> When burned lime is not high in price, an application of +two tons per acre may be more profitable than a smaller one. A heavy +soil needs to be richer in lime than a light one for best re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>sults, and +physical condition also is improved by the larger quantity. A +correspondingly heavy coat of stone will give quite satisfactory +results, but effect upon the texture of the soil is less marked.</p> + +<p><i>Sandy Soils.</i> It is inadvisable to apply any large quantity of caustic +lime to a light soil. Such a soil does not need as high a percentage in +it as a heavy soil requires for good results, and caustic lime can +easily injure physical condition. Limestone is safe for use, and is to +be advised for all quite sandy land. Acidity rarely runs high in a light +soil, and the opinion is hazarded here that one ton of stone per acre +meets the needs of a light soil about as surely as two tons supply a +heavy soil. In case of each type of soil there are wide exceptions, and +yet these estimates form a basis for the judgment of the individual +farmer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>SPECIAL CROP DEMANDS</h3> + + +<p><i>Lime-Loving Crops.</i> There are plants which are acid-resistant, giving a +good return for fertilization and care when the soil is sour. There are +a few kinds of cultivated plants that seem to prefer an acid soil, and +to resent lime applications. Most staple crops prefer an alkaline soil, +or at least one that has no large requirement, and there are plants that +thrive best only in land rich in lime. Not all such plants require more +as a component part of their structure, but do have a high percentage in +their ash.</p> + +<p><i>Liming for Alfalfa.</i> When all other conditions are right, alfalfa +thrives or fails according as a soil is rich in lime or is distinctly +deficient. It is entirely possible to get fair yields of this legume for +a short time from land that is not fully alkaline, but full yields and +ability to last for a term of years depend upon a liberal lime supply. +Alfalfa is at home only in a naturally calcareous soil, or one that has +been given some of the characteristics of such land by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> free use of +lime. In the case of neutral or slightly acid ground it is good practice +to mix four tons of limestone per acre thoroughly with the soil. Such +treatment gives greater permanence to the seeding, enabling the plants +to compete successfully with the wild grasses and other weeds that are +the chief obstacle to success in the humid climate of our Mississippi +valley and eastern states. When this amount of stone is used, the finest +grade may not be preferred to material having a considerable percentage +of slightly coarser grains.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime19" id="lime19"></a> +<img src="images/lime19.jpg" width="600" height="339" alt="Remarkable Effect of Lime on Sweet Clover at the Ohio +Experiment Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Remarkable Effect of Lime on Sweet Clover at the Ohio +Experiment Station</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="lime20" id="lime20"></a> +<img src="images/lime20.jpg" width="600" height="340" alt="Sweet Clover Thrives When Lime and Manure Are Supplied, +Ohio Experiment Station" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Sweet Clover Thrives When Lime and Manure Are Supplied, +Ohio Experiment Station</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Red Clover.</i> When land is in excellent tilth, it may grow red clover +satisfactorily while showing a decided lime deficiency. On the other +hand, much slightly acid land fails to grow clover, and an application +of lime is followed by heavy growths. Red clover is most at home in +calcareous soils, and lack of lime is a leading cause of clover failure +in this country. Other causes may be important ones in the absence of +lime and be overcome when it is present.</p> + +<p><i>Alsike Clover.</i> Most legumes like lime, and alsike clover is not an +exception, but is far more acid-resistant than the red. It is less +valuable, both for soil improvement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> and for forage, having an inferior +root system, but has proved a boon to farmers in areas that have been +losing the power to grow red clover. The custom of mixing red and alsike +seed has become widespread, and distinctly acid soils are marked in the +clover flowering season by the profusion of the distinctive alsike bloom +to the exclusion of the red. While there is acid-resistant power, this +clover responds to liming.</p> + +<p><i>Crimson Clover.</i> Among lime-loving plants crimson clover has a rightful +place, but it makes fairly good growth where the lack of lime is marked.</p> + +<p><i>Bluegrass.</i> The heaviest bluegrass sods are found where lime is +abundant in the soil. This most valuable pasture grass may withstand the +encroachments of weeds for a long time when lime is not abundant, if +plant food is not in scant supply, but dependable sods of this grass are +made only in an alkaline soil. Heavy liming of an acid soil pays when a +seeding to permanent pasture is made, and old sods on land unfit for +tillage may be given a new life by a dressing.</p> + +<p><i>Crops Favored by Lime.</i> Nearly all staple farm crops respond to +applications<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> given acid soils. Corn, oats, timothy, potatoes and many +other crops have considerable power of resistance to acids, but give +increased yields when lime is present. Liming is not recommended for +potatoes because it furnishes conditions favorable to a disease which +attacks this crop. When clover is wanted in a crop rotation with +potatoes, it is advisable to apply the lime immediately after the potato +crop has been grown, and to use limestone rather than burned lime. Most +kinds of vegetables thrive best in an alkaline soil.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<ul class="none"><li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Air-slaked lime, composition and relative value of, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Agricultural lime, composition and relative value of, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Amount of lime per acre, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Basic slag, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Burning lime, methods of, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Calcium, <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">carbonate, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">hydroxide, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">oxide, <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Carbon dioxide, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Causes of soil acidity, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>, <a href='#Page_13'><b>13</b></a>, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Caustic lime affects physical condition, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a>, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">acts on humus, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a>, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">frees inert plant food, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">compared with limestone, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">irrational use of, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">may injure a sandy soil, <a href='#Page_66'><b>66</b></a>, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">right use of, <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Caustic magnesian lime on sandy land, <a href='#Page_66'><b>66</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Chemical changes produce acidity, <a href='#Page_13'><b>13</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Clover, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>, <a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a>, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Composition of limestone, <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Distribution of lime, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a>, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Distributors, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>, <a href='#Page_81'><b>81</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dolomite, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Equivalents in value, <a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Extent of soil acidity, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a>, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fineness of limestone, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Frear, Dr. Wm., <a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Fresh burned lime, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">composition and relative value of, <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a>, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a>, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gas lime, <a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ground limestone, composition and relative value of, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_33'><b>33</b></a>, <a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a>, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hydrated lime, composition and relative value of <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indications of soil acidity, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a>, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Irrational use of lime, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Land plaster, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Leaching, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lime for alfalfa, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">alsike clover, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">bluegrass, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">crimson clover, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">potatoes, <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">red clover, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">most staple crops, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">in fertilizers, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">is unstable, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">necessary content variable, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">on sandy soils, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Limestone burned to effect distribution, <a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">land, value of, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">varies in composition, <a href='#Page_33'><b>33</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Litmus paper test, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Low-priced pulverizers, <a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Lump lime and hydrate compared, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">limestone compared, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Magnesian lime, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">limestone, <a href='#Page_66'><b>66</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Magnesium, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Marl, composition and relative value of, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">New York experiment station, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Old heaps of burned lime, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Oyster shells, composition and relative value of, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Redtop, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Relative values of lime, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a>, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Removal of lime in crops, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Slaking lime, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Small applications may pay, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Soil acidity, cause of, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>, <a href='#Page_13'><b>13</b></a>, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">extent of, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a>, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">indications of, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a>, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">tests for, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Soils vary in lime requirement, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sorrel and plantain, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Spreading farm-burned lime, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a>, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Storing lime in the soil, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Storing limestone, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Source of lime, as:</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">agricultural lime, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">air-slaked lime, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">fresh-burned lime, <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a>, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">gas lime, <a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">ground lime, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">ground limestone, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_33'><b>33</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">hydrated or slaked lime, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">magnesian limestone, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">marl, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">oyster shells, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">wood ashes, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Source of lime in soils, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>, <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Technical terms, <a href='#Page_28'><b>28</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tests for soil acidity, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Thin soils usually acid, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Timber as an index, <a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a>, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Timothy, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Truog, Prof. E., <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Truog test, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Value of lime after magnesium removal, <a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Voorhees, Dr. E. B., <a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Warding off soil acidity, <a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">When production decreases, <a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wood ashes, composition and relative value of, <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a>, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a></span></li> + +</ul> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Right Use of Lime in Soil Improvement, by Alva Agee + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RIGHT USE OF LIME IN SOIL *** + +***** This file should be named 25389-h.htm or 25389-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/3/8/25389/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Janet Blenkinship and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net +(This file was produced from images produced by Core +Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell +University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Right Use of Lime in Soil Improvement + +Author: Alva Agee + +Release Date: May 8, 2008 [EBook #25389] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RIGHT USE OF LIME IN SOIL *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Janet Blenkinship and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net +(This file was produced from images produced by Core +Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell +University) + + + + + + + + + + Right Use of Lime In Soil Improvement + + _By_ ALVA AGEE + + + [Illustration: Applying Lime] + + + Secretary New Jersey State Department of Agriculture + + Formerly director of agricultural extension in the Pennsylvania State + College and New Jersey State College of Agriculture. + + _Illustrated_ + + NEW YORK + ORANGE JUDD COMPANY + + LONDON + KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LIMITED + + 1919 + + Copyright 1919, by + ORANGE JUDD COMPANY + + _All Rights Reserved_ + + Printed in U. S. A. + + + * * * * * + + + CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + 1. INTRODUCTION 1 + + 2. THE LIME IN SOILS 4 + + 3. SOUR SOILS 10 + + 4. EVIDENCES OF ACIDITY 15 + + 5. TESTS FOR ACIDITY 20 + + 6. SOURCES OF LIME 24 + + 7. DEFINITIONS 28 + + 8. GROUND LIMESTONE 33 + + 9. STORING LIME IN THE SOIL 38 + + 10. FRESH BURNED LIME 44 + + 11. BURNING LIME 49 + + 12. LIME HYDRATE 53 + + 13. OTHER FORMS OF LIME 57 + + 14. MAGNESIAN LIME 64 + + 15. WHAT SHALL ONE BUY? 68 + + 16. METHODS OF APPLICATION 78 + + 17. AMOUNT OF LIME PER ACRE 82 + + 18. SPECIAL CROP DEMANDS 86 + + + + + ILLUSTRATIONS + + Applying Lime Frontispiece + + FACING PAGE + + I. Clover and Timothy Unfertilized at the Pennsylvania + Experiment Station Yielded 2,460 + pounds per acre 10 + + II. Clover and Timothy with Fertilizer alone at + the Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded + 3,900 pounds per acre 11 + + III. Clover and Timothy with Lime alone at the + Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded + 4,900 pounds per acre 14 + + IV. Clover and Timothy with Fertilizer and Lime + at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station + yielded 6,290 pounds per acre 15 + + V. Limed and Unlimed Ends of a Plot at the + Ohio Experiment Station 16 + + VI. Effect of Finely Pulverized Limestone on Clover + in a Soil having a Lime Requirement of + 5,200 Pounds of Limestone per Acre, at the + Pennsylvania Experiment Station 17 + + VII. Lime Favors Clover at the Ohio Experiment + Station 24 + + VIII. Lime Affects Growth of Corn at the Ohio Experiment + Station 25 + + IX. An Indiana Limestone Quarry 32 + + X. A Limestone Plant 33 + (Courtesy of the Michigan Limestone Company.) + + XI. A Limestone Pulverizer for Farm Use 38 + (Courtesy of the Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, + Columbus, Ohio.) + + XII. A Lime Pulver in Operation 39 + (Courtesy of the Jeffrey Manufacturing Company.) + + XIII. Laying Foundation for a Lime Stack at the + Pennsylvania Experiment Station 48 + + XIV. A Stack nearly Completed at the Pennsylvania + Experiment Station 49 + + XV. Effect of Excessive Use of Burned Lime without + Manure at the Pennsylvania Experiment + Station 52 + + XVI. A Hydrated Lime Plant 53 + (Courtesy of the Palmer Lime and Cement Company, + York, Pa.) + + XVII. Filling the Lime Spreader at the Ohio Experiment + Station 78 + + XVIII. Lime Distributors 79 + + XIX. Remarkable Effect of Lime on Sweet Clover at + the Ohio Experiment Station 86 + + XX. Sweet Clover Thrives When Lime and Manure + are Supplied, Ohio Experiment Station 87 + + + * * * * * + + +CHAPTER 1 + +INTRODUCTION + + +There is much in the action of lime in the soil that is not known, but +all that we really need to know is simple and easily comprehended. The +purpose of this little book is to set down the things that we need to +know in order that we may make and keep our land friendly to plant life +so far as lime is necessarily concerned with such an undertaking. +Intelligent men like to reason matters out for themselves so far as +practicable, taking the facts and testing them in their own thinking by +some truth they have gained in their own experience and observation, and +then their convictions stay by them and are acted upon. The whole story +of the right use of lime on land is so simple and reasonable, when we +stick only to the practical side, that we should easily escape the +confusion of thought that seems to stand in the way of action. The +experiment stations have been testing the value of lime applications to +acid soils, and the government has been finding that the greater part +of our farming lands is deficient in lime. Tens of thousands of farmers +have confirmed the results of the stations that the application of lime +is essential to profitable crop production on their farms. The confusion +is due to some results of the misuse of lime before the needs of soils +were understood, and to the variety of forms in which lime comes to us +and the rather conflicting claims made for these various forms. It is +unfortunate and unnecessary. + +The soil is a great chemical laboratory, but exact knowledge of all its +processes doubtless would enrich the farmer's vocabulary more than his +pocketbook. We are concerned in knowing that lime's field of usefulness +is broad in that it is an essential plant food and provides the active +means of keeping the feeding ground of plants in sanitary condition. We +want to know how it comes about that our soils are deficient in lime, +and how we may determine the fact that they are deficient. We wish to +know the relative values of the various forms of lime and how we may +choose in the interest of our soil and our pocketbook. The time and +method of application are important considerations to us. There are +many details of knowledge, it is true, and yet all fit into a rational +scheme that shows itself to be simple enough when the facts arrange +themselves in an orderly way in our minds. + +Lime cannot take the place of nitrogen, nor phosphorus, nor any other of +the essential plant foods. It is not a substitute for any other +essential factor in plant growth. It would be folly to try to depend +upon lime as a sole source of soil fertility. On the other hand, we have +learned very definitely within the last quarter of a century that it is +foolish to depend upon commercial fertilizers and tillage and good seeds +for full production of most crops from great areas of our farming +country that have a marked lime deficiency. The obvious need of our +soils is the rich organic matter that clover and grass sods could +furnish, and their fundamental need is lime. Most farms cannot possibly +make full returns to their owners until the land's hunger for lime has +been met. The only question is that regarding the best way of meeting +it. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE LIME IN SOILS + + +_Limestone Land._ Soil analyses are serviceable only within certain +limits, and in the case of the normal soils that comprise the very great +part of the entire humid region of the United States the practical man +gives little heed to what special analyses might show him when deciding +upon the purchase of a farm. He does know, however, that a limestone +soil has great natural strength, and recovers from mistreatment more +readily than land low in lime. It has staying powers, and is dependable, +unless through natural processes the lime leaches out or loses +availability. All limestone areas have gained reputation for themselves +as producers of grain and grass. + +_Other Calcareous Soils._ It is not only the limestone areas that stand +high in esteem. There are types of soil with every varying percentage of +lime down to clear sand or to peat, and some of the types are finely +calcareous, containing such a high percentage of lime that nothing more +could be desired. + +The actual percentage is not the determining factor, a clay soil needing +greater richness in this material than a loam, and a sandy soil giving a +good account of itself with an even less total content of lime, but in +its way the particular soil type must be well supplied by nature with +lime if its trees and other vegetation bear evidences of its strength +and good agricultural value. + +_Natural Deficiency._ It is interesting to note the differences in +evidences of prosperity that are associated with lime percentages. The +areas that are able to produce the vegetation characteristic of +calcareous soils are obviously the most prosperous. The decidedly +lime-deficient sections, advertising their state by the kind of original +timber, and later by unfriendliness to the clovers, do not attract +buyers except through relatively low prices for farms. Such areas are +extensive and have well marked boundaries in places. + +It does not follow that every farm in such limestone valleys as the +Shenandoah, Cumberland, and Lebanon, or in the great corn belt having a +naturally calcareous soil, is prosperous, or that a multitude of owners +of such lime-deficient areas as the belt in a portion of southern New +York and northern Pennsylvania, or the sandstone and shale regions of +many states, have not overmatched natural conditions with fine skill. We +treat only of averages when saying that a "lime country" shows a +prosperity in its farm buildings and general appearance that does not +come naturally and easily to any lime-deficient territory. In the latter +a man rows against the current, and if livestock farming is not employed +to furnish manure, and if the manure is not supplemented by tillage and +drainage to secure aeration, or if lime is not applied, the land reaches +such a degree of acidity that it loses the power to yield any profit. + +_Nature's Short Supply._ The total area of lime-deficient soil is large, +comprising certainly much more than half of all the land east of the +semi-arid belt of the United States. No small part of this area was not +deficient at one time, as the nature of the original timber indicates, +and it is well within the knowledge of practical men that land which +once produced the walnut and ash and shellbark hickory can be brought +back to productivity with reasonable ease after very hard usage. It has +a good inheritance. It is a disconcerting fact in our American +agriculture that, fertile as our country is as a whole, very great areas +were so deficient in lime before they came under man's control that the +chestnut, pine, and the oaks of mean growth were fully at home. The +gradation from low lime content to high, and its relation to soil type, +give us all sorts of mixtures of lime-loving and acid-resistant +varieties of trees in original forests, but our agriculture is hampered +by the high percentage of land for which nature made no great provision +of lime, and on this land farming lags. + +_Effect of Irrational Farming._ Interest in liming might well have been +due to the amendment of all this soil, but the rational use of lime that +has been the subject of much study in the last quarter of a century +concerns chiefly great areas that probably could have been kept in +alkaline condition and friendly to the clovers for a long time despite a +short natural supply as compared with the content of our limestone +lands. The success of individual farmers in areas now admittedly acid as +a whole is convincing on this point. Nature tries constantly to cure +the ills of her soil through the addition of vegetable matter. An excess +of water or a deficiency is atoned for in a degree by the leaves and +rotted wood of her forests. Aeration is kept possible. The lime in the +product of the soil goes back to it. A system of farming that involves +the application of manure, thorough tillage, drainage where needed, and +the free use of sods in some way, has kept portions of these +non-calcareous soils out of the distinctly acid class. Clover grows +satisfactorily, grass sods are heavy, and there is no acute lime +problem. Such farms are relatively few in the great stretches of land +now classed as acid soil, and probably the most of the lime that is +being applied goes only on ground that once was sufficiently alkaline to +grow the clovers. The loss of organic matter through failure to use the +best methods of farming is responsible for no small part of the +widespread need of lime today. This subtracts nothing from the urgency +of its use to restore a condition favoring clover and grass sods, but it +does teach a lesson of the highest value. The day of destructive soil +acidity can be retarded by good farming, but in the long run the +inevitable losses of lime from most soils must be met by applications. + +_Limestone Soils._ The old-time practice of making heavy applications of +fresh burned lime to stiff limestone soils to make them friable, and to +make their plant food available, led to disuse of all lime in some +sections on account of the exhaustion that followed dependence upon +these large amounts as a manure. Queerly enough, these original +limestone soils have latterly been going into the acid class through +loss of their distinctive elements, and they, too, have become dependent +upon means for the correction of acidity. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +SOUR SOILS + + +_Loss of Lime._ Nature made the value of land as a producer of food +utterly dependent upon the activity of lime, and at the same time gave +it some power to shirk its work. In a normal soil is a percentage of +lime that came from the disintegration of rock of the region or was +transported by action of water on a huge scale. Possibly rarely would it +be in insufficient amount to keep a soil in a condition friendly to +plant life, and to feed the plant, if it stayed where nature placed it +and kept in form available for the needs it was intended to meet. There +is land that always was notably deficient in this material, and there is +land that was known in the early history of the world's agriculture to +be "sour," but the troubles of our present day in the case of the +farming country in the humid region of the United States is less due to +any natural absolute shortage than to combination that destroys value +and to escape by action of water. + +[Illustration: Clover and Timothy Unfertilized at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station Yielded 2460 Pounds per Acre] + +[Illustration: Clover and Timothy with Fertilizer alone at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded 3900 Pounds per Acre] + +_Prevalence of Acidity._ The results of experiment station and farm +tests are conclusive that the soils of the greater part of all the humid +region of the United States show lime deficiency. Formerly, acidity was +associated in our minds with wet, low-lying land, but within the last +twenty years we have learned that it prevails in light seashore sands +along the Atlantic shore, in clays, loams and shales stretching to the +Appalachian system of mountains, on top of mountain ranges and across +foothills to our central states, and through them in stretches to the +semi-arid lands of the west. While not all this land has fallen into the +lime-deficient class, and the great part of some states remains +alkaline, the tendency toward acidity is continuous. + +Crop production in great portions of the Mississippi valley is +restricted by lack of lime in the soil, and some states to the eastward +have one-half to nine-tenths of their acreage too low in lime for the +best results. Calcareous soils have been losing their distinctive +feature, and the immense areas of land naturally low in lime have +remained hampered in ability to make full returns for labor, fertilizer +and seed. It is this situation that brings the right use of lime on +land to the front as a matter of fundamental importance to the farmer. + +_Causes of Soil Acidity._ If any discussion of the causes of soil +acidity would delay a decision to apply lime where needed, the time +given to such discussion would be worse than wasted. It is much more +important to be able to detect the presence of harmful acids and to +neutralize them than it is to know why the soil should be in such plight +that it could not supply the required lime and had become dependent upon +its owner for assistance. On the other hand, some of us find it +difficult to accept a fact without seeing a reason for it, and we may do +well to consider several causes that may be at work to put a soil out of +the alkaline class. + +_Leaching._ One cause that appears obvious and easy of acceptance is +leaching. In the case of one Pennsylvania farm, lying in a limestone +valley, the lime had been washed out by action of water so freely that +caverns formed under the surface, and a test showed a marked deficiency +in the top soil. This land ceased to grow clover, and plantain and +sorrel abounded. This case, which is not an isolated one, showed an +unusually rapid loss, but we always expect to find the water from wells +and springs in a limestone country strongly impregnated with lime. +Drainage waters contain it. The draft by action of water is continuous, +and in some types could easily account for sufficient loss to change the +nature of the soil. We may place undue emphasis upon this factor, as +other causes are at work, but leaching is a leading source of loss. + +_Chemical Compounds._ A serious cause of lime exhaustion that is being +studied by soil chemists is the presence of compounds in the soil that +combine with the lime and rob it of ability to serve the soil when new +acids form. The practical farmer accepts the statements of the chemists +on this point, and probably would not have his interests served by any +exact knowledge of the nature of these agents. + +_Decaying Vegetation._ A cause of acid conditions that is widely known +and accepted, and that may therefore stand out in our thinking with +undue prominence, is connected with the decay of green vegetable matter +in the soil. Many of us have seen fields rendered temporarily +unproductive by the plowing down of a mass of immature plants in +midsummer. All organic matter, indeed, in its decay makes a draft upon +the lime content of the soil in which it may be buried. + +_Removal in Crops._ Lime is taken out of land by plants, and the loss is +a considerable item, but our interest is in the form of lime that can +correct soil acidity, and we know that compounds of lime that are +worthless for this purpose may be the chief source of the lime in our +crops. A determination of the lime in the ash of a crop does not give +data of much practical value. + +[Illustration: Clover and Timothy with Lime Alone at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station Yielded 4900 Pounds per Acre] + +[Illustration: Clover and Timothy with Fertilizer and Lime at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station Yielded 6290 Pounds per Acre] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +EVIDENCES OF ACIDITY + + +_Character of Vegetation._ The character of the original forests is +determined much by the lime-content, and the practical man, when buying +a farm, rates its productive power by the kinds of timber it has +produced. The black walnut, ash, shellbark hickory, black and white oak, +sturdily grown, evidence a soil rich in lime, while the pines, small +blackjack and post oaks, and the chestnut are at home in non-calcareous +soils. The latter class of lands gains nothing in lime as time passes, +and the timber continues to be a sure index, but in the former class the +surface soil may have lost enough lime to limit crop production +materially while the trees continue to find in the subsoil all that they +need. It does not follow that the land has gone down in value to the +naturally lime-deficient class, but its power to produce is impaired, +and will remain so until there has been restoration of its original +alkaline state. + +_Sorrel and Plantain._ We determine quite surely the state of the soil +by observance of the vegetation that roots in the surface soil and the +immediate subsoil. Sorrel is a plant popularly associated with soil +acidity, but this is not through any dislike for lime. It has been +observed growing in the edge of a heap. Its presence suggests acidity +because it can thrive in a sour soil that will not produce plants of +value which on even terms could crowd the sorrel out. There is constant +competition among plants for food and water and space, and some of our +worst weeds are not strong competitors of clover and grass where soil +conditions are not unfavorable to the latter. + +Blue grass, the clovers and timothy give a good account of themselves in +a contest with sorrel and plantain where lime is abundant. This does not +mean that the seeds of these weeds may not be so numerous that an +application of lime cannot cause the clover and grasses immediately to +take the ground to the exclusion of other plants, but it is true that +the crowding process will continue until the time comes in the crop +rotation that these weeds cease to be feared, and clean sods can be +made. It is the absence of lime that permits such weeds to maintain +their reputation for good fighting qualities. + + +[Illustration: Limed and Unlimed Ends of a Plot at the Ohio Experiment +Station] + +[Illustration: Effect of Finely Pulverised Limestone on Clover in a Soil +Having a Lime Requirement of 5200 Pounds of Limestone per Acre at the +Pennsylvania Experiment Station] + +_The Clovers._ Red clover can make growth in some soils that have a lime +deficiency. If all other conditions are favorable, the lime requirement +may exceed one-half a ton per acre of fresh burned lime and not affect +the clover adversely, but farm experience throughout the country has +demonstrated that when soil acidity is only slight and clover grows with +difficulty, an application rarely fails to favor the clover in a marked +degree. Experience has taught the land owners to fear soil acidity when +red clover does not thrive where formerly it made good growth. + +The prevalence of alsike clover in a farming region is indicative of +lack of lime. This clover thrives in a calcareous soil, but is more +indifferent to a small lime supply than is the red clover. As red clover +seedings begin to fail, the alsike gains in popularity, and where a soil +is decidedly sour the alsike is most in evidence. The latter has less +value to the farmer, rooting nearer the surface of the soil, and making +less growth of top, but it has gained in favor with farmers as soil +acidity has increased. + +_The Grasses._ Timothy is more resistant to acidity than red clover, +but often fails to make a heavy sod where the deficiency in lime is +marked. Rhode Island Bent, known as redtop, is less exacting, and where +it thrives to the exclusion of timothy, or is in evidence in grass +lands, the inference is fairly safe that a test would show that the soil +is sour. + +_When Production Decreases._ It is not a matter of any moment to the +owner of a productive soil whether or not his soil would give an acid or +an alkaline reaction under test. Returns from his labor are +satisfactory. Some land in this class is not strictly alkaline. The man +most interested in the effects of lime applications is the one who is +not satisfied with yields. The tests for acidity have been so many +throughout our eastern and central states that the owner of land which +is not productive has reason for the presumption that its percentage of +lime is too low. There is danger of error, and a scientific test is +surer, but in most cases the land which has been reduced from a fertile +to an unproductive state has lost its alkaline nature. + +_Naturally Thin Soils._ Nature may be prodigal in supplies of nearly all +the elements of plant food to land and yet skimp its supply of lime, +but naturally poor soils are quite surely in the acid class. The +exceptions in our humid region are not extensive. When improvement is +planned for, involving additions of organic matter and plant food, the +application of lime to correct acidity is the first requirement. If such +land could be given the characteristics of a limestone soil so far only +as the lime factor is concerned, the building up of fertility would be +relatively easy. Liming must form the foundation of a new order of +things. The ability to grow the clovers and to furnish rich vegetable +matter to the soil, which naturally is poor in humus, rests upon lime +application first, and then upon any supply of plant food that may +continue to be lacking. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +TESTS FOR ACIDITY + + +_The Litmus Paper Test._ A method of testing soils for acidity, which +has been in use for many years, is the simple litmus paper method. +Because of its simplicity and fair degree of accuracy, the litmus paper +test is still used to a considerable extent in estimating the degree of +acidity of certain soils. The best manner of using litmus is to place a +strip of the blue paper in the bottom of a glass saucer, covering it +with filter paper or other paper which is neutral--that is, paper which +is neither acid nor alkaline. + +A small quantity of the soil to be tested is moistened with rain or +distilled water and placed on this paper. If the acid is present the +blue paper will be changed to a reddish color, varying in intensity +according to the degree of acidity in the soil. Two objections to the +use of litmus paper are to be noted: One of these is that the red color +may be produced by carbonic acid gas without a trace of more powerful +acids being present, and this may give a wrong impression to the +operator. Another objection to the use of litmus is that the degree of +acidity is not accurately indicated, and therefore the farmer is +sometimes at a loss to know just how much lime should be applied to make +soil conditions favorable for growing crops. + +_A More Accurate Method._ Within the last few years improved methods for +determining the presence of acidity in soil have been developed. Some of +these are suitable only for the chemist with his complete laboratory +equipment, while others are more simple and can be used by anyone +willing to exercise reasonable care. + +One of the simplest and most accurate tests to date is that devised by +Professor E. Truog of the agricultural experiment station of the +University of Wisconsin. This test not only detects positively the +presence of soil acidity, but also gives definite information as to the +degree of acidity. The test is based upon the principle that when zinc +sulfid comes in contact with the acid, hydrogen sulfid gas is formed, +and when this gas comes in contact with lead acetate, lead sulfid, a +black chemical, is formed. + +The method of making this test is simple, and consists in placing a +measured quantity of soil in a flask, to which is added a solution +composed of 20% calcium chlorid and 2% zinc sulfid. The mixture of soil +and chemical solution is heated to the boiling point by means of an +alcohol lamp, and the boiling continued for a minute for the purpose of +driving off the carbonic acid gas, which is liberated first. The boiling +is continued and a piece of moistened paper, previously impregnated with +lead acetate, is placed over the mouth of the flask. If the soil +contains acid, a chemical reaction occurs between it and zinc sulfid, +and hydrogen sulfid gas is liberated. The quantity of acidity in the +soil determines the quantity of gas which comes in contact with the lead +acetate paper, and this determines the depth of color produced on the +paper. A slight brownish color indicates the presence of very little +acidity, while an intense black signifies the presence of injurious +amounts of acidity. There are various degrees of coloration between +these two extremes, and each gives an accurate indication as to the +quantity of lime required to correct the acidity. + +This test is simple and inexpensive, and at the present time most county +agent offices are equipped with this apparatus or a similar one for +testing soils for farmers. Some newer methods are being devised, and +doubtless this method will be improved upon as time passes, but the +Truog test has qualities of accuracy and simplicity which will always +make it valuable. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +SOURCES OF LIME + + +_Nature's Provision._ Soils are composed of pulverized stone and organic +matter. Much of the original stone contained little lime, and the human +race would become nearly helpless if there were no stores of supply in +the form of limestone, chalk, marl, etc. The day would come when the +surface soil could not produce our staple crops if its loss of lime +continued, and a means of replenishing the stock were not at hand. The +huge deposits of limestone that have not been disintegrated by processes +of weathering are assurance that the soil's need can be met forever. The +calcium and magnesium in the stone are in chemical combination with +carbonic acid forming carbonates, and there is an additional mixture of +other earthy material that was deposited by the water when the stone was +being formed, but much limestone possesses an excellent degree of +purity. + +[Illustration: Lime Favors Clover at the Ohio Experiment Station] + +[Illustration: Lime Affects Growth of Corn at the Ohio Experiment +Station] + +_Confusion Respecting Forms._ In the public mind there is much confusion +respecting the sources and forms of lime most to be desired. Wood +ashes appealed to people, especially in an early day in our agriculture, +partly because the ashes were so universally present that tests had been +made voluntarily and otherwise in millions of instances. The value of +such tests had been obscured by the fact that the ashes contained +potash, and much of the credit of any good effect was attributed to that +fact. It has been generally known, however, that lime in peculiarly +effective form is in wood ashes, and the favor in which ashes have been +held rested not a little upon the curious preference for an organic +source of all soil amendments. This is seen in the case of direct +fertilizers. + +_Dealers' Interests._ The doubts regarding the wisdom of selecting any +one form of lime for the betterment of soil conditions have been +promoted very naturally by the conflicting interests of men who would +furnish the supply. Some dealers in fresh burned lime have asserted that +it was folly to expect any appreciable result from the use of unburned +limestone. The manufacturer of ground limestone has pointed out the +possibility of injuring a soil by the use of caustic lime, and +oftentimes has so emphasized his point that farmers have become +unwilling to apply fresh or water-slaked lime to their land. +Manufacturers of hydrated lime in some instances have made a confused +situation worse by insisting upon the claim that there was a fertilizing +quality in their goods. Some dealers in lime marls have been unwilling +to have the value of their goods rated according to the content of +carbonate of lime, and have emphasized the value of fine division of the +particles and the absence of any caustic properties. The presence of +shells, evidencing an organic source of the material, has helped in the +appeal to buyers. + +The rightful place of magnesia, and the possible danger of injury from +its use, have been a fruitful cause of perplexity, making price per ton +only a secondary consideration to the man wanting to supply his soil's +needs. + +_Scientists' Failure to Agree._ It is only fair to say that much of the +doubt and indecision on the part of the public is directly attributable +to the conflicting statements of our scientists. It should be borne in +mind that careful investigation in respect to the relative values of +the various forms and sources of lime has been confined largely to the +short period of time that has elapsed since recognition of the lime +deficiency of our country's soils. Our agricultural literature contained +little about soil acidity 20 years ago, and our experiment station tests +afford only relatively recent results. Some knowledge of sour soils and +the efficacy of lime in their amendment is nearly as old as the history +of agriculture, it is true, but answers to the questions uppermost in +the minds of men wanting to apply lime to land have been sought only +within recent years. The variation in soil types, and in sources of +lime, and in preconceived ideas of men drawing conclusions from +incomplete data may easily account for failure of our soil scientists to +be in the close agreement in statement that would remove all confusion +in the public mind. However, the agreement respecting the facts is +becoming better assured with every added year of investigation, as a +study of station bulletins shows. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +DEFINITIONS + + +_Technical Terms._ The practical man uses a great number of technical +terms in his own field of labor, and often fails to recognize the fact +that they are technical, and may be puzzling to many other people. He +uses such terms for the sake of accuracy, desiring to express to his +fellow-workmen exactly what he means. The farmer, stockman, carpenter, +banker--all have command of such terms, and need them, but the chemist +who, in a way, must come even nearer to accuracy in expression, finds +that many people who want his assistance do not care to master and use +any of his terms. Failure to do so compels misunderstanding. Anyone who +is interested in the right use of lime should be willing to add a few of +the chemists' technical terms to the scores in his own line of work that +he uses constantly, and thus let the whole matter of liming land come to +appear more simple to him. Acquaintance with a few terms is necessary +to any understanding of statements of analyses upon which purchase +should be made. + +_An Element_ is a substance that cannot be divided into simpler +substances. The number of elements necessary to the growth of plants is +small, and of this number calcium is one and magnesium is another. + +_Compounds._ We do not find these elements merely mixed with other +elements to form a soil. They unite in definite proportions by weight to +form chemical compounds. As conditions change, many of these compounds +undergo change, giving up one element, or group of elements, and uniting +with another element or group from a different compound. Heat, moisture +and the action of bacteria are factors in promoting the changes. There +is no more restless activity than may be found among the elements +composing a productive soil. + +_Calcium_ is an element which will unite with oxygen and carbon dioxide +to form a compound known as calcium carbonate. The chemist's symbol for +calcium is Ca. + +_Calcium Oxide_ is a compound left after the burning of limestone, and +is known as fresh burned lime, or quick lime. Its formula is CaO. It +contains, when pure, 40 parts of calcium and 16 parts oxygen by weight. + +_Carbon Dioxide_ is a compound whose formula is CO2. + +_Calcium Carbonate_, known also as carbonate of lime, has a definite +composition, containing, when pure, 56 parts CaO and 44 parts CO2. It +is known to the chemist as CaCO3, and forms practically all of very +pure limestones. Impure limestones contain some earthy materials that +became mixed with the lime carbonate when the rock was being formed. + +_Calcium Hydroxide_ is a compound made by permitting calcium oxide to +combine with water, and is known as lime hydrate. It contains 56 parts +by weight CaO and 18 parts water, and has the formula Ca(OH)2. + +_Magnesium_ is an element, and is found in magnesium carbonate, a +compound that is effective in correcting soil acidity. + +_Magnesian Limestone._ Magnesium carbonate is usually found in +combination with calcium carbonate, and when about 47 per cent of the +total carbonates is magnesium carbonate, the limestone is known as +dolomite. + +_Ground Limestone_ is the stone pulverized so that it can be +distributed. It is carbonate of lime (CaCO3), or a combination of +calcium and magnesium carbonate, and in a way has a right to be +designated as "lime," but such use leads to confusion. + +_Fresh Burned Lime_. Calcium oxide (CaO) formerly was accurately +designated as "lime," but the words "fresh burned" are often prefixed to +prevent confusion with lime carbonate or the hydrate. It is known as +"lump lime," "caustic lime" and "stone lime." + +_Ground or Pulverized Lime_. Fresh burned lime may be ground fine, so +that it can be spread on land without slaking. This product should not +be confused with ground limestone or hydrated lime. Fresh ground lime is +worth nearly twice as much per ton as ground limestone, but some of the +product on the market is far from pure. There is opportunity to grind up +unburned and waste material with the caustic lime, and this form of lime +usually contains some hydrated material. + +_Hydrated Lime_ is the compound formed by the action of water or steam +on fresh burned lime. + +_Air-Slaked Lime_ is a compound formed by the action of carbon dioxide +from the air on hydrated lime, and its formula is CaCO3, which is +that of pure limestone. + +[Illustration: An Indiana Limestone Quarry] + +[Illustration: A Limestone Plant (Courtesy of the Michigan Limestone +Company)] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +GROUND LIMESTONE + + +_Variation in Quality._ Limestones vary widely in purity. They were +formed under water, and clay and sand were laid down with the lime in +such quantity in some cases that the resulting stone is not worth +handling for soil improvement. A stone that is practically all carbonate +of calcium, or a combination of calcium and magnesium, is wanted because +it is these two elements that give value to the material. If a poor +stone is used, too much waste matter must be handled. Twenty-five per +cent more ground limestone of 80% purity must be applied than would be +required in the case of an absolutely pure limestone. Any stone above +90% pure in carbonate of lime and magnesia is rated as good, but the +best stone runs from 96% to 99%. + +Limestones vary greatly in ability to resist disintegration, and this +variation is a big factor in determining the agricultural value of +ground limestone that has not been reduced to a fine powder. Particles +of a hard limestone may lie inert in the soil for many years. Hardness +also affects the cost of grinding. + +_A Matter of Distribution._ Nature has used various agencies in reducing +limestone for the making of soils. The stone contained its lime in +carbonate form, and when reduced to good physical condition for +distribution it helped to make highly productive land. We know that lime +carbonate does the needed work in the soil so far as correction of +acidity is concerned, but in the form of blocks of limestone it has no +particular value to the land. Burning and slaking afforded to man a +natural means of putting it into form for distribution, and it is only +within recent years that the pulverization of limestone for land has +become a business of considerable magnitude. The ground limestone used +on land continues to be in part a by-product of the preparation of +limestone for the manufacture of steel, glass, etc., and the making of +roads, the fine dust being screened out for agricultural purposes. These +sources of supply are very inadequate, and too remote from much land +that requires treatment. Large plants have been established in various +parts of the country for the purpose of crushing limestone for use on +land, and quite recently low-priced pulverizers for farm use have come +upon the market and are meeting a wide need. + +_Low-Priced Pulverizers._ A serious drawback to the liming of land is +the transportation charge that must be paid where no available stone can +be found in the region. Great areas do have some beds that should be +used, and a low-priced machine for pulverizing it is the solution of the +problem. Such a machine must be durable, have ability to crush the stone +to the desired fineness and be offered at a price that does not seem +prohibitive to a farmer who would meet the demands of a small farming +community. In this way freight charges are escaped, and a long and +costly haul from a railway point is made unnecessary. The limestone of +the locality will be made available more and more by means of this type +of machine, and the inducement to correct the acidity of soils will be +given to tens of thousands of land-owners who would not find it feasible +to pay freight and cartage on supplies coming a long distance. There +should be a market many times greater than now exists for the product +of all large plants, while the number of small pulverizers multiplies +rapidly. The very large areas that have no limestone at hand must +continue to buy from manufacturers equipped to supply them, and farmers +within a zone of small freight charges should be able to buy from such +manufacturers more cheaply than they could pulverize stone on their own +farms. + +An individual, or a group of farmers, will buy a machine for pulverizing +limestone at a cost of a few hundred dollars when costly equipment would +be out of the question. If he has a bed of limestone of fair quality, +and the soil of the region is lacking in lime, an efficient grinder or +pulverizer solves the problem and makes prosperity possible to the +region. Within the last few years much headway has been made in +perfecting such machines, and their manufacturers have them on the +market. Any type should be bought only after a test that shows capacity +per hour and degree of fineness of the product. As a high degree of +fineness is at the expense of power or time, and as the transportation +charge on the product to the farm is small, there is no requirement for +the fineness wanted in a high-priced article that must be used +sparingly. + +The aim should be to store in the soil for a term of years, and the +coarse portion is preferable to the fine for this purpose because it +will not leach out. The heavy application will furnish enough fine stuff +to take care of present acidity. If nearly all the product of such a +pulverizer will pass through a 10-mesh screen, and the amount applied is +double that of very fine limestone, it should give immediate results and +continue effective nearly twice as long as the half amount of finer +material. There could hardly be a practical solution of the liming +problem for many regions without the development of such devices for +preparing limestone for distribution, and it is a matter of +congratulation that some manufacturers have awakened to the market +possibilities our country affords. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +STORING LIME IN THE SOIL + + +_Liberal Use of Limestone._ Land never does its best when skimped in any +way. As we raise the percentage of carbonate of lime in land that +naturally is deficient, we give increasing ability to such land to take +on some of the desirable characteristics of a limestone soil. It is poor +business to be making a hand-to-mouth fight against a state of actual +acidity unless the cost of more liberal treatment is prohibitive. The +most satisfactory liming is done where the expense is light enough to +justify the free use of material. When this is the case, extreme +fineness of all the stone is undesirable. There is the added cost due to +such fineness and no gain if the finer portion is sufficient to correct +the acidity, and the coarser particles disintegrate as rapidly as needed +in later years. + +_Loss by Leaching._ Another valid argument against extreme fineness of +the stone used in liberal applications is the danger of loss by +leaching. Soils are so variable in their ability to hold what may be +given them that it is idle to offer any estimate on this point. The +amount of lime found in the drainage waters of limestone land teaches no +lesson of value for other land, the excessive loss in the former case +being due oftentimes to erosion that creates channels through the +subsoil, through which soil and lime pass. + +[Illustration: A Limestone Pulverizer for Farm Use (Courtesy of the +Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ohio)] + +[Illustration: A Lime Pulver in Operation (Courtesy of the Jeffrey +Manufacturing Company)] + +But we do know the tendency of lime to get away, and the use of several +tons of fine stone per acre may easily be followed by loss in many types +of soil. It is wholly reasonable to believe that some portion of such an +application should be coarse enough to stay where put until needed by +exhaustion of the finer portion. It is upon this theory that coarser +material often is preferred to the very finest. + +_What Degree of Fineness?_ Assuming that the farmer is in a position to +store some carbonate of lime in his land for future use, giving the soil +an alkaline character for five or 10 years, the degree of fineness of +the stone is important, partly because there will be distinct loss by +leaching from many types of soils if all the material is fine as dust, +and specially because less finely pulverized material can be supplied +him at a lower price per ton. Much by-product in the manufacture of +coarse limestone for other purposes contains a considerable percentage +of material that would not pass through a 60-, or 40-, or 10-mesh +screen, but it does contain a big percentage of immediately available +lime, and a more complete pulverization of this by-product would add +greatly to its cost. + +It is quite possible that a ton of such stone may be bought at a price +that would cover the value only of the fine portion, estimated on the +basis of the prevailing price of finely ground material, the coarse +material being obtained without any cost at all. It is this situation, +or an approach to it, that leads some authorities to become strenuous +advocates of the use of coarsely pulverized stone. The advice is right +for those who are in a position to accept it. If the money available for +liming an acre of land can buy all the fine stone needed for the present +and some coarser stone mixed with it for later use by the soil, the +purchase is much more rational than the investment of the same amount of +money in very fine stone that has no admixture of coarser material. If +the investment in the former case is larger than in the latter, it +continues to be good business up to a certain point, and the room for +some uncertainty is wide enough to provide for much difference in +judgment. + +_Quality of the Stone._ Another factor of uncertainty is the hardness of +the stone. A limestone may have such flinty characteristics that a piece +barely able to pass through a 10-mesh screen will not disintegrate in +the soil for years, and there are other types of limestone that go into +pieces rapidly. The variation in quality of stone accounts for no little +difference in opinion that is based upon limited observation. + +_Using One's Judgment._ It is evident that no hard and fast rule +respecting fineness may be laid down, and yet a rather definite basis +for judgment is needed. There is much good experience to justify the +requirement that when all ground lime is high-priced in any section for +any reason, and the amount applied per acre is thereby restricted, the +material should be able to pass through a screen having 60 wires to the +linear inch, and that the greater part should be much finer. Usually +some part of such stone will pass through a 200-mesh screen. When a +limestone on the market will not meet this test, some concession in +price should be expected. If the stone is not very flinty, a 40-mesh +screen may be regarded as affording a reasonably satisfactory test. + +An increasing percentage of coarser material makes necessary an increase +in amount to meet the lime deficiency, and a distinct concession in +price is to be expected when a 10-mesh screen is used in testing. At the +same time a careful buyer will use a 60-mesh screen to determine the +percentage that probably has availability for the immediate future. A +coarsely ground article, containing any considerable percentage that +will not pass through a 10-mesh screen, must sell at a price justifying +an application sufficient to meet the need of the soil for a long term +of years, as the greater part has no immediate availability, and only a +heavy application can provide a good supply for immediate need. + +_New York State Experience._ A bulletin of the New York agricultural +experiment station, published early in 1917, calls attention to the +rapid increase in demand for ground limestone in New York. Within the +last five years the number of grinding plants within the state had +increased from one to 56, and more than a dozen outside plants are +shipping extensively into the state. The bulletin says: "Farmers who +have had experience with the use of ground limestone are as a rule +satisfied with only a reasonable degree of fineness, and are able to +judge the material by inspection. When limestone is ground so the entire +product will pass a 10-mesh (or 2 mm.) sieve, the greater part of it +will be finer than a 40-mesh (or 1/2 mm.) sieve.... There are now in +operation in this State more than a dozen small portable community +grinders; they are doing much to help solve the ground limestone problem +and their use is rapidly increasing. In the practical operation of these +machines they grind only to medium fineness (2 mm.). To insist upon +extreme fineness is to discourage their use." + +This State experiment station is only one of many scientific authorities +approving the use of limestone reduced only to such fineness that it +will pass through a 10-mesh screen, the cost of the grinding being +sufficiently small to permit heavy applications. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +FRESH BURNED LIME + + +_An Old Practice._ The beneficial effect of caustic lime on land is +mentioned in some ancient writings. Burning and slaking afforded the +only known method of reducing stone for use in sour soils. Lime in this +form not only is an effective agent for correcting soil acidity, but it +improves the physical condition of tough and intractable clays, +rendering them more friable and easy of tillage. Caustic lime also +renders the organic matter in the soil more quickly available, an +increase in yield quickly following an application. These three effects +of burned lime brought it into favor, and a rational use would have +continued it in favor. + +_Irrational Use._ The ability of caustic lime to improve the physical +condition of land and to make inert plant food available has led many +farmers to treat it as a substitute for manure, sods and commercial +fertilizers. Immoderate use gave increased crop yields for a time, and +the inference was easy that lime could displace the old sources of +plant food supplies. It became the custom in some regions to apply 200 +to 300 bushels per acre to stiff limestone soils that had no lime +deficiency, as a test for acidity would have shown. The lime not only +made some mineral plant available, but it attacked the organic matter of +the soil, making it ready for immediate use and leaving the land +deficient in humus. Wherever stable manure and clover sods were not +freely used, the heavy application of caustic lime was followed +ultimately by decline in productive power. Such practice has come under +the condemnation of people who have not seen that the ill results have +no relation to the rational use of lime. + +_What Lime Is._ There is abundant evidence that pulverized limestone, or +lime marl, or oystershell, or any other form of carbonate of lime, +corrects soil acidity and helps to make a soil productive. It is good, +no matter whether nature mixed the lime carbonate with clay, etc., to +make a choice limestone soil, or man applied it. Fresh burned lime is +only the stone after some worthless matter has been driven off by use of +heat. The limestone, carbonate of lime, is represented by the formula +CaCO_3. When heat is applied under right conditions the carbon dioxide, +CO_2, is driven off, and there remains CaO, which is calcium oxide, +called fresh burned lime. + +If there were 100 pounds of the stone, and it was absolutely pure, 44 +pounds would escape in form of the carbon dioxide, which had no value, +and 56 pounds would remain. The 56 pounds calcium oxide, or fresh burned +lime, have the same power to correct acidity as this same material had +when it was bound up in the 100 pounds of limestone. The 44 pounds were +driven off by heat, while if the limestone had not been burned the 44 +would have separated from the 56 pounds in an acid soil, leaving the +actual lime to do the needed work of correcting acidity. + +_Affecting Physical Condition._ While burning the stone does not affect +the ability to correct acidity, it does increase the power to make a +stiff soil friable and to bind a sandy soil. No one may say how much +this power to influence soil texture is increased, but it is marked, and +when improved physical condition is the chief reason for applying lime, +there is no question that fresh burned material is to be preferred to +pulverized stone or marl, or any other carbonate form. A light +application is not markedly effective in this respect, and the chief use +for this purpose has been in limestone areas that may not have had any +lime deficiency, but did have a stiff soil. The presence of the stone in +great quantity for burning on the farm made heavy applications possible. + +_Using Up Organic Matter._ The presence of carbonate of lime in the form +of pulverized limestone or marl favors the disintegration of any organic +matter, but the action is so slow that it may not be observed. While the +use of limestone in manure piles is inadvisable for this reason, the +loss is not comparable to that resulting from mixing caustic lime with +manure. The caustic lime in a soil hastens decay of vegetable matter in +a degree impossible to the limestone or marl. Irrational use of the +former has produced such destructive action in many instances that the +failure to add manure or heavy sods for a long term of years has led to +heavy decline in producing power. + +We are naturally so lacking in judicial temper that opinion has swung +violently from favor to disfavor. As most soils need organic matter, we +seize upon the thought that anything evidently inclined to use it up is +an evil. The purpose of tillage is in no small degree to bring about +disintegration and resulting exhaustion of vegetable matter. The latter +is a storehouse of plant food, and some of it is needed to feed the crop +desired. Tillage is no more to be commended for this purpose than a +quantity of lime equivalent in power to do the needed work. Excepting +the case of raw soils rich in the remains of plants, most land hardly +needs lime for this purpose, it may be, the tillage required for making +a seed bed retentive of moisture and for control of weeds being +effective, but the point is emphasized that the disintegration of +organic matter into available plant food is one of the chief aims of a +good farmer. It is only the excessive use of caustic lime that causes +loss. + +The use of caustic lime in sufficient amount to correct all acidity, and +the use of such material to free plant food in humus sufficiently to +produce heavy sods, are just as good farm practices as drainage and the +application of manure. + +[Illustration: Laying Foundation for a Lime Stack at the Pennsylvania +Experiment Station] + +[Illustration: A Stack Nearly Completed at the Pennsylvania Experiment +Station] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +BURNING LIME + + +_Methods of Burning._ Limestone contains the calcium and magnesium that +must be the chief source of supply of American soils, though marls, +ashes, etc., have their place. The burning of the stone has been the +leading means of bringing it to a condition of availability to the soil, +excepting, of course, the vast work of disintegration carried on through +all the ages by nature. Pulverization of the rock by machinery for use +on land is recent. + +The devices for burning are various, a modern lime plant containing +immense kilns, cylindrical in form, the stone being fed into them at the +top continuously, and the lime removed at the bottom. A large part of +the lime that is sold for use on land is made in plants of this kind. +Some is burned in kilns of cheap construction, but a traveler through a +limestone country finds few such kilns now in use. + +_The Farm Lime Heap._ A common method of producing lime for farm use +has been, and continues to be, a simple and inexpensive one, involving +the use only of wood, coal and limestone, with earth as a covering. Dr. +Wm. Frear, chemist of the Pennsylvania station, in Bulletin 261 of the +Pennsylvania department of agriculture, describes a method of burning +lime on the farm as follows: "A convenient oblong piece of ground is +cleared, and leveled if need be, to secure a fit platform. Upon this +level is placed a layer or two of good cord wood, better well seasoned, +arranged in such manner as to afford horizontal draught passages into +the interior of the heap. Between the chinks in the cord wood, shavings, +straw or other light kindling is placed. The stone having been reduced +to the size of a double fist, sometimes not so small, is laid upon the +cord wood, care being taken to leave chinks between the stones just as +between the bricks in a brick kiln. It is preferred that this layer of +stone should not exceed six to ten inches in thickness. + +"In some cases, temporary wooden flues, filled with straw, are erected, +either one at the center or, if the heap is elliptical, one near each +end, and the stone and coal are built up around them; thus, when they +are burned out, a chimney or two is secured, which may be damped by +pieces of stone or sod. Upon this first layer of stone is spread a layer +of coal, and upon that a thicker layer of stone (12 inches), and so on, +coal and stone alternating until the heap is topped with smaller stone. +The largest stones should be placed near the top of the heap, but not +near the outside, so that they may be exposed to the highest heat. The +proportion of coal is diminished in the upper layers, the effort being +to distribute one-half of the total coal employed in the two lower +layers, so as to secure the highest economy possible in the use of the +fuel. + +"Fire is then kindled in the straw or shavings; when the flames have +communicated themselves to the cord wood and lowermost layer of coal, +and tongues of flame shoot out from the crevices in the sides of the +heap, earth, previously loosened by a few turns of the plow about the +heap, is rapidly spread over the entire heap, thus damping the drafts +and retarding the combustion. Steam and smoke slowly escape during the +first hours, but later the entire heap, including the outer covering of +earth, is heated to a dull red glow. The burning goes on slowly for +several days, the interior often being hot for several weeks. When the +lower portion of the heap has reached an advanced stage of calcination, +a portion of the outer layer of lime sometimes slips down; if so, a +fresh covering of earth must promptly be applied at the exposed point; +otherwise it will serve as a vent for the heat, and the top and other +sides will fail of proper calcination." + +[Illustration: Effect of Excessive Use of Burned Lime Without Manure at +the Pennsylvania Experiment Station] + +[Illustration: A Hydrated Lime Plant + +(Courtesy of the Palmer Lime and Cement Company, York, Pa.)] + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +LIME HYDRATE + + +_Slaking Lime._ The usual means of reducing fresh burned stone lime to a +condition that makes even distribution upon land possible is by slaking. +A few years ago considerable effort was made to create a market for lime +pulverized by machinery, but the difficulty in excluding the moisture of +the air so that packages would not burst has been in the way of +developing a market. Slaking, by the addition of water to the fresh +burned lime, is the common method of getting the required physical +condition. When the slaking is done on the farm, the custom has been to +distribute the lime in small piles in the field, placing the piles at +such convenient distance apart that the lime, after slaking, could be +spread easily with a shovel. + +The water for slaking comes from rains, or from moisture in the air and +earth. The method is wasteful and can be justified, if ever, only where +farm-burned lime costs little per ton, and the nature of the soil is +such that a relatively heavy application can be safely made. The +distribution is necessarily uneven, and if the required amount goes upon +all the surface, a great excess is sure to go upon a portion of it. Very +often an excess of water puddles much of the lime in the pile, and lumps +may be seen lying in ineffective form in the soil for years. The +practice is responsible for much of the excessive application that +brought the use of caustic lime into disrepute. + +_Slaking in Large Heaps._ A preferable method is to put the lime in flat +heaps of large size and about four feet deep, so that water may be +applied or advantage be taken of rainfall. The value of the lime is so +great that one can well afford to draw water and apply with a hose so +that the quantity can be controlled with exactness. When fresh burned +lime is perfectly slaked, each 56 pounds of pure lime becomes 74 pounds +of hydrated lime, water furnishing the added weight. + +_Hydrated Lime on the Market._ A popular form of lime on the market is +the hydrate. Manufacturers first burn the stone, and in the case of a +pure limestone they drive off 44 pounds of each 100 pounds of the +weight in burning. Then, they combine enough water with the lime to +change it to hydrate form, and that adds 18 pounds weight. It is run +through a sieve to remove any coarse material, and then packed in bags +which help to exclude the air. The small packages in which it comes upon +the market make handling easy, and this helps to bring it into demand. +Its good physical condition makes even distribution possible, and thus +permits maximum effectiveness to be obtained. It is only slaked lime, +identical in composition and value with lime of the same purity slaked +on the farm, but some dealers have been able to create the impression +that it has some added quality and peculiar power. This does no credit +to the public intelligence, but the hunger of soils for lime is so great +that investment at a price wholly out of proportion to the price of +farm-slaked lime has rarely failed to yield some profit. + +_Degree of Purity._ It is always a reasonable assumption that hydrated +lime has been made from stone of a good degree of purity. A local stone, +burned on the farm, may be of low grade, but no man of business judgment +would erect a costly plant for burning and hydrating lime where the +purity of the stone would not afford a good advertisement in itself. + +On the other hand, we find very little hydrated lime on the market that +has not had sufficient exposure to the air to become changed in some +part to an air-slaked condition, or has had refuse mixed with it. +Air-slaked lime is not worth as much per ton as the hydrate because it +cannot correct as much soil acidity, and the percentage of the former +cannot be determined by the buyer. Its presence may not be due to any +wrong-doing of the manufacturer, and, on the other hand, the increase in +weight that attends air-slaking may be welcomed in some degree by a +dishonest manufacturer before the goods are shipped. The difficulty in +preventing hydrated lime from adding to its weight by becoming +air-slaked is a point to be taken into consideration. + +The percentages of air-slaked material in hydrated limes are widely +variable, and no manufacturer can standardize his product on the market +surely for the benefit of the farmer. In some instances the product is +adulterated with refuse material in finely pulverized condition. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +OTHER FORMS OF LIME + + +_Air-Slaked Lime._ A pure limestone is a carbonate, and the chemical +formula is CaCO_3. When it is burned, the carbon dioxide (CO_2) is +driven off, leaving CaO, which is calcium oxide, called fresh burned +lime. In this process 44 pounds of a stone weighing 100 pounds passes +into the air, and there remain 56 pounds of lime. When it air-slakes, it +takes back the carbon dioxide from the air, and the new product becomes +CaCO3, or carbonate of lime, and regains its original weight of 100 +pounds. This is what would happen if the process were complete, and it +is nearly so when the exposure to the air is as perfect as possible. + +Fifty-six pounds of valuable material are in the 100 pounds of +air-slaked lime, just as is the case with limestone, and there is no +difference in effectiveness except in so far as the air-slaked material +is absolutely fine and available, while most pulverized limestone is +less so. In making purchase for use of land the buyer cannot afford to +make any appreciable difference in price in favor of air-slaked lime, +as compared with a fine stone. + +_Air-Slaking a Slow Process._ Lime changes to an air-slaked condition +slowly unless it has full exposure. Old heaps will remain in hydrate +form for many years, excepting the outside coat, which excludes the air. +Complete air-slaking would not reduce ability to correct soil acidity, +the total amount of calcium and magnesium remaining constant, but weight +would be added in the slaking, and therefore the value per ton would be +reduced. The slowness with which air-slaking proceeds gives reason to +expect that any bulk of old lime may contain a considerable percentage +of the hydrate, and therefore have greater strength than a true +carbonate like limestone. This is a consideration of value to a buyer. + +_Agricultural Lime._ Some manufacturers have found in the demand for +lime by farmers an opportunity of disposing of much material that would +not be satisfactory to manufacturers and builders. In some cases this +so-called agricultural lime is sold at a price that is not beyond value, +but it varies much in its content of pure lime. If the unburned cores +of kilns are ground up, the material simply retains the value of +unburned stone. Any air-slaked material put into it has like value. +Forkings, ground up, have less value, and sometimes no value at all. +Some better material may go into this mixture that is given the name +"agricultural lime," and the product cannot be standardized or have a +valuation given it that would be true for another lot. + +Some manufacturers are marketing limes of fair values under this +designation, but the values change as the material changes. There are +other manufacturers who are putting poor stuff on the market. Unless one +knows the manufacturer and his processes, he should not pay a great deal +for "agricultural lime." It is much better to buy a high-grade lime or +limestone that is more nearly constant in composition. When the word +"agricultural" is part of the brand, there is assurance that the +percentage of waste stuff in it is relatively high. Unless one knows to +the contrary, he should assume that a ton of finely pulverized limestone +is worth more per ton than "agricultural lime." + +_Marl._ Marls vary in composition, as limestones do, but there are beds +of chalky marl that contain very little clay and sand and are nearly a +pure carbonate. It is only marls of high degree of purity that can be +put on the market with profit, but beds of less pure marl furnish +dressings for farms of the locality in many sections of the country. +Some of these inferior marls have had so much clay and sand mixed with +the lime carbonate that dressings must be heavy. The best lime marls +provide excellent material for the correction of soil acidity, the +actual value per ton being practically the same as that of the finest +pulverized limestone. Some dealers in marl make extravagant claims for +their goods, but any farmer may easily put these claims to the test and +learn that he should not expect more than a fairly good carbonate of +lime can do. + +Marl improves the physical condition of stiff soils only when used in +large amount per acre, and this is true of any carbonate form, such as +limestone. Little effect upon physical condition should be expected from +the light application usually given when marl is purchased and +transported some distance to the farm. The chalk marl on the market is +used to correct soil acidity, and at the best it is worth only what good +lime carbonate is worth. It has no hidden virtues, and cannot take the +place of fertilizers. It is an excellent means of meeting the +lime-requirement of land when bought right, and its fine division makes +it distinctly superior to coarse stone. + +There should be no confusion of a lime marl with the so-called "green +sand" marl. The latter is low in lime, and may be acid, the value of the +marl being in a considerable percentage of plant food contained. + +_Oyster Shell._ Ground oyster shell is a good source of carbonate of +lime. The percentage falls below that of limestone, but in addition +there is a little nitrogen and phosphoric acid. An analysis of a good +quality of oyster shell, as found on the market, will show 90% carbonate +of lime. + +Burned oyster shell has something near the same composition as lime made +from stone, but it goes back to hydrate and air-slaked forms rapidly. +There is no large amount of burned shell lime on the market, the +material known as shell lime being the ground shell, or lime carbonate. + +_Wood Ashes._ A large supply of lime in excellent form was afforded by +hardwood ashes, but this product has ceased to have any important value +to our agriculture. The chief supply on the market is low in quality, +containing moisture and dirt in considerable amount, the form of lime +being changed from an oxide to the hydrate and carbonate. + +_Gas Lime._ Prof. E. B. Voorhees, in "First Principles of Agriculture," +says: "Gas lime is also frequently used as manure; in gas works, +quicklime is used for removing the impurities from the gas. Gas lime, +therefore, varies considerably in composition, and consists really of a +mixture of slaked lime, or calcium hydrate, and carbonate of lime, +together with sulfites and sulfides of lime. These last are injurious to +young plant life, and gas lime should be applied long before the crop is +planted, or at least exposed to the air some time before its +application. The action of air converts the poisonous substances in it +into non-injurious products. Gas lime contains on an average 40% of +calcium oxide, and usually a small percentage of nitrogen." + +_Lime After Magnesium Removal._ A by-product in the removal of +magnesium from a magnesian limestone is an excellent material for +correction of soil acidity, on account of its physical condition. Its +exposure to the air causes much of the hydrate to change to an +air-slaked form, and its value per ton lies somewhere between that of +very finely pulverized limestone and hydrated lime. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +MAGNESIAN LIME + + +_Magnesium._ As an element of plant food, magnesium is as essential as +calcium. It leaches out of the soil less readily, and there may be even +less need of its application as a plant food, though the need of calcium +applications for this purpose is assumed to be small. In the correction +of soil acidity magnesium is more effective than calcium, 84 pounds of +the carbonate being equal to 100 pounds of calcium carbonate. It is a +curious fact, however, that there is widespread fear of magnesium as a +soil amendment. This is not traceable to any considerable experience by +practical farmers that inspires caution in its use, although immense +quantities of magnesian limestone and lime have been used. Neither is it +due to any weight of evidence against it in the experience or teachings +of soil chemists and experiments. The facts of the case appear to be as +follows: + +1. An investigator found in his laboratory that a plant growing in a +water solution was injured when magnesium was added, and that the +injury was checked when calcium in equal amount was added to the water. +The theory was worked out that a soil should not contain a greater total +amount of magnesium than of calcium, and as the soil's supply of calcium +tends to leach out more readily than the supply of magnesium, it was +best to use a high-calcium lime. If this discovery of the laboratory had +been carried into the field, its significance would have dwindled to +zero in the case of normal soils, and a lot of exploitation would have +been rendered impossible. As it was, the discussion went merrily along +until it occurred to some one to test the matter in the soils where +plants grow, and one would now hear little of it if commercial interests +were not at stake. + +2. Very much of our limestone supply is high in magnesium, and some men +who have limestone very low in magnesium and high in calcium have done a +good stroke of business for themselves by deepening the public's +impression, due to laboratory tests with water cultures, that magnesium +in lime is injurious. + +3. Many people knew "lime," but had no knowledge of magnesia, and if it +was an impurity like clay or sand, cutting down value per ton, and if it +was worse because harmful, they wanted none of it. + +_The Fact's Importance._ If every farm could get its supply of pure +calcium lime as cheaply as it can have magnesian lime, the truth +respecting the value of the latter would have small agricultural +importance, but as a great bulk of farm and commercial supplies of lime +is magnesian, financial injury has been done consumers who have paid +more than should have been paid for relatively pure calcium lime and +limestone, being afraid to use goods whose content of magnesium was not +small. It is poor policy to use either kind of burned lime in great +excess, but when rationally used on all soils except sandy ones, there +is no preference to be exercised that can be based upon performance. A +magnesian lime corrects as much acidity as a high calcium lime, and a +little more, and its use is to be recommended if there is any advantage +in the matter of price, except in the case of distinctly sandy soils. + +_Magnesian Limestone._ Leading scientists making tests of limestone for +normal soils, use magnesian limestone freely. They recommend its use to +farmers wherever there is advantage in point of price. The advice is +safe that the limestone of a given fineness should be chosen whose total +percentage of carbonates of calcium and magnesium is the highest. The +example of these scientists, buying pulverized limestone for +agricultural colleges and experiment farms, and for their own farms, +should loosen the curious hold that the early warnings of a laboratory +experimenter took upon public imagination. The farmer should buy +limestone on a basis of ability to correct soil acidity, and make each +dollar do the most possible toward that end. + +Most limestones contain some percentage of magnesium, and in the case of +a pure dolomite over 45% carbonate is present in combination with +calcium carbonate. A stone rich in magnesium slakes less readily than +one high in calcium, and therefore is preferred by manufacturers +shipping pulverized burnt lime to reach its destination before slaking. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +WHAT SHALL ONE BUY? + + +_Relative Values._ The relative strengths of the various materials +containing lime may be known and yet doubt continue respecting the +choice to be made. The conflicting claims of dealers, and inaccurate +deductions from a single test made by some individual, aid the +confusion. If there were always the single purpose of correcting soil +acidity, and if there were the same ease of application in case of all +the materials, the choice would present much less difficulty. +Notwithstanding this, most land now has a lime requirement, or will have +one as leaching, crop removal and chemical change within the soil +continue, and the puzzle is no worse than a score of others that present +themselves continuously in farming. + +_Destroying Acids._ The cost of liming to improve the physical condition +of land is prohibitive for most farms remote from supplies of stone that +can be burned and put upon the land at a low price per ton. Where stone +is at hand, and soils are intractable, lime burned on the farm should +be used. Some slight benefit to a stiff soil may be obtained from the +light application that is deemed practicable where all forms are costly, +but this benefit is not usually marked in case of an application of a +ton or less of burned lime. It is a safe statement that most buyers of +lime in some form or other will profit chiefly through the correction of +soil acidity and promotion of bacterial life. This renders the situation +more simple as any carbonate, hydrate or oxide of lime will accomplish +these purposes. + +_Composition._ The first consideration is the actual content of calcium +and magnesium. A guaranteed analysis is the only safe basis of purchase. +The unstable nature of fresh burned and hydrated forms makes an exact +statement of percentages impossible for goods not wholly fresh, but at +least the purity of the original limestone can be judged. + +_Equivalents._ One ton of fresh burned lime, made from pure stone, is +equivalent to 2640 pounds of the hydrate, and to 3570 pounds of +pulverized limestone or of air-slaked lime. It is easy to carry in mind +the proportions expressed by 1, 1-1/3 and 1-3/4. If there were no other +considerations, such as convenience in handling, evenness of +distribution, etc., to take into account, one ton of fresh burned lime, +one and a third tons hydrated and one and three-quarters tons finely +pulverized limestone would have the same value when delivered in the +field. Lime fully air-slaked, high-grade marl, and finely pulverized +limestone would have the same value, ton for ton. + +_Even Distribution._ The value of even distribution is not easily +overestimated. If lime in proper amount does not go into each square +foot of an acid soil, some of the soil will remain sour unless mixing is +done by implements of tillage. Lime is diffused laterally through the +soil in a very slight degree. If a strip of sour land is protected by +canvas, so that no dust from lime applied to uncovered land can blow +upon it, a seeding to clover will show that plants a few inches from the +edge of the limed area will fail to start thriftily and may die before +their roots reach the lime. Full effectiveness of an application is +possible only through even distribution. + +_Using Lump Lime._ Lump lime, slaked on the farm, is difficult to apply +satisfactorily. Spreading with a shovel from small heaps is bad +practice, and when the lime is slaked in a large heap, it cannot be +handled as well as pulverized stone or commercial hydrated lime. The +latter two are in condition for application by means of a lime +distributor, or even a fertilizer attachment of a grain drill. The +farm-slaked lime contains impurities that interfere with distribution. + +_An Estimate._ It is always hazardous to attempt an estimate of cost of +labor without knowing the particular farm conditions, but the expense +and discomfort attending the slaking and use of lime bought in lump +state justify a willingness to pay as much for a ton of hydrated lime as +lump lime would cost, although the former has only three-fourths as much +strength as the latter. Some farmers pay nearly twice as much for the +hydrated, partly to escape the inconvenience and partly because they +hope that the extraordinary claims for superiority made by some dealers +may prove true. They should know that it is only fresh burned lime +slaked, but incline to credit a claim that special treatment enhances +value in some mysterious way. + +Comparing lump lime with finely pulverized limestone, the factors of +expense and discomfort and final lack of perfect distribution of the +former remain important. The stone is relatively easy to handle, being +slightly granular and passing through a distributor without trouble. The +fact that it is not caustic, like the hydrated, is in its favor. When +everything is taken into account, one is justified in using limestone or +air-slaked lime at a cost per ton three-fourths as great as that of lump +lime. It is to be borne in mind that in these estimates the cost per ton +is not that at the factory or at one's own railway station, but on the +farm. The freight and cartage to the farm are based on weight of +material, and more material per acre is required when the worthless +portion has not been driven off by burning. If one must use one and +three-quarters tons of limestone to have the equivalent of one ton of +fresh burned lime, it is evident that the cost of freight and cartage of +the worthless portion might make cost prohibitive if distances were very +great. Farms lying a long distance from a railway station may easily +find that fresh burned lime is the only form of lime they can afford. +The basis for correct estimate is cost delivered in the field. + +_Storage._ One advantage possessed by the limestone is ease of storage. +There is no inconvenience or loss. The stone may be ordered at any time +of the year when teams are least busy upon other work, and it can be +held till wanted. In this way the cost of cartage to the farm may be +kept relatively low, and the material is at hand when wanted, regardless +of rush of work or delays of railroads. This advantage is partial +counterbalance to the cost of freight on the worthless portion of +unburned stone. + +_Valuing Limestone._ The estimates, so far as labor and convenience are +concerned, are merely suggestive, and rest upon the presumption that the +stone is satisfactorily fine. It has been urged in another chapter that +immediate effectiveness is determined by fineness, but as a working +basis we assumed that when all the stone would pass through a screen +having sixty wires to the inch it would give the desired results. The +coarsest portion would not be available at once, but when an application +is heavy enough to serve for a year or more, we have enough very fine +material in such a grade of stone to meet immediate need. When +estimating values of such a grade and coarser grades, the amount per +acre to be used is a factor. The coarse is unsatisfactory if the price +is not low enough to permit an application sufficient for a considerable +term of years, so that it will contain all the fine material needed at +once. In that case the coarser material may be expected to meet later +need, and may be even more desirable for such purpose, as it would not +be subject to leaching. + +Coarse grinding costs much less than fine grinding, and it is the +resulting low price that permits the heavy application. As stone varies +in hardness and ability of the small particles to withstand +disintegrating forces in the soil, an estimate of the difference in +price between a 60-mesh limestone and a 10-mesh one could not serve as a +safe guide. The buyer should know the percentages of a limestone passing +through screens of various sizes before he makes a purchase, and should +demand part of the saving in cost of production that attends coarse +grinding. + +_Oyster Shell._ Ground oyster shell should be given about the same +valuation as limestone. It is a lime carbonate, and the percentage of +worthless material in it varies somewhat It is coarsely ground, but the +large pieces disintegrate in the soil much more rapidly than limestone +would do. It contains a little nitrogen and phosphoric acid, partially +available, as an offset to coarseness and some lack of purity, as +compared with the highest grade of fine stone. It is profitable to buy +oyster shell at limestone prices if used liberally enough to furnish a +supply for a term of years. The oxide, or burned shell lime, would be +nearly the equivalent of burned stone if it did not change to hydrate +and air-slaked forms so rapidly that it rarely is on the market in the +~full~ strength of fresh burned lime. + +_Hardwood Ashes._ As a source of lime, ashes have become far too +expensive. The composition of ashes on the market is widely variable, +dirt and moisture often accounting for much of the weight. The lime in +fresh burned ashes is peculiarly effective, being finely divided and in +oxide form, but the ashes on the market have much of the lime +water-slaked and air-slaked. Unless analysis is made at time of +purchase, a buyer should not estimate the content of lime in a ton at a +value greater than assigned to one-half of a ton of limestone. The +additional value of the ashes, due to the potash content, is wholly +another consideration. + +_Marl._ No more should be paid for a ton of good chalk marl than an +equal weight of fine limestone would cost. Each is a good carbonate of +lime, with the same capacity for destruction of acids. + +_Agricultural Lime._ This variable product should not be bought unless +actual composition is known, or the cost is as low as that of pulverized +limestone, and even then it may be a bad purchase, the methods of the +manufacturer being the determining factor. If such lime is chiefly a +dumping place for low-grade stone and forkings, it has small +agricultural value. + +_Land Plaster._ The soil wants lime in carbonate form. The oxide and +hydrate change to carbonate, and therefore are good. Land plaster is a +sulphate, and its tendency is to make a soil sour. It should not be +considered as a means of correcting soil acidity. + +_Basic Slag._ The amount of effective lime in basic slag, as made by +modern methods, is so small that its value is nearly negligible. Basic +slag is a good source of phosphorus, and in addition has a tendency +toward correction of soil acidity, but such tendency has little cash +value for land that requires a considerable dressing of lime to furnish +a base with which soil acids may combine. + +An expression of opinion was obtained recently from some leading soil +chemists of this country, and upon such expression we base the estimate +that when pulverized limestone costs three dollars a ton, the value of +the lime in a ton of basic slag should not be placed higher than 50 +cents, and some chemists believe that the lime content is entirely +negligible as an agent in soil amendment. + +_Lime in Other Fertilizers._ The demand for lime is leading some men to +state a lime content for their goods that is designed to mislead. Such +lime is not in a form to combine with soil acids, and is as valueless as +the very large amount of lime in acid soils that is in compounds having +no power to affect free acids. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +METHODS OF APPLICATION + + +_A Controlling Principle._ The chief purpose of liming land is to +provide a base with which acid may combine, so that the soil may be +friendly to plant life. Lime has little power to distribute itself +through a soil, and harmful acid may remain only a few inches distant +from the point where lime has been placed. In a general way, the +tendency of lime is downward, especially when the application at the +surface is heavy. Economical use demands even distribution through the +soil so that a sufficient amount is in every part. Means to that end are +good means of distribution. + +_Spreading on Grass._ Where lime is burned on the farm, and little +account of labor is taken, it has been a common custom to spread the +lime on grass sods the year previous to breaking the sod for corn, using +100 to 300 bushels per acre. Rains carried some of the lime through the +soil, and the increased yields for a few years were due to the improved +physical condition of a stiff soil that a heavy application of +caustic lime produces, and to the disintegration of organic matter and +to change in compounds of mineral plant food. The practice is rightly +going into disrepute, being wasteful and harmful. + +[Illustration: Filling the Lime Spreader at the Ohio Experiment Station] + +[Illustration: Lime Distributors] + +The smaller application of any form of lime to correct soil acidity may +be made on grass land that should not be plowed, but the full +effectiveness of an application is not secured in top-dressings. If the +land is under a crop rotation, it is better practice not to apply the +lime on grass, but to defer application until the sod has been broken, +when the lime can be intimately mixed with the soil by use of harrows. +It is the rule that it should go on plowed land, and should be mixed +with the soil before rain puddles it. In no case should it be plowed +down. + +When clover or alfalfa shows a lime deficiency, it is advisable to make +an application, either in the spring or after a cutting, obtaining +whatever degree of effectiveness may be possible to this way, but the +fact remains that full return from an application is secured only after +intimate mixture with the soil particles. On the other hand, if land +needs lime, and there is not time or labor for the application when the +soil can be stirred, it is far better to apply on the surface during any +idle time than to leave the soil deficient in lime. + +_Distributors._ The most satisfactory means of distribution is a machine +made for the purpose. A number of good distributors are on the market. +They are designed to handle a large quantity of material after the +fashion of a fertilizer distributor ordinarily attached to a grain +drill. A V-shaped box, with openings at the bottom, and a device to +regulate the quantity per acre, enables the workman to cover the surface +of the ground with an even coat, and the mixing with the soil is done by +harrows. + +Light applications can be made with a drill having a fertilizer +attachment. Some makes of drill have much more capacity than others. +Granular lime, such as limestone, is handled more satisfactorily than a +floury slaked lime. + +_Farm-Slaked Lime._ Lime slaked on the farm must continue to be a +leading source of supply to land. If there is stone on the farm, and +labor in the winter is available, it is not a costly source of supply. +The chief drawback to the use of farm-slaked lime is the difficulty in +securing even distribution. The loss from spreading with shovels from +small piles slaked in the field is heavy. The quantity per acre must be +large to insure sufficient material for every square foot of surface. +The lime slaked in a large heap can be put through distributors only +after screening to remove pieces of stone, unless they are made with a +screening device, and the caustic character and floury condition make +handling disagreeable, but no other method is as economical when lime is +high in price. + +_Use of the Manure Spreader._ The next best device is the manure +spreader. The makes on the market vary in ability to do satisfactory +work with lime, and none does even work with a small quantity per acre. +An addition to the bulk to be handled by placing a layer of other +material in the spreader before filling with lime helps, but some +spreaders do fair work in spreading as little as 3000 pounds of slaked +lime per acre, and certainly far better work than usually is done with +shovels from a wagon. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +AMOUNT OF LIME PER ACRE + + +_Soils Vary in Requirement._ There is always the insistent question +respecting the amount of lime that should be used on a particular field. +Usually _no_ definite reply can be safely made. The requirement of the +present, and probably of the _next_ few years, should be met by one +application. The existing degree of acidity is an unknown quantity until +a careful test has been made. There are soils so sour that several tons +of fresh burned lime per acre would only meet present requirement, and +there are soils so soundly alkaline that they need none at all. This +uncertainty regarding amount required is responsible for much failure to +do anything, even when some acidity is indicated by general appearance. + +_A Working Basis._ If land has once been productive and in later years +clover has ceased to grow and grass sods are thin, there is a strong +probability that liming will pay, and the experience of farmers on +normal soils, and the tests of experiment stations, justify the +estimate that two tons of fine stone, or one and a quarter tons of fresh +burned lime per acre, can be used with profit. This amount probably will +permit fertilizers and tillage to make their full return in heavy sods +that will provide humus. It is a reasonable expectation that the +application will serve through a crop rotation of four or five years. + +If the soil was not very sour, the second application at the end of four +or five years may be reduced somewhat, and even a ton of stone given +once in the crop rotation may fully meet the requirement. + +In the case of the normal soil that has ceased to grow clover, and does +grow plants that are acid-resistant, it is better practice to secure a +relatively low-priced supply of coarsely pulverized stone and apply +three or four tons per acre, and thus lengthen the interval between +applications to eight or 10 years. The fine material in the heavy +application will take care of present need, and the coarser particles +will disintegrate later on. + +The quantities suggested may not be the most economical for the reader, +but their use cannot be attended by loss if a soil is sour, and there +is reason to believe that it is much better to use such quantities +without question than to defer liming for a year in the hope that some +more definite knowledge of a particular field's needs may be secured. + +_Small Amounts Per Acre._ There is much experience as a basis for the +claim that a few hundred pounds of burned lime per acre may have marked +results. Fields that indicated an actual lime requirement of a ton of +fresh lime per acre have had a test of 500 pounds per acre made in +strips, and the clover later on was so superior to that which was +struggling to live in the untreated portion that the light application +appeared almost to be adequate. In such land there cannot be full +bacterial activity or continuing friendliness to plants unless the need +is met fully. A larger application would have paid better. It is the +soil rich in lime that can make the best response to tillage and +fertilization. + +_A Heavy Soil._ When burned lime is not high in price, an application of +two tons per acre may be more profitable than a smaller one. A heavy +soil needs to be richer in lime than a light one for best results, and +physical condition also is improved by the larger quantity. A +correspondingly heavy coat of stone will give quite satisfactory +results, but effect upon the texture of the soil is less marked. + +_Sandy Soils._ It is inadvisable to apply any large quantity of caustic +lime to a light soil. Such a soil does not need as high a percentage in +it as a heavy soil requires for good results, and caustic lime can +easily injure physical condition. Limestone is safe for use, and is to +be advised for all quite sandy land. Acidity rarely runs high in a light +soil, and the opinion is hazarded here that one ton of stone per acre +meets the needs of a light soil about as surely as two tons supply a +heavy soil. In case of each type of soil there are wide exceptions, and +yet these estimates form a basis for the judgment of the individual +farmer. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +SPECIAL CROP DEMANDS + + +_Lime-Loving Crops._ There are plants which are acid-resistant, giving a +good return for fertilization and care when the soil is sour. There are +a few kinds of cultivated plants that seem to prefer an acid soil, and +to resent lime applications. Most staple crops prefer an alkaline soil, +or at least one that has no large requirement, and there are plants that +thrive best only in land rich in lime. Not all such plants require more +as a component part of their structure, but do have a high percentage in +their ash. + +_Liming for Alfalfa._ When all other conditions are right, alfalfa +thrives or fails according as a soil is rich in lime or is distinctly +deficient. It is entirely possible to get fair yields of this legume for +a short time from land that is not fully alkaline, but full yields and +ability to last for a term of years depend upon a liberal lime supply. +Alfalfa is at home only in a naturally calcareous soil, or one that has +been given some of the characteristics of such land by free use of +lime. In the case of neutral or slightly acid ground it is good practice +to mix four tons of limestone per acre thoroughly with the soil. Such +treatment gives greater permanence to the seeding, enabling the plants +to compete successfully with the wild grasses and other weeds that are +the chief obstacle to success in the humid climate of our Mississippi +valley and eastern states. When this amount of stone is used, the finest +grade may not be preferred to material having a considerable percentage +of slightly coarser grains. + +[Illustration: Remarkable Effect of Lime on Sweet Clover at the Ohio +Experiment Station] + +[Illustration: Sweet Clover Thrives When Lime and Manure Are Supplied, +Ohio Experiment Station] + +_Red Clover._ When land is in excellent tilth, it may grow red clover +satisfactorily while showing a decided lime deficiency. On the other +hand, much slightly acid land fails to grow clover, and an application +of lime is followed by heavy growths. Red clover is most at home in +calcareous soils, and lack of lime is a leading cause of clover failure +in this country. Other causes may be important ones in the absence of +lime and be overcome when it is present. + +_Alsike Clover._ Most legumes like lime, and alsike clover is not an +exception, but is far more acid-resistant than the red. It is less +valuable, both for soil improvement and for forage, having an inferior +root system, but has proved a boon to farmers in areas that have been +losing the power to grow red clover. The custom of mixing red and alsike +seed has become widespread, and distinctly acid soils are marked in the +clover flowering season by the profusion of the distinctive alsike bloom +to the exclusion of the red. While there is acid-resistant power, this +clover responds to liming. + +_Crimson Clover._ Among lime-loving plants crimson clover has a rightful +place, but it makes fairly good growth where the lack of lime is marked. + +_Bluegrass._ The heaviest bluegrass sods are found where lime is +abundant in the soil. This most valuable pasture grass may withstand the +encroachments of weeds for a long time when lime is not abundant, if +plant food is not in scant supply, but dependable sods of this grass are +made only in an alkaline soil. Heavy liming of an acid soil pays when a +seeding to permanent pasture is made, and old sods on land unfit for +tillage may be given a new life by a dressing. + +_Crops Favored by Lime._ Nearly all staple farm crops respond to +applications given acid soils. Corn, oats, timothy, potatoes and many +other crops have considerable power of resistance to acids, but give +increased yields when lime is present. Liming is not recommended for +potatoes because it furnishes conditions favorable to a disease which +attacks this crop. When clover is wanted in a crop rotation with +potatoes, it is advisable to apply the lime immediately after the potato +crop has been grown, and to use limestone rather than burned lime. Most +kinds of vegetables thrive best in an alkaline soil. + + + + +INDEX + + + Page + + Air-slaked lime, composition and relative value of, 31, 57 + + Agricultural lime, composition and relative value of, 58, 76 + + Amount of lime per acre, 82 + + Basic slag, 76 + + Burning lime, methods of, 49 + + Calcium, 29 + carbonate, 30 + hydroxide, 30 + oxide, 29 + + Carbon dioxide, 30 + + Causes of soil acidity, 10, 12, 13, 14 + + Caustic lime affects physical condition, 44, 46 + acts on humus, 44, 47 + frees inert plant food, 44 + compared with limestone, 45 + irrational use of, 44 + may injure a sandy soil, 66, 85 + right use of, 48 + + Caustic magnesian lime on sandy land, 66 + + Chemical changes produce acidity, 13 + + Clover, 17, 19, 87 + + Composition of limestone, 24, 30, 31, 46 + + Distribution of lime, 70, 78 + + Distributors, 80, 81 + + Dolomite, 30, 67 + + Equivalents in value, 69 + + Extent of soil acidity, 6, 11 + + Fineness of limestone, 39, 73 + + Frear, Dr. Wm., 50 + + Fresh burned lime, 44 + composition and relative value of, 29, 31, 45, 69, 71 + + Gas lime, 62 + + Ground limestone, composition and relative value of, 30, 33, 69, 72 + + Hydrated lime, composition and relative value of 30, 31, 53, 71 + + Indications of soil acidity, 5, 15, 17, 18 + + Irrational use of lime, 9, 44 + + Land plaster, 76 + + Leaching, 12, 38 + + Lime for alfalfa, 86 + alsike clover, 87 + bluegrass, 88 + crimson clover, 88 + potatoes, 89 + red clover, 87 + most staple crops, 88 + in fertilizers, 77 + is unstable, 10 + necessary content variable, 5 + on sandy soils, 85 + + Limestone burned to effect distribution, 34 + land, value of, 4, 6 + varies in composition, 33 + + Litmus paper test, 20 + + Low-priced pulverizers, 35 + + Lump lime and hydrate compared, 71 + limestone compared, 72 + + Magnesian lime, 64 + limestone, 66 + + Magnesium, 30, 64 + + Marl, composition and relative value of, 59, 76 + + New York experiment station, 42 + + Old heaps of burned lime, 58 + + Oyster shells, composition and relative value of, 61, 75 + + Redtop, 18 + + Relative values of lime, 68, 71, 72 + + Removal of lime in crops, 14 + + Slaking lime, 53 + + Small applications may pay, 84 + + Soil acidity, cause of, 10, 12, 13, 14 + extent of, 6, 11 + indications of, 5, 15, 17, 18 + tests for, 20, 21 + + Soils vary in lime requirement, 82 + + Sorrel and plantain, 15 + + Spreading farm-burned lime, 70, 80 + + Storing lime in the soil, 38 + + Storing limestone, 73 + + Source of lime, as: + agricultural lime, 58, 76 + air-slaked lime, 31, 57 + fresh-burned lime, 29, 31, 44 + gas lime, 62 + ground lime, 31 + ground limestone, 30, 33 + hydrated or slaked lime, 31, 53 + magnesian limestone, 30 + marl, 59 + oyster shells, 61, 75 + wood ashes, 61, 75 + + Source of lime in soils, 10, 24 + + Technical terms, 28 + + Tests for soil acidity, 20, 21 + + Thin soils usually acid, 18 + + Timber as an index, 7, 15 + + Timothy, 17, 88 + + Truog, Prof. E., 21 + + Truog test, 21 + + Value of lime after magnesium removal, 62 + + Voorhees, Dr. E. B., 62 + + Warding off soil acidity, 7 + + When production decreases, 18 + + Wood ashes, composition and relative value of, 25, 61, 75 + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Right Use of Lime in Soil Improvement, by Alva Agee + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RIGHT USE OF LIME IN SOIL *** + +***** This file should be named 25389.txt or 25389.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/3/8/25389/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Janet Blenkinship and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net +(This file was produced from images produced by Core +Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell +University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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