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diff --git a/2530-h/2530-h.htm b/2530-h/2530-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5709f99 --- /dev/null +++ b/2530-h/2530-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11212 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Malay Archipelago, Volume I. (of II.) by Alfred Russel Wallace + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +Project Gutenberg's The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred Russell Wallace + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Malay Archipelago + Volume I. (of II.) + +Author: Alfred Russell Wallace + +Release Date: December 1, 2008 [EBook #2530] +Last Updated: February 7, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO *** + + + + +Produced by Martin Adamson, David Widger and Colin Choat + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO,<br /> VOLUME I. (of II.) + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Alfred Russel Wallace + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The land of the orang-utan, and the bird of paradise. + + A narrative of travel, with sketches of man and nature. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + To CHARLES DARWIN, + + AUTHOR OF "THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES," + + I dedicate this book, + Not only as a token of personal esteem and friendship + But also + To express my deep admiration + For + His genius and his works. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE. </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0002"> <big><b>THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.</b></big> </a><br /><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> SINGAPORE. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> MALACCA + AND MOUNT OPHIR. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> BORNEO—THE + ORANGUTAN. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> BORNEO—JOURNEY + INTO THE INTERIOR. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> BORNEO—THE + DYAKS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> JAVA, + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> SUMATRA. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> NATURAL + HISTORY OF THE INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0010"> + CHAPTER X. </a> BALI AND LOMBOCK. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> LOMBOCK: MANNERS AND + CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. + </a> LOMBOCK: HOW THE RAJAH TOOK THE CENSUS. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> TIMOR. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> THE NATURAL HISTORY + OF THE TIMOR GROUP. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. </a> CELEBES. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI. </a> CELEBES. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XVII. </a> CELEBES. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> NATURAL + HISTORY OF CELEBES. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX. + </a> BANDA. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX. + </a> AMBOYNA. <br /><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <table summary="" border="3" cellpadding="4"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <a + href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2539/2539-h/2539-h.htm">Next + Volume</a> + </td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + PREFACE. + </h2> + <p> + My readers will naturally ask why I have delayed writing this book for six + years after my return; and I feel bound to give them full satisfaction on + this point. + </p> + <p> + When I reached England in the spring of 1862, I found myself surrounded by + a room full of packing cases containing the collections that I had, from + time to time, sent home for my private use. These comprised nearly three + thousand bird-skins of about one thousand species, at least twenty + thousand beetles and butterflies of about seven thousand species, and some + quadrupeds and land shells besides. A large proportion of these I had not + seen for years, and in my then weakened state of health, the unpacking, + sorting, and arranging of such a mass of specimens occupied a long time. + </p> + <p> + I very soon decided that until I had done something towards naming and + describing the most important groups in my collection, and had worked out + some of the more interesting problems of variation and geographical + distribution (of which I had had glimpses while collecting them), I would + not attempt to publish my travels. Indeed, I could have printed my notes + and journals at once, leaving all reference to questions of natural + history for a future work; but, I felt that this would be as + unsatisfactory to myself as it would be disappointing to my friends, and + uninstructive to the public. + </p> + <p> + Since my return, up to this date, I have published eighteen papers in the + "Transactions" or "Proceedings of the Linnean Zoological and Entomological + Societies", describing or cataloguing portions of my collections, along + with twelve others in various scientific periodicals on more general + subjects connected with them. + </p> + <p> + Nearly two thousand of my Coleoptera, and many hundreds of my butterflies, + have been already described by various eminent naturalists, British and + foreign; but a much larger number remains undescribed. Among those to whom + science is most indebted for this laborious work, I must name Mr. F. P. + Pascoe, late President of the Entomological Society of London, who had + almost completed the classification and description of my large collection + of Longicorn beetles (now in his possession), comprising more than a + thousand species, of which at least nine hundred were previously + undescribed and new to European cabinets. + </p> + <p> + The remaining orders of insects, comprising probably more than two + thousand species, are in the collection of Mr. William Wilson Saunders, + who has caused the larger portion of them to be described by good + entomologists. The Hymenoptera alone amounted to more than nine hundred + species, among which were two hundred and eighty different kinds of ants, + of which two hundred were new. + </p> + <p> + The six years' delay in publishing my travels thus enables me to give what + I hope may be an interesting and instructive sketch of the main results + yet arrived at by the study of my collections; and as the countries I have + to describe are not much visited or written about, and their social and + physical conditions are not liable to rapid change, I believe and hope + that my readers will gain much more than they will lose by not having read + my book six years ago, and by this time perhaps forgotten all about it. + </p> + <p> + I must now say a few words on the plan of my work. + </p> + <p> + My journeys to the various islands were regulated by the seasons and the + means of conveyance. I visited some islands two or three times at distant + intervals, and in some cases had to make the same voyage four times over. + A chronological arrangement would have puzzled my readers. They would + never have known where they were, and my frequent references to the groups + of islands, classed in accordance with the peculiarities of their animal + productions and of their human inhabitants, would have been hardly + intelligible. I have adopted, therefore, a geographical, zoological, and + ethnological arrangement, passing from island to island in what seems the + most natural succession, while I transgress the order in which I myself + visited them, as little as possible. + </p> + <p> + I divide the Archipelago into five groups of islands, as follows: + </p> + <p> + I. THE INDO-MALAY ISLANDS: comprising the Malay Peninsula and Singapore, + Borneo, Java, and Sumatra. + </p> + <p> + II. THE TIMOR GROUP: comprising the islands of Timor, Flores, Sumbawa, and + Lombock, with several smaller ones. + </p> + <p> + III. CELEBES: comprising also the Sula Islands and Bouton. + </p> + <p> + IV. THE MOLUCCAN GROUP: comprising Bouru, Ceram, Batchian, Gilolo, and + Morty; with the smaller islands of Ternate, Tidore, Makian, Kaióa, + Amboyna, Banda, Goram, and Matabello. + </p> + <p> + V. THE PAPUAN GROUP: comprising the great island of New Guinea, with the + Aru Islands, Mysol, Salwatty, Waigiou, and several others. The Ke Islands + are described with this group on account of their ethnology, though + zoologically and geographically they belong to the Moluccas. + </p> + <p> + The chapters relating to the separate islands of each of these groups are + followed by one on the Natural History of that group; and the work may + thus be divided into five parts, each treating one of the natural + divisions of the Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + The first chapter is an introductory one, on the Physical Geography of the + whole region; and the last is a general sketch of the races of man in the + Archipelago and the surrounding countries. With this explanation, and a + reference to the maps which illustrate the work, I trust that my readers + will always know where they are, and in what direction they are going. + </p> + <p> + I am well aware that my book is far too small for the extent of the + subjects it touches upon. It is a mere sketch; but so far as it goes, I + have endeavoured to make it an accurate one. Almost the whole of the + narrative and descriptive portions were written on the spot, and have had + little more than verbal alterations. The chapters on Natural History, as + well as many passages in other parts of the work, have been written in the + hope of exciting an interest in the various questions connected with the + origin of species and their geographical distribution. In some cases I + have been able to explain my views in detail; while in others, owing to + the greater complexity of the subject, I have thought it better to confine + myself to a statement of the more interesting facts of the problem, whose + solution is to be found in the principles developed by Mr. Darwin in his + various works. The numerous illustrations will, it is believed, add much + to the interest and value of the book. They have been made from my own + sketches, from photographs, or from specimens—and such, only + subjects that would really illustrate the narrative or the descriptions, + have been chosen. + </p> + <p> + I have to thank Messrs. Walter and Henry Woodbury, whose acquaintance I + had the pleasure of making in Java, for a number of photographs of scenery + and of natives, which have been of the greatest assistance to me. Mr. + William Wilson Saunders has kindly allowed me to figure the curious horned + flies; and to Mr. Pascoe I am indebted for a loan of two of the very rare + Longicorns which appear in the plate of Bornean beetles. All the other + specimens figured are in my own collection. + </p> + <p> + As the main object of all my journeys was to obtain specimens of natural + history, both for my private collection and to supply duplicates to + museums and amateurs, I will give a general statement of the number of + specimens I collected, and which reached home in good condition. I must + premise that I generally employed one or two, and sometimes three Malay + servants to assist me; and for nearly half the time had the services of an + English lad, Charles Allen. I was just eight years away from England, but + as I travelled about fourteen thousand miles within the Archipelago, and + made sixty or seventy separate journeys, each involving some preparation + and loss of time, I do not think that more than six years were really + occupied in collecting. + </p> + <p> + I find that my Eastern collections amounted to: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 310 specimens of Mammalia. + 100 specimens of Reptiles. + 8,050 specimens of Birds. + 7,500 specimens of Shells. + 13,100 specimens of Lepidoptera. + 83,200 specimens of Coleoptera. + 13,400 specimens of other Insects. + + 125,660 specimens of natural history in all. +</pre> + <p> + It now only remains for me to thank all those friends to whom I am + indebted for assistance or information. My thanks are more especially due + to the Council of the Royal Geographical Society, through whose valuable + recommendations I obtained important aid from our own Government and from + that of Holland; and to Mr. William Wilson Saunders, whose kind and + liberal encouragement in the early portion of my journey was of great + service to me. I am also greatly indebted to Mr. Samuel Stevens (who acted + as my agent), both for the care he took of my collections, and for the + untiring assiduity with which he kept me supplied, both with useful + information and with whatever necessaries I required. + </p> + <p> + I trust that these, and all other friends who have been in any way + interested in my travels and collections, may derive from the perusal of + my book, some faint reflexion of the pleasures I myself enjoyed amid the + scenes and objects it describes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. + </h2> + <p> + From a look at a globe or a map of the Eastern hemisphere, we shall + perceive between Asia and Australia a number of large and small islands + forming a connected group distinct from those great masses of land, and + having little connection with either of them. Situated upon the Equator, + and bathed by the tepid water of the great tropical oceans, this region + enjoys a climate more uniformly hot and moist than almost any other part + of the globe, and teems with natural productions which are elsewhere + unknown. The richest of fruits and the most precious of spices are + Indigenous here. It produces the giant flowers of the Rafflesia, the great + green-winged Ornithoptera (princes among the butterfly tribes), the + man-like Orangutan, and the gorgeous Birds of Paradise. It is inhabited by + a peculiar and interesting race of mankind—the Malay, found nowhere + beyond the limits of this insular tract, which has hence been named the + Malay Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + To the ordinary Englishman this is perhaps the least known part of the + globe. Our possessions in it are few and scanty; scarcely any of our + travellers go to explore it; and in many collections of maps it is almost + ignored, being divided between Asia and the Pacific Islands. It thus + happens that few persons realize that, as a whole, it is comparable with + the primary divisions of the globe, and that some of its separate islands + are larger than France or the Austrian Empire. The traveller, however, + soon acquires different ideas. He sails for days or even weeks along the + shores of one of these great islands, often so great that its inhabitants + believe it to be a vast continent. He finds that voyages among these + islands are commonly reckoned by weeks and months, and that their several + inhabitants are often as little known to each other as are the native + races of the northern to those of the southern continent of America. He + soon comes to look upon this region as one apart from the rest of the + world, with its own races of men and its own aspects of nature; with its + own ideas, feelings, customs, and modes of speech, and with a climate, + vegetation, and animated life altogether peculiar to itself. + </p> + <p> + From many points of view these islands form one compact geographical + whole, and as such they have always been treated by travellers and men of + science; but, a more careful and detailed study of them under various + aspects reveals the unexpected fact that they are divisible into two + portions nearly equal in extent which differ widely in their natural + products, and really form two parts of the primary divisions of the earth. + I have been able to prove this in considerable detail by my observations + on the natural history of the various parts of the Archipelago; and, as in + the description of my travels and residence in the several islands I shall + have to refer continually to this view, and adduce facts in support of it, + I have thought it advisable to commence with a general sketch of the main + features of the Malayan region as will render the facts hereafter brought + forward more interesting, and their bearing upon the general question more + easily understood. I proceed, therefore, to sketch the limits and extent + of the Archipelago, and to point out the more striking features of its + geology, physical geography, vegetation, and animal life. + </p> + <p> + Definition and Boundaries.—For reasons which depend mainly on the + distribution of animal life, I consider the Malay Archipelago to include + the Malay Peninsula as far as Tenasserim and the Nicobar Islands on the + west, the Philippines on the north, and the Solomon Islands, beyond New + Guinea, on the east. All the great islands included within these limits + are connected together by innumerable smaller ones, so that no one of them + seems to be distinctly separated from the rest. With but few exceptions + all enjoy an uniform and very similar climate, and are covered with a + luxuriant forest vegetation. Whether we study their form and distribution + on maps, or actually travel from island to island, our first impression + will be that they form a connected whole, all the parts of which are + intimately related to each other. + </p> + <p> + Extent of the Archipelago and Islands.—The Malay Archipelago extends + for more than 4,000 miles in length from east to west, and is about 1,300 + in breadth from north to south. It would stretch over an expanse equal to + that of all Europe from the extreme west far into Central Asia, or would + cover the widest parts of South America, and extend far beyond the land + into the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. It includes three islands larger + than Great Britain; and in one of them, Borneo, the whole of the British + Isles might be set down, and would be surrounded by a sea of forests. New + Guinea, though less compact in shape, is probably larger than Borneo. + Sumatra is about equal in extent to Great Britain; Java, Luzon, and + Celebes are each about the size of Ireland. Eighteen more islands are, on + the average, as large as Jamaica; more than a hundred are as large as the + Isle of Wight; while the isles and islets of smaller size are innumerable. + </p> + <p> + The absolute extent of land in the Archipelago is not greater than that + contained by Western Europe from Hungary to Spain; but, owing to the + manner in which the land is broken up and divided, the variety of its + productions is rather in proportion to the immense surface over which the + islands are spread, than to the quantity of land which they contain. + </p> + <p> + Geological Contrasts.—One of the chief volcanic belts upon the globe + passes through the Archipelago, and produces a striking contrast in the + scenery of the volcanic and non-volcanic islands. A curving line, marked + out by scores of active, and hundreds of extinct, volcanoes may be traced + through the whole length of Sumatra and Java, and thence by the islands of + Bali, Lombock, Sumbawa, Flores, the Serwatty Islands, Banda, Amboyna, + Batchian, Makian, Tidore, Ternate, and Gilolo, to Morty Island. Here there + is a slight but well-marked break, or shift, of about 200 miles to the + westward, where the volcanic belt begins again in North Celebes, and + passes by Siau and Sanguir to the Philippine Islands along the eastern + side of which it continues, in a curving line, to their northern + extremity. From the extreme eastern bend of this belt at Banda, we pass + onwards for 1,000 miles over a non-volcanic district to the volcanoes + observed by Dampier, in 1699, on the north-eastern coast of New Guinea, + and can there trace another volcanic belt through New Britain, New + Ireland, and the Solomon Islands, to the eastern limits of the + Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + In the whole region occupied by this vast line of volcanoes, and for a + considerable breadth on each side of it, earthquakes are of continual + recurrence, slight shocks being felt at intervals of every few weeks or + months, while more severe ones, shaking down whole villages, and doing + more or less injury to life and property, are sure to happen, in one part + or another of this district, almost every year. On many of the islands the + years of the great earthquakes form the chronological epochs of the native + inhabitants, by the aid of which the ages of their children are + remembered, and the dates of many important events are determined. + </p> + <p> + I can only briefly allude to the many fearful eruptions that have taken + place in this region. In the amount of injury to life and property, and in + the magnitude of their effects, they have not been surpassed by any upon + record. Forty villages were destroyed by the eruption of Papandayang in + Java, in 1772, when the whole mountain was blown up by repeated + explosions, and a large lake left in its place. By the great eruption of + Tomboro in Sumbawa, in 1815, 12,000 people were destroyed, and the ashes + darkened the air and fell thickly upon the earth and sea for 300 miles + around. Even quite recently, since I left the country, a mountain which + had been quiescent for more than 200 years suddenly burst into activity. + The island of Makian, one of the Moluccas, was rent open in 1646 by a + violent eruption which left a huge chasm on one side, extending into the + heart of the mountain. It was, when I last visited it in 1860, clothed + with vegetation to the summit, and contained twelve populous Malay + villages. On the 29th of December, 1862, after 215 years of perfect + inaction, it again suddenly burst forth, blowing up and completely + altering the appearance of the mountain, destroying the greater part of + the inhabitants, and sending forth such volumes of ashes as to darken the + air at Ternate, forty miles off, and to almost entirely destroy the + growing crops on that and the surrounding islands. + </p> + <p> + The island of Java contains more volcanoes, active and extinct, than any + other known district of equal extent. They are about forty-five in number, + and many of them exhibit most beautiful examples of the volcanic cone on a + large scale, single or double, with entire or truncated summits, and + averaging 10,000 feet high. + </p> + <p> + It is now well ascertained that almost all volcanoes have been slowly + built up by the accumulation of matter—mud, ashes, and lava—ejected + by themselves. The openings or craters, however, frequently shift their + position, so that a country may be covered with a more or less irregular + series of hills in chains and masses, only here and there rising into + lofty cones, and yet the whole may be produced by true volcanic action. In + this manner the greater part of Java has been formed. There has been some + elevation, especially on the south coast, where extensive cliffs of coral + limestone are found; and there may be a substratum of older stratified + rocks; but still essentially Java is volcanic, and that noble and fertile + island—the very garden of the East, and perhaps upon the whole the + richest, the best cultivated, and the best governed tropical island in the + world—owes its very existence to the same intense volcanic activity + which still occasionally devastates its surface. + </p> + <p> + The great island of Sumatra exhibits, in proportion to its extent, a much + smaller number of volcanoes, and a considerable portion of it has probably + a non-volcanic origin. + </p> + <p> + To the eastward, the long string of islands from Java, passing by the + north of Timor and away to Banda, are probably all due to volcanic action. + Timor itself consists of ancient stratified rocks, but is said to have one + volcano near its centre. + </p> + <p> + Going northward, Amboyna, a part of Bouru, and the west end of Ceram, the + north part of Gilolo, and all the small islands around it, the northern + extremity of Celebes, and the islands of Siau and Sanguir, are wholly + volcanic. The Philippine Archipelago contains many active and extinct + volcanoes, and has probably been reduced to its present fragmentary + condition by subsidences attending on volcanic action. + </p> + <p> + All along this great line of volcanoes are to be found more or less + palpable signs of upheaval and depression of land. The range of islands + south of Sumatra, a part of the south coast of Java and of the islands + east of it, the west and east end of Timor, portions of all the Moluccas, + the Ke and Aru Islands, Waigiou, and the whole south and east of Gilolo, + consist in a great measure of upraised coral-rock, exactly corresponding + to that now forming in the adjacent seas. In many places I have observed + the unaltered surfaces of the elevated reefs, with great masses of coral + standing up in their natural position, and hundreds of shells so + fresh-looking that it was hard to believe that they had been more than a + few years out of the water; and, in fact, it is very probable that such + changes have occurred within a few centuries. + </p> + <p> + The united lengths of these volcanic belts is about ninety degrees, or + one-fourth of the entire circumference of the globe. Their width is about + fifty miles; but, for a space of two hundred miles on each side of them, + evidences of subterranean action are to be found in recently elevated + coral-rock, or in barrier coral-reefs, indicating recent submergence. In + the very centre or focus of the great curve of volcanoes is placed the + large island of Borneo, in which no sign of recent volcanic action has yet + been observed, and where earthquakes, so characteristic of the surrounding + regions, are entirely unknown. The equally large island of New Guinea + occupies another quiescent area, on which no sign of volcanic action has + yet been discovered. With the exception of the eastern end of its northern + peninsula, the large and curiously-shaped island of Celebes is also + entirely free from volcanoes; and there is some reason to believe that the + volcanic portion has once formed a separate island. The Malay Peninsula is + also non-volcanic. + </p> + <p> + The first and most obvious division of the Archipelago would therefore be + into quiescent and volcanic regions, and it might, perhaps, be expected + that such a division would correspond to some differences in the character + of the vegetation and the forms of life. This is the case, however, to a + very limited extent; and we shall presently see that, although this + development of subterranean fires is on so vast a scale—has piled up + chains of mountains ten or twelve thousand feet high—has broken up + continents and raised up islands from the ocean—yet it has all the + character of a recent action which has not yet succeeded in obliterating + the traces of a more ancient distribution of land and water. + </p> + <p> + Contrasts of Vegetation.—Placed immediately upon the Equator and + surrounded by extensive oceans, it is not surprising that the various + islands of the Archipelago should be almost always clothed with a forest + vegetation from the level of the sea to the summits of the loftiest + mountains. This is the general rule. Sumatra, New Guinea, Borneo, the + Philippines and the Moluccas, and the uncultivated parts of Java and + Celebes, are all forest countries, except a few small and unimportant + tracts, due perhaps, in some cases, to ancient cultivation or accidental + fires. To this, however, there is one important exception in the island of + Timor and all the smaller islands around it, in which there is absolutely + no forest such as exists in the other islands, and this character extends + in a lesser degree to Flores, Sumbawa, Lombock, and Bali. + </p> + <p> + In Timor the most common trees are Eucalypti of several species, also + characteristic of Australia, with sandalwood, acacia, and other sorts in + less abundance. These are scattered over the country more or less thickly, + but, never so as to deserve the name of a forest. Coarse and scanty + grasses grow beneath them on the more barren hills, and a luxuriant + herbage in the moister localities. In the islands between Timor and Java + there is often a more thickly wooded country abounding in thorny and + prickly trees. These seldom reach any great height, and during the force + of the dry season they almost completely lose their leaves, allowing the + ground beneath them to be parched up, and contrasting strongly with the + damp, gloomy, ever-verdant forests of the other islands. This peculiar + character, which extends in a less degree to the southern peninsula of + Celebes and the east end of Java, is most probably owing to the proximity + of Australia. The south-east monsoon, which lasts for about two-thirds of + the year (from March to November), blowing over the northern parts of that + country, produces a degree of heat and dryness which assimilates the + vegetation and physical aspect of the adjacent islands to its own. A + little further eastward in Timor and the Ke Islands, a moister climate + prevails; the southeast winds blowing from the Pacific through Torres + Straits and over the damp forests of New Guinea, and as a consequence, + every rocky islet is clothed with verdure to its very summit. Further west + again, as the same dry winds blow over a wider and wider extent of ocean, + they have time to absorb fresh moisture, and we accordingly find the + island of Java possessing a less and less arid climate, until in the + extreme west near Batavia, rain occurs more or less all the year round, + and the mountains are everywhere clothed with forests of unexampled + luxuriance. + </p> + <p> + Contrasts in Depth of Sea.—It was first pointed out by Mr. George + Windsor Earl, in a paper read before the Royal Geographical Society in + 1845, and subsequently in a pamphlet "On the Physical Geography of + South-Eastern Asia and Australia", dated 1855, that a shallow sea + connected the great islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo with the Asiatic + continent, with which their natural productions generally agreed; while a + similar shallow sea connected New Guinea and some of the adjacent islands + to Australia, all being characterised by the presence of marsupials. + </p> + <p> + We have here a clue to the most radical contrast in the Archipelago, and + by following it out in detail I have arrived at the conclusion that we can + draw a line among the islands, which shall so divide them that one-half + shall truly belong to Asia, while the other shall no less certainly be + allied to Australia. I term these respectively the Indo-Malayan and the + Austro-Malayan divisions of the Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + On referring to pages 12, 13, and 36 of Mr. Earl's pamphlet, it will be + seen that he maintains the former connection of Asia and Australia as an + important part of his view; whereas, I dwell mainly on their long + continued separation. Notwithstanding this and other important differences + between us, to him undoubtedly belongs the merit of first indicating the + division of the Archipelago into an Australian and an Asiatic region, + which it has been my good fortune to establish by more detailed + observations. + </p> + <p> + Contrasts in Natural Productions.—To understand the importance of + this class of facts, and its bearing upon the former distribution of land + and sea, it is necessary to consider the results arrived at by geologists + and naturalists in other parts of the world. + </p> + <p> + It is now generally admitted that the present distribution of living + things on the surface of the earth is mainly the result of the last series + of changes that it has undergone. Geology teaches us that the surface of + the land, and the distribution of land and water, is everywhere slowly + changing. It further teaches us that the forms of life which inhabit that + surface have, during every period of which we possess any record, been + also slowly changing. + </p> + <p> + It is not now necessary to say anything about how either of those changes + took place; as to that, opinions may differ; but as to the fact that the + changes themselves have occurred, from the earliest geological ages down + to the present day, and are still going on, there is no difference of + opinion. Every successive stratum of sedimentary rock, sand, or gravel, is + a proof that changes of level have taken place; and the different species + of animals and plants, whose remains are found in these deposits, prove + that corresponding changes did occur in the organic world. + </p> + <p> + Taking, therefore, these two series of changes for granted, most of the + present peculiarities and anomalies in the distribution of species may be + directly traced to them. In our own islands, with a very few trifling + exceptions, every quadruped, bird, reptile, insect, and plant, is found + also on the adjacent continent. In the small islands of Sardinia and + Corsica, there are some quadrupeds and insects, and many plants, quite + peculiar. In Ceylon, more closely connected to India than Britain is to + Europe, many animals and plants are different from those found in India, + and peculiar to the island. In the Galapagos Islands, almost every + indigenous living thing is peculiar to them, though closely resembling + other kinds found in the nearest parts of the American continent. + </p> + <p> + Most naturalists now admit that these facts can only be explained by the + greater or less lapse of time since the islands were upraised from beneath + the ocean, or were separated from the nearest land; and this will be + generally (though not always) indicated by the depth of the intervening + sea. The enormous thickness of many marine deposits through wide areas + shows that subsidence has often continued (with intermitting periods of + repose) during epochs of immense duration. The depth of sea produced by + such subsidence will therefore generally be a measure of time; and in like + manner, the change which organic forms have undergone is a measure of + time. When we make proper allowance for the continued introduction of new + animals and plants from surrounding countries by those natural means of + dispersal which have been so well explained by Sir Charles Lyell and Mr. + Darwin, it is remarkable how closely these two measures correspond. + Britain is separated from the continent by a very shallow sea, and only in + a very few cases have our animals or plants begun to show a difference + from the corresponding continental species. Corsica and Sardinia, divided + from Italy by a much deeper sea, present a much greater difference in + their organic forms. Cuba, separated from Yucatan by a wider and deeper + strait, differs more markedly, so that most of its productions are of + distinct and peculiar species; while Madagascar, divided from Africa by a + deep channel three hundred miles wide, possesses so many peculiar features + as to indicate separation at a very remote antiquity, or even to render it + doubtful whether the two countries have ever been absolutely united. + </p> + <p> + Returning now to the Malay Archipelago, we find that all the wide expanse + of sea which divides Java, Sumatra, and Borneo from each other, and from + Malacca and Siam, is so shallow that ships can anchor in any part of it, + since it rarely exceeds forty fathoms in depth; and if we go as far as the + line of a hundred fathoms, we shall include the Philippine Islands and + Bali, east of Java. If, therefore, these islands have been separated from + each other and the continent by subsidence of the intervening tracts of + land, we should conclude that the separation has been comparatively + recent, since the depth to which the land has subsided is so small. It is + also to be remarked that the great chain of active volcanoes in Sumatra + and Java furnishes us with a sufficient cause for such subsidence, since + the enormous masses of matter they have thrown out would take away the + foundations of the surrounding district; and this may be the true + explanation of the often-noticed fact that volcanoes and volcanic chains + are always near the sea. The subsidence they produce around them will, in + time, make a sea, if one does not already exist. + </p> + <p> + But, it is when we examine the zoology of these countries that we find + what we most require—evidence of a very striking character that + these great islands must have once formed a part of the continent, and + could only have been separated at a very recent geological epoch. The + elephant and tapir of Sumatra and Borneo, the rhinoceros of Sumatra and + the allied species of Java, the wild cattle of Borneo and the kind long + supposed to be peculiar to Java, are now all known to inhabit some part or + other of Southern Asia. None of these large animals could possibly have + passed over the arms of the sea which now separate these countries, and + their presence plainly indicates that a land communication must have + existed since the origin of the species. Among the smaller mammals, a + considerable portion are common to each island and the continent; but the + vast physical changes that must have occurred during the breaking up and + subsidence of such extensive regions have led to the extinction of some in + one or more of the islands, and in some cases there seems also to have + been time for a change of species to have taken place. Birds and insects + illustrate the same view, for every family and almost every genus of these + groups found in any of the islands occurs also on the Asiatic continent, + and in a great number of cases the species are exactly identical. Birds + offer us one of the best means of determining the law of distribution; for + though at first sight it would appear that the watery boundaries which + keep out the land quadrupeds could be easily passed over by birds, yet + practically it is not so; for if we leave out the aquatic tribes which are + pre-eminently wanderers, it is found that the others (and especially the + Passeres, or true perching-birds, which form the vast majority) are + generally as strictly limited by straits and arms of the sea as are + quadrupeds themselves. As an instance, among the islands of which I am now + speaking, it is a remarkable fact that Java possesses numerous birds which + never pass over to Sumatra, though they are separated by a strait only + fifteen miles wide, and with islands in mid-channel. Java, in fact, + possesses more birds and insects peculiar to itself than either Sumatra or + Borneo, and this would indicate that it was earliest separated from the + continent; next in organic individuality is Borneo, while Sumatra is so + nearly identical in all its animal forms with the peninsula of Malacca, + that we may safely conclude it to have been the most recently dismembered + island. + </p> + <p> + The general result therefore, at which we arrive, is that the great + islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo resemble in their natural productions + the adjacent parts of the continent, almost as much as such + widely-separated districts could be expected to do even if they still + formed a part of Asia; and this close resemblance, joined with the fact of + the wide extent of sea which separates them being so uniformly and + remarkably shallow, and lastly, the existence of the extensive range of + volcanoes in Sumatra and Java, which have poured out vast quantities of + subterranean matter and have built up extensive plateaux and lofty + mountain ranges, thus furnishing a vera causa for a parallel line of + subsidence—all lead irresistibly to the conclusion that at a very + recent geological epoch, the continent of Asia extended far beyond its + present limits in a south-easterly direction, including the islands of + Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, and probably reaching as far as the present + 100-fathom line of soundings. + </p> + <p> + The Philippine Islands agree in many respects with Asia and the other + islands, but present some anomalies, which seem to indicate that they were + separated at an earlier period, and have since been subject to many + revolutions in their physical geography. + </p> + <p> + Turning our attention now to the remaining portion of the Archipelago, we + shall find that all the islands from Celebes and Lombock eastward exhibit + almost as close a resemblance to Australia and New Guinea as the Western + Islands do to Asia. It is well known that the natural productions of + Australia differ from those of Asia more than those of any of the four + ancient quarters of the world differ from each other. Australia, in fact, + stands alone: it possesses no apes or monkeys, no cats or tigers, wolves, + bears, or hyenas; no deer or antelopes, sheep or oxen; no elephant, horse, + squirrel, or rabbit; none, in short, of those familiar types of quadruped + which are met with in every other part of the world. Instead of these, it + has Marsupials only: kangaroos and opossums; wombats and the duckbilled + Platypus. In birds it is almost as peculiar. It has no woodpeckers and no + pheasants—families which exist in every other part of the world; but + instead of them it has the mound-making brush-turkeys, the honeysuckers, + the cockatoos, and the brush-tongued lories, which are found nowhere else + upon the globe. All these striking peculiarities are found also in those + islands which form the Austro-Malayan division of the Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + The great contrast between the two divisions of the Archipelago is nowhere + so abruptly exhibited as on passing from the island of Bali to that of + Lombock, where the two regions are in closest proximity. In Bali we have + barbets, fruit-thrushes, and woodpeckers; on passing over to Lombock these + are seen no more, but we have abundance of cockatoos, honeysuckers, and + brush-turkeys, which are equally unknown in Bali, or any island further + west. [I was informed, however, that there were a few cockatoos at one + spot on the west of Bali, showing that the intermingling of the + productions of these islands is now going on.] The strait is here fifteen + miles wide, so that we may pass in two hours from one great division of + the earth to another, differing as essentially in their animal life as + Europe does from America. If we travel from Java or Borneo to Celebes or + the Moluccas, the difference is still more striking. In the first, the + forests abound in monkeys of many kinds, wild cats, deer, civets, and + otters, and numerous varieties of squirrels are constantly met with. In + the latter none of these occur; but the prehensile-tailed Cuscus is almost + the only terrestrial mammal seen, except wild pigs, which are found in all + the islands, and deer (which have probably been recently introduced) in + Celebes and the Moluccas. The birds which are most abundant in the Western + Islands are woodpeckers, barbets, trogons, fruit-thrushes, and + leaf-thrushes; they are seen daily, and form the great ornithological + features of the country. In the Eastern Islands these are absolutely + unknown, honeysuckers and small lories being the most common birds, so + that the naturalist feels himself in a new world, and can hardly realize + that he has passed from the one region to the other in a few days, without + ever being out of sight of land. + </p> + <p> + The inference that we must draw from these facts is, undoubtedly, that the + whole of the islands eastwards beyond Java and Borneo do essentially form + a part of a former Australian or Pacific continent, although some of them + may never have been actually joined to it. This continent must have been + broken up not only before the Western Islands were separated from Asia, + but probably before the extreme southeastern portion of Asia was raised + above the waters of the ocean; for a great part of the land of Borneo and + Java is known to be geologically of quite recent formation, while the very + great difference of species, and in many cases of genera also, between the + productions of the Eastern Malay Islands and Australia, as well as the + great depth of the sea now separating them, all point to a comparatively + long period of isolation. + </p> + <p> + It is interesting to observe among the islands themselves how a shallow + sea always intimates a recent land connexion. The Aru Islands, Mysol, and + Waigiou, as well as Jobie, agree with New Guinea in their species of + mammalia and birds much more closely than they do with the Moluccas, and + we find that they are all united to New Guinea by a shallow sea. In fact, + the 100-fathom line round New Guinea marks out accurately the range of the + true Paradise birds. + </p> + <p> + It is further to be noted—and this is a very interesting point in + connection with theories of the dependence of special forms of life on + external conditions—that this division of the Archipelago into two + regions characterised by a striking diversity in their natural productions + does not in any way correspond to the main physical or climatal divisions + of the surface. The great volcanic chain runs through both parts, and + appears to produce no effect in assimilating their productions. Borneo + closely resembles New Guinea not only in its vast size and its freedom + from volcanoes, but in its variety of geological structure, its uniformity + of climate, and the general aspect of the forest vegetation that clothes + its surface. The Moluccas are the counterpart of the Philippines in their + volcanic structure, their extreme fertility, their luxuriant forests, and + their frequent earthquakes; and Bali with the east end of Java has a + climate almost as dry and a soil almost as arid as that of Timor. Yet + between these corresponding groups of islands, constructed as it were + after the same pattern, subjected to the same climate, and bathed by the + same oceans, there exists the greatest possible contrast when we compare + their animal productions. Nowhere does the ancient doctrine—that + differences or similarities in the various forms of life that inhabit + different countries are due to corresponding physical differences or + similarities in the countries themselves—meet with so direct and + palpable a contradiction. Borneo and New Guinea, as alike physically as + two distinct countries can be, are zoologically wide as the poles asunder; + while Australia, with its dry winds, its open plains, its stony deserts, + and its temperate climate, yet produces birds and quadrupeds which are + closely related to those inhabiting the hot damp luxuriant forests, which + everywhere clothe the plains and mountains of New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + In order to illustrate more clearly the means by which I suppose this + great contrast has been brought about, let us consider what would occur if + two strongly contrasted divisions of the earth were, by natural means, + brought into proximity. No two parts of the world differ so radically in + their productions as Asia and Australia, but the difference between Africa + and South America is also very great, and these two regions will well + serve to illustrate the question we are considering. On the one side we + have baboons, lions, elephants, buffaloes, and giraffes; on the other + spider-monkeys, pumas, tapirs, anteaters, and sloths; while among birds, + the hornbills, turacos, orioles, and honeysuckers of Africa contrast + strongly with the toucans, macaws, chatterers, and hummingbirds of + America. + </p> + <p> + Now let us endeavour to imagine (what it is very probable may occur in + future ages) that a slow upheaval of the bed of the Atlantic should take + place, while at the same time earthquake-shocks and volcanic action on the + land should cause increased volumes of sediment to be poured down by the + rivers, so that the two continents should gradually spread out by the + addition of newly-formed lands, and thus reduce the Atlantic which now + separates them, to an arm of the sea a few hundred miles wide. At the same + time we may suppose islands to be upheaved in mid-channel; and, as the + subterranean forces varied in intensity, and shifted their points of + greatest action, these islands would sometimes become connected with the + land on one side or other of the strait, and at other times again be + separated from it. Several islands would at one time be joined together, + at another would be broken up again, until at last, after many long ages + of such intermittent action, we might have an irregular archipelago of + islands filling up the ocean channel of the Atlantic, in whose appearance + and arrangement we could discover nothing to tell us which had been + connected with Africa and which with America. The animals and plants + inhabiting these islands would, however, certainly reveal this portion of + their former history. On those islands which had ever formed a part of the + South American continent, we should be sure to find such common birds as + chatterers and toucans and hummingbirds, and some of the peculiar American + quadrupeds; while on those which had been separated from Africa, + hornbills, orioles, and honeysuckers would as certainly be found. Some + portion of the upraised land might at different times have had a temporary + connection with both continents, and would then contain a certain amount + of mixture in its living inhabitants. Such seems to have been the case + with the islands of Celebes and the Philippines. Other islands, again, + though in such close proximity as Bali and Lombock, might each exhibit an + almost unmixed sample of the productions of the continents of which they + had directly or indirectly once formed a part. + </p> + <p> + In the Malay Archipelago we have, I believe, a case exactly parallel to + that which I have here supposed. We have indications of a vast continent, + with a peculiar fauna and flora having been gradually and irregularly + broken up; the island of Celebes probably marking its furthest westward + extension, beyond which was a wide ocean. At the same time Asia appears to + have been extending its limits in a southeast direction, first in an + unbroken mass, then separated into islands as we now see it, and almost + coming into actual contact with the scattered fragments of the great + southern land. + </p> + <p> + From this outline of the subject, it will be evident how important an + adjunct Natural History is to Geology; not only in interpreting the + fragments of extinct animals found in the earth's crust, but in + determining past changes in the surface which have left no geological + record. It is certainly a wonderful and unexpected fact that an accurate + knowledge of the distribution of birds and insects should enable us to map + out lands and continents which disappeared beneath the ocean long before + the earliest traditions of the human race. Wherever the geologist can + explore the earth's surface, he can read much of its past history, and can + determine approximately its latest movements above and below the + sea-level; but wherever oceans and seas now extend, he can do nothing but + speculate on the very limited data afforded by the depth of the waters. + Here the naturalist steps in, and enables him to fill up this great gap in + the past history of the earth. + </p> + <p> + One of the chief objects of my travels was to obtain evidence of this + nature; and my search after such evidence has been rewarded by great + success, so that I have been able to trace out with some probability the + past changes which one of the most interesting parts of the earth has + undergone. It may be thought that the facts and generalizations here given + would have been more appropriately placed at the end rather than at the + beginning of a narrative of the travels which supplied the facts. In some + cases this might be so, but I have found it impossible to give such an + account as I desire of the natural history of the numerous islands and + groups of islands in the Archipelago, without constant reference to these + generalizations which add so much to their interest. Having given this + general sketch of the subject, I shall be able to show how the same + principles can be applied to the individual islands of a group, as to the + whole Archipelago; and thereby make my account of the many new and curious + animals which inhabit them both, more interesting and more instructive + than if treated as mere isolated facts. + </p> + <p> + Contrasts of Races.—Before I had arrived at the conviction that the + eastern and western halves of the Archipelago belonged to distinct primary + regions of the earth, I had been led to group the natives of the + Archipelago under two radically distinct races. In this I differed from + most ethnologists who had before written on the subject; for it had been + the almost universal custom to follow William von Humboldt and Pritchard, + in classing all the Oceanic races as modifications of one type. + Observation soon showed me, however, that Malays and Papuans differed + radically in every physical, mental, and moral character; and more + detailed research, continued for eight years, satisfied me that under + these two forms, as types, the whole of the peoples of the Malay + Archipelago and Polynesia could be classified. On drawing the line which + separates these races, it is found to come near to that which divides the + zoological regions, but somewhat eastward of it; a circumstance which + appears to me very significant of the same causes having influenced the + distribution of mankind that have determined the range of other animal + forms. + </p> + <p> + The reason why exactly the same line does not limit both is sufficiently + intelligible. Man has means of traversing the sea which animals do not + possess; and a superior race has power to press out or assimilate an + inferior one. The maritime enterprise and higher civilization of the Malay + races have enabled them to overrun a portion of the adjacent region, in + which they have entirely supplanted the indigenous inhabitants if it ever + possessed any; and to spread much of their language, their domestic + animals, and their customs far over the Pacific, into islands where they + have but slightly, or not at all, modified the physical or moral + characteristics of the people. + </p> + <p> + I believe, therefore, that all the peoples of the various islands can be + grouped either with the Malays or the Papuans; and that these two have no + traceable affinity to each other. I believe, further, that all the races + east of the line I have drawn have more affinity for each other than they + have for any of the races west of that line; that, in fact, the Asiatic + races include the Malays, and all have a continental origin, while the + Pacific races, including all to the east of the former (except perhaps + some in the Northern Pacific), are derived, not from any existing + continent, but from lands which now exist or have recently existed in the + Pacific Ocean. These preliminary observations will enable the reader + better to apprehend the importance I attach to the details of physical + form or moral character, which I shall give in describing the inhabitants + of many of the islands. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. SINGAPORE. + </h2> + <p> + (A SKETCH OF THE TOWN AND ISLAND AS SEEN DURING SEVERAL VISITS FROM 1854 + TO 1862.) + </p> + <p> + FEW places are more interesting to a traveller from Europe than the town + and island of Singapore, furnishing, as it does, examples of a variety of + Eastern races, and of many different religions and modes of life. The + government, the garrison, and the chief merchants are English; but the + great mass of the population is Chinese, including some of the wealthiest + merchants, the agriculturists of the interior, and most of the mechanics + and labourers. The native Malays are usually fishermen and boatmen, and + they form the main body of the police. The Portuguese of Malacca supply a + large number of the clerks and smaller merchants. The Klings of Western + India are a numerous body of Mahometans, and, with many Arabs, are petty + merchants and shopkeepers. The grooms and washermen are all Bengalees, and + there is a small but highly respectable class of Parsee merchants. Besides + these, there are numbers of Javanese sailors and domestic servants, as + well as traders from Celebes, Bali, and many other islands of the + Archipelago. The harbour is crowded with men-of-war and trading vessels of + many European nations, and hundreds of Malay praus and Chinese junks, from + vessels of several hundred tons burthen down to little fishing boats and + passenger sampans; and the town comprises handsome public buildings and + churches, Mahometan mosques, Hindu temples, Chinese joss-houses, good + European houses, massive warehouses, queer old Kling and China bazaars, + and long suburbs of Chinese and Malay cottages. + </p> + <p> + By far the most conspicuous of the various kinds of people in Singapore, + and those which most attract the stranger's attention, are the Chinese, + whose numbers and incessant activity give the place very much the + appearance of a town in China. The Chinese merchant is generally a fat + round-faced man with an important and business-like look. He wears the + same style of clothing (loose white smock, and blue or black trousers) as + the meanest coolie, but of finer materials, and is always clean and neat; + and his long tail tipped with red silk hangs down to his heels. He has a + handsome warehouse or shop in town and a good house in the country. He + keeps a fine horse and gig, and every evening may be seen taking a drive + bareheaded to enjoy the cool breeze. He is rich—he owns several + retail shops and trading schooners, he lends money at high interest and on + good security, he makes hard bargains, and gets fatter and richer every + year. + </p> + <p> + In the Chinese bazaar are hundreds of small shops in which a miscellaneous + collection of hardware and dry goods are to be found, and where many + things are sold wonderfully cheap. You may buy gimlets at a penny each, + white cotton thread at four balls for a halfpenny, and penknives, + corkscrews, gunpowder, writing-paper, and many other articles as cheap or + cheaper than you can purchase them in England. The shopkeeper is very + good-natured; he will show you everything he has, and does not seem to + mind if you buy nothing. He bates a little, but not so much as the Klings, + who almost always ask twice what they are willing to take. If you buy a + few things from him, he will speak to you afterwards every time you pass + his shop, asking you to walk in and sit down, or take a cup of tea; and + you wonder how he can get a living where so many sell the same trifling + articles. + </p> + <p> + The tailors sit at a table, not on one; and both they and the shoemakers + work well and cheaply. The barbers have plenty to do, shaving heads and + cleaning ears; for which latter operation they have a great array of + little tweezers, picks, and brushes. In the outskirts of the town are + scores of carpenters and blacksmiths. The former seem chiefly to make + coffins and highly painted and decorated clothes-boxes. The latter are + mostly gun-makers, and bore the barrels of guns by hand out of solid bars + of iron. At this tedious operation they may be seen every day, and they + manage to finish off a gun with a flintlock very handsomely. All about the + streets are sellers of water, vegetables, fruit, soup, and agar-agar (a + jelly made of seaweed), who have many cries as unintelligible as those of + London. Others carry a portable cooking-apparatus on a pole balanced by a + table at the other end, and serve up a meal of shellfish, rice, and + vegetables for two or three halfpence—while coolies and boatmen + waiting to be hired are everywhere to be met with. + </p> + <p> + In the interior of the island the Chinese cut down forest trees in the + jungle, and saw them up into planks; they cultivate vegetables, which they + bring to market; and they grow pepper and gambir, which form important + articles of export. The French Jesuits have established missions among + these inland Chinese, which seem very successful. I lived for several + weeks at a time with the missionary at Bukit-tima, about the centre of the + island, where a pretty church has been built and there are about 300 + converts. While there, I met a missionary who had just arrived from + Tonquin, where he had been living for many years. The Jesuits still do + their work thoroughly as of old. In Cochin China, Tonquin, and China, + where all Christian teachers are obliged to live in secret, and are liable + to persecution, expulsion, and sometimes death, every province—even + those farthest in the interior—has a permanent Jesuit mission + establishment constantly kept up by fresh aspirants, who are taught the + languages of the countries they are going to at Penang or Singapore. In + China there are said to be near a million converts; in Tonquin and Cochin + China, more than half a million. One secret of the success of these + missions is the rigid economy practised in the expenditure of the funds. A + missionary is allowed about £30. a year, on which he lives in whatever + country he may be. This renders it possible to support a large number of + missionaries with very limited means; and the natives, seeing their + teachers living in poverty and with none of the luxuries of life, are + convinced that they are sincere in what they teach, and have really given + up home and friends and ease and safety, for the good of others. No wonder + they make converts, for it must be a great blessing to the poor people + among whom they labour to have a man among them to whom they can go in any + trouble or distress, who will comfort and advise them, who visits them in + sickness, who relieves them in want, and who they see living from + day-to-day in danger of persecution and death—entirely for their + sakes. + </p> + <p> + My friend at Bukit-tima was truly a father to his flock. He preached to + them in Chinese every Sunday, and had evenings for discussion and + conversation on religion during the week. He had a school to teach their + children. His house was open to them day and night. If a man came to him + and said, "I have no rice for my family to eat today," he would give him + half of what he had in the house, however little that might be. If another + said, "I have no money to pay my debt," he would give him half the + contents of his purse, were it his last dollar. So, when he was himself in + want, he would send to some of the wealthiest among his flock, and say, "I + have no rice in the house," or "I have given away my money, and am in want + of such and such articles." The result was that his flock trusted and + loved him, for they felt sure that he was their true friend, and had no + ulterior designs in living among them. + </p> + <p> + The island of Singapore consists of a multitude of small hills, three or + four hundred feet high, the summits of many of which are still covered + with virgin forest. The mission-house at Bukit-tima was surrounded by + several of these wood-topped hills, which were much frequented by + woodcutters and sawyers, and offered me an excellent collecting ground for + insects. Here and there, too, were tiger pits, carefully covered over with + sticks and leaves, and so well concealed, that in several cases I had a + narrow escape from falling into them. They are shaped like an iron + furnace, wider at the bottom than the top, and are perhaps fifteen or + twenty feet deep so that it would be almost impossible for a person + unassisted to get out of one. Formerly a sharp stake was stuck erect in + the bottom; but after an unfortunate traveller had been killed by falling + on one, its use was forbidden. There are always a few tigers roaming about + Singapore, and they kill on an average a Chinaman every day, principally + those who work in the gambir plantations, which are always made in + newly-cleared jungle. We heard a tiger roar once or twice in the evening, + and it was rather nervous work hunting for insects among the fallen trunks + and old sawpits when one of these savage animals might be lurking close + by, awaiting an opportunity to spring upon us. + </p> + <p> + Several hours in the middle of every fine day were spent in these patches + of forest, which were delightfully cool and shady by contrast with the + bare open country we had to walk over to reach them. The vegetation was + most luxuriant, comprising enormous forest trees, as well as a variety of + ferns, caladiums, and other undergrowth, and abundance of climbing rattan + palms. Insects were exceedingly abundant and very interesting, and every + day furnished scores of new and curious forms. + </p> + <p> + In about two months I obtained no less than 700 species of beetles, a + large proportion of which were quite new, and among them were 130 distinct + kinds of the elegant Longicorns (Cerambycidae), so much esteemed by + collectors. Almost all these were collected in one patch of jungle, not + more than a square mile in extent, and in all my subsequent travels in the + East I rarely if ever met with so productive a spot. This exceeding + productiveness was due in part no doubt to some favourable conditions in + the soil, climate, and vegetation, and to the season being very bright and + sunny, with sufficient showers to keep everything fresh. But it was also + in a great measure dependent, I feel sure, on the labours of the Chinese + wood-cutters. They had been at work here for several years, and during all + that time had furnished a continual supply of dry and dead and decaying + leaves and bark, together with abundance of wood and sawdust, for the + nourishment of insects and their larvae. This had led to the assemblage of + a great variety of species in a limited space, and I was the first + naturalist who had come to reap the harvest they had prepared. In the same + place, and during my walks in other directions, I obtained a fair + collection of butterflies and of other orders of insects, so that on the + whole I was quite satisfied with these—my first attempts to gain a + knowledge of the Natural History of the Malay Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. MALACCA AND MOUNT OPHIR. + </h2> + <h3> + (JULY TO SEPTEMBER, 1854.) + </h3> + <p> + BIRDS and most other kinds of animals being scarce at Singapore, I left it + in July for Malacca, where I spent more than two months in the interior, + and made an excursion to Mount Ophir. The old and picturesque town of + Malacca is crowded along the banks of the small river, and consists of + narrow streets of shops and dwelling houses, occupied by the descendants + of the Portuguese, and by Chinamen. In the suburbs are the houses of the + English officials and of a few Portuguese merchants, embedded in groves of + palms and fruit-trees, whose varied and beautiful foliage furnishes a + pleasing relief to the eye, as well as most grateful shade. + </p> + <p> + The old fort, the large Government House, and the ruins of a cathedral + attest the former wealth and importance of this place, which was once as + much the centre of Eastern trade as Singapore is now. The following + description of it by Linschott, who wrote two hundred and seventy years + ago, strikingly exhibits the change it has undergone: + </p> + <p> + "Malacca is inhabited by the Portuguese and by natives of the country, + called Malays. The Portuguese have here a fortress, as at Mozambique, and + there is no fortress in all the Indies, after those of Mozambique and + Ormuz, where the captains perform their duty better than in this one. This + place is the market of all India, of China, of the Moluccas, and of other + islands around about—from all which places, as well as from Banda, + Java, Sumatra, Siam, Pegu, Bengal, Coromandel, and India—arrive + ships which come and go incessantly, charged with an infinity of + merchandises. There would be in this place a much greater number of + Portuguese if it were not for the inconvenience, and unhealthiness of the + air, which is hurtful not only to strangers, but also to natives of the + country. Thence it is that all who live in the country pay tribute of + their health, suffering from a certain disease, which makes them lose + either their skin or their hair. And those who escape consider it a + miracle, which occasions many to leave the country, while the ardent + desire of gain induces others to risk their health, and endeavour to + endure such an atmosphere. The origin of this town, as the natives say, + was very small, only having at the beginning, by reason of the + unhealthiness of the air, but six or seven fishermen who inhabited it. But + the number was increased by the meeting of fishermen from Siam, Pegu, and + Bengal, who came and built a city, and established a peculiar language, + drawn from the most elegant modes of speaking of other nations, so that in + fact the language of the Malays is at present the most refined, exact, and + celebrated of all the East. The name of Malacca was given to this town, + which, by the convenience of its situation, in a short time grew to such + wealth, that it does not yield to the most powerful towns and regions + around about. The natives, both men and women, are very courteous and are + reckoned the most skillful in the world in compliments, and study much to + compose and repeat verses and love-songs. Their language is in vogue + through the Indies, as the French is here." + </p> + <p> + At present, a vessel over a hundred tons hardly ever enters its port, and + the trade is entirely confined to a few petty products of the forests, and + to the fruit, which the trees, planted by the old Portuguese, now produce + for the enjoyment of the inhabitants of Singapore. Although rather subject + to fevers, it is not at present considered very unhealthy. + </p> + <p> + The population of Malacca consists of several races. The ubiquitous + Chinese are perhaps the most numerous, keeping up their manners, customs, + and language; the indigenous Malays are next in point of numbers, and + their language is the Lingua-franca of the place. Next come the + descendants of the Portuguese—a mixed, degraded, and degenerate + race, but who still keep up the use of their mother tongue, though + ruefully mutilated in grammar; and then there are the English rulers, and + the descendants of the Dutch, who all speak English. The Portuguese spoken + at Malacca is a useful philological phenomenon. The verbs have mostly lost + their inflections, and one form does for all moods, tenses, numbers, and + persons. Eu vai, serves for "I go," "I went," or, "I will go." Adjectives, + too, have been deprived of their feminine and plural terminations, so that + the language is reduced to a marvellous simplicity, and, with the + admixture of a few Malay words, becomes rather puzzling to one who has + heard only the pure Lusitanian. + </p> + <p> + In costume these several peoples are as varied as in their speech. The + English preserve the tight-fitting coat, waistcoat, and trousers, and the + abominable hat and cravat; the Portuguese patronise a light jacket, or, + more frequently, shirt and trousers only; the Malays wear their national + jacket and sarong (a kind of kilt), with loose drawers; while the Chinese + never depart in the least from their national dress, which, indeed, it is + impossible to improve for a tropical climate, whether as regards comfort + or appearance. The loosely-hanging trousers, and neat white half-shirt + half-jacket, are exactly what a dress should be in this low latitude. + </p> + <p> + I engaged two Portuguese to accompany me into the interior; one as a cook, + the other to shoot and skin birds, which is quite a trade in Malacca. I + first stayed a fortnight at a village called Gading, where I was + accommodated in the house of some Chinese converts, to whom I was + recommended by the Jesuit missionaries. The house was a mere shed, but it + was kept clean, and I made myself sufficiently comfortable. My hosts were + forming a pepper and gambir plantation, and in the immediate neighbourhood + were extensive tin-washings, employing over a thousand Chinese. The tin is + obtained in the form of black grains from beds of quartzose sand, and is + melted into ingots in rude clay furnaces. The soil seemed poor, and the + forest was very dense with undergrowth, and not at all productive of + insects; but, on the other hand, birds were abundant, and I was at once + introduced to the rich ornithological treasures of the Malayan region. + </p> + <p> + The very first time I fired my gun I brought down one of the most curious + and beautiful of the Malacca birds, the blue-billed gaper (Cymbirhynchus + macrorhynchus), called by the Malays the "Rainbird." It is about the size + of a starling, black and rich claret colour with white shoulder stripes, + and a very large and broad bill of the most pure cobalt blue above and + orange below, while the iris is emerald green. As the skins dry the bill + turns dull black, but even then the bird is handsome. When fresh killed, + the contrast of the vivid blue with the rich colours of the plumage is + remarkably striking and beautiful. The lovely Eastern trogons, with their + rich-brown backs, beautifully pencilled wings, and crimson breasts, were + also soon obtained, as well as the large green barbets (Megalaema + versicolor)—fruit-eating birds, something like small toucans, with a + short, straight bristly bill, and whose head and neck are variegated with + patches of the most vivid blue and crimson. A day or two after, my hunter + brought me a specimen of the green gaper (Calyptomena viridis), which is + like a small cock-of-the-rock, but entirely of the most vivid green, + delicately marked on the wings with black bars. Handsome woodpeckers and + gay kingfishers, green and brown cuckoos with velvety red faces and green + beaks, red-breasted doves and metallic honeysuckers, were brought in day + after day, and kept me in a continual state of pleasurable excitement. + After a fortnight one of my servants was seized with fever, and on + returning to Malacca, the same disease, attacked the other as well as + myself. By a liberal use of quinine, I soon recovered, and obtaining other + men, went to stay at the Government bungalow of Ayer-panas, accompanied by + a young gentleman, a native of the place, who had a taste for natural + history. + </p> + <p> + At Ayer-panas we had a comfortable house to stay in, and plenty of room to + dry and preserve our specimens; but, owing to there being no industrious + Chinese to cut down timber, insects were comparatively scarce, with the + exception of butterflies, of which I formed a very fine collection. The + manner in which I obtained one fine insect was curious, and indicates how + fragmentary and imperfect a traveller's collection must necessarily be. I + was one afternoon walking along a favourite road through the forest, with + my gun, when I saw a butterfly on the ground. It was large, handsome, and + quite new to me, and I got close to it before it flew away. I then + observed that it had been settling on the dung of some carnivorous animal. + Thinking it might return to the same spot, I next day after breakfast took + my net, and as I approached the place was delighted to see the same + butterfly sitting on the same piece of dung, and succeeded in capturing + it. It was an entirely new species of great beauty, and has been named by + Mr. Hewitson—Nymphalis calydona. I never saw another specimen of it, + and it was only after twelve years had elapsed that a second individual + reached this country from the northwestern part of Borneo. + </p> + <p> + Having determined to visit Mount Ophir, which is situated in the middle of + the peninsula about fifty miles east of Malacca, we engaged six Malays to + accompany us and carry our baggage. As we meant to stay at least a week at + the mountain, we took with us a good supply of rice, a little biscuit, + butter and coffee, some dried fish and a little brandy, with blankets, a + change of clothes, insect and bird boxes, nets, guns and ammunition. The + distance from Ayer-panas was supposed to be about thirty miles. + </p> + <p> + Our first day's march lay through patches of forest, clearings, and Malay + villages, and was pleasant enough. At night we slept at the house of a + Malay chief, who lent us a verandah, and gave us a fowl and some eggs. The + next day the country got wilder and more hilly. We passed through + extensive forests, along paths often up to our knees in mud, and were much + annoyed by the leeches for which this district is famous. These little + creatures infest the leaves and herbage by the side of the paths, and when + a passenger comes along they stretch themselves out at full length, and if + they touch any part of his dress or body, quit their leaf and adhere to + it. They then creep on to his feet, legs, or other part of his body and + suck their fill, the first puncture being rarely felt during the + excitement of walking. On bathing in the evening we generally found half a + dozen or a dozen on each of us, most frequently on our legs, but sometimes + on our bodies, and I had one who sucked his fill from the side of my neck, + but who luckily missed the jugular vein. There are many species of these + forest leeches. All are small, but some are beautifully marked with + stripes of bright yellow. They probably attach themselves to deer or other + animals which frequent the forest paths, and have thus acquired the + singular habit of stretching themselves out at the sound of a footstep or + of rustling foliage. Early in the afternoon we reached the foot of the + mountain, and encamped by the side of a fine stream, whose rocky banks + were overgrown with ferns. Our oldest Malay had been accustomed to shoot + birds in this neighbourhood for the Malacca dealers, and had been to the + top of the mountain, and while we amused ourselves shooting and insect + hunting, he went with two others to clear the path for our ascent the next + day. + </p> + <p> + Early next morning we started after breakfast, carrying blankets and + provisions, as we intended to sleep upon the mountain. After passing a + little tangled jungle and swampy thickets through which our men had + cleared a path, we emerged into a fine lofty forest pretty clear of + undergrowth, and in which we could walk freely. We ascended steadily up a + moderate slope for several miles, having a deep ravine on our left. We + then had a level plateau or shoulder to cross, after which the ascent was + steeper and the forest denser until we came out upon the "Padang-batu," or + stone field, a place of which we had heard much, but could never get + anyone to describe intelligibly. We found it to be a steep slope of even + rock, extending along the mountain side farther than we could see. Parts + of it were quite bare, but where it was cracked and fissured there grew a + most luxuriant vegetation, among which the pitcher plants were the most + remarkable. These wonderful plants never seem to succeed well in our + hot-houses, and are there seen to little advantage. Here they grew up into + half climbing shrubs, their curious pitchers of various sizes and forms + hanging abundantly from their leaves, and continually exciting our + admiration by their size and beauty. A few coniferae of the genus + Dacrydium here first appeared, and in the thickets just above the rocky + surface we walked through groves of those splendid ferns Dipteris + Horsfieldii and Matonia pectinata, which bear large spreading palmate + fronds on slender stems six or eight feet high. The Matonia is the tallest + and most elegant, and is known only from this mountain, and neither of + them is yet introduced into our hot-houses. + </p> + <p> + It was very striking to come out from the dark, cool, and shady forest in + which we had been ascending since we started, on to this hot, open rocky + slope where we seemed to have entered at one step from a lowland to an + alpine vegetation. The height, as measured by a sympiesometer, was about + 2,800 feet. We had been told we should find water at Padang-batu as we + were exceedingly thirsty; but we looked about for it in vain. At last we + turned to the pitcher-plants, but the water contained in the pitchers + (about half a pint in each) was full of insects, and otherwise uninviting. + On tasting it, however, we found it very palatable though rather warm, and + we all quenched our thirst from these natural jugs. Farther on we came to + forest again, but of a more dwarf and stunted character than below; and + alternately passing along ridges and descending into valleys, we reached a + peak separated from the true summit of the mountain by a considerable + chasm. Here our porters gave in, and declared they could carry their loads + no further; and certainly the ascent to the highest peak was very + precipitous. But on the spot where we were there was no water, whereas it + was well known that there was a spring close to the summit, so we + determined to go on without them, and carry with us only what was + absolutely necessary. We accordingly took a blanket each, and divided our + food and other articles among us, and went on with only the old Malay and + his son. + </p> + <p> + After descending into the saddle between the two peaks we found the ascent + very laborious, the slope being so steep, as often to necessitate + hand-climbing. Besides a bushy vegetation the ground was covered knee-deep + with mosses on a foundation of decaying leaves and rugged rock, and it was + a hard hour's climb to the small ledge just below the summit, where an + overhanging rock forms a convenient shelter, and a little basin collects + the trickling water. Here we put down our loads, and in a few minutes more + stood on the summit of Mount Ophir, 4,000 feet above the sea. The top is a + small rocky platform covered with rhododendrons and other shrubs. The + afternoon was clear, and the view fine in its way—ranges of hill and + valley everywhere covered with interminable forest, with glistening rivers + winding among them. + </p> + <p> + In a distant view a forest country is very monotonous, and no mountain I + have ever ascended in the tropics presents a panorama equal to that from + Snowdon, while the views in Switzerland are immeasurably superior. When + boiling our coffee I took observations with a good boiling-point + thermometer, as well as with the sympiesometer, and we then enjoyed our + evening meal and the noble prospect that lay before us. The night was calm + and very mild, and having made a bed of twigs and branches over which we + laid our blankets, we passed a very comfortable night. Our porters had + followed us after a rest, bringing only their rice to cook, and luckily we + did not require the baggage they left behind them. In the morning I caught + a few butterflies and beetles, and my friend got a few land-shells; and we + then descended, bringing with us some specimens of the ferns and + pitcher-plants of Padang-batu. + </p> + <p> + The place where we had first encamped at the foot of the mountain being + very gloomy, we chose another in a kind of swamp near a stream overgrown + with Zingiberaceous plants, in which a clearing was easily made. Here our + men built two little huts without sides that would just shelter us from + the rain; we lived in them for a week, shooting and insect-hunting, and + roaming about the forests at the foot of the mountain. This was the + country of the great Argus pheasant, and we continually heard its cry. On + asking the old Malay to try and shoot one for me, he told me that although + he had been for twenty years shooting birds in these forests he had never + yet shot one, and had never even seen one except after it had been caught. + The bird is so exceedingly shy and wary, and runs along the ground in the + densest parts of the forest so quickly, that it is impossible to get near + it; and its sober colours and rich eye-like spots, which are so ornamental + when seen in a museum, must harmonize well with the dead leaves among + which it dwells, and render it very inconspicuous. All the specimens sold + in Malacca are caught in snares, and my informant, though he had shot + none, had snared plenty. + </p> + <p> + The tiger and rhinoceros are still found here, and a few years ago + elephants abounded, but they have lately all disappeared. We found some + heaps of dung, which seemed to be that of elephants, and some tracks of + the rhinoceros, but saw none of the animals. However, we kept a fire up + all night in case any of these creatures should visit us, and two of our + men declared that they did one day see a rhinoceros. When our rice was + finished, and our boxes full of specimens, we returned to Ayer-Panas, and + a few days afterwards went on to Malacca, and thence to Singapore. Mount + Ophir has quite a reputation for fever, and all our friends were + astonished at our recklessness in staying so long at its foot; but none of + us suffered in the least, and I shall ever look back with pleasure to my + trip as being my first introduction to mountain scenery in the Eastern + tropics. + </p> + <p> + The meagreness and brevity of the sketch I have here given of my visit to + Singapore and the Malay Peninsula is due to my having trusted chiefly to + some private letters and a notebook, which were lost; and to a paper on + Malacca and Mount Ophir which was sent to the Royal Geographical Society, + but which was neither read nor printed owing to press of matter at the end + of a session, and the MSS. of which cannot now be found. I the less regret + this, however, as so many works have been written on these parts; and I + always intended to pass lightly over my travels in the western and better + known portions of the Archipelago, in order to devote more space to the + remoter districts, about which hardly anything has been written in the + English language. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. BORNEO—THE ORANGUTAN. + </h2> + <p> + I ARRIVED at Sarawak on November 1st, 1854, and left it on January 25th, + 1856. In the interval I resided at many different localities, and saw a + good deal of the Dyak tribes as well as of the Bornean Malays. I was + hospitably entertained by Sir James Brooke, and lived in his house + whenever I was at the town of Sarawak in the intervals of my journeys. But + so many books have been written about this part of Borneo since I was + there, that I shall avoid going into details of what I saw and heard and + thought of Sarawak and its ruler, confining myself chiefly to my + experiences as a naturalist in search of shells, insects, birds and the + Orangutan, and to an account of a journey through a part of the interior + seldom visited by Europeans. + </p> + <p> + The first four months of my visit were spent in various parts of the + Sarawak River, from Santubong at its mouth up to the picturesque limestone + mountains and Chinese gold-fields of Bow and Bede. This part of the + country has been so frequently described that I shall pass it over, + especially as, owing to its being the height of the wet season, my + collections were comparatively poor and insignificant. + </p> + <p> + In March 1865 I determined to go to the coalworks which were being opened + near the Simunjon River, a small branch of the Sadong, a river east of + Sarawak and between it and the Batang-Lupar. The Simunjon enters the + Sadong River about twenty miles up. It is very narrow and very winding, + and much overshadowed by the lofty forest, which sometimes almost meets + over it. The whole country between it and the sea is a perfectly level + forest-covered swamp, out of which rise a few isolated hills, at the foot + of one of which the works are situated. From the landing-place to the hill + a Dyak road had been formed, which consisted solely of tree-trunks laid + end to end. Along these the barefooted natives walk and carry heavy + burdens with the greatest ease, but to a booted European it is very + slippery work, and when one's attention is constantly attracted by the + various objects of interest around, a few tumbles into the bog are almost + inevitable. During my first walk along this road I saw few insects or + birds, but noticed some very handsome orchids in flower, of the genus + Coelogyne, a group which I afterwards found to be very abundant, and + characteristic of the district. On the slope of the hill near its foot a + patch of forest had been cleared away, and several rude houses erected, in + which were residing Mr. Coulson the engineer, and a number of Chinese + workmen. I was at first kindly accommodated in Mr. Coulson's house, but + finding the spot very suitable for me and offering great facilities for + collecting, I had a small house of two rooms and a verandah built for + myself. Here I remained nearly nine months, and made an immense collection + of insects, to which class of animals I devoted my chief attention, owing + to the circumstances being especially favourable. + </p> + <p> + In the tropics a large proportion of the insects of all orders, and + especially of the large and favourite group of beetles, are more or less + dependent on vegetation, and particularly on timber, bark, and leaves in + various stages of decay. In the untouched virgin forest, the insects which + frequent such situations are scattered over an immense extent of country, + at spots where trees have fallen through decay and old age, or have + succumbed to the fury of the tempest; and twenty square miles of country + may not contain so many fallen and decayed trees as are to be found in any + small clearing. The quantity and the variety of beetles and of many other + insects that can be collected at a given time in any tropical locality, + will depend, first upon the immediate vicinity of a great extent of virgin + forest, and secondly upon the quantity of trees that for some months past + have been, and which are still being cut down, and left to dry and decay + upon the ground. + </p> + <p> + Now, during my whole twelve years' collecting in the western and eastern + tropics, I never enjoyed such advantages in this respect as at the + Simunjon coalworks. For several months from twenty to fifty Chinamen and + Dyaks were employed almost exclusively in clearing a large space in the + forest, and in making a wide opening for a railroad to the Sadong River, + two miles distant. Besides this, sawpits were established at various + points in the jungle, and large trees were felled to be cut up into beams + and planks. For hundreds of miles in every direction a magnificent forest + extended over plain and mountain, rock and morass, and I arrived at the + spot just as the rains began to diminish and the daily sunshine to + increase; a time which I have always found the most favourable season for + collecting. The number of openings, sunny places, and pathways were also + an attraction to wasps and butterflies; and by paying a cent each for all + insects that were brought me, I obtained from the Dyaks and the Chinamen + many fine locusts and Phasmidae, as well as numbers of handsome beetles. + </p> + <p> + When I arrived at the mines, on the 14th of March, I had collected in the + four preceding months, 320 different kinds of beetles. In less than a + fortnight I had doubled this number, an average of about 24 new species + every day. On one day I collected 76 different kinds, of which 34 were new + to me. By the end of April I had more than a thousand species, and they + then went on increasing at a slower rate, so that I obtained altogether in + Borneo about two thousand distinct kinds, of which all but about a hundred + were collected at this place, and on scarcely more than a square mile of + ground. The most numerous and most interesting groups of beetles were the + Longicorns and Rhynchophora, both pre-eminently wood-feeders. The former, + characterised by their graceful forms and long antenna, were especially + numerous, amounting to nearly three hundred species, nine-tenths of which + were entirely new, and many of them remarkable for their large size, + strange forms, and beautiful colouring. The latter correspond to our + weevils and allied groups, and in the tropics are exceedingly numerous and + varied, often swarming upon dead timber, so that I sometimes obtained + fifty or sixty different kinds in a day. My Bornean collections of this + group exceeded five hundred species. + </p> + <p> + My collection of butterflies was not large; but I obtained some rare and + very handsome insects, the most remarkable being the Ornithoptera + Brookeana, one of the most elegant species known. This beautiful creature + has very long and pointed wings, almost resembling a sphinx moth in shape. + It is deep velvety black, with a curved band of spots of a brilliant + metallic-green colour extending across the wings from tip to tip, each + spot being shaped exactly like a small triangular feather, and having very + much the effect of a row of the wing coverts of the Mexican trogon, laid + upon black velvet. The only other marks are a broad neck-collar of vivid + crimson, and a few delicate white touches on the outer margins of the hind + wings. This species, which was then quite new and which I named after Sir + James Brooke, was very rare. It was seen occasionally flying swiftly in + the clearings, and now and then settling for an instant at puddles and + muddy places, so that I only succeeded in capturing two or three + specimens. In some other parts of the country I was assured it was + abundant, and a good many specimens have been sent to England; but as yet + all have been males, and we are quite unable to conjecture what the female + may be like, owing to the extreme isolation of the species, and its want + of close affinity to any other known insect. + </p> + <p> + One of the most curious and interesting reptiles which I met with in + Borneo was a large tree-frog, which was brought me by one of the Chinese + workmen. He assured me that he had seen it come down in a slanting + direction from a high tree, as if it flew. On examining it, I found the + toes very long and fully webbed to their very extremity, so that when + expanded they offered a surface much larger than the body. The forelegs + were also bordered by a membrane, and the body was capable of considerable + inflation. The back and limbs were of a very deep shining green colour, + the undersurface and the inner toes yellow, while the webs were black, + rayed with yellow. The body was about four inches long, while the webs of + each hind foot, when fully expanded, covered a surface of four square + inches, and the webs of all the feet together about twelve square inches. + As the extremities of the toes have dilated discs for adhesion, showing + the creature to be a true tree frog, it is difficult to imagine that this + immense membrane of the toes can be for the purpose of swimming only, and + the account of the Chinaman, that it flew down from the tree, becomes more + credible. This is, I believe, the first instance known of a "flying frog," + and it is very interesting to Darwinians as showing that the variability + of the toes which have been already modified for purposes of swimming and + adhesive climbing, have been taken advantage of to enable an allied + species to pass through the air like the flying lizard. It would appear to + be a new species of the genus Rhacophorus, which consists of several frogs + of a much smaller size than this, and having the webs of the toes less + developed. + </p> + <p> + During my stay in Borneo I had no hunter to shoot for me regularly, and, + being myself fully occupied with insects, I did not succeed in obtaining a + very good collection of the birds or Mammalia, many of which, however, are + well known, being identical with species found in Malacca. Among the + Mammalia were five squirrels,and two tigercats—the Gymnurus + Rafflesii, which looks like a cross between a pig and a polecat, and the + Cynogale Bennetti—a rare, otter-like animal, with very broad muzzle + clothed with long bristles. + </p> + <p> + One of my chief objects in coming to stay at Simunjon was to see the + Orangutan (or great man-like ape of Borneo) in his native haunts, to study + his habits, and obtain good specimens of the different varieties and + species of both sexes, and of the adult and young animals. In all these + objects I succeeded beyond my expectations, and will now give some account + of my experience in hunting the Orangutan, or "Mias," as it is called by + the natives; and as this name is short, and easily pronounced, I shall + generally use it in preference to Simia satyrus, or Orangutan. + </p> + <p> + Just a week after my arrival at the mines, I first saw a Mias. I was out + collecting insects, not more than a quarter of a mile from the house, when + I heard a rustling in a tree near, and, looking up, saw a large red-haired + animal moving slowly along, hanging from the branches by its arms. It + passed on from tree to tree until it was lost in the jungle, which was so + swampy that I could not follow it. This mode of progression was, however, + very unusual, and is more characteristic of the Hylobates than of the + Orang. I suppose there was some individual peculiarity in this animal, or + the nature of the trees just in this place rendered it the most easy mode + of progression. + </p> + <p> + About a fortnight afterwards I heard that one was feeding in a tree in the + swamp just below the house, and, taking my gun, was fortunate enough to + find it in the same place. As soon as I approached, it tried to conceal + itself among the foliage; but, I got a shot at it, and the second barrel + caused it to fall down almost dead, the two balls having entered the body. + This was a male, about half-grown, being scarcely three feet high. On + April 26th, I was out shooting with two Dyaks, when we found another about + the same size. It fell at the first shot, but did not seem much hurt, and + immediately climbed up the nearest tree, when I fired, and it again fell, + with a broken arm and a wound in the body. The two Dyaks now ran up to it, + and each seized hold of a hand, telling me to cut a pole, and they would + secure it. But although one arm was broken and it was only a half-grown + animal, it was too strong for these young savages, drawing them up towards + its mouth notwithstanding all their efforts, so that they were again + obliged to leave go, or they would have been seriously bitten. It now + began climbing up the tree again; and, to avoid trouble, I shot it through + the heart. + </p> + <p> + On May 2nd, I again found one on a very high tree, when I had only a small + 80-bore gun with me. However, I fired at it, and on seeing me it began + howling in a strange voice like a cough, and seemed in a great rage, + breaking off branches with its hands and throwing them down, and then soon + made off over the tree-tops. I did not care to follow it, as it was + swampy, and in parts dangerous, and I might easily have lost myself in the + eagerness of pursuit. + </p> + <p> + On the 12th of May I found another, which behaved in a very similar + manner, howling and hooting with rage, and throwing down branches. I shot + at it five times, and it remained dead on the top of the tree, supported + in a fork in such a manner that it would evidently not fall. I therefore + returned home, and luckily found some Dyaks, who came back with me, and + climbed up the tree for the animal. This was the first full-grown specimen + I had obtained; but it was a female, and not nearly so large or remarkable + as the full-grown males. It was, however, 3 ft. 6 in. high, and its arms + stretched out to a width of 6 ft. 6 in. I preserved the skin of this + specimen in a cask of arrack, and prepared a perfect skeleton, which was + afterwards purchased for the Derby Museum. + </p> + <p> + Only four days afterwards some Dyaks saw another Mias near the same place, + and came to tell me. We found it to be a rather large one, very high up on + a tall tree. At the second shot it fell rolling over, but almost + immediately got up again and began to climb. At a third shot it fell dead. + This was also a full-grown female, and while preparing to carry it home, + we found a young one face downwards in the bog. This little creature was + only about a foot long, and had evidently been hanging to its mother when + she first fell. Luckily it did not appear to have been wounded, and after + we had cleaned the mud out of its mouth it began to cry out, and seemed + quite strong and active. While carrying it home it got its hands in my + beard, and grasped so tightly that I had great difficulty in getting free, + for the fingers are habitually bent inwards at the last joint so as to + form complete hooks. At this time it had not a single tooth, but a few + days afterwards it cut its two lower front teeth. Unfortunately, I had no + milk to give it, as neither Malays, Chinese nor Dyaks ever use the + article, and I in vain inquired for any female animal that could suckle my + little infant. I was therefore obliged to give it rice-water from a bottle + with a quill in the cork, which after a few trials it learned to suck very + well. This was very meagre diet, and the little creature did not thrive + well on it, although I added sugar and cocoa-nut milk occasionally, to + make it more nourishing. When I put my finger in its mouth it sucked with + great vigour, drawing in its cheeks with all its might in the vain effort + to extract some milk, and only after persevering a long time would it give + up in disgust, and set up a scream very like that of a baby in similar + circumstances. + </p> + <p> + When handled or nursed, it was very quiet and contented, but when laid + down by itself would invariably cry; and for the first few nights was very + restless and noisy. I fitted up a little box for a cradle, with a soft mat + for it to lie upon, which was changed and washed every day; and I soon + found it necessary to wash the little Mias as well. After I had done so a + few times, it came to like the operation, and as soon as it was dirty + would begin crying and not leave off until I took it out and carried it to + the spout, when it immediately became quiet, although it would wince a + little at the first rush of the cold water and make ridiculously wry faces + while the stream was running over its head. It enjoyed the wiping and + rubbing dry amazingly, and when I brushed its hair seemed to be perfectly + happy, lying quite still with its arms and legs stretched out while I + thoroughly brushed the long hair of its back and arms. For the first few + days it clung desperately with all four hands to whatever it could lay + hold of, and I had to be careful to keep my beard out of its way, as its + fingers clutched hold of hair more tenaciously than anything else, and it + was impossible to free myself without assistance. When restless, it would + struggle about with its hands up in the air trying to find something to + take hold of, and, when it had got a bit of stick or rag in two or three + of its hands, seemed quite happy. For want of something else, it would + often seize its own feet, and after a time it would constantly cross its + arms and grasp with each hand the long hair that grew just below the + opposite shoulder. The great tenacity of its grasp soon diminished, and I + was obliged to invent some means to give it exercise and strengthen its + limbs. For this purpose I made a short ladder of three or four rounds, on + which I put it to hang for a quarter of an hour at a time. At first it + seemed much pleased, but it could not get all four hands in a comfortable + position, and, after changing about several times, would leave hold of one + hand after the other, and drop onto the floor. Sometimes when hanging only + by two hands, it would loose one, and cross it to the opposite shoulder, + grasping its own hair; and, as this seemed much more agreeable than the + stick, it would then loose the other and tumble down, when it would cross + both and lie on its back quite contentedly, never seeming to be hurt by + its numerous tumbles. Finding it so fond of hair, I endeavoured to make an + artificial mother, by wrapping up a piece of buffalo-skin into a bundle, + and suspending it about a foot from the floor. At first this seemed to + suit it admirably, as it could sprawl its legs about and always find some + hair, which it grasped with the greatest tenacity. I was now in hopes that + I had made the little orphan quite happy; and so it seemed for some time, + until it began to remember its lost parent, and try to suck. It would pull + itself up close to the skin, and try about everywhere for a likely place; + but, as it only succeeded in getting mouthfuls of hair and wool, it would + be greatly disgusted, and scream violently, and, after two or three + attempts, let go altogether. One day it got some wool into its throat, and + I thought it would have choked, but after much gasping it recovered, and I + was obliged to take the imitation mother to pieces again, and give up this + last attempt to exercise the little creature. + </p> + <p> + After the first week I found I could feed it better with a spoon, and give + it a little more varied and more solid food. Well-soaked biscuit mixed + with a little egg and sugar, and sometimes sweet potatoes, were readily + eaten; and it was a never-failing amusement to observe the curious changes + of countenance by which it would express its approval or dislike of what + was given to it. The poor little thing would lick its lips, draw in its + cheeks, and turn up its eyes with an expression of the most supreme + satisfaction when it had a mouthful particularly to its taste. On the + other hand, when its food was not sufficiently sweet or palatable, it + would turn the mouthful about with its tongue for a moment as if trying to + extract what flavour there was, and then push it all out between its lips. + If the same food was continued, it would set up a scream and kick about + violently, exactly like a baby in a passion. + </p> + <p> + After I had had the little Mias about three weeks, I fortunately obtained + a young hare-lip monkey (Macacus cynomolgus), which, though small, was + very active, and could feed itself. I placed it in the same box with the + Mias, and they immediately became excellent friends, neither exhibiting + the least fear of the other. The little monkey would sit upon the other's + stomach, or even on its face, without the least regard to its feelings. + While I was feeding the Mias, the monkey would sit by, picking up all that + was spilt, and occasionally putting out its hands to intercept the spoon; + and as soon as I had finished would pick off what was left sticking to the + Mias' lips, and then pull open its mouth and see if any still remained + inside; afterwards lying down on the poor creature's stomach as on a + comfortable cushion. The little helpless Mias would submit to all these + insults with the most exemplary patience, only too glad to have something + warm near it, which it could clasp affectionately in its arms. It + sometimes, however, had its revenge; for when the monkey wanted to go + away, the Mias would hold on as long as it could by the loose skin of its + back or head, or by its tail, and it was only after many vigorous jumps + that the monkey could make his escape. + </p> + <p> + It was curious to observe the different actions of these two animals, + which could not have differed much in age. The Mias, like a very young + baby, lying on its back quite helpless, rolling lazily from side to side, + stretching out all four hands into the air, wishing to grasp something, + but hardly able to guide its fingers to any definite object; and when + dissatisfied, opening wide its almost toothless mouth, and expressing its + wants by a most infantine scream. The little monkey, on the other hand, in + constant motion, running and jumping about wherever it pleased, examining + everything around it, seizing hold of the smallest object with the + greatest precision, balancing itself on the edge of the box or running up + a post, and helping itself to anything eatable that came in its way. There + could hardly be a greater contrast, and the baby Mias looked more + baby-like by the comparison. + </p> + <p> + When I had had it about a month, it began to exhibit some signs of + learning to run alone. When laid upon the floor it would push itself along + by its legs, or roll itself over, and thus make an unwieldy progression. + When lying in the box it would lift itself up to the edge into almost an + erect position, and once or twice succeeded in tumbling out. When left + dirty, or hungry, or otherwise neglected, it would scream violently until + attended to, varied by a kind of coughing or pumping noise very similar to + that which is made by the adult animal. If no one was in the house, or its + cries were not attended to, it would be quiet after a little while, but + the moment it heard a footstep would begin again harder than ever. + </p> + <p> + After five weeks it cut its two upper front teeth, but in all this time it + had not grown the least bit, remaining both in size and weight the same as + when I first procured it. This was no doubt owing to the want of milk or + other equally nourishing food. Rice-water, rice, and biscuits were but a + poor substitute, and the expressed milk of the cocoa-nut which I sometimes + gave it did not quite agree with its stomach. To this I imputed an attack + of diarrhoea from which the poor little creature suffered greatly, but a + small dose of castor-oil operated well, and cured it. A week or two + afterwards it was again taken ill, and this time more seriously. The + symptoms were exactly those of intermittent fever, accompanied by watery + swellings on the feet and head. It lost all appetite for its food, and, + after lingering for a week a most pitiable object, died, after being in my + possession nearly three months. I much regretted the loss of my little + pet, which I had at one time looked forward to bringing up to years of + maturity, and taking home to England. For several months it had afforded + me daily amusement by its curious ways and the inimitably ludicrous + expression of its little countenance. Its weight was three pounds nine + ounces, its height fourteen inches, and the spread of its arms + twenty-three inches. I preserved its skin and skeleton, and in doing so + found that when it fell from the tree it must have broken an arm and a + leg, which had, however, united so rapidly that I had only noticed the + hard swellings on the limbs where the irregular junction of the bones had + taken place. + </p> + <p> + Exactly a week after I had caught this interesting little animal, I + succeeded in shooting a full-grown male Orangutan. I had just come home + from an entomologising excursion when Charles [Charles Allen, an English + lad of sixteen, accompanied me as an assistant] rushed in out of breath + with running and excitement, and exclaimed, interrupted by gasps, "Get the + gun, sir,—be quick,—such a large Mias!" "Where is it?" I + asked, taking hold of my gun as I spoke, which happened luckily to have + one barrel loaded with ball. "Close by, sir—on the path to the mines—he + can't get away." Two Dyaks chanced to be in the house at the time, so I + called them to accompany me, and started off, telling Charley to bring all + the ammunition after me as soon as possible. The path from our clearing to + the mines led along the side of the hill a little way up its slope, and + parallel with it at the foot a wide opening had been made for a road, in + which several Chinamen were working, so that the animal could not escape + into the swampy forest below without descending to cross the road or + ascending to get round the clearings. We walked cautiously along, not + making the least noise, and listening attentively for any sound which + might betray the presence of the Mias, stopping at intervals to gaze + upwards. Charley soon joined us at the place where he had seen the + creature, and having taken the ammunition and put a bullet in the other + barrel, we dispersed a little, feeling sure that it must be somewhere + near, as it had probably descended the hill, and would not be likely to + return again. + </p> + <p> + After a short time I heard a very slight rustling sound overhead, but on + gazing up could see nothing. I moved about in every direction to get a + full view into every part of the tree under which I had been standing, + when I again heard the same noise but louder, and saw the leaves shaking + as if caused by the motion of some heavy animal which moved off to an + adjoining tree. I immediately shouted for all of them to come up and try + and get a view, so as to allow me to have a shot. This was not an easy + matter, as the Mias had a knack of selecting places with dense foliage + beneath. Very soon, however, one of the Dyaks called me and pointed + upwards, and on looking I saw a great red hairy body and a huge black face + gazing down from a great height, as if wanting to know what was making + such a disturbance below. I instantly fired, and he made off at once, so + that I could not then tell whether I had hit him. + </p> + <p> + He now moved very rapidly and very noiselessly for so large an animal, so + I told the Dyaks to follow and keep him in sight while I loaded. The + jungle was here full of large angular fragments of rock from the mountain + above, and thick with hanging and twisted creepers. Running, climbing, and + creeping among these, we came up with the creature on the top of a high + tree near the road, where the Chinamen had discovered him, and were + shouting their astonishment with open mouths: "Ya Ya, Tuan; Orangutan, + Tuan." Seeing that he could not pass here without descending, he turned up + again towards the hill, and I got two shots, and following quickly, had + two more by the time he had again reached the path, but he was always more + or less concealed by foliage, and protected by the large branch on which + he was walking. Once while loading I had a splendid view of him, moving + along a large limb of a tree in a semi-erect posture, and showing it to be + an animal of the largest size. At the path he got on to one of the + loftiest trees in the forest, and we could see one leg hanging down + useless, having been broken by a ball. He now fixed himself in a fork, + where he was hidden by thick foliage, and seemed disinclined to move. I + was afraid he would remain and die in this position, and as it was nearly + evening. I could not have got the tree cut down that day. I therefore + fired again, and he then moved off, and going up the hill was obliged to + get on to some lower trees, on the branches of one of which he fixed + himself in such a position that he could not fall, and lay all in a heap + as if dead, or dying. + </p> + <p> + I now wanted the Dyaks to go up and cut off the branch he was resting on, + but they were afraid, saying he was not dead, and would come and attack + them. We then shook the adjoining tree, pulled the hanging creepers, and + did all we could to disturb him, but without effect, so I thought it best + to send for two Chinamen with axes to cut down the tree. While the + messenger was gone, however, one of the Dyaks took courage and climbed + towards him, but the Mias did not wait for him to get near, moving off to + another tree, where he got on to a dense mass of branches and creepers + which almost completely hid him from our view. The tree was luckily a + small one, so when the axes came we soon had it cut through; but it was so + held up by jungle ropes and climbers to adjoining trees that it only fell + into a sloping position. The Mias did not move, and I began to fear that + after all we should not get him, as it was near evening, and half a dozen + more trees would have to be cut down before the one he was on would fall. + As a last resource we all began pulling at the creepers, which shook the + tree very much, and, after a few minutes, when we had almost given up all + hope, down he came with a crash and a thud like the fall of a giant. And + he was a giant, his head and body being fully as large as a man's. He was + of the kind called by the Dyaks "Mias Chappan," or "Mias Pappan," which + has the skin of the face broadened out to a ridge or fold at each side. + His outstretched arms measured seven feet three inches across, and his + height, measuring fairly from the top of the head to the heel was four + feet two inches. The body just below the arms was three feet two inches + round, and was quite as long as a man's, the legs being exceedingly short + in proportion. On examination we found he had been dreadfully wounded. + Both legs were broken, one hip-joint and the root of the spine completely + shattered, and two bullets were found flattened in his neck and jaws. Yet + he was still alive when he fell. The two Chinamen carried him home tied to + a pole, and I was occupied with Charley the whole of the next day + preparing the skin and boiling the bones to make a perfect skeleton, which + are now preserved in the Museum at Derby. + </p> + <p> + About ten days after this, on June 4th, some Dyaks came to tell us that + the day before a Mias had nearly killed one of their companions. A few + miles down the river there is a Dyak house, and the inhabitants saw a + large Orang feeding on the young shoots of a palm by the riverside. On + being alarmed he retreated towards the jungle which was close by, and a + number of the men, armed with spears and choppers, ran out to intercept + him. The man who was in front tried to run his spear through the animal's + body, but the Mias seized it in his hands, and in an instant got hold of + the man's arm, which he seized in his mouth, making his teeth meet in the + flesh above the elbow, which he tore and lacerated in a dreadful manner. + Had not the others been close behind, the man would have been more + seriously injured, if not killed, as he was quite powerless; but they soon + destroyed the creature with their spears and choppers. The man remained + ill for a long time, and never fully recovered the use of his arm. + </p> + <p> + They told me the dead Mias was still lying where it had been killed, so I + offered them a reward to bring it up to our landing-place immediately, + which they promised to do. They did not come, however, until the next day, + and then decomposition had commenced, and great patches of the hair came + off, so that it was useless to skin it. This I regretted much, as it was a + very fine full-grown male. I cut off the head and took it home to clean, + while I got my men to make a closed fence about five feet high around the + rest of the body, which would soon be devoured by maggots, small lizards, + and ants, leaving me the skeleton. There was a great gash in his face, + which had cut deep into the bone, but the skull was a very fine one, and + the teeth were remarkably large and perfect. + </p> + <p> + On June 18th I had another great success, and obtained a fine adult male. + A Chinaman told me he had seen him feeding by the side of the path to the + river, and I found him at the same place as the first individual I had + shot. He was feeding on an oval green fruit having a fine red arillus, + like the mace which surrounds the nutmeg, and which alone he seemed to + eat, biting off the thick outer rind and dropping it in a continual + shower. I had found the same fruit in the stomach of some others which I + had killed. Two shots caused this animal to loose his hold, but he hung + for a considerable time by one hand, and then fell flat on his face and + was half buried in the swamp. For several minutes he lay groaning and + panting, while we stood close around, expecting every breath to be his + last. Suddenly, however, by a violent effort he raised himself up, causing + us all to step back a yard or two, when, standing nearly erect, he caught + hold of a small tree, and began to ascend it. Another shot through the + back caused him to fall down dead. A flattened bullet was found in his + tongue, having entered the lower part of the abdomen and completely + traversed the body, fracturing the first cervical vertebra. Yet it was + after this fearful wound that he had risen, and begun climbing with + considerable facility. This also was a full-grown male of almost exactly + the same dimensions as the other two I had measured. + </p> + <p> + On June 21st I shot another adult female, which was eating fruit in a low + tree, and was the only one which I ever killed by a single ball. + </p> + <p> + On June 24th I was called by a Chinaman to shoot a Mias, which, he said, + was on a tree close by his house, at the coal-mines. Arriving at the + place, we had some difficulty in finding the animal, as he had gone off + into the jungle, which was very rocky and difficult to traverse. At last + we found him up a very high tree, and could see that he was a male of the + largest size. As soon as I had fired, he moved higher up the tree, and + while he was doing so I fired again; and we then saw that one arm was + broken. He had now reached the very highest part of an immense tree, and + immediately began breaking off boughs all around, and laying them across + and across to make a nest. It was very interesting to see how well he had + chosen his place, and how rapidly he stretched out his unwounded arm in + every direction, breaking off good-sized boughs with the greatest ease, + and laying them back across each other, so that in a few minutes he had + formed a compact mass of foliage, which entirely concealed him from our + sight. He was evidently going to pass the night here, and would probably + get away early the next morning, if not wounded too severely. I therefore + fired again several times, in hopes of making him leave his nest; but, + though I felt sure I had hit him, as at each shot he moved a little, he + would not go away. At length he raised himself up, so that half his body + was visible, and then gradually sank down, his head alone remaining on the + edge of the nest. I now felt sure he was dead, and tried to persuade the + Chinaman and his companion to cut down the tree; but it was a very large + one, and they had been at work all day, and nothing would induce them to + attempt it. The next morning, at daybreak, I came to the place, and found + that the Mias was evidently dead, as his head was visible in exactly the + same position as before. I now offered four Chinamen a day's wages each to + cut the tree down at once, as a few hours of sunshine would cause + decomposition on the surface of the skin; but, after looking at it and + trying it, they determined that it was very big and very hard, and would + not attempt it. Had I doubled my offer, they would probably have accepted + it, as it would not have been more than two or three hours' work; and had + I been on a short visit only, I would have done so; but as I was a + resident, and intended remaining several months longer, it would not have + answered to begin paying too exorbitantly, or I should have got nothing + done in the future at a lower rate. + </p> + <p> + For some weeks after, a cloud of flies could be seen all day, hovering + over the body of the dead Mias; but in about a month all was quiet, and + the body was evidently drying up under the influence of a vertical sun + alternating with tropical rains. Two or three months later two Malays, on + the offer of a dollar, climbed the tree and let down the dried remains. + The skin was almost entirely enclosing the skeleton, and inside were + millions of the pupa-cases of flies and other insects, with thousands of + two or three species of small necrophagous beetles. The skull had been + much shattered by balls, but the skeleton was perfect, except one small + wristbone, which had probably dropped out and been carried away by a + lizard. + </p> + <p> + Three days after I had shot this one and lost it, Charles found three + small Orangs feeding together. We had a long chase after them, and had a + good opportunity of seeing how they make their way from tree to tree by + always choosing those limbs whose branches are intermingled with those of + some other tree, and then grasping several of the small twigs together + before they venture to swing themselves across. Yet they do this so + quickly and certainly, that they make way among the trees at the rate of + full five or six miles an hour, as we had continually to run to keep up + with them. One of these we shot and killed, but it remained high up in the + fork of a tree; and, as young animals are of comparatively little + interest, I did not have the tree cut down to get it. + </p> + <p> + At this time I had the misfortune to slip among some fallen trees, and + hurt my ankle; and, not being careful enough at first, it became a severe + inflamed ulcer, which would not heal, and kept me a prisoner in the house + the whole of July and part of August. When I could get out again, I + determined to take a trip up a branch of the Simunjon River to Semabang, + where there was said to be a large Dyak house, a mountain with abundance + of fruit, and plenty of Orangs and fine birds. As the river was very + narrow, and I was obliged to go in a very small boat with little luggage, + I only took with me a Chinese boy as a servant. I carried a cask of + medicated arrack to put Mias skins in, and stores and ammunition for a + fortnight. After a few miles, the stream became very narrow and winding, + and the whole country on each side was flooded. On the banks were an + abundance of monkeys—the common Macacus cynomolgus, a black + Semnopithecus, and the extraordinary long-nosed monkey (Nasalis larvatus), + which is as large as a three-year old child, has a very long tail, and a + fleshy nose longer than that of the biggest-nosed man. The further we went + on the narrower and more winding the stream became; fallen trees sometimes + blocked up our passage, and sometimes tangled branches and creepers met + completely across it, and had to be cut away before we could get on. It + took us two days to reach Semabang, and we hardly saw a bit of dry land + all the way. In the latter part of the journey I could touch the bushes on + each side for miles; and we were often delayed by the screw-pines + (Pandanus), which grow abundantly in the water, falling across the stream. + In other places dense rafts of floating grass completely filled up the + channel, making our journey a constant succession of difficulties. + </p> + <p> + Near the landing-place we found a fine house, 250 feet long, raised high + above the ground on posts, with a wide verandah and still wider platform + of bamboo in front of it. Almost all the people, however, were away on + some excursion after edible birds'-nests or bees'-wax, and there only + remained in the house two or three old men and women with a lot of + children. The mountain or hill was close by, covered with a complete + forest of fruit-trees, among which the Durian and Mangosteen were very + abundant; but the fruit was not yet quite ripe, except a little here and + there. I spent a week at this place, going out everyday in various + directions about the mountain, accompanied by a Malay, who had stayed with + me while the other boatmen returned. For three days we found no Orangs, + but shot a deer and several monkeys. On the fourth day, however, we found + a Mias feeding on a very lofty Durian tree, and succeeded in killing it, + after eight shots. Unfortunately it remained in the tree, hanging by its + hands, and we were obliged to leave it and return home, as it was several + miles off. As I felt pretty sure it would fall during the night, I + returned to the place early the next morning, and found it on the ground + beneath the tree. To my astonishment and pleasure, it appeared to be a + different kind from any I had yet seen; for although a full-grown male, by + its fully developed teeth and very large canines, it had no sign of the + lateral protuberance on the face, and was about one-tenth smaller in all + its dimensions than the other adult males. The upper incisors, however, + appeared to be broader than in the larger species, a character + distinguishing the Simia morio of Professor Owen, which he had described + from the cranium of a female specimen. As it was too far to carry the + animal home, I set to work and skinned the body on the spot, leaving the + head, hands, and feet attached, to be finished at home. This specimen is + now in the British Museum. + </p> + <p> + At the end of a week, finding no more Orangs, I returned home; and, taking + in a few fresh stores, and this time accompanied by Charles, went up + another branch of the river, very similar in character, to a place called + Menyille, where there were several small Dyak houses and one large one. + Here the landing place was a bridge of rickety poles, over a considerable + distance of water; and I thought it safer to leave my cask of arrack + securely placed in the fork of a tree. To prevent the natives from + drinking it, I let several of them see me put in a number of snakes and + lizards; but I rather think this did not prevent them from tasting it. We + were accommodated here in the verandah of the large house, in which were + several great baskets of dried human heads, the trophies of past + generations of head-hunters. Here also there was a little mountain covered + with fruit-trees, and there were some magnificent Durian trees close by + the house, the fruit of which was ripe; and as the Dyaks looked upon me as + a benefactor in killing the Mias, which destroys a great deal of their + fruit, they let us eat as much as we liked; we revelled in this emperor of + fruits in its greatest perfection. + </p> + <p> + The very day after my arrival in this place, I was so fortunate as to + shoot another adult male of the small Orang, the Mias-kassir of the Dyaks. + It fell when dead, but caught in a fork of the tree and remained fixed. As + I was very anxious to get it, I tried to persuade two young Dyaks who were + with me to cut down the tree, which was tall, perfectly straight and + smooth-barked, and without a branch for fifty or sixty feet. To my + surprise, they said they would prefer climbing up it, but it would be a + good deal of trouble, and, after a little talking together, they said they + would try. They first went to a clump of bamboo that stood near, and cut + down one of the largest stems. From this they chopped off a short piece, + and splitting it, made a couple of stout pegs, about a foot long and sharp + at one end. Then cutting a thick piece of wood for a mallet, they drove + one of the pegs into the tree and hung their weight upon it. It held, and + this seemed to satisfy them, for they immediately began making a quantity + of pegs of the same kind, while I looked on with great interest, wondering + how they could possibly ascend such a lofty tree by merely driving pegs in + it, the failure of any one of which at a good height would certainly cause + their death. When about two dozen pegs were made, one of them began + cutting some very long and slender bamboo from another clump, and also + prepared some cord from the bark of a small tree. They now drove in a peg + very firmly at about three feet from the ground, and bringing one of the + long bamboos, stood it upright close to the tree, and bound it firmly to + the two first pegs, by means of the bark cord and small notches near the + head of each peg. One of the Dyaks now stood on the first peg and drove in + a third, about level with his face, to which he tied the bamboo in the + same way, and then mounted another step, standing on one foot, and holding + by the bamboo at the peg immediately above him, while he drove in the next + one. In this manner he ascended about twenty feet; when the upright bamboo + was becoming thin, another was handed up by his companion, and this was + joined by tying both bamboos to three or four of the pegs. When this was + also nearly ended, a third was added, and shortly after, the lowest + branches of the tree were reached, along which the young Dyak scrambled, + and soon sent the Mias tumbling down headlong. I was exceedingly struck by + the ingenuity of this mode of climbing, and the admirable manner in which + the peculiar properties of the bamboo were made available. The ladder + itself was perfectly safe, since if any one peg were loose or faulty, and + gave way, the strain would be thrown on several others above and below it. + I now understood the use of the line of bamboo pegs sticking in trees, + which I had often seen, and wondered for what purpose they could have been + put there. This animal was almost identical in size and appearance with + the one I had obtained at Semabang, and was the only other male specimen + of the Simia morio which I obtained. It is now in the Derby Museum. + </p> + <p> + I afterwards shot two adult females and two young ones of different ages, + all of which I preserved. One of the females, with several young ones, was + feeding on a Durian tree with unripe fruit; and as soon as she saw us she + began breaking off branches and the great spiny fruits with every + appearance of rage, causing such a shower of missiles as effectually kept + us from approaching too near the tree. This habit of throwing down + branches when irritated has been doubted, but I have, as here narrated, + observed it myself on at least three separate occasions. It was however + always the female Mias who behaved in this way, and it may be that the + male, trusting more to his great strength and his powerful canine teeth, + is not afraid of any other animal, and does not want to drive them away, + while the parental instinct of the female leads her to adopt this mode of + defending herself and her young ones. + </p> + <p> + In preparing the skins and skeletons of these animals, I was much troubled + by the Dyak dogs, which, being always kept in a state of semi-starvation, + are ravenous for animal food. I had a great iron pan, in which I boiled + the bones to make skeletons, and at night I covered this over with boards, + and put heavy stones upon it; but the dogs managed to remove these and + carried away the greater part of one of my specimens. On another occasion + they gnawed away a good deal of the upper leather of my strong boots, and + even ate a piece of my mosquito-curtain, where some lamp-oil had been + spilt over it some weeks before. + </p> + <p> + On our return down the stream, we had the fortune to fall in with a very + old male Mias, feeding on some low trees growing in the water. The country + was flooded for a long distance, but so full of trees and stumps that the + laden boat could not be got in among them, and if it could have been we + should only have frightened the Mias away. I therefore got into the water, + which was nearly up to my waist, and waded on until I was near enough for + a shot. The difficulty then was to load my gun again, for I was so deep in + the water that I could not hold the gun sloping enough to pour the powder + in. I therefore had to search for a shallow place, and after several shots + under these trying circumstances, I was delighted to see the monstrous + animal roll over into the water. I now towed him after me to the stream, + but the Malays objected to having the animal put into the boat, and he was + so heavy that I could not do it without their help. I looked about for a + place to skin him, but not a bit of dry ground was to be seen, until at + last I found a clump of two or three old trees and stumps, between which a + few feet of soil had collected just above the water, which was just large + enough for us to drag the animal upon it. I first measured him, and found + him to be by far the largest I had yet seen, for, though the standing + height was the same as the others (4 feet 2 inches), the outstretched arms + were 7 feet 9 inches, which was six inches more than the previous one, and + the immense broad face was 13 1/2 inches wide, whereas the widest I had + hitherto seen was only 11 1/2 inches. The girth of the body was 3 feet 7 + 1/2 inches. I am inclined to believe, therefore, that the length and + strength of the arms, and the width of the face continues increasing to a + very great age, while the standing height, from the sole of the foot to + the crown of the head, rarely if ever exceeds 4 feet 2 inches. + </p> + <p> + As this was the last Mias I shot, and the last time I saw an adult living + animal, I will give a sketch of its general habits, and any other facts + connected with it. The Orangutan is known to inhabit Sumatra and Borneo, + and there is every reason to believe that it is confined to these two + great islands, in the former of which, however, it seems to be much more + rare. In Borneo it has a wide range, inhabiting many districts on the + southwest, southeast, northeast, and northwest coasts, but appears to be + chiefly confined to the low and swampy forests. It seems, at first sight, + very inexplicable that the Mias should be quite unknown in the Sarawak + valley, while it is abundant in Sambas, on the west, and Sadong, on the + east. But when we know the habits and mode of life of the animal, we see a + sufficient reason for this apparent anomaly in the physical features of + the Sarawak district. In the Sadong, where I observed it, the Mias is only + found when the country is low level and swampy, and at the same time + covered with a lofty virgin forest. From these swamps rise many isolated + mountains, on some of which the Dyaks have settled and covered with + plantations of fruit trees. These are a great attraction to the Mias, + which comes to feed on the unripe fruits, but always retires to the swamp + at night. Where the country becomes slightly elevated, and the soil dry, + the Mias is no longer to be found. For example, in all the lower part of + the Sadong valley it abounds, but as soon as we ascend above the limits of + the tides, where the country, though still flat, is high enough to be dry, + it disappears. Now the Sarawak valley has this peculiarity—the lower + portion though swampy, is not covered with a continuous lofty forest, but + is principally occupied by the Nipa palm; and near the town of Sarawak + where the country becomes dry, it is greatly undulated in many parts, and + covered with small patches of virgin forest, and much second-growth jungle + on the ground, which has once been cultivated by the Malays or Dyaks. + </p> + <p> + Now it seems probable to me that a wide extent of unbroken and equally + lofty virgin forest is necessary to the comfortable existence of these + animals. Such forests form their open country, where they can roam in + every direction with as much facility as the Indian on the prairie, or the + Arab on the desert, passing from tree-top to tree-top without ever being + obliged to descend upon the earth. The elevated and the drier districts + are more frequented by man, more cut up by clearings and low second-growth + jungle—not adapted to its peculiar mode of progression, and where it + would therefore be more exposed to danger, and more frequently obliged to + descend upon the earth. There is probably also a greater variety of fruit + in the Mias district, the small mountains which rise like islands out of + it serving as gardens or plantations of a sort, where the trees of the + uplands are to be found in the very midst of the swampy plains. + </p> + <p> + It is a singular and very interesting sight to watch a Mias making his way + leisurely through the forest. He walks deliberately along some of the + larger branches in the semi-erect attitude which the great length of his + arms and the shortness of his legs cause him naturally to assume; and the + disproportion between these limbs is increased by his walking on his + knuckles, not on the palm of the hand, as we should do. He seems always to + choose those branches which intermingle with an adjoining tree, on + approaching which he stretches out his long arms, and seizing the opposing + boughs, grasps them together with both hands, seems to try their strength, + and then deliberately swings himself across to the next branch, on which + he walks along as before. He never jumps or springs, or even appears to + hurry himself, and yet manages to get along almost as quickly as a person + can run through the forest beneath. The long and powerful arms are of the + greatest use to the animal, enabling it to climb easily up the loftiest + trees, to seize fruits and young leaves from slender boughs which will not + bear its weight, and to gather leaves and branches with which to form its + nest. I have already described how it forms a nest when wounded, but it + uses a similar one to sleep on almost every night. This is placed low + down, however, on a small tree not more than from twenty to fifty feet + from the ground, probably because it is warmer and less exposed to wind + than higher up. Each Mias is said to make a fresh one for himself every + night; but I should think that is hardly probable, or their remains would + be much more abundant; for though I saw several about the coal-mines, + there must have been many Orangs about every day, and in a year their + deserted nests would become very numerous. The Dyaks say that, when it is + very wet, the Mias covers himself over with leaves of pandanus, or large + ferns, which has perhaps led to the story of his making a hut in the + trees. + </p> + <p> + The Orang does not leave his bed until the sun has well risen and has + dried up the dew upon the leaves. He feeds all through the middle of the + day, but seldom returns to the same tree two days running. They do not + seem much alarmed at man, as they often stared down upon me for several + minutes, and then only moved away slowly to an adjacent tree. After seeing + one, I have often had to go half a mile or more to fetch my gun, and in + nearly every case have found it on the same tree, or within a hundred + yards, when I returned. I never saw two full-grown animals together, but + both males and females are sometimes accompanied by half-grown young ones, + while, at other times, three or four young ones were seen in company. + Their food consists almost exclusively of fruit, with occasionally leaves, + buds, and young shoots. They seem to prefer unripe fruits, some of which + were very sour, others intensely bitter, particularly the large red, + fleshy arillus of one which seemed an especial favourite. In other cases + they eat only the small seed of a large fruit, and they almost always + waste and destroy more than they eat, so that there is a continual rain of + rejected portions below the tree they are feeding on. The Durian is an + especial favourite, and quantities of this delicious fruit are destroyed + wherever it grows surrounded by forest, but they will not cross clearings + to get at them. It seems wonderful how the animal can tear open this + fruit, the outer covering of which is so thick and tough, and closely + covered with strong conical spines. It probably bites off a few of these + first, and then, making a small hole, tears open the fruit with its + powerful fingers. + </p> + <p> + The Mias rarely descends to the ground, except when pressed by hunger, it + seeks succulent shoots by the riverside; or, in very dry weather, has to + search after water, of which it generally finds sufficient in the hollows + of leaves. Only once I saw two half-grown Orangs on the ground in a dry + hollow at the foot of the Simunjon hill. They were playing together, + standing erect, and grasping each other by the arms. It may be safely + stated, however, that the Orang never walks erect, unless when using its + hands to support itself by branches overhead or when attacked. + Representations of its walking with a stick are entirely imaginary. + </p> + <p> + The Dyaks all declare that the Mias is never attacked by any animal in the + forest, with two rare exceptions; and the accounts I received of these are + so curious that I give them nearly in the words of my informants, old Dyak + chiefs, who had lived all their lives in the places where the animal is + most abundant. The first of whom I inquired said: "No animal is strong + enough to hurt the Mias, and the only creature he ever fights with is the + crocodile. When there is no fruit in the jungle, he goes to seek food on + the banks of the river where there are plenty of young shoots that he + likes, and fruits that grow close to the water. Then the crocodile + sometimes tries to seize him, but the Mias gets upon him, and beats him + with his hands and feet, and tears him and kills him." He added that he + had once seen such a fight, and that he believes that the Mias is always + the victor. + </p> + <p> + My next informant was the Orang Kaya, or chief of the Balow Dyaks, on the + Simunjon River. He said: "The Mias has no enemies; no animals dare attack + it but the crocodile and the python. He always kills the crocodile by main + strength, standing upon it, pulling open its jaws, and ripping up its + throat. If a python attacks a Mias, he seizes it with his hands, and then + bites it, and soon kills it. The Mias is very strong; there is no animal + in the jungle so strong as he." + </p> + <p> + It is very remarkable that an animal so large, so peculiar, and of such a + high type of form as the Orangutan, should be confined to so limited a + district—to two islands, and those almost the last inhabited by the + higher Mammalia; for, east of Borneo and Java, the Quadrumania, Ruminants, + Carnivora, and many other groups of Mammalia diminish rapidly, and soon + entirely disappear. When we consider, further, that almost all other + animals have in earlier ages been represented by allied yet distinct forms—that, + in the latter part of the tertiary period, Europe was inhabited by bears, + deer, wolves, and cats; Australia by kangaroos and other marsupials; South + America by gigantic sloths and ant-eaters; all different from any now + existing, though intimately allied to them—we have every reason to + believe that the Orangutan, the Chimpanzee, and the Gorilla have also had + their forerunners. With what interest must every naturalist look forward + to the time when the caves and tertiary deposits of the tropics may be + thoroughly examined, and the past history and earliest appearance of the + great man-like apes be made known at length. + </p> + <p> + I will now say a few words as to the supposed existence of a Bornean Orang + as large as the Gorilla. I have myself examined the bodies of seventeen + freshly-killed Orangs, all of which were carefully measured; and of seven + of them, I preserved the skeleton. I also obtained two skeletons killed by + other persons. Of this extensive series, sixteen were fully adult, nine + being males, and seven females. The adult males of the large Orangs only + varied from 4 feet 1 inch to 4 feet 2 inches in height, measured fairly to + the heel, so as to give the height of the animal if it stood perfectly + erect; the extent of the outstretched arms, from 7 feet 2 inches to 7 feet + 8 inches; and the width of the face, from 10 inches to 13 1/2 inches. The + dimensions given by other naturalists closely agree with mine. The largest + Orang measured by Temminck was 4 feet high. Of twenty-five specimens + collected by Schlegel and Muller, the largest old male was 4 feet 1 inch; + and the largest skeleton in the Calcutta Museum was, according to Mr. + Blyth, 4 feet 1 1/2 inch. My specimens were all from the northwest coast + of Borneo; those of the Dutch from the west and south coasts; and no + specimen has yet reached Europe exceeding these dimensions, although the + total number of skins and skeletons must amount to over a hundred. + </p> + <p> + Strange to say, however, several persons declare that they have measured + Orangs of a much larger size. Temminck, in his Monograph of the Orang, + says that he has just received news of the capture of a specimen 5 feet 3 + inches high. Unfortunately, it never seems to have a reached Holland, for + nothing has since been heard of any such animal. Mr. St. John, in his + "Life in the Forests of the Far East," vol. ii. p. 237, tells us of an + Orang shot by a friend of his, which was 5 feet 2 inches from the heel to + the top of the head, the arm 17 inches in girth, and the wrist 12 inches! + The head alone was brought to Sarawak, and Mr. St. John tells us that he + assisted to measure this, and that it was 15 inches broad by 14 long. + Unfortunately, even this skull appears not to have been preserved, for no + specimen corresponding to these dimensions has yet reached England. + </p> + <p> + In a letter from Sir James Brooke, dated October 1857 in which he + acknowledges the receipt of my Papers on the Orang, published in the + "Annals and Magazine of Natural History," he sends me the measurements of + a specimen killed by his nephew, which I will give exactly as I received + it: "September 3rd, 1867, killed female Orangutan. Height, from head to + heel, 4 feet 6 inches. Stretch from fingers to fingers across body, 6 feet + 1 inch. Breadth of face, including callosities, 11 inches." Now, in these + dimensions, there is palpably one error; for in every Orang yet measured + by any naturalist, an expanse of arms of 6 feet 1 inch corresponds to a + height of about 3 feet 6 inches, while the largest specimens of 4 feet to + 4 feet 2 inches high, always have the extended arms as much as 7 feet 3 + inches to 7 feet 8 inches. It is, in fact, one of the characters of the + genus to have the arms so long that an animal standing nearly erect can + rest its fingers on the ground. A height of 4 feet 6 inches would + therefore require a stretch of arms of at least 8 feet! If it were only 6 + feet to that height, as given in the dimensions quoted, the animal would + not be an Orang at all, but a new genus of apes, differing materially in + habits and mode of progression. But Mr. Johnson, who shot this animal, and + who knows Orangs well, evidently considered it to be one; and we have + therefore to judge whether it is more probable that he made a mistake of + two feet in the stretch of the arms, or of one foot in the height. The + latter error is certainly the easiest to make, and it will bring his + animal into agreement, as to proportions and size, with all those which + exist in Europe. How easy it is to be deceived as to the height of these + animals is well shown in the case of the Sumatran Orang, the skin of which + was described by Dr. Clarke Abel. The captain and crew who killed this + animal declared that when alive he exceeded the tallest man, and looked so + gigantic that they thought he was 7 feet high; but that, when he was + killed and lay upon the ground, they found he was only about 6 feet. Now + it will hardly be credited that the skin of this identical animal exists + in the Calcutta Museum, and Mr. Blyth, the late curator, states "that it + is by no means one of the largest size"; which means that it is about 4 + feet high! + </p> + <p> + Having these undoubted examples of error in the dimensions of Orangs, it + is not too much to conclude that Mr. St. John's friend made a similar + error of measurement, or rather, perhaps, of memory; for we are not told + that the dimensions were noted down at the time they were made. The only + figures given by Mr. St. John on his own authority are that "the head was + 15 inches broad by 14 inches long." As my largest male was 13 1/2 broad + across the face, measured as soon as the animal was killed, I can quite + understand that when the head arrived at Sarawak from the Batang-Lupar, + after two or three days' voyage, it was so swollen by decomposition as to + measure an inch more than when it was fresh. On the whole, therefore, I + think it will be allowed, that up to this time we have not the least + reliable evidence of the existence of Orangs in Borneo more than 4 feet 2 + inches high. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. BORNEO—JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR. + </h2> + <h3> + (NOVEMBER 1855 TO JANUARY 1856.) + </h3> + <p> + As the wet season was approaching, I determined to return to Sarawak, + sending all my collections with Charles Allen around by sea, while I + myself proposed to go up to the sources of the Sadong River and descend by + the Sarawak valley. As the route was somewhat difficult, I took the + smallest quantity of baggage, and only one servant, a Malay lad named + Bujon, who knew the language of the Sadong Dyaks, with whom he had traded. + We left the mines on the 27th of November, and the next day reached the + Malay village of Gúdong, where I stayed a short time to buy fruit and + eggs, and called upon the Datu Bandar, or Malay governor of the place. He + lived in a large, and well-built house, very dirty outside and in, and was + very inquisitive about my business, and particularly about the coal-mines. + These puzzle the natives exceedingly, as they cannot understand the + extensive and costly preparations for working coal, and cannot believe it + is to be used only as fuel when wood is so abundant and so easily + obtained. It was evident that Europeans seldom came here, for numbers of + women skeltered away as I walked through the village and one girl about + ten or twelve years old, who had just brought a bamboo full of water from + the river, threw it down with a cry of horror and alarm the moment she + caught sight of me, turned around and jumped into the stream. She swam + beautifully, and kept looking back as if expecting I would follow her, + screaming violently all the time; while a number of men and boys were + laughing at her ignorant terror. + </p> + <p> + At Jahi, the next village, the stream became so swift in consequence of a + flood, that my heavy boat could make no way, and I was obliged to send it + back and go on in a very small open one. So far the river had been very + monotonous, the banks being cultivated as rice-fields, and little thatched + huts alone breaking the unpicturesque line of muddy bank crowned with tall + grasses, and backed by the top of the forest behind the cultivated ground. + A few hours beyond Jahi we passed the limits of cultivation, and had the + beautiful virgin forest coming down to the water's edge, with its palms + and creepers, its noble trees, its ferns, and epiphytes. The banks of the + river were, however, still generally flooded, and we had some difficulty + in finding a dry spot to sleep on. Early in the morning we reached + Empugnan, a small Malay village, situated at the foot of an isolated + mountain which had been visible from the mouth of the Simunjon River. + Beyond here the tides are not felt, and we now entered upon a district of + elevated forest, with a finer vegetation. Large trees stretch out their + arms across the stream, and the steep, earthy banks are clothed with ferns + and zingiberaceous plants. + </p> + <p> + Early in the afternoon we arrived at Tabókan, the first village of the + Hill Dyaks. On an open space near the river, about twenty boys were + playing at a game something like what we call "prisoner's base;" their + ornaments of beads and brass wire and their gay-coloured kerchiefs and + waist-cloths showing to much advantage, and forming a very pleasing sight. + On being called by Bujon, they immediately left their game to carry my + things up to the "headhouse,"—a circular building attached to most + Dyak villages, and serving as a lodging for strangers, the place for + trade, the sleeping-room of the unmarried youths, and the general + council-chamber. It is elevated on lofty posts, has a large fireplace in + the middle and windows in the roof all round, and forms a very pleasant + and comfortable abode. In the evening it was crowded with young men and + boys, who came to look at me. They were mostly fine young fellows, and I + could not help admiring the simplicity and elegance of their costume. + Their only dress is the long "chawat," or waist-cloth, which hangs down + before and behind. It is generally of blue cotton, ending in three broad + bands of red, blue, and white. Those who can afford it wear a handkerchief + on the head, which is either red, with a narrow border of gold lace, or of + three colours, like the "chawat." The large flat moon-shaped brass + earrings, the heavy necklace of white or black beads, rows of brass rings + on the arms and legs, and armlets of white shell, all serve to relieve and + set off the pure reddish brown skin and jet-black hair. Add to this the + little pouch containing materials for betel-chewing, and a long slender + knife, both invariably worn at the side, and you have the everyday dress + of the young Dyak gentleman. + </p> + <p> + The "Orang Kaya," or rich man, as the chief of the tribe is called, now + came in with several of the older men; and the "bitchara" or talk + commenced, about getting a boat and men to take me on the next morning. As + I could not understand a word of their language, which is very different + from Malay, I took no part in the proceedings, but was represented by my + boy Bujon, who translated to me most of what was said. A Chinese trader + was in the house, and he, too, wanted men the next day; but on his hinting + this to the Orang Kaya, he was sternly told that a white man's business + was now being discussed, and he must wait another day before his could be + thought about. + </p> + <p> + After the "bitchara" was over and the old chiefs gone, I asked the young + men to play or dance, or amuse themselves in their accustomed way; and + after some little hesitation they agreed to do so. They first had a trial + of strength, two boys sitting opposite each other, foot being placed + against foot, and a stout stick grasped by both their hands. Each then + tried to throw himself back, so as to raise his adversary up from the + ground, either by main strength or by a sudden effort. Then one of the men + would try his strength against two or three of the boys; and afterwards + they each grasped their own ankle with a hand, and while one stood as firm + as he could, the other swung himself around on one leg, so as to strike + the other's free leg, and try to overthrow him. When these games had been + played all around with varying success, we had a novel kind of concert. + Some placed a leg across the knee, and struck the fingers sharply on the + ankle, others beat their arms against their sides like a cock when he is + going to crow, this making a great variety of clapping sounds, while + another with his hand under his armpit produced a deep trumpet note; and, + as they all kept time very well, the effect was by no means unpleasing. + This seemed quite a favourite amusement with them, and they kept it up + with much spirit. + </p> + <p> + The next morning we started in a boat about thirty feet long, and only + twenty-eight inches wide. The stream here suddenly changes its character. + Hitherto, though swift, it had been deep and smooth, and confined by steep + banks. Now it rushed and rippled over a pebbly, sandy, or rocky bed, + occasionally forming miniature cascades and rapids, and throwing up on one + side or the other broad banks of finely coloured pebbles. No paddling + could make way here, but the Dyaks with bamboo poles propelled us along + with great dexterity and swiftness, never losing their balance in such a + narrow and unsteady vessel, though standing up and exerting all their + force. It was a brilliant day, and the cheerful exertions of the men, the + rushing of the sparkling waters, with the bright and varied foliage, which + from either bank stretched over our heads, produced an exhilarating + sensation which recalled my canoe voyages on the grander waters of South + America. + </p> + <p> + Early in the afternoon we reached the village of Borotói, and, though it + would have been easy to reach the next one before night, I was obliged to + stay, as my men wanted to return and others could not possibly go on with + me without the preliminary talking. Besides, a white man was too great a + rarity to be allowed to escape them, and their wives would never have + forgiven them if, when they returned from the fields, they found that such + a curiosity had not been kept for them to see. On entering the house to + which I was invited, a crowd of sixty or seventy men, women, and children + gathered around me, and I sat for half an hour like some strange animal + submitted for the first time to the gaze of an inquiring public. Brass + rings were here in the greatest profusion, many of the women having their + arms completely covered with them, as well as their legs from the ankle to + the knee. Round the waist they wear a dozen or more coils of fine rattan + stained red, to which the petticoat is attached. Below this are generally + a number of coils of brass wire, a girdle of small silver coins, and + sometimes a broad belt of brass ring armour. On their heads they wear a + conical hat without a crown, formed of variously coloured beads, kept in + shape by rings of rattan, and forming a fantastic but not unpicturesque + headdress. + </p> + <p> + Walking out to a small hill near the village, cultivated as a rice-field, + I had a fine view of the country, which was becoming quite hilly, and + towards the south, mountainous. I took bearings and sketches of all that + was visible, an operation which caused much astonishment to the Dyaks who + accompanied me, and produced a request to exhibit the compass when I + returned. I was then surrounded by a larger crowd than before, and when I + took my evening meal in the midst of a circle of about a hundred + spectators anxiously observing every movement and criticising every + mouthful, my thoughts involuntarily recurred to the lion at feeding time. + Like those noble animals, I too was used to it, and it did not affect my + appetite. The children here were more shy than at Tabókan, and I could not + persuade them to play. I therefore turned showman myself, and exhibited + the shadow of a dog's head eating, which pleased them so much that all the + village in succession came out to see it. The "rabbit on the wall" does + not do in Borneo, as there is no animal it resembles. The boys had tops + shaped something like whipping-tops, but spun with a string. + </p> + <p> + The next morning we proceeded as before, but the river had become so rapid + and shallow and the boats were all so small, that though I had nothing + with me but a change of clothes, a gun, and a few cooking utensils, two + were required to take me on. The rock which appeared here and there on the + riverbank was an indurated clay-slate, sometimes crystalline, and thrown + up almost vertically. Right and left of us rose isolated limestone + mountains, their white precipices glistening in the sun and contrasting + beautifully with the luxuriant vegetation that elsewhere clothed them. The + river bed was a mass of pebbles, mostly pure white quartz, but with + abundance of jasper and agate, presenting a beautifully variegated + appearance. It was only ten in the morning when we arrived at Budw, and, + though there were plenty of people about, I could not induce them to allow + me to go on to the next village. The Orang Kaya said that if I insisted on + having men, of course he would get them, but when I took him at his word + and said I must have them, there came a fresh remonstrance; and the idea + of my going on that day seemed so painful that I was obliged to submit. I + therefore walked out over the rice-fields, which are here very extensive, + covering a number of the little hills and valleys into which the whole + country seems broken up, and obtained a fine view of hills and mountains + in every direction. + </p> + <p> + In the evening the Orang Kaya came in full dress (a spangled velvet + jacket, but no trousers), and invited me over to his house, where he gave + me a seat of honour under a canopy of white calico and coloured + handkerchiefs. The great verandah was crowded with people, and large + plates of rice with cooked and fresh eggs were placed on the ground as + presents for me. A very old man then dressed himself in bright-coloured + cloths and many ornaments, and sitting at the door, murmured a long prayer + or invocation, sprinkling rice from a basin he held in his hand, while + several large gongs were loudly beaten and a salute of muskets fired off. + A large jar of rice wine, very sour but with an agreeable flavour, was + then handed around, and I asked to see some of their dances. These were, + like most savage performances, very dull and ungraceful affairs; the men + dressing themselves absurdly like women, and the girls making themselves + as stiff and ridiculous as possible. All the time six or eight large + Chinese gongs were being beaten by the vigorous arms of as many young men, + producing such a deafening discord that I was glad to escape to the round + house, where I slept very comfortably with half a dozen smoke-dried human + skulls suspended over my head. + </p> + <p> + The river was now so shallow that boats could hardly get along. I + therefore preferred walking to the next village, expecting to see + something of the country, but was much disappointed, as the path lay + almost entirely through dense bamboo thickets. The Dyaks get two crops off + the ground in succession; one of rice, and the other of sugar-cane, maize, + and vegetables. The ground then lies fallow eight or ten years, and + becomes covered with bamboos and shrubs, which often completely arch over + the path and shut out everything from the view. Three hours' walking + brought us to the village of Senankan, where I was again obliged to remain + the whole day, which I agreed to do on the promise of the Orang Kaya that + his men should next day take me through two other villages across to + Senna, at the head of the Sarawak River. I amused myself as I best could + till evening, by walking about the high ground near, to get views of the + country and bearings of the chief mountains. There was then another public + audience, with gifts of rice and eggs, and drinking of rice wine. These + Dyaks cultivate a great extent of ground, and supply a good deal of rice + to Sarawak. They are rich in gongs, brass trays, wire, silver coins, and + other articles in which a Dyak's wealth consists; and their women and + children are all highly ornamented with bead necklaces, shells, and brass + wire. + </p> + <p> + In the morning I waited some time, but the men that were to accompany me + did not make their appearance. On sending to the Orang Kaya I found that + both he and another head-man had gone out for the day, and on inquiring + the reason was told that they could not persuade any of their men to go + with me because the journey was a long and fatiguing one. As I was + determined to get on, I told the few men that remained that the chiefs had + behaved very badly, and that I should acquaint the Rajah with their + conduct, and I wanted to start immediately. Every man present made some + excuse, but others were sent for, and by dint of threats and promises, and + the exertion of all Bujon's eloquence, we succeeded in getting off after + two hours' delay. + </p> + <p> + For the first few miles our path lay over a country cleared for + rice-fields, consisting entirely of small but deep and sharply-cut ridges + and valleys without a yard of level ground. After crossing the Kayan + river, a main branch of the Sadong, we got on to the lower slopes of the + Seboran Mountain, and the path lay along a sharp and moderately steep + ridge, affording an excellent view of the country. Its features were + exactly those of the Himalayas in miniature, as they are described by Dr. + Hooker and other travellers, and looked like a natural model of some parts + of those vast mountains on a scale of about a tenth—thousands of + feet being here represented by hundreds. I now discovered the source of + the beautiful pebbles which had so pleased me in the riverbed. The slatey + rocks had ceased, and these mountains seemed to consist of a sandstone + conglomerate, which was in some places a mere mass of pebbles cemented + together. I might have known that such small streams could not produce + such vast quantities of well-rounded pebbles of the very hardest + materials. They had evidently been formed in past ages, by the action of + some continental stream or seabeach, before the great island of Borneo had + risen from the ocean. The existence of such a system of hills and valleys + reproducing in miniature all the features of a great mountain region, has + an important bearing on the modern theory that the form of the ground is + mainly due to atmospheric rather than to subterranean action. When we have + a number of branching valleys and ravines running in many different + directions within a square mile, it seems hardly possible to impute their + formation, or even their origination, to rents and fissures produced by + earthquakes. On the other hand, the nature of the rock, so easily + decomposed and removed by water, and the known action of the abundant + tropical rains, are in this case, at least, quite sufficient causes for + the production of such valleys. But the resemblance between their forms + and outlines, their mode of divergence, and the slopes and ridges that + divide them, and those of the grand mountain scenery of the Himalayas, is + so remarkable, that we are forcibly led to the conclusion that the forces + at work in the two cases have been the same, differing only in the time + they have been in action, and the nature of the material they have had to + work upon. + </p> + <p> + About noon we reached the village of Menyerry, beautifully situated on a + spur of the mountain about 600 feet above the valley, and affording a + delightful view of the mountains of this part of Borneo. I here got a + sight of Penrissen Mountain, at the head of the Sarawak River, and one of + the highest in the district, rising to about 6,000 feet above the sea. To + the south the Rowan, and further off the Untowan Mountains in the Dutch + territory appeared equally lofty. Descending from Menyerry we again + crossed the Kayan, which bends round the spur, and ascended to the pass + which divides the Sadong and Sarawak valleys, and which is about 2,000 + feet high. The descent from this point was very fine. A stream, deep in a + rocky gorge, rushed on each side of us, to one of which we gradually + descended, passing over many lateral gullys and along the faces of some + precipices by means of native bamboo bridges. Some of these were several + hundred feet long and fifty or sixty high, a single smooth bamboo four + inches diameter forming the only pathway, while a slender handrail of the + same material was often so shaky that it could only be used as a guide + rather than a support. + </p> + <p> + Late in the afternoon we reached Sodos, situated on a spur between two + streams, but so surrounded by fruit trees that little could be seen of the + country. The house was spacious, clean and comfortable, and the people + very obliging. Many of the women and children had never seen a white man + before, and were very sceptical as to my being the same colour all over, + as my face. They begged me to show them my arms and body, and they were so + kind and good-tempered that I felt bound to give them some satisfaction, + so I turned up my trousers and let them see the colour of my leg, which + they examined with great interest. + </p> + <p> + In the morning early we continued our descent along a fine valley, with + mountains rising 2,000 or 3,000 feet in every direction. The little river + rapidly increased in size until we reached Senna, when it had become a + fine pebbly stream navigable for small canoes. Here again the upheaved + slatey rock appeared, with the same dip and direction as in the Sadong + River. On inquiring for a boat to take me down the stream, I was told that + the Senna Dyaks, although living on the river-banks, never made or used + boats. They were mountaineers who had only come down into the valley about + twenty years before, and had not yet got into new habits. They are of the + same tribe as the people of Menyerry and Sodos. They make good paths and + bridges, and cultivate much mountain land, and thus give a more pleasing + and civilized aspect to the country than where the people move about only + in boats, and confine their cultivation to the banks of the streams. + </p> + <p> + After some trouble I hired a boat from a Malay trader, and found three + Dyaks who had been several times with Malays to Sarawak, and thought they + could manage it very well. They turned out very awkward, constantly + running aground, striking against rocks, and losing their balance so as + almost to upset themselves and the boat—offering a striking contrast + to the skill of the Sea Dyaks. At length we came to a really dangerous + rapid where boats were often swamped, and my men were afraid to pass it. + Some Malays with a boatload of rice here overtook us, and after safely + passing down kindly sent back one of their men to assist me. As it was, my + Dyaks lost their balance in the critical part of the passage, and had they + been alone would certainly have upset the boat. The river now became + exceedingly picturesque, the ground on each side being partially cleared + for ricefields, affording a good view of the country. Numerous little + granaries were built high up in trees overhanging the river, and having a + bamboo bridge sloping up to them from the bank; and here and there bamboo + suspension bridge crossed the stream, where overhanging trees favoured + their construction. + </p> + <p> + I slept that night in the village of the Sebungow Dyaks, and the next day + reached Sarawak, passing through a most beautiful country where limestone + mountains with their fantastic forms and white precipices shot up on every + side, draped and festooned with a luxuriant vegetation. The banks of the + Sarawak River are everywhere covered with fruit trees, which supply the + Dyaks with a great deal of their food. The Mangosteen, Lansat, Rambutan, + Jack, Jambou, and Blimbing, are all abundant; but most abundant and most + esteemed is the Durian, a fruit about which very little is known in + England, but which both by natives and Europeans in the Malay Archipelago + is reckoned superior to all others. The old traveller Linschott, writing + in 1599, says: "It is of such an excellent taste that it surpasses in + flavour all the other fruits of the world, according to those who have + tasted it." And Doctor Paludanus adds: "This fruit is of a hot and humid + nature. To those not used to it, it seems at first to smell like rotten + onions, but immediately when they have tasted it, they prefer it to all + other food. The natives give it honourable titles, exalt it, and make + verses on it." When brought into a house the smell is often so offensive + that some persons can never bear to taste it. This was my own case when I + first tried it in Malacca, but in Borneo I found a ripe fruit on the + ground, and, eating it out of doors, I at once became a confirmed Durian + eater. + </p> + <p> + The Durian grows on a large and lofty forest tree, somewhat resembling an + elm in its general character, but with a more smooth and scaly bark. The + fruit is round or slightly oval, about the size of a large cocoanut, of a + green colour, and covered all over with short stout spines the bases of + which touch each other, and are consequently somewhat hexagonal, while the + points are very strong and sharp. It is so completely armed, that if the + stalk is broken off it is a difficult matter to lift one from the ground. + The outer rind is so thick and tough, that from whatever height it may + fall it is never broken. From the base to the apex five very faint lines + may be traced, over which the spines arch a little; these are the sutures + of the carpels, and show where the fruit may be divided with a heavy knife + and a strong hand. The five cells are satiny white within, and are each + filled with an oval mass of cream-coloured pulp, imbedded in which are two + or three seeds about the size of chestnuts. This pulp is the eatable part, + and its consistency and flavour are indescribable. A rich butter-like + custard highly flavoured with almonds gives the best general idea of it, + but intermingled with it come wafts of flavour that call to mind + cream-cheese, onion-sauce, brown sherry, and other incongruities. Then + there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing else + possesses, but which adds to its delicacy. It is neither acid, nor sweet, + nor juicy; yet one feels the want of none of these qualities, for it is + perfect as it is. It produces no nausea or other bad effect, and the more + you eat of it the less you feel inclined to stop. In fact to eat Durians + is a new sensation, worth a voyage to the East to experience. + </p> + <p> + When the fruit is ripe it falls of itself, and the only way to eat Durians + in perfection is to get them as they fall; and the smell is then less + overpowering. When unripe, it makes a very good vegetable if cooked, and + it is also eaten by the Dyaks raw. In a good fruit season large quantities + are preserved salted, in jars and bamboos, and kept the year round, when + it acquires a most disgusting odour to Europeans, but the Dyaks appreciate + it highly as a relish with their rice. There are in the forest two + varieties of wild Durians with much smaller fruits, one of them + orange-coloured inside; and these are probably the origin of the large and + fine Durians, which are never found wild. It would not, perhaps, be + correct to say that the Durian is the best of all fruits, because it + cannot supply the place of the subacid juicy kinds, such as the orange, + grape, mango, and mangosteen, whose refreshing and cooling qualities are + so wholesome and grateful; but as producing a food of the most exquisite + flavour, it is unsurpassed. If I had to fix on two only, as representing + the perfection of the two classes, I should certainly choose the Durian + and the Orange as the king and queen of fruits. + </p> + <p> + The Durian is, however, sometimes dangerous. When the fruit begins to + ripen it falls daily and almost hourly, and accidents not unfrequently + happen to persons walking or working under the trees. When a Durian + strikes a man in its fall, it produces a dreadful wound, the strong spines + tearing open the flesh, while the blow itself is very heavy; but from this + very circumstance death rarely ensues, the copious effusion of blood + preventing the inflammation which might otherwise take place. A Dyak chief + informed me that he had been struck down by a Durian falling on his head, + which he thought would certainly have caused his death, yet he recovered + in a very short time. + </p> + <p> + Poets and moralists, judging from our English trees and fruits, have + thought that small fruits always grew on lofty trees, so that their fall + should be harmless to man, while the large ones trailed on the ground. Two + of the largest and heaviest fruits known, however, the Brazil-nut fruit + (Bertholletia) and Durian, grow on lofty forest trees, from which they + fall as soon as they are ripe, and often wound or kill the native + inhabitants. From this we may learn two things: first, not to draw general + conclusions from a very partial view of nature; and secondly, that trees + and fruits, no less than the varied productions of the animal kingdom, do + not appear to be organized with exclusive reference to the use and + convenience of man. + </p> + <p> + During my many journeys in Borneo, and especially during my various + residences among the Dyaks, I first came to appreciate the admirable + qualities of the Bamboo. In those parts of South America which I had + previously visited, these gigantic grasses were comparatively scarce; and + where found but little used, their place being taken as to one class of + uses by the great variety of Palms, and as to another by calabashes and + gourds. Almost all tropical countries produce Bamboos, and wherever they + are found in abundance the natives apply them to a variety of uses. Their + strength, lightness, smoothness, straightness, roundness and hollowness, + the facility and regularity with which they can be split, their many + different sizes, the varying length of their joints, the ease with which + they can be cut and with which holes can be made through them, their + hardness outside, their freedom from any pronounced taste or smell, their + great abundance, and the rapidity of their growth and increase, are all + qualities which render them useful for a hundred different purposes, to + serve which other materials would require much more labour and + preparation. The Bamboo is one of the most wonderful and most beautiful + productions of the tropics, and one of nature's most valuable gifts to + uncivilized man. + </p> + <p> + The Dyak houses are all raised on posts, and are often two or three + hundred feet long and forty or fifty wide. The floor is always formed of + strips split from large Bamboos, so that each may be nearly flat and about + three inches wide, and these are firmly tied down with rattan to the + joists beneath. When well made, this is a delightful floor to walk upon + barefooted, the rounded surfaces of the bamboo being very smooth and + agreeable to the feet, while at the same time affording a firm hold. But, + what is more important, they form with a mat over them an excellent bed, + the elasticity of the Bamboo and its rounded surface being far superior to + a more rigid and a flatter floor. Here we at once find a use for Bamboo + which cannot be supplied so well by another material without a vast amount + of labour—palms and other substitutes requiring much cutting and + smoothing, and not being equally good when finished. When, however, a + flat, close floor is required, excellent boards are made by splitting open + large Bamboos on one side only, and flattening them out so as to form + slabs eighteen inches wide and six feet long, with which some Dyaks floor + their houses. These with constant rubbing of the feet and the smoke of + years become dark and polished, like walnut or old oak, so that their real + material can hardly be recognised. What labour is here saved to a savage + whose only tools are an axe and a knife, and who, if he wants boards, must + hew them out of the solid trunk of a tree, and must give days and weeks of + labour to obtain a surface as smooth and beautiful as the Bamboo thus + treated affords him. Again, if a temporary house is wanted, either by the + native in his plantation or by the traveller in the forest, nothing is so + convenient as the Bamboo, with which a house can be constructed with a + quarter of the labour and time than if other materials are used. + </p> + <p> + As I have already mentioned, the Hill Dyaks in the interior of Sarawak + make paths for long distances from village to village and to their + cultivated grounds, in the course of which they have to cross many gullies + and ravines, and even rivers; or sometimes, to avoid a long circuit, to + carry the path along the face of a precipice. In all these cases the + bridges they construct are of Bamboo, and so admirably adapted is the + material for this purpose, that it seems doubtful whether they ever would + have attempted such works if they had not possessed it. The Dyak bridge is + simple but well designed. It consists merely of stout Bamboos crossing + each other at the road-way like the letter X, and rising a few feet above + it. At the crossing they are firmly bound together, and to a large Bamboo + which lays upon them and forms the only pathway, with a slender and often + very shaky one to serve as a handrail. When a river is to be crossed, an + overhanging tree is chosen from which the bridge is partly suspended and + partly supported by diagonal struts from the banks, so as to avoid placing + posts in the stream itself, which would be liable to be carried away by + floods. In carrying a path along the face of a precipice, trees and roots + are made use of for suspension; struts arise from suitable notches or + crevices in the rocks, and if these are not sufficient, immense Bamboos + fifty or sixty feet long are fixed on the banks or on the branch of a tree + below. These bridges are traversed daily by men and women carrying heavy + loads, so that any insecurity is soon discovered, and, as the materials + are close at hand, immediately repaired. When a path goes over very steep + ground, and becomes slippery in very wet or very dry weather, the Bamboo + is used in another way. Pieces are cut about a yard long, and opposite + notches being made at each end, holes are formed through which pegs are + driven, and firm and convenient steps are thus formed with the greatest + ease and celerity. It is true that much of this will decay in one or two + seasons, but it can be so quickly replaced as to make it more economical + than using a harder and more durable wood. + </p> + <p> + One of the most striking uses to which Bamboo is applied by the Dyaks, is + to assist them in climbing lofty trees by driving in pegs in the way I + have already described at page 85. This method is constantly used in order + to obtain wax, which is one of the most valuable products of the country. + The honey-bee of Borneo very generally hangs its combs under the branches + of the Tappan, a tree which towers above all others in the forest, and + whose smooth cylindrical trunk often rises a hundred feet without a + branch. The Dyaks climb these lofty trees at night, building up their + Bamboo ladder as they go, and bringing down gigantic honeycombs. These + furnish them with a delicious feast of honey and young bees, besides the + wax, which they sell to traders, and with the proceeds buy the + much-coveted brass wire, earrings, and bold-edged handkerchiefs with which + they love to decorate themselves. In ascending Durian and other fruit + trees which branch at from thirty to fifty feet from the ground, I have + seen them use the Bamboo pegs only, without the upright Bamboo which + renders them so much more secure. + </p> + <p> + The outer rind of the Bamboo, split and shaved thin, is the strongest + material for baskets; hen-coops, bird-cages, and conical fish-traps are + very quickly made from a single joint, by splitting off the skin in narrow + strips left attached to one end, while rings of the same material or of + rattan are twisted in at regular distances. Water is brought to the houses + by little aqueducts formed of large Bamboos split in half and supported on + crossed sticks of various heights so as to give it a regular fall. Thin + long-jointed Bamboos form the Dyaks' only water-vessels, and a dozen of + them stand in the corner of every house. They are clean, light, and easily + carried, and are in many ways superior to earthen vessels for the same + purpose. They also make excellent cooking utensils; vegetables and rice + can be boiled in them to perfection, and they are often used when + travelling. Salted fruit or fish, sugar, vinegar, and honey are preserved + in them instead of in jars or bottles. In a small Bamboo case, prettily + carved and ornamented, the Dyak carries his sirih and lime for betel + chewing, and his little long-bladed knife has a Bamboo sheath. His + favourite pipe is a huge hubble-bubble, which he will construct in a few + minutes by inserting a small piece of Bamboo for a bowl obliquely into a + large cylinder about six inches from the bottom containing water, through + which the smoke passes to a long slender Bamboo tube. There are many other + small matters for which Bamboo is daily used, but enough has now been + mentioned to show its value. In other parts of the Archipelago I have + myself seen it applied to many new uses, and it is probable that my + limited means of observation did not make me acquainted with one-half the + ways in which it is serviceable to the Dyaks of Sarawak. + </p> + <p> + While upon the subject of plants I may here mention a few of the more + striking vegetable productions of Borneo. The wonderful Pitcher-plants, + forming the genus Nepenthes of botanists, here reach their greatest + development. Every mountain-top abounds with them, running along the + ground, or climbing over shrubs and stunted trees; their elegant pitchers + hanging in every direction. Some of these are long and slender, resembling + in form the beautiful Philippine lace-sponge (Euplectella), which has now + become so common; others are broad and short. Their colours are green, + variously tinted and mottled with red or purple. The finest yet known were + obtained on the summit of Kini-balou, in North-west Borneo. One of the + broad sort, Nepenthes rajah, will hold two quarts of water in its pitcher. + Another, Nepenthes Edwardsiania, has a narrow pitcher twenty inches long; + while the plant itself grows to a length of twenty feet. + </p> + <p> + Ferns are abundant, but are not so varied as on the volcanic mountains of + Java; and Tree-ferns are neither so plentiful nor so large as on that + island. They grow, however, quite down to the level of the sea, and are + generally slender and graceful plants from eight to fifteen feet high. + Without devoting much time to the search I collected fifty species of + Ferns in Borneo, and I have no doubt a good botanist would have obtained + twice the number. The interesting group of Orchids is very abundant, but, + as is generally the case, nine-tenths of the species have small and + inconspicuous flowers. Among the exceptions are the fine Coelogynes, whose + large clusters of yellow flowers ornament the gloomiest forests, and that + most extraordinary plant, Vanda Lowii, which last is particularly abundant + near some hot springs at the foot of the Penin-jauh Mountain. It grows on + the lower branches of trees, and its strange pendant flower-spires often + hang down so as almost to reach the ground. These are generally six or + eight feet long, bearing large and handsome flowers three inches across, + and varying in colour from orange to red, with deep purple-red spots. I + measured one spike, which reached the extraordinary length of nine feet + eight inches, and bore thirty-six flowers, spirally arranged upon a + slender thread-like stalk. Specimens grown in our English hot-houses have + produced flower-spires of equal length, and with a much larger number of + blossoms. + </p> + <p> + Flowers were scarce, as is usual in equatorial forests, and it was only at + rare intervals that I met with anything striking. A few fine climbers were + sometimes seen, especially a handsome crimson and yellow Aeschynanthus, + and a fine leguminous plant with clusters of large Cassia-like flowers of + a rich purple colour. Once I found a number of small Anonaceous trees of + the genus Polyalthea, producing a most striking effect in the gloomy + forest shades. They were about thirty feet high, and their slender trunks + were covered with large star-like crimson flowers, which clustered over + them like garlands, and resembled some artificial decoration more than a + natural product. + </p> + <p> + The forests abound with gigantic trees with cylindrical, buttressed, or + furrowed stems, while occasionally the traveller comes upon a wonderful + fig-tree, whose trunk is itself a forest of stems and aerial roots. Still + more rarely are found trees which appear to have begun growing in mid-air, + and from the same point send out wide-spreading branches above and a + complicated pyramid of roots descending for seventy or eighty feet to the + ground below, and so spreading on every side, that one can stand in the + very centre with the trunk of the tree immediately overhead. Trees of this + character are found all over the Archipelago, and the accompanying + illustration (taken from one which I often visited in the Aru Islands) + will convey some idea of their general character. I believe that they + originate as parasites, from seeds carried by birds and dropped in the + fork of some lofty tree. Hence descend aerial roots, clasping and + ultimately destroying the supporting tree, which is in time entirely + replaced by the humble plant which was at first dependent upon it. Thus we + have an actual struggle for life in the vegetable kingdom, not less fatal + to the vanquished than the struggles among animals which we can so much + more easily observe and understand. The advantage of quicker access to + light and warmth and air, which is gained in one way by climbing plants, + is here obtained by a forest tree, which has the means of starting in life + at an elevation which others can only attain after many years of growth, + and then only when the fall of some other tree has made room for then. + Thus it is that in the warm and moist and equable climate of the tropics, + each available station is seized upon and becomes the means of developing + new forms of life especially adapted to occupy it. + </p> + <p> + On reaching Sarawak early in December, I found there would not be an + opportunity of returning to Singapore until the latter end of January. I + therefore accepted Sir James Brooke's invitation to spend a week with him + and Mr. St. John at his cottage on Peninjauh. This is a very steep + pyramidal mountain of crystalline basaltic rock, about a thousand feet + high, and covered with luxuriant forest. There are three Dyak villages + upon it, and on a little platform near the summit is the rude wooden lodge + where the English Rajah was accustomed to go for relaxation and cool fresh + air. It is only twenty miles up the river, but the road up the mountain is + a succession of ladders on the face of precipices, bamboo bridges over + gullies and chasms, and slippery paths over rocks and tree-trunks and huge + boulders as big as houses. A cool spring under an overhanging rock just + below the cottage furnished us with refreshing baths and delicious + drinking water, and the Dyaks brought us daily heaped-up baskets of + Mangosteens and Lansats, two of the most delicious of the subacid tropical + fruits. We returned to Sarawak for Christmas (the second I had spent with + Sir James Brooke), when all the Europeans both in the town and from the + out-stations enjoyed the hospitality of the Rajah, who possessed in a + pre-eminent degree the art of making every one around him comfortable and + happy. + </p> + <p> + A few days afterwards I returned to the mountain with Charles and a Malay + boy named Ali and stayed there three weeks for the purpose of making a + collection of land-shells, butterflies and moths, ferns and orchids. On + the hill itself ferns were tolerably plentiful, and I made a collection of + about forty species. But what occupied me most was the great abundance of + moths which on certain occasions I was able to capture. As during the + whole of my eight years' wanderings in the East I never found another spot + where these insects were at all plentiful, it will be interesting to state + the exact conditions under which I here obtained them. + </p> + <p> + On one side of the cottage there was a verandah, looking down the whole + side of the mountain and to its summit on the right, all densely clothed + with forest. The boarded sides of the cottage were whitewashed, and the + roof of the verandah was low, and also boarded and whitewashed. As soon as + it got dark I placed my lamp on a table against the wall, and with pins, + insect-forceps, net, and collecting-boxes by my side, sat down with a + book. Sometimes during the whole evening only one solitary moth would + visit me, while on other nights they would pour in, in a continual stream, + keeping me hard at work catching and pinning till past midnight. They came + literally by the thousands. These good nights were very few. During the + four weeks that I spent altogether on the hill I only had four really good + nights, and these were always rainy, and the best of them soaking wet. But + wet nights were not always good, for a rainy moonlight night produced next + to nothing. All the chief tribes of moths were represented, and the beauty + and variety of the species was very great. On good nights I was able to + capture from a hundred to two hundred and fifty moths, and these comprised + on each occasion from half to two-thirds that number of distinct species. + Some of them would settle on the wall, some on the table, while many would + fly up to the roof and give me a chase all over the verandah before I + could secure them. In order to show the curious connection between the + state of weather and the degree in which moths were attracted to light, I + add a list of my captures each night of my stay on the hill: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Date (1855) No. of Moths Remarks + + Dec. 13th 1 Fine; starlight. + 14th 75 Drizzly and fog. + 15th 41 Showery; cloudy. + 16th 158 (120 species.) Steady rain. + 17th 82 Wet; rather moonlight. + 18th 9 Fine; moonlight. + 19th 2 Fine; clear moonlight. + 31st 200 (130 species.) Dark and windy; + heavy rain. + + Date (1856) + Jan. 1st 185 Very wet. + 2d 68 Cloudy and showers. + 3d 50 Cloudy. + 4th 12 Fine. + 5th 10 Fine. + 6th 8 Very fine. + 7th 8 Very fine. + 8th 10 Fine. + 9th 36 Showery. + 10th 30 Showery. + 11th 260 Heavy rain all night, and dark. + 12th 56 Showery. + 13th 44 Showery; some moonlight. + 14th 4 Fine; moonlight. + 15th 24 Rain; moonlight. + 16th 6 Showers; moonlight. + 17th 6 Showers; moonlight. + 18th 1 Showers; moonlight. + Total 1,386 +</pre> + <p> + It thus appears that on twenty-six nights I collected 1,386 moths, but + that more than 800 of them were collected on four very wet and dark + nights. My success here led me to hope that, by similar arrangements, I + might on every island be able to obtain an abundance of these insects; + but, strange to say, during the six succeeding years, I was never once + able to make any collections at all approaching those at Sarawak. The + reason for this I can pretty well understand to be owing to the absence of + some one or other essential condition that were here all combined. + Sometimes the dry season was the hindrance; more frequently residence in a + town or village not close to virgin forest, and surrounded by other houses + whose lights were a counter-attraction; still more frequently residence in + a dark palm-thatched house, with a lofty roof, in whose recesses every + moth was lost the instant it entered. This last was the greatest drawback, + and the real reason why I never again was able to make a collection of + moths; for I never afterwards lived in a solitary jungle-house with a low + boarded and whitewashed verandah, so constructed as to prevent insects at + once escaping into the upper part of the house, quite out of reach. + </p> + <p> + After my long experience, my numerous failures, and my one success, I feel + sure that if any party of naturalists ever make a yacht-voyage to explore + the Malayan Archipelago, or any other tropical region, making entomology + one of their chief pursuits, it would well repay them to carry a small + framed verandah, or a verandah-shaped tent of white canvas, to set up in + every favourable situation, as a means of making a collection of nocturnal + Lepidoptera, and also of obtaining rare specimens of Coleoptera and other + insects. I make the suggestion here, because no one would suspect the + enormous difference in results that such an apparatus would produce; and + because I consider it one of the curiosities of a collector's experience, + to have found out that some such apparatus is required. + </p> + <p> + When I returned to Singapore I took with me the Malay lad named Ali, who + subsequently accompanied me all over the Archipelago. Charles Allen + preferred staying at the Mission-house, and afterwards obtained employment + in Sarawak and in Singapore, until he again joined me four years later at + Amboyna in the Moluccas. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. BORNEO—THE DYAKS. + </h2> + <p> + THE manners and customs of the aborigines of Borneo have been described in + great detail, and with much fuller information than I possess, in the + writings of Sir James Brooke, Messrs. Low, St. John, Johnson Brooke, and + many others. I do not propose to go over the ground again, but shall + confine myself to a sketch, from personal observation, of the general + character of the Dyaks, and of such physical, moral, and social + characteristics as have been less frequently noticed. + </p> + <p> + The Dyak is closely allied to the Malay, and more remotely to the Siamese, + Chinese, and other Mongol races. All these are characterised by a + reddish-brown or yellowish-brown skin of various shades, by jet-black + straight hair, by the scanty or deficient beard, by the rather small and + broad nose, and high cheekbones; but none of the Malayan races have the + oblique eyes which are characteristic of the more typical Mongols. The + average stature of the Dyaks is rather more than that of the Malays, while + it is considerably under that of most Europeans. Their forms are well + proportioned, their feet and hands small, and they rarely or never attain + the bulk of body so often seen in Malays and Chinese. + </p> + <p> + I am inclined to rank the Dyaks above the Malays in mental capacity, while + in moral character they are undoubtedly superior to them. They are simple + and honest, and become the prey of the Malay and Chinese traiders, who + cheat and plunder them continually. They are more lively, more talkative, + less secretive, and less suspicious than the Malay, and are therefore + pleasanter companions. The Malay boys have little inclination for active + sports and games, which form quite a feature in the life of the Dyak + youths, who, besides outdoor games of skill and strength, possess a + variety of indoor amusements. One wet day, in a Dyak house, when a number + of boys and young men were about me, I thought to amuse them with + something new, and showed them how to make "cat's cradle" with a piece of + string. Greatly to my surprise, they knew all about it, and more than I + did; for, after Charles and I had gone through all the changes we could + make, one of the boys took it off my hand, and made several new figures + which quite puzzled me. They then showed me a number of other tricks with + pieces of string, which seemed a favourite amusement with them. + </p> + <p> + Even these apparently trifling matters may assist us to form a truer + estimate of the Dyaks' character and social condition. We learn thereby, + that these people have passed beyond that first stage of savage life in + which the struggle for existence absorbs all of the faculties, and in + which every thought and idea is connected with war or hunting, or the + provision for their immediate necessities. These amusements indicate a + capability of civilization, an aptitude to enjoy other than mere sensual + pleasures, which might be taken advantage of to elevate their whole + intellectual and social life. + </p> + <p> + The moral character of the Dyaks is undoubtedly high—a statement + which will seem strange to those who have heard of them only as + head-hunters and pirates. The Hill Dyaks of whom I am speaking, however, + have never been pirates, since they never go near the sea; and + head-hunting is a custom originating in the petty wars of village with + village, and tribe with tribe, which no more implies a bad moral character + than did the custom of the slave-trade a hundred years ago imply want of + general morality in all who participated in it. Against this one stain on + their character (which in the case of the Sarawak Dyaks no longer exists) + we have to set many good points. They are truthful and honest to a + remarkable degree. From this cause it is very often impossible to get from + them any definite information, or even an opinion. They say, "If I were to + tell you what I don't know, I might tell a lie;" and whenever they + voluntarily relate any matter of fact, you may be sure they are speaking + the truth. In a Dyak village the fruit trees have each their owner, and it + has often happened to me, on asking an inhabitant to gather me some fruit, + to be answered, "I can't do that, for the owner of the tree is not here;" + never seeming to contemplate the possibility of acting otherwise. Neither + will they take the smallest thing belonging to an European. When living at + Simunjon, they continually came to my house, and would pick up scraps of + torn newspaper or crooked pins that I had thrown away, and ask as a great + favour whether they might have them. Crimes of violence (other than + head-hunting) are almost unknown; for in twelve years, under Sir James + Brooke's rule, there had been only one case of murder in a Dyak tribe, and + that one was committed by a stranger who had been adopted into the tribe. + In several other matters of morality they rank above most uncivilized, and + even above many civilized nations. They are temperate in food and drink, + and the gross sensuality of the Chinese and Malays is unknown among them. + They have the usual fault of all people in a half-savage state—apathy + and dilatoriness, but, however annoying this may be to Europeans who come + in contact with them, it cannot be considered a very grave offence, or be + held to outweigh their many excellent qualities. + </p> + <p> + During my residence among the Hill Dyaks, I was much struck by the + apparent absence of those causes which are generally supposed to check the + increase of population, although there were plain indications of + stationary or but slowly increasing numbers. The conditions most + favourable to a rapid increase of population are: an abundance of food, a + healthy climate, and early marriages. Here these conditions all exist. The + people produce far more food than they consume, and exchange the surplus + for gongs and brass cannon, ancient jars, and gold and silver ornaments, + which constitute their wealth. On the whole, they appear very free from + disease, marriages take place early (but not too early), and old bachelors + and old maids are alike unknown. Why, then, we must inquire, has not a + greater population been produced? Why are the Dyak villages so small and + so widely scattered, while nine-tenths of the country is still covered + with forest? + </p> + <p> + Of all the checks to population among savage nations mentioned by Malthus—starvation, + disease, war, infanticide, immorality, and infertility of the women—the + last is that which he seems to think least important, and of doubtful + efficacy; and yet it is the only one that seems to me capable of + accounting for the state of the population among the Sarawak Dyaks. The + population of Great Britain increases so as to double itself in about + fifty years. To do this it is evident that each married couple must + average three children who live to be married at the age of about + twenty-five. Add to these those who die in infancy, those who never marry, + or those who marry late in life and have no offspring, the number of + children born to each marriage must average four or five, and we know that + families of seven or eight are very common, and of ten and twelve by no + means rare. But from inquiries at almost every Dyak tribe I visited, I + ascertained that the women rarely had more than three or four children, + and an old chief assured me that he had never known a woman to have more + than seven. + </p> + <p> + In a village consisting of a hundred and fifty families, only one + consisted of six children living, and only six of five children, the + majority of families appearing to be two, three, or four. Comparing this + with the known proportions in European countries, it is evident that the + number of children to each marriage can hardly average more than three or + four; and as even in civilized countries half the population die before + the age of twenty-five, we should have only two left to replace their + parents; and so long as this state of things continued, the population + must remain stationary. Of course this is a mere illustration; but the + facts I have stated seem to indicate that something of the kind really + takes place; and if so, there is no difficulty in understanding the + smallness and almost stationary population of the Dyak tribes. + </p> + <p> + We have next to inquire what is the cause of the small number of births + and of living children in a family. Climate and race may have something to + do with this, but a more real and efficient cause seems to me to be the + hard labour of the women, and the heavy weights they constantly carry. A + Dyak woman generally spends the whole day in the field, and carries home + every night a heavy load of vegetables and firewood, often for several + miles, over rough and hilly paths; and not unfrequently has to climb up a + rocky mountain by ladders, and over slippery stepping-stones, to an + elevation of a thousand feet. Besides this, she has an hour's work every + evening to pound the rice with a heavy wooden stamper, which violently + strains every part of the body. She begins this kind of labour when nine + or ten years old, and it never ceases but with the extreme decrepitude of + age. Surely we need not wonder at the limited number of her progeny, but + rather be surprised at the successful efforts of nature to prevent the + extermination of the race. + </p> + <p> + One of the surest and most beneficial effects of advancing civilization, + will be the amelioration of the condition of these women. The precept and + example of higher races will make the Dyak ashamed of his comparatively + idle life, while his weaker partner labours like a beast of burthen. As + his wants become increased and his tastes refined, the women will have + more household duties to attend to, and will then cease to labour in the + field—a change which has already to a great extent taken place in + the allied Malay, Javanese, and Bugis tribes. Population will then + certainly increase more rapidly, improved systems of agriculture and some + division of labour will become necessary in order to provide the means of + existence, and a more complicated social state will take the place of the + simple conditions of society which now occur among them. But, with the + sharper struggle for existence that will then arise, will the happiness of + the people as a whole be increased or diminished? Will not evil passions + be aroused by the spirit of competition, and crimes and vices, now unknown + or dormant, be called into active existence? These are problems that time + alone can solve; but it is to be hoped that education and a high-class + European example may obviate much of the evil that too often arises in + analogous cases, and that we may at length be able to point to one + instance of an uncivilized people who have not become demoralized, and + finally exterminated, by contact with European civilization. + </p> + <p> + A few words in conclusion, about the government of Sarawak. Sir James + Brooke found the Dyaks oppressed and ground down by the most cruel + tyranny. They were cheated by the Malay traders and robbed by the Malay + chiefs. Their wives and children were often captured and sold into + slavery, and hostile tribes purchased permission from their cruel rulers + to plunder, enslave, and murder them. Anything like justice or redress for + these injuries was utterly unattainable. From the time Sir James obtained + possession of the country, all this was stopped. Equal justice was awarded + to Malay, Chinaman, and Dyak. The remorseless pirates from the rivers + farther east were punished, and finally shut up within their own + territories, and the Dyak, for the first time, could sleep in peace. His + wife and children were now safe from slavery; his house was no longer + burned over his head; his crops and his fruits were now his own to sell or + consume as he pleased. And the unknown stranger who had done all this for + them, and asked for nothing in return, what could he be? How was it + possible for them to realize his motives? Was it not natural that they + should refuse to believe he was a man? For of pure benevolence combined + with great power, they had had no experience among men. They naturally + concluded that he was a superior being, come down upon earth to confer + blessings on the afflicted. In many villages where he had not been seen, I + was asked strange questions about him. Was he not as old as the mountains? + Could he not bring the dead to life? And they firmly believe that he can + give them good harvests, and make their fruit-trees bear an abundant crop. + </p> + <p> + In forming a proper estimate of Sir James Brooke's government it must ever + be remembered that he held Sarawak solely by the goodwill of the native + inhabitant. He had to deal with two races, one of whom, the Mahometan + Malays, looked upon the other race, the Dyaks, as savages and slaves, only + fit to be robbed and plundered. He has effectually protected the Dyaks, + and has invariably treated them as, in his sight, equal to the Malays; and + yet he has secured the affection and goodwill of both. Notwithstanding the + religious prejudice, of Mahometans, he has induced them to modify many of + their worst laws and customs, and to assimilate their criminal code to + that of the civilized world. That his government still continues, after + twenty-seven years—notwithstanding his frequent absences from + ill-health, notwithstanding conspiracies of Malay chiefs, and + insurrections of Chinese gold-diggers, all of which have been overcome by + the support of the native population, and notwithstanding financial, + political, and domestic troubles is due, I believe, solely to the many + admirable qualities which Sir James Brooke possessed, and especially to + his having convinced the native population, by every action of his life, + that he ruled them, not for his own advantage, but for their good. + </p> + <p> + Since these lines were written, his noble spirit has passed away. But + though, by those who knew him not, he may be sneered at as an enthusiastic + adventurer, abused as a hard-hearted despot, the universal testimony of + everyone who came in contact with him in his adopted country, whether + European, Malay, or Dyak, will be, that Rajah Brooke was a great, a wise, + and a good ruler; a true and faithful friend—a man to be admired for + his talents, respected for his honesty and courage, and loved for his + genuine hospitality, his kindness of disposition, and his tenderness of + heart. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. JAVA. + </h2> + <p> + I SPENT three months and a half in Java, from July 18th to October 31st, + 1861, and shall briefly describe my own movements, and my observations of + the people and the natural history of the country. To all those who wish + to understand how the Dutch now govern Java, and how it is that they are + enabled to derive a large annual revenue from it, while the population + increases, and the inhabitants are contented, I recommend the study of Mr. + Money's excellent and interesting work, "How to Manage a Colony." The main + facts and conclusions of that work I most heartily concur in, and I + believe that the Dutch system is the very best that can be adopted, when a + European nation conquers or otherwise acquires possession of a country + inhabited by an industrious but semi-barbarous people. In my account of + Northern Celebes, I shall show how successfully the same system has been + applied to a people in a very different state of civilization from the + Javanese; and in the meanwhile will state in the fewest words possible + what that system is. + </p> + <p> + The mode of government now adopted in Java is to retain the whole series + of native rulers, from the village chief up to princes, who, under the + name of Regents, are the heads of districts about the size of a small + English county. With each Regent is placed a Dutch Resident, or Assistant + Resident, who is considered to be his "elder brother," and whose "orders" + take the form of "recommendations," which are, however, implicitly obeyed. + Along with each Assistant Resident is a Controller, a kind of inspector of + all the lower native rulers, who periodically visits every village in the + district, examines the proceedings of the native courts, hears complaints + against the head-men or other native chiefs, and superintends the + Government plantations. This brings us to the "culture system," which is + the source of all the wealth the Dutch derive from Java, and is the + subject of much abuse in this country because it is the reverse of "free + trade." To understand its uses and beneficial effects, it is necessary + first to sketch the common results of free European trade with uncivilized + peoples. + </p> + <p> + Natives of tropical climates have few wants, and, when these are supplied, + are disinclined to work for superfluities without some strong incitement. + With such a people the introduction of any new or systematic cultivation + is almost impossible, except by the despotic orders of chiefs whom they + have been accustomed to obey, as children obey their parents. The free + competition of European traders, however introduces two powerful + inducements to exertion. Spirits or opium is a temptation too strong for + most savages to resist, and to obtain these he will sell whatever he has, + and will work to get more. Another temptation he cannot resist, is goods + on credit. The trader offers him gay cloths, knives, gongs, guns, and + gunpowder, to be paid for by some crop perhaps not yet planted, or some + product yet in the forest. He has not sufficient forethought to take only + a moderate quantity, and not enough energy to work early and late in order + to get out of debt; and the consequence is that he accumulates debt upon + debt, and often remains for years, or for life, a debtor and almost a + slave. This is a state of things which occurs very largely in every part + of the world in which men of a superior race freely trade with men of a + lower race. It extends trade no doubt for a time, but it demoralizes the + native, checks true civilization—and does not lead to any permanent + increase in the wealth of the country; so that the European government of + such a country must be carried on at a loss. + </p> + <p> + The system introduced by the Dutch was to induce the people, through their + chiefs, to give a portion of their time, to the cultivation of coffee, + sugar, and other valuable products. A fixed rate of wages—low + indeed, but, about equal to that of all places where European competition + has not artificially raised it—was paid to the labourers engaged in + clearing the ground and forming the plantations under Government + superintendence. The produce is sold to the Government at a low, fixed + price. Out of the net profit a percentage goes to the chiefs, and the + remainder is divided among the workmen. This surplus in good years is + something considerable. On the whole, the people are well fed and decently + clothed, and have acquired habits of steady industry and the art of + scientific cultivation, which must be of service to them in the future. It + must be remembered, that the Government expended capital for years before + any return was obtained; and if they now derive a large revenue, it is in + a way which is far less burthensome, and far more beneficial to the + people, than any tax that could be levied. + </p> + <p> + But although the system may be a good one, and as well adapted to the + development of arts and industry in a half civilized people as it is to + the material advantage of the governing country, it is not pretended that + in practice it is perfectly carried out. The oppressive and servile + relations between chiefs and people, which have continued for perhaps a + thousand years, cannot be at once abolished; and some evil must result + from those relations, until the spread of education and the gradual + infusion of European blood causes it naturally and insensibly to + disappear. It is said that the Residents, desirous of showing a large + increase in the products of their districts, have sometimes pressed the + people to such continued labour on the plantations that their rice crops + have been materially diminished, and famine has been the result. If this + has happened, it is certainly not a common thing, and is to be set down to + the abuse of the system, by the want of judgment, or want of humanity in + the Resident. + </p> + <p> + A tale has lately been written in Holland, and translated into English, + entitled "Max Havelaar;" or, the "Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading + Company," and with our usual one-sidedness in all relating to the Dutch + Colonial System, this work has been excessively praised, both for its own + merits, and for its supposed crushing exposure of the iniquities of the + Dutch government of Java. Greatly to my surprise, I found it a very + tedious and long-winded story, full of rambling digressions; and whose + only point is to show that the Dutch Residents and Assistant Residents + wink at the extortions of the native princes; and that in some districts + the natives have to do work without payment, and have their goods taken + away from them without compensation. Every statement of this kind is + thickly interspersed with italics and capital letters; but as the names + are all fictitious, and neither dates, figures, nor details are ever + given, it is impossible to verify or answer them. Even if not exaggerated, + the facts stated are not nearly so bad as those of the oppression by + free-trade indigo-planters, and torturing by native tax-gatherers under + British rule in India, with which the readers of English newspapers were + familiar a few years ago. Such oppression, however, is not fairly to be + imputed in either case to the particular form of government, but is rather + due to the infirmity of human nature, and to the impossibility of at once + destroying all trace of ages of despotism on the one side, and of slavish + obedience to their chiefs on the other. + </p> + <p> + It must be remembered, that the complete establishment of the Dutch power + in Java is much more recent than that of our rule in India, and that there + have been several changes of government, and in the mode of raising + revenue. The inhabitants have been so recently under the rule of their + native princes, that it is not easy at once to destroy the excessive + reverence they feel for their old masters, or to diminish the oppressive + exactions which the latter have always been accustomed to make. There is, + however, one grand test of the prosperity, and even of the happiness, of a + community, which we can apply here—the rate of increase of the + population. + </p> + <p> + It is universally admitted that when a country increases rapidly in + population, the people cannot be very greatly oppressed or very badly + governed. The present system of raising a revenue by the cultivation of + coffee and sugar, sold to Government at a fixed price, began in 1832. Just + before this, in 1826, the population by census was 5,500,000, while at the + beginning of the century it was estimated at 3,500,000. In 1850, when the + cultivation system had been in operation eighteen years, the population by + census was over 9,500,000, or an increase of 73 per cent in twenty-four + years. At the last census, in 1865, it amounted to 14,168,416, an increase + of very nearly 50 per cent in fifteen years—a rate which would + double the population in about twenty-six years. As Java (with Madura) + contains about 38,500 geographical square miles, this will give an average + of 368 persons to the square mile, just double that of the populous and + fertile Bengal Presidency as given in Thornton's Gazetteer of India, and + fully one-third more than that of Great Britain and Ireland at the last + Census. If, as I believe, this vast population is on the whole contented + and happy, the Dutch Government should consider well before abruptly + changing a system which has led to such great results. + </p> + <p> + Taking it as a whole, and surveying it from every point of view, Java is + probably the very finest and most interesting tropical island in the + world. It is not first in size, but it is more than 600 miles long, and + from 60 to 120 miles wide, and in area is nearly equal to England; and it + is undoubtedly the most fertile, the most productive, and the most + populous island within the tropics. Its whole surface is magnificently + varied with mountain and forest scenery. It possesses thirty-eight + volcanic mountains, several of which rise to ten or twelve thousand feet + high. Some of these are in constant activity, and one or other of them + displays almost every phenomenon produced by the action of subterranean + fires, except regular lava streams, which never occur in Java. The + abundant moisture and tropical heat of the climate causes these mountains + to be clothed with luxuriant vegetation, often to their very summits, + while forests and plantations cover their lower slopes. The animal + productions, especially the birds and insects, are beautiful and varied, + and present many peculiar forms found nowhere else upon the globe. + </p> + <p> + The soil throughout the island is exceedingly fertile, and all the + productions of the tropics, together with many of the temperate zones, can + be easily cultivated. Java too possesses a civilization, a history and + antiquities of its own, of great interest. The Brahminical religion + flourished in it from an epoch of unknown antiquity until about the year + 1478, when that of Mahomet superseded it. The former religion was + accompanied by a civilization which has not been equalled by the + conquerors; for, scattered through the country, especially in the eastern + part of it, are found buried in lofty forests, temples, tombs, and statues + of great beauty and grandeur; and the remains of extensive cities, where + the tiger, the rhinoceros, and the wild bull now roam undisturbed. A + modern civilization of another type is now spreading over the land. Good + roads run through the country from end to end; European and native rulers + work harmoniously together; and life and property are as well secured as + in the best governed states of Europe. I believe, therefore, that Java may + fairly claim to be the finest tropical island in the world, and equally + interesting to the tourist seeking after new and beautiful scenes; to the + naturalist who desires to examine the variety and beauty of tropical + nature; or to the moralist and the politician who want to solve the + problem of how man may be best governed under new and varied conditions. + </p> + <p> + The Dutch mail steamer brought me from Ternate to Sourabaya, the chief + town and port in the eastern part of Java, and after a fortnight spent in + packing up and sending off my last collections, I started on a short + journey into the interior. Travelling in Java is very luxurious but very + expensive, the only way being to hire or borrow a carriage, and then pay + half a crown a mile for post-horses, which are changed at regular posts + every six miles, and will carry you at the rate of ten miles an hour from + one end of the island to the other. Bullock carts or coolies are required + to carry all extra baggage. As this kind of travelling would not suit my + means, I determined on making only a short journey to the district at the + foot of Mount Arjuna, where I was told there were extensive forests, and + where I hoped to be able to make some good collections. The country for + many miles behind Sourabaya is perfectly flat and everywhere cultivated; + being a delta or alluvial plain, watered by many branching streams. + Immediately around the town the evident signs of wealth and of an + industrious population were very pleasing; but as we went on, the constant + succession of open fields skirted by rows of bamboos, with here and there + the white buildings and a tall chimney of a sugar-mill, became monotonous. + The roads run in straight lines for several miles at a stretch, and are + bordered by rows of dusty tamarind-trees. At each mile there are little + guardhouses, where a policeman is stationed; and there is a wooden gong, + which by means of concerted signals may be made to convey information over + the country with great rapidity. About every six or seven miles is the + post-house, where the horses are changed as quickly as were those of the + mail in the old coaching days in England. + </p> + <p> + I stopped at Modjo-kerto, a small town about forty miles south of + Sourabaya, and the nearest point on the high road to the district I wished + to visit. I had a letter of introduction to Mr. Ball, an Englishman, long + resident in Java and married to a Dutch lady; and he kindly invited me to + stay with him until I could fix on a place to suit me. A Dutch Assistant + Resident as well as a Regent or native Javanese prince lived here. The + town was neat, and had a nice open grassy space like a village green, on + which stood a magnificent fig-tree (allied to the Banyan of India, but + more lofty), under whose shade a kind of market is continually held, and + where the inhabitants meet together to lounge and chat. The day after my + arrival, Mr. Ball drove me over to the village of Modjo-agong, where he + was building a house and premises for the tobacco trade, which is carried + on here by a system of native cultivation and advance purchase, somewhat + similar to the indigo trade in British India. On our way we stayed to look + at a fragment of the ruins of the ancient city of Modjo-pahit, consisting + of two lofty brick masses, apparently the sides of a gateway. The extreme + perfection and beauty of the brickwork astonished me. The bricks are + exceedingly fine and hard, with sharp angles and true surfaces. They are + laid with great exactness, without visible mortar or cement, yet somehow + fastened together so that the joints are hardly perceptible, and sometimes + the two surfaces coalesce in a most incomprehensible manner. + </p> + <p> + Such admirable brickwork I have never seen before or since. There was no + sculpture here, but an abundance of bold projections and finely-worked + mouldings. Traces of buildings exist for many miles in every direction, + and almost every road and pathway shows a foundation of brickwork beneath + it—the paved roads of the old city. In the house of the Waidono or + district chief at Modjo-agong, I saw a beautiful figure carved in high + relief out of a block of lava, and which had been found buried in the + ground near the village. On my expressing a wish to obtain some such + specimen, Mr. B. asked the chief for it, and much to my surprise he + immediately gave it me. It represented the Hindu goddess Durga, called in + Java, Lora Jong-grang (the exalted virgin). She has eight arms, and stands + on the back of a kneeling bull. Her lower right hand holds the tail of the + bull, while the corresponding left hand grasps the hair of a captive, + Dewth Mahikusor, the personification of vice, who has attempted to slay + her bull. He has a cord round his waist, and crouches at her feet in an + attitude of supplication. The other hands of the goddess hold, on her + right side, a double hook or small anchor, a broad straight sword, and a + noose of thick cord; on her left, a girdle or armlet of large beads or + shells, an unstrung bow, and a standard or war flag. This deity was a + special favourite among the old Javanese, and her image is often found in + the ruined temples which abound in the eastern part of the island. + </p> + <p> + The specimen I had obtained was a small one, about two feet high, weighing + perhaps a hundredweight; and the next day we had it conveyed to + Modjo-Kerto to await my return to Sourabaya. Having decided to stay some + time at Wonosalem, on the lower slopes of the Arjuna Mountain, where I was + informed I should find forest and plenty of game, I had first to obtain a + recommendation from the Assistant Resident to the Regent, and then an + order from the Regent to the Waidono; and when after a week's delay I + arrived with my baggage and men at Modjo-agong, I found them all in the + midst of a five days' feast, to celebrate the circumcision of the + Waidono's younger brother and cousin, and had a small room in an on + outhouse given me to stay in. The courtyard and the great open + reception-shed were full of natives coming and going and making + preparations for a feast which was to take place at midnight, to which I + was invited, but preferred going to bed. A native band, or Gamelang, was + playing almost all the evening, and I had a good opportunity of seeing the + instruments and musicians. The former are chiefly gongs of various sizes, + arranged in sets of from eight to twelve, on low wooden frames. Each set + is played by one performer with one or two drumsticks. There are also some + very large gongs, played singly or in pairs, and taking the place of our + drums and kettledrums. Other instruments are formed by broad metallic + bars, supported on strings stretched across frames; and others again of + strips of bamboo similarly placed and producing the highest notes. Besides + these there were a flute and a curious two-stringed violin, requiring in + all twenty-four performers. There was a conductor, who led off and + regulated the time, and each performer took his part, coming in + occasionally with a few bars so as to form a harmonious combination. The + pieces played were long and complicated, and some of the players were mere + boys, who took their parts with great precision. The general effect was + very pleasing, but, owing to the similarity of most of the instruments, + more like a gigantic musical box than one of our bands; and in order to + enjoy it thoroughly it is necessary to watch the large number of + performers who are engaged in it. The next morning, while I was waiting + for the men and horses who were to take me and my baggage to my + destination, the two lads, who were about fourteen years old, were brought + out, clothed in a sarong from the waist downwards, and having the whole + body covered with yellow powder, and profusely decked with white blossom + in wreaths, necklaces, and armlets, looking at first sight very like + savage brides. They were conducted by two priests to a bench placed in + front of the house in the open air, and the ceremony of circumcision was + then performed before the assembled crowd. + </p> + <p> + The road to Wonosalem led through a magnificent forest in the depths of + which we passed a fine ruin of what appeared to have been a royal tomb or + mausoleum. It is formed entirely of stone, and elaborately carved. Near + the base is a course of boldly projecting blocks, sculptured in high + relief, with a series of scenes which are probably incidents in the life + of the defunct. These are all beautifully executed, some of the figures of + animals in particular, being easily recognisable and very accurate. The + general design, as far as the ruined state of the upper part will permit + of its being seen, is very good, effect being given by an immense number + and variety of projecting or retreating courses of squared stones in place + of mouldings. The size of this structure is about thirty feet square by + twenty high, and as the traveller comes suddenly upon it on a small + elevation by the roadside, overshadowed by gigantic trees, overrun with + plants and creepers, and closely backed by the gloomy forest, he is struck + by the solemnity and picturesque beauty of the scene, and is led to ponder + on the strange law of progress, which looks so like retrogression, and + which in so many distant parts of the world has exterminated or driven out + a highly artistic and constructive race, to make room for one which, as + far as we can judge, is very far its inferior. + </p> + <p> + Few Englishmen are aware of the number and beauty of the architectural + remains in Java. They have never been popularly illustrated or described, + and it will therefore take most persons by surprise to learn that they far + surpass those of Central America, perhaps even those of India. To give + some idea of these ruins, and perchance to excite wealthy amateurs to + explore them thoroughly and obtain by photography an accurate record of + their beautiful sculptures before it is too late, I will enumerate the + most important, as briefly described in Sir Stamford Raffles' "History of + Java." + </p> + <p> + BRAMBANAM.—Near the centre of Java, between the native capitals of + Djoko-kerta and Surakerta, is the village of Brambanam, near which are + abundance of ruins, the most important being the temples of Loro-Jongran + and Chandi Sewa. At Loro-Jongran there were twenty separate buildings, six + large and fourteen small temples. They are now a mass of ruins, but the + largest temples are supposed to have been ninety feet high. They were all + constructed of solid stone, everywhere decorated with carvings and + bas-reliefs, and adorned with numbers of statues, many of which still + remain entire. At Chandi Sewa, or the "Thousand Temples," are many fine + colossal figures. Captain Baker, who surveyed these ruins, said he had + never in his life seen "such stupendous and finished specimens of human + labour, and of the science and taste of ages long since forgot, crowded + together in so small a compass as in this spot." They cover a space of + nearly six hundred feet square, and consist of an outer row of eighty-four + small temples, a second row of seventy-six, a third of sixty-four, a + fourth of forty-four, and the fifth forming an inner parallelogram of + twenty-eight, in all two hundred and ninety-six small temples; disposed in + five regular parallelograms. In the centre is a large cruciform temple + surrounded by lofty flights of steps richly ornamented with sculpture, and + containing many apartments. The tropical vegetation has ruined most of the + smaller temples, but some remain tolerably perfect, from which the effect + of the whole may be imagined. + </p> + <p> + About half a mile off is another temple, called Chandi Kali Bening, + seventy-two feet square and sixty feet high, in very fine preservation, + and covered with sculptures of Hindu mythology surpassing any that exist + in India, other ruins of palaces, halls, and temples, with abundance of + sculptured deities, are found in the same neighbourhood. + </p> + <p> + BOROBODO.—About eighty miles westward, in the province of Kedu, is + the great temple of Borobodo. It is built upon a small hill, and consists + of a central dome and seven ranges of terraced walls covering the slope of + the hill and forming open galleries each below the other, and + communicating by steps and gateways. The central dome is fifty feet in + diameter; around it is a triple circle of seventy-two towers, and the + whole building is six hundred and twenty feet square, and about one + hundred feet high. In the terrace walls are niches containing cross-legged + figures larger than life to the number of about four hundred, and both + sides of all the terrace walls are covered with bas-reliefs crowded with + figures, and carved in hard stone and which must therefore occupy an + extent of nearly three miles in length! The amount of human labour and + skill expended on the Great Pyramid of Egypt sinks into insignificance + when compared with that required to complete this sculptured hill-temple + in the interior of Java. + </p> + <p> + GUNONG PRAU.—About forty miles southwest of Samarang, on a mountain + called Gunong Prau, an extensive plateau is covered with ruins. To reach + these temples, four flights of stone steps were made up the mountain from + opposite directions, each flight consisting of more than a thousand steps. + Traces of nearly four hundred temples have been found here, and many + (perhaps all) were decorated with rich and delicate sculptures. The whole + country between this and Brambanam, a distance of sixty miles, abounds + with ruins, so that fine sculptured images may be seen lying in the + ditches, or built into the walls of enclosures. + </p> + <p> + In the eastern part of Java, at Kediri and in Malang, there are equally + abundant traces of antiquity, but the buildings themselves have been + mostly destroyed. Sculptured figures, however, abound; and the ruins of + forts, palaces, baths, aqueducts, and temples, can be everywhere traced. + It is altogether contrary to the plan of this book to describe what I have + not myself seen; but, having been led to mention them, I felt bound to do + something to call attention to these marvellous works of art. One is + overwhelmed by the contemplation of these innumerable sculptures, worked + with delicacy and artistic feeling in a hard, intractable, trachytic rock, + and all found in one tropical island. What could have been the state of + society, what the amount of population, what the means of subsistence + which rendered such gigantic works possible, will, perhaps, ever remain a + mystery; and it is a wonderful example of the power of religious ideas in + social life, that in the very country where, five hundred years ago, these + grand works were being yearly executed, the inhabitants now only build + rude houses of bamboo and thatch, and look upon these relics of their + forefathers with ignorant amazement, as the undoubted productions of + giants or of demons. It is much to be regretted that the Dutch Government + does not take vigorous steps for the preservation of these ruins from the + destroying agency of tropical vegetation; and for the collection of the + fine sculptures which are everywhere scattered over the land. + </p> + <p> + Wonosalem is situated about a thousand feet above the sea, but + unfortunately it is at a distance from the forest, and is surrounded by + coffee plantations, thickets of bamboo, and coarse grasses. It was too far + to walk back daily to the forest, and in other directions I could find no + collecting ground for insects. The place was, however, famous for + peacocks, and my boy soon shot several of these magnificent birds, whose + flesh we found to be tender, white, and delicate, and similar to that of a + turkey. The Java peacock is a different species from that of India, the + neck being covered with scale-like green feathers, and the crest of a + different form; but the eyed train is equally large and equally beautiful. + It is a singular fact in geographical distribution that the peacock should + not be found in Sumatra or Borneo, while the superb Argus, Fire-backed and + Ocellated pheasants of those islands are equally unknown in Java. Exactly + parallel is the fact that in Ceylon and Southern India, where the peacock + abounds, there are none of the splendid Lophophori and other gorgeous + pheasants which inhabit Northern India. It would seem as if the peacock + can admit of no rivals in its domain. Were these birds rare in their + native country, and unknown alive in Europe, they would assuredly be + considered as the true princes of the feathered tribes, and altogether + unrivalled for stateliness and beauty. As it is, I suppose scarcely anyone + if asked to fix upon the most beautiful bird in the world would name the + peacock, any more than the Papuan savage or the Bugis trader would fix + upon the bird of paradise for the same honour. + </p> + <p> + Three days after my arrival at Wonosalem, my friend Mr. Ball came to pay + me a visit. He told me that two evenings before, a boy had been killed and + eaten by a tiger close to Modjo-agong. He was riding on a cart drawn by + bullocks, and was coming home about dusk on the main road; and when not + half a mile from the village a tiger sprang upon him, carried him off into + the jungle close by, and devoured him. Next morning his remains were + discovered, consisting only of a few mangled bones. The Waidono had got + together about seven hundred men, and were in chase of the animal, which, + I afterwards heard, they found and killed. They only use spears when in + pursuit of a tiger in this way. They surround a large tract of country, + and draw gradually together until the animal is enclosed in a compact ring + of armed men. When he sees there is no escape he generally makes a spring, + and is received on a dozen spears, and almost instantly stabbed to death. + The skin of an animal thus killed is, of course, worthless, and in this + case the skull, which I had begged Mr. Ball to secure for me, was hacked + to pieces to divide the teeth, which are worn as charms. + </p> + <p> + After a week at Wonosalem, I returned to the foot of the mountain, to a + village named Djapannan, which was surrounded by several patches of + forest, and seemed altogether pretty well suited to my pursuits. The chief + of the village had prepared two small bamboo rooms on one side of his own + courtyard to accommodate me, and seemed inclined to assist me as much as + he could. The weather was exceedingly hot and dry, no rain having fallen + for several months, and there was, in consequence, a great scarcity of + insects, and especially of beetles. I therefore devoted myself chiefly to + obtaining a good set of the birds, and succeeded in making a tolerable + collection. All the peacocks we had hitherto shot had had short or + imperfect tails, but I now obtained two magnificent specimens more than + seven feet long, one of which I preserved entire, while I kept the train + only attached to the tail of two or three others. When this bird is seen + feeding on the ground, it appears wonderful how it can rise into the air + with such a long and cumbersome train of feathers. It does so however with + great ease, by running quickly for a short distance, and then rising + obliquely; and will fly over trees of a considerable height. I also + obtained here a specimen of the rare green jungle-fowl (Gallus furcatus), + whose back and neck are beautifully scaled with bronzy feathers, and whose + smooth-edged oval comb is of a violet purple colour, changing to green at + the base. It is also remarkable in possessing a single large wattle + beneath its throat, brightly coloured in three patches of red, yellow, and + blue. The common jungle-cock (Gallus bankiva) was also obtained here. It + is almost exactly like a common game-cock, but the voice is different, + being much shorter and more abrupt; hence its native name is Bekeko. Six + different kinds of woodpeckers and four kingfishers were found here, the + fine hornbill, Buceros lunatus, more than four feet long, and the pretty + little lorikeet, Loriculus pusillus, scarcely more than as many inches. + </p> + <p> + One morning, as I was preparing and arranging specimens, I was told there + was to be a trial; and presently four or five men came in and squatted + down on a mat under the audience-shed in the court. The chief then came in + with his clerk, and sat down opposite them. Each spoke in turn, telling + his own tale, and then I found that those who first entered were the + prisoner, accuser, policemen, and witness, and that the prisoner was + indicated solely by having a loose piece of cord twined around his wrists, + but not tied. It was a case of robbery, and after the evidence was given, + and a few questions had been asked by the chief, the accused said a few + words, and then sentence was pronounced, which was a fine. The parties + then got up and walked away together, seeming quite friendly; and + throughout there was nothing in the manner of any one present indicating + passion or ill-feeling—a very good illustration of the Malayan type + of character. + </p> + <p> + In a month's collecting at Wonosalem and Djapannan I accumulated + ninety-eight species of birds, but a most miserable lot of insects. I then + determined to leave East Java and try the more moist and luxuriant + districts at the western extremity of the island. I returned to Sourabaya + by water, in a roomy boat which brought myself, servants, and baggage at + one-fifth the expense it had cost me to come to Modjo-kerto. The river has + been rendered navigable by being carefully banked up, but with the usual + effect of rendering the adjacent country liable occasionally to severe + floods. An immense traffic passes down this river; and at a lock we passed + through, a mile of laden boats were waiting two or three deep, which pass + through in their turn six at a time. + </p> + <p> + A few days afterwards I went by steamer to Batavia, where I stayed about a + week at the chief hotel, while I made arrangements for a trip into the + interior. The business part of the city is near the harbour, but the + hotels and all the residences of the officials and European merchants are + in a suburb two miles off, laid out in wide streets and squares so as to + cover a great extent of ground. This is very inconvenient for visitors, as + the only public conveyances are handsome two-horse carriages, whose lowest + charge is five guilders (8s. 4d.) for half a day, so that an hour's + business in the morning and a visit in the evening costs 16s. 8d. a day + for carriage hire alone. + </p> + <p> + Batavia agrees very well with Mr. Money's graphic account of it, except + that his "clear canals" were all muddy, and his "smooth gravel drives" up + to the houses were one and all formed of coarse pebbles, very painful to + walk upon, and hardly explained by the fact that in Batavia everybody + drives, as it can hardly be supposed that people never walk in their + gardens. The Hôtel des Indes was very comfortable, each visitor having a + sitting-room and bedroom opening on a verandah, where he can take his + morning coffee and afternoon tea. In the centre of the quadrangle is a + building containing a number of marble baths always ready for use; and + there is an excellent table d'hôte breakfast at ten, and dinner at six, + for all which there is a moderate charge per day. + </p> + <p> + I went by coach to Buitenzorg, forty miles inland and about a thousand + feet above the sea, celebrated for its delicious climate and its Botanical + Gardens. With the latter I was somewhat disappointed. The walks were all + of loose pebbles, making any lengthened wanderings about them very tiring + and painful under a tropical sun. The gardens are no doubt wonderfully + rich in tropical and especially in Malayan plants, but there is a great + absence of skillful laying-out; there are not enough men to keep the place + thoroughly in order, and the plants themselves are seldom to be compared + for luxuriance and beauty to the same species grown in our hothouses. This + can easily be explained. The plants can rarely be placed in natural or + very favourable conditions. The climate is either too hot or too cool, too + moist or too dry, for a large proportion of them, and they seldom get the + exact quantity of shade or the right quality of soil to suit them. In our + stoves these varied conditions can be supplied to each individual plant + far better than in a large garden, where the fact that the plants are most + of them growing in or near their native country is supposed to preclude, + the necessity of giving them much individual attention. Still, however, + there is much to admire here. There are avenues of stately palms, and + clumps of bamboos of perhaps fifty different kinds; and an endless variety + of tropical shrubs and trees with strange and beautiful foliage. As a + change from the excessive heat of Batavia, Buitenzorg is a delightful + abode. It is just elevated enough to have deliciously cool evenings and + nights, but not so much as to require any change of clothing; and to a + person long resident in the hotter climate of the plains, the air is + always fresh and pleasant, and admits of walking at almost any hour of the + day. The vicinity is most picturesque and luxuriant, and the great volcano + of Gunung Salak, with its truncated and jagged summit, forms a + characteristic background to many of the landscapes. A great mud eruption + took place in 1699, since which date the mountain has been entirely + inactive. + </p> + <p> + On leaving Buitenzorg, I had coolies to carry my baggage and a horse for + myself, both to be changed every six or seven miles. The road rose + gradually, and after the first stage the hills closed in a little on each + side, forming a broad valley; and the temperature was so cool and + agreeable, and the country so interesting, that I preferred walking. + Native villages imbedded in fruit trees, and pretty villas inhabited by + planters or retired Dutch officials, gave this district a very pleasing + and civilized aspect; but what most attracted my attention was the system + of terrace-cultivation, which is here universally adopted, and which is, I + should think, hardly equalled in the world. The slopes of the main valley, + and of its branches, were everywhere cut in terraces up to a considerable + height, and when they wound round the recesses of the hills produced all + the effect of magnificent amphitheatres. Hundreds of square miles of + country are thus terraced, and convey a striking idea of the industry of + the people and the antiquity of their civilization. These terraces are + extended year by year as the population increases, by the inhabitants of + each village working in concert under the direction of their chiefs; and + it is perhaps by this system of village culture alone, that such extensive + terracing and irrigation has been rendered possible. It was probably + introduced by the Brahmins from India, since in those Malay countries + where there is no trace of a previous occupation by a civilized people, + the terrace system is unknown. I first saw this mode of cultivation in + Bali and Lombock, and, as I shall have to describe it in some detail there + (see CHAPTER X.), I need say no more about it in this place, except that, + owing to the finer outlines and greater luxuriance of the country in West + Java, it produces there the most striking and picturesque effect. The + lower slopes of the mountains in Java possess such a delightful climate + and luxuriant soil; living is so cheap and life and property are so + secure, that a considerable number of Europeans who have been engaged in + Government service, settle permanently in the country instead of returning + to Europe. They are scattered everywhere throughout the more accessible + parts of the island, and tend greatly to the gradual improvement of the + native population, and to the continued peace and prosperity of the whole + country. + </p> + <p> + Twenty miles beyond Buitenzorg the post road passes over the Megamendong + Mountain, at an elevation of about 4,500 feet. The country is finely + mountainous, and there is much virgin forest still left upon the hills, + together with some of the oldest coffee-plantations in Java, where the + plants have attained almost the dimensions of forest trees. About 500 feet + below the summit level of the pass there is a road-keeper's hut, half of + which I hired for a fortnight, as the country looked promising for making + collections. I almost immediately found that the productions of West Java + were remarkably different from those of the eastern part of the island; + and that all the more remarkable and characteristic Javanese birds and + insects were to be found here. On the very first day, my hunters obtained + for me the elegant yellow and green trogon (Harpactes Reinwardti), the + gorgeous little minivet flycatcher (Pericrocotus miniatus), which looks + like a flame of fire as it flutters among the bushes, and the rare and + curious black and crimson oriole (Analcipus sanguinolentus), all of these + species which are found only in Java, and even seem to be confined to its + western portion. + </p> + <p> + In a week I obtained no less than twenty-four species of birds, which I + had not found in the east of the island, and in a fortnight this number + increased to forty species, almost all of which are peculiar to the + Javanese fauna. Large and handsome butterflies were also tolerably + abundant. In dark ravines, and occasionally on the roadside, I captured + the superb Papilio arjuna, whose wings seem powdered with grains of golden + green, condensed into bands and moon-shaped spots; while the + elegantly-formed Papilio coön was sometimes to be found fluttering slowly + along the shady pathways (see figure at page 201). One day a boy brought + me a butterfly between his fingers, perfectly unhurt. He had caught it as + it was sitting with wings erect, sucking up the liquid from a muddy spot + by the roadside. Many of the finest tropical butterflies have this habit, + and they are generally so intent upon their meal that they can be easily + be reached and captured. It proved to be the rare and curious Charaxes + kadenii, remarkable for having on each hind wing two curved tails like a + pair of callipers. It was the only specimen I ever saw, and is still the + only representative of its kind in English collections. + </p> + <p> + In the east of Java I had suffered from the intense heat and drought of + the dry season, which had been very inimical to insect life. Here I had + got into the other extreme of damp, wet, and cloudy weather, which was + equally unfavourable. During the month which I spent in the interior of + West Java, I never had a really hot fine day throughout. It rained almost + every afternoon, or dense mists came down from the mountains, which + equally stopped collecting, and rendered it most difficult to dry my + specimens, so that I really had no chance of getting a fair sample of + Javanese entomology. + </p> + <p> + By far the most interesting incident in my visit to Java was a trip to the + summit of the Pangerango and Gedeh mountains; the former an extinct + volcanic cone about 10,000 feet high, the latter an active crater on a + lower portion of the same mountain range. Tchipanas, about four miles over + the Megamendong Pass, is at the foot of the mountain. A small country + house for the Governor-General and a branch of the Botanic Gardens are + situated here, the keeper of which accommodated me with a bed for a night. + There are many beautiful trees and shrubs planted here, and large + quantities of European vegetables are grown for the Governor-General's + table. By the side of a little torrent that bordered the garden, + quantities of orchids were cultivated, attached to the trunks of trees, or + suspended from the branches, forming an interesting open air orchid-house. + As I intended to stay two or three nights on the mountain, I engaged two + coolies to carry my baggage, and with my two hunters we started early the + next morning. + </p> + <p> + The first mile was over open country, which brought us to the forest that + covers the whole mountain from a height of about 5,000 feet. The next mile + or two was a tolerably steep ascent through a grand virgin forest, the + trees being of great size, and the undergrowth consisting of fine + herbaceous plants, tree-ferns, and shrubby vegetation. I was struck by the + immense number of ferns that grew by the side of the road. Their variety + seemed endless, and I was continually stopping to admire some new and + interesting forms. I could now well understand what I had been told by the + gardener, that 300 species had been found on this one mountain. A little + before noon we reached the small plateau of Tjiburong, at the foot of the + steeper part of the mountain, where there is a plank-house for the + accommodation of travellers. Close by is a picturesque waterfall and a + curious cavern, which I had not time to explore. Continuing our ascent the + road became narrow, rugged and steep, winding zigzag up the cone, which is + covered with irregular masses of rock, and overgrown with a dense + luxuriant but less lofty vegetation. We passed a torrent of water which is + not much lower than the boiling point, and has a most singular appearance + as it foams over its rugged bed, sending up clouds of steam, and often + concealed by the overhanging herbage of ferns and lycopodia, which here + thrive with more luxuriance than elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + At about 7,500 feet we came to another hut of open bamboos, at a place + called Kandang Badak, or "Rhinoceros-field," which we were going to make + our temporary abode. Here was a small clearing, with abundance of + tree-ferns and some young plantations of Cinchona. As there was now a + thick mist and drizzling rain, I did not attempt to go on to the summit + that evening, but made two visits to it during my stay, as well as one to + the active crater of Gedeh. This is a vast semicircular chasm, bounded by + black perpendicular walls of rock, and surrounded by miles of rugged + scoria-covered slopes. The crater itself is not very deep. It exhibits + patches of sulphur and variously-coloured volcanic products, and emits + from several vents continual streams of smoke and vapour. The extinct cone + of Pangerango was to me more interesting. The summit is an irregular + undulating plain with a low bordering ridge, and one deep lateral chasm. + Unfortunately, there was perpetual mist and rain either above or below us + all the time I was on the mountain; so that I never once saw the plain + below, or had a glimpse of the magnificent view which in fine weather is + to be obtained from its summit. Notwithstanding this drawback I enjoyed + the excursion exceedingly, for it was the first time I had been high + enough on a mountain near the Equator to watch the change from a tropical + to a temperate flora. I will now briefly sketch these changes as I + observed them in Java. + </p> + <p> + On ascending the mountain, we first meet with temperate forms of + herbaceous plants, so low as 3,000 feet, where strawberries and violets + begin to grow, but the former are tasteless, and the latter have very + small and pale flowers. Weedy composites also begin to give a European + aspect to the wayside herbage. It is between 2,000 and 5,000 feet that the + forests and ravines exhibit the utmost development of tropical luxuriance + and beauty. The abundance of noble Tree-ferns, sometimes fifty feet high, + contributes greatly to the general effect, since of all the forms of + tropical vegetation they are certainly the most striking and beautiful. + Some of the deep ravines which have been cleared of large timber are full + of them from top to bottom; and where the road crosses one of these + valleys, the view of their feathery crowns, in varied positions above and + below the eye, offers a spectacle of picturesque beauty never to be + forgotten. The splendid foliage of the broad-leaved Musaceae and + Zingiberaceae, with their curious and brilliant flowers; and the elegant + and varied forms of plants allied to Begonia and Melastoma, continually + attract the attention in this region. Filling in the spaces between the + trees and larger plants, on every trunk and stump and branch, are hosts of + Orchids, Ferns and Lycopods, which wave and hang and intertwine in + ever-varying complexity. At about 5,000 feet I first saw horsetails + (Equisetum), very like our own species. At 6,000 feet, raspberries abound, + and thence to the summit of the mountain there are three species of + eatable Rubus. At 7,000 feet Cypresses appear, and the forest trees become + reduced in size, and more covered with mosses and lichens. From this point + upward these rapidly increase, so that the blocks of rock and scoria that + form the mountain slope are completely hidden in a mossy vegetation. At + about 5,000 feet European forms of plants become abundant. Several species + of Honeysuckle, St. John's-wort, and Guelder-rose abound, and at about + 9,000 feet we first meet with the rare and beautiful Royal Cowslip + (Primula imperialis), which is said to be found nowhere else in the world + but on this solitary mountain summit. It has a tall, stout stem, sometimes + more than three feet high, the root leaves are eighteen inches long, and + it bears several whorls of cowslip-like flowers, instead of a terminal + cluster only. The forest trees, gnarled and dwarfed to the dimensions of + bushes, reach up to the very rim of the old crater, but do not extend over + the hollow on its summit. Here we find a good deal of open ground, with + thickets of shrubby Artemisias and Gnaphaliums, like our southernwood and + cudweed, but six or eight feet high; while Buttercups, Violets, + Whortleberries, Sow-thistles, Chickweed, white and yellow Cruciferae, + Plantain, and annual grasses everywhere abound. Where there are bushes and + shrubs, the St. John's-wort and Honeysuckle grow abundantly, while the + Imperial Cowslip only exhibits its elegant blossoms under the damp shade + of the thickets. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Motley, who visited the mountain in the dry season, and paid much + attention to botany, gives the following list of genera of European plants + found on or near the summit:— Two species of Violet, three of + Ranunculus, three of Impatiens, eight or ten of Rubus, and species of + Primula, Hypericum, Swertia, Convallaria (Lily of the Valley), Vaccinium + (Cranberry), Rhododendron, Gnaphalium, Polygonum, Digitalis (Foxglove), + Lonicera (Honeysuckle), Plantago (Rib-grass), Artemisia (Wormwood), + Lobelia, Oxalis (Wood-sorrel), Quercus (Oak), and Taxus (Yew). A few of + the smaller plants (Plantago major and lanceolata, Sonchus oleraceus, and + Artemisia vulgaris) are identical with European species. + </p> + <p> + The fact of a vegetation so closely allied to that of Europe occurring on + isolated mountain peaks, in an island south of the Equator, while all the + lowlands for thousands of miles around are occupied by a flora of a + totally different character, is very extraordinary; and has only recently + received an intelligible explanation. The Peak of Teneriffe, which rises + to a greater height and is much nearer to Europe, contains no such Alpine + flora; neither do the mountains of Bourbon and Mauritius. The case of the + volcanic peaks of Java is therefore somewhat exceptional, but there are + several analogous, if not exactly parallel cases, that will enable us + better to understand in what way the phenomena may possibly have been + brought about. + </p> + <p> + The higher peaks of the Alps, and even of the Pyrenees, contain a number + of plants absolutely identical with those of Lapland, but nowhere found in + the intervening plains. On the summit of the White Mountains, in the + United States, every plant is identical with species growing in Labrador. + In these cases all ordinary means of transport fail. Most of the plants + have heavy seeds, which could not possibly be carried such immense + distances by the wind; and the agency of birds in so effectually stocking + these Alpine heights is equally out of the question. The difficulty was so + great, that some naturalists were driven to believe that these species + were all separately created twice over on these distant peaks. The + determination of a recent glacial epoch, however, soon offered a much more + satisfactory solution, and one that is now universally accepted by men of + science. At this period, when the mountains of Wales were full of + glaciers, and the mountainous parts of Central Europe, and much of America + north of the great lakes, were covered with snow and ice, and had a + climate resembling that of Labrador and Greenland at the present day, an + Arctic flora covered all these regions. As this epoch of cold passed away, + and the snowy mantle of the country, with the glaciers that descended from + every mountain summit, receded up their slopes and towards the north pole, + the plants receded also, always clinging as now to the margins of the + perpetual snow line. Thus it is that the same species are now found on the + summits of the mountains of temperate Europe and America, and in the + barren north-polar regions. + </p> + <p> + But there is another set of facts, which help us on another step towards + the case of the Javanese mountain flora. On the higher slopes of the + Himalayas, on the tops of the mountains of Central India and of Abyssinia, + a number of plants occur which, though not identical with those of + European mountains, belong to the same genera, and are said by botanists + to represent them; and most of these could not exist in the warm + intervening plains. Mr. Darwin believes that this class of facts can be + explained in the same way; for, during the greatest severity of the + glacial epoch, temperate forms of plants will have extended to the + confines of the tropics, and on its departure, will have retreated up + these southern mountains, as well as northward to the plains and hills of + Europe. But in this case, the time elapsed, and the great change of + conditions, have allowed many of these plants to become so modified that + we now consider them to be distinct species. A variety of other facts of a + similar nature have led him to believe that the depression of temperature + was at one time sufficient to allow a few north-temperate plants to cross + the Equator (by the most elevated routes) and to reach the Antarctic + regions, where they are now found. The evidence on which this belief rests + will be found in the latter part of CHAPTER II. of the "Origin of + Species"; and, accepting it for the present as an hypothesis, it enables + us to account for the presence of a flora of European type on the + volcanoes of Java. + </p> + <p> + It will, however, naturally be objected that there is a wide expanse of + sea between Java and the continent, which would have effectually prevented + the immigration of temperate forms of plants during the glacial epoch. + This would undoubtedly be a fatal objection, were there not abundant + evidence to show that Java has been formerly connected with Asia, and that + the union must have occurred at about the epoch required. The most + striking proof of such a junction is, that the great Mammalia of Java, the + rhinoceros, the tiger, and the Banteng or wild ox, occur also in Siam and + Burmah, and these would certainly not have been introduced by man. The + Javanese peacock and several other birds are also common to these two + countries; but, in the majority of cases, the species are distinct, though + closely allied, indicating that a considerable time (required for such + modification) has elapsed since the separation, while it has not been so + long as to cause an entire change. Now this exactly corresponds with the + time we should require since the temperate forms of plants entered Java. + These are now almost distinct species, but the changed conditions under + which they are now forced to exist, and the probability of some of them + having since died out on the continent of India, sufficiently accounts for + the Javanese species being different. + </p> + <p> + In my more special pursuits, I had very little success upon the mountain—owing, + perhaps, to the excessively unpropitious weather and the shortness of my + stay. At from 7,000 to 8,000 feet elevation, I obtained one of the most + lovely of the small Fruit pigeons (Ptilonopus roseicollis), whose entire + head and neck are of an exquisite rosy pink colour, contrasting finely + with its otherwise green plumage; and on the very summit, feeding on the + ground among the strawberries that have been planted there, I obtained a + dull-coloured thrush, with the form and habits of a starling (Turdus + fumidus). Insects were almost entirely absent, owing no doubt to the + extreme dampness, and I did not get a single butterfly the whole trip; yet + I feel sure that, during the dry season, a week's residence on this + mountain would well repay the collector in every department of natural + history. + </p> + <p> + After my return to Toego, I endeavoured to find another locality to + collect in, and removed to a coffee-plantation some miles to the north, + and tried in succession higher and lower stations on the mountain; but, I + never succeeded in obtaining insects in any abundance and birds were far + less plentiful than on the Megamendong Mountain. The weather now became + more rainy than ever, and as the wet season seemed to have set in in + earnest, I returned to Batavia, packed up and sent off my collections, and + left by steamer on November 1st for Banca and Sumatra. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. SUMATRA. + </h2> + <h3> + (NOVEMBER 1861 to JANUARY 1862.) + </h3> + <p> + The mail steamer from Batavia to Singapore took me to Muntok (or as on + English maps, "Minto"), the chief town and port of Banca. Here I stayed a + day or two, until I could obtain a boat to take me across the straits, and + up the river to Palembang. A few walks into the country showed me that it + was very hilly, and full of granitic and laterite rocks, with a dry and + stunted forest vegetation; and I could find very few insects. A good-sized + open sailing-boat took me across to the mouth of the Palembang river + where, at a fishing village, a rowing-boat was hired to take me up to + Palembang—a distance of nearly a hundred miles by water. Except when + the wind was strong and favourable we could only proceed with the tide, + and the banks of the river were generally flooded Nipa-swamps, so that the + hours we were obliged to lay at anchor passed very heavily. Reaching + Palembang on the 8th of November, I was lodged by the Doctor, to whom I + had brought a letter of introduction, and endeavoured to ascertain where I + could find a good locality for collecting. Everyone assured me that I + should have to go a very long way further to find any dry forest, for at + this season the whole country for many miles inland was flooded. I + therefore had to stay a week at Palembang before I could determine my + future movements. + </p> + <p> + The city is a large one, extending for three or four miles along a fine + curve of the river, which is as wide as the Thames at Greenwich. The + stream is, however, much narrowed by the houses which project into it upon + piles, and within these, again, there is a row of houses built upon great + bamboo rafts, which are moored by rattan cables to the shore or to piles, + and rise and fall with the tide. + </p> + <p> + The whole riverfront on both sides is chiefly formed of such houses, and + they are mostly shops open to the water, and only raised a foot above it, + so that by taking a small boat it is easy to go to market and purchase + anything that is to be had in Palembang. The natives are true Malays, + never building a house on dry land if they can find water to set it in, + and never going anywhere on foot if they can reach the place in a boat. A + considerable portion of the population are Chinese and Arabs, who carry on + all the trade; while the only Europeans are the civil and military + officials of the Dutch Government. The town is situated at the head of the + delta of the river, and between it and the sea there is very little ground + elevated above highwater mark; while for many miles further inland, the + banks of the main stream and its numerous tributaries are swampy, and in + the wet season flooded for a considerable distance. Palembang is built on + a patch of elevated ground, a few miles in extent, on the north bank of + the river. At a spot about three miles from the town this turns into a + little hill, the top of which is held sacred by the natives, shaded by + some fine trees, and inhabited by a colony of squirrels which have become + half-tame. On holding out a few crumbs of bread or any fruit, they come + running down the trunk, take the morsel out of your fingers, and dart away + instantly. Their tails are carried erect, and the hair, which is ringed + with grey, yellow, and brown, radiates uniformly around them, and looks + exceedingly pretty. They have somewhat of the motions of mice, coming on + with little starts, and gazing intently with their large black eyes before + venturing to advance further. The manner in which Malays often obtain the + confidence of wild animals is a very pleasing trait in their character, + and is due in some degree to the quiet deliberation of their manners, and + their love of repose rather than of action. The young are obedient to the + wishes of their elders, and seem to feel none of that propensity to + mischief which European boys exhibit. How long would tame squirrels + continue to inhabit trees in the vicinity of an English village, even if + close to the church? They would soon be pelted and driven away, or snared + and confined in a whirling cage. I have never heard of these pretty + animals being tamed in this way in England, but I should think it might be + easily done in any gentleman's park, and they would certainly be as + pleasing and attractive as they would be uncommon. + </p> + <p> + After many inquiries, I found that a day's journey by water above + Palembang there commenced a military road which extended up to the + mountains and even across to Bencoolen, and I determined to take this + route and travel on until I found some tolerable collecting ground. By + this means I should secure dry land and a good road, and avoid the rivers, + which at this season are very tedious to ascend owing to the powerful + currents, and very unproductive to the collector owing to most of the + lands in their vicinity being underwater. Leaving early in the morning we + did not reach Lorok, the village where the road begins, until late at + night. I stayed there a few days, but found that almost all the ground in + the vicinity not underwater was cultivated, and that the only forest was + in swamps which were now inaccessible. The only bird new to me which I + obtained at Lorok was the fine long-tailed parroquet (Palaeornis + longicauda). The people here assured me that the country was just the same + as this for a very long way—more than a week's journey, and they + seemed hardly to have any conception of an elevated forest-clad country, + so that I began to think it would be useless going on, as the time at my + disposal was too short to make it worth my while to spend much more of it + in moving about. At length, however, I found a man who knew the country, + and was more intelligent; and he at once told me that if I wanted forest I + must go to the district of Rembang, which I found on inquiry was about + twenty-five or thirty miles off. + </p> + <p> + The road is divided into regular stages of ten or twelve miles each, and, + without sending on in advance to have coolies ready, only this distance + can be travelled in a day. At each station there are houses for the + accommodation of passengers, with cooking-house and stables, and six or + eight men always on guard. There is an established system for coolies at + fixed rates, the inhabitants of the surrounding villages all taking their + turn to be subject to coolie service, as well as that of guards at the + station for five days at a time. This arrangement makes travelling very + easy, and was a great convenience for me. I had a pleasant walk of ten or + twelve miles in the morning, and the rest of the day could stroll about + and explore the village and neighbourhood, having a house ready to occupy + without any formalities whatever. In three days I reached Moera-dua, the + first village in Rembang, and finding the country dry and undulating, with + a good sprinkling of forest, I determined to remain a short time and try + the neighbourhood. Just opposite the station was a small but deep river, + and a good bathing-place; and beyond the village was a fine patch of + forest, through which the road passed, overshadowed by magnificent trees, + which partly tempted me to stay; but after a fortnight I could find no + good place for insects, and very few birds different from the common + species of Malacca. I therefore moved on another stage to Lobo Raman, + where the guard-house is situated quite by itself in the forest, nearly a + mile from each of three villages. This was very agreeable to me, as I + could move about without having every motion watched by crowds of men, + women and children, and I had also a much greater variety of walks to each + of the villages and the plantations around them. + </p> + <p> + The villages of the Sumatran Malays are somewhat peculiar and very + picturesque. A space of some acres is surrounded with a high fence, and + over this area the houses are thickly strewn without the least attempt at + regularity. Tall cocoa-nut trees grow abundantly between them, and the + ground is bare and smooth with the trampling of many feet. The houses are + raised about six feet on posts, the best being entirely built of planks, + others of bamboo. The former are always more or less ornamented with + carving and have high-pitched roofs and overhanging eaves. The gable ends + and all the chief posts and beams are sometimes covered with exceedingly + tasteful carved work, and this is still more the case in the district of + Menangkabo, further west. The floor is made of split bamboo, and is rather + shaky, and there is no sign of anything we should call furniture. There + are no benches or chairs or stools, but merely the level floor covered + with mats, on which the inmates sit or lie. The aspect of the village + itself is very neat, the ground being often swept before the chief houses; + but very bad odours abound, owing to there being under every house a + stinking mud-hole, formed by all waste liquids and refuse matter, poured + down through the floor above. In most other things Malays are tolerably + clean—in some scrupulously so; and this peculiar and nasty custom, + which is almost universal, arises, I have little doubt, from their having + been originally a maritime and water-loving people, who built their houses + on posts in the water, and only migrated gradually inland, first up the + rivers and streams, and then into the dry interior. Habits which were at + once so convenient and so cleanly, and which had been so long practised as + to become a portion of the domestic life of the nation, were of course + continued when the first settlers built their houses inland; and without a + regular system of drainage, the arrangement of the villages is such that + any other system would be very inconvenient. + </p> + <p> + In all these Sumatran villages I found considerable difficulty in getting + anything to eat. It was not the season for vegetables, and when, after + much trouble, I managed to procure some yams of a curious variety, I found + them hard and scarcely eatable. Fowls were very scarce; and fruit was + reduced to one of the poorest kinds of banana. The natives (during the wet + season at least) live exclusively on rice, as the poorer Irish do on + potatoes. A pot of rice cooked very dry and eaten with salt and red + peppers, twice a day, forms their entire food during a large part of the + year. This is no sign of poverty, but is simply custom; for their wives + and children are loaded with silver armlets from wrist to elbow, and carry + dozens of silver coins strung round their necks or suspended from their + ears. + </p> + <p> + As I had moved away from Palembang, I had found the Malay spoken by the + common people less and less pure, until at length it became quite + unintelligible, although the continual recurrence of many well-known words + assured me it was a form of Malay, and enabled me to guess at the main + subject of conversation. This district had a very bad reputation a few + years ago, and travellers were frequently robbed and murdered. Fights + between village and village were also of frequent occurrence, and many + lives were lost, owing to disputes about boundaries or intrigues with + women. Now, however, since the country has been divided into districts + under "Controlleurs," who visit every village in turn to hear complaints + and settle disputes, such things are heard of no more. This is one of the + numerous examples I have met with of the good effects of the Dutch + Government. It exercises a strict surveillance over its most distant + possessions, establishes a form of government well adapted to the + character of the people, reforms abuses, punishes crimes, and makes itself + everywhere respected by the native population. + </p> + <p> + Lobo Raman is a central point of the east end of Sumatra, being about a + hundred and twenty miles from the sea to the east, north, and west. The + surface is undulating, with no mountains or even hills, and there is no + rock, the soil being generally a red friable clay. Numbers of small + streams and rivers intersect the country, and it is pretty equally divided + between open clearings and patches of forest, both virgin and second + growth, with abundance of fruit trees; and there is no lack of paths to + get about in any direction. Altogether it is the very country that would + promise most for a naturalist, and I feel sure that at a more favourable + time of year it would prove exceedingly rich; but it was now the rainy + season, when, in the very best of localities, insects are always scarce, + and there being no fruit on the trees, there was also a scarcity of birds. + During a month's collecting, I added only three or four new species to my + list of birds, although I obtained very fine specimens of many which were + rare and interesting. In butterflies I was rather more successful, + obtaining several fine species quite new to me, and a considerable number + of very rare and beautiful insects. I will give here some account of two + species of butterflies, which, though very common in collections, present + us with peculiarities of the highest interest. + </p> + <p> + The first is the handsome Papilio memnon, a splendid butterfly of a deep + black colour, dotted over with lines and groups of scales of a clear ashy + blue. Its wings are five inches in expanse, and the hind wings are + rounded, with scalloped edges. This applies to the males; but the females + are very different, and vary so much that they were once supposed to form + several distinct species. They may be divided into two groups—those + which resemble the male in shape, and, those which differ entirely from + him in the outline of the wings. The first vary much in colour, being + often nearly white with dusky yellow and red markings, but such + differences often occur in butterflies. The second group are much more + extraordinary, and would never be supposed to be the same insect, since + the hind wings are lengthened out into large spoon-shaped tails, no + rudiment of which is ever to be perceived in the males or in the ordinary + form of females. These tailed females are never of the dark and + blue-glossed tints which prevail in the male and often occur in the + females of the same form, but are invariably ornamented with stripes and + patches of white or buff, occupying the larger part of the surface of the + hind wings. This peculiarity of colouring led me to discover that this + extraordinary female closely resembles (when flying) another butterfly of + the same genus but of a different group (Papilio coön), and that we have + here a case of mimicry similar to those so well illustrated and explained + by Mr. Bates.[ Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 495; "Naturalist on the + Amazons," vol. i. p. 290.] + </p> + <p> + That the resemblance is not accidental is sufficiently proved by the fact, + that in the North of India, where Papilio coön is replaced by an allied + form, (Papilio Doubledayi) having red spots in place of yellow, a + closely-allied species or variety of Papilio memnon (P. androgeus) has the + tailed female also red spotted. The use and reason of this resemblance + appears to be that the butterflies imitated belong to a section of the + genus Papilio which from some cause or other are not attacked by birds, + and by so closely resembling these in form and colour the female of Memnon + and its ally, also escape persecution. Two other species of this same + section (Papilio antiphus and Papilio polyphontes) are so closely imitated + by two female forms of Papilio theseus (which comes in the same section + with Memnon), that they completely deceived the Dutch entomologist De + Haan, and he accordingly classed them as the same species! + </p> + <p> + But the most curious fact connected with these distinct forms is that they + are both the offspring of either form. A single brood of larva were bred + in Java by a Dutch entomologist, and produced males as well as tailed and + tailless females, and there is every reason to believe that this is always + the case, and that forms intermediate in character never occur. To + illustrate these phenomena, let us suppose a roaming Englishman in some + remote island to have two wives—one a black-haired, red-skinned + Indian, the other a woolly-headed, sooty-skinned negress; and that instead + of the children being mulattoes of brown or dusky tints, mingling the + characteristics of each parent in varying degrees, all the boys should be + as fair-skinned and blue-eyed as their father, while the girls should + altogether resemble their mothers. This would be thought strange enough, + but the case of these butterflies is yet more extraordinary, for each + mother is capable not only of producing male offspring like the father, + and female like herself, but also other females like her fellow wife, and + altogether differing from herself! + </p> + <p> + The other species to which I have to direct attention is the Kallima + paralekta, a butterfly of the same family group as our Purple Emperor, and + of about the same size or larger. Its upper surface is of a rich purple, + variously tinged with ash colour, and across the forewings there is a + broad bar of deep orange, so that when on the wing it is very conspicuous. + This species was not uncommon in dry woods and thickets, and I often + endeavoured to capture it without success, for after flying a short + distance it would enter a bush among dry or dead leaves, and however + carefully I crept up to the spot I could never discover it until it would + suddenly start out again and then disappear in a similar place. If at + length I was fortunate enough to see the exact spot where the butterfly + settled, and though I lost sight of it for some time, I would discover + that it was close before my eyes, but that in its position of repose it so + closely resembled a dead leaf attached to a twig as almost certainly to + deceive the eye even when gazing full upon it. I captured several + specimens on the wing, and was able fully to understand the way in which + this wonderful resemblance is produced. + </p> + <p> + The end of the upper wings terminates in a fine point, just as the leaves + of many tropical shrubs and trees are pointed, while the lower wings are + somewhat more obtuse, and are lengthened out into a short thick tail. + Between these two points there runs a dark curved line exactly + representing the midrib of a leaf, and from this radiate on each side a + few oblique marks which well imitate the lateral veins. These marks are + more clearly seen on the outer portion of the base of the wings, and on + the innerside towards the middle and apex, and they are produced by striae + and markings which are very common in allied species, but which are here + modified and strengthened so as to imitate more exactly the venation of a + leaf. The tint of the undersurface varies much, but it is always some ashy + brown or reddish colour, which matches with those of dead leaves. The + habit of the species is always to rest on a twig and among dead or dry + leaves, and in this position with the wings closely pressed together, + their outline is exactly that of a moderately-sized leaf, slightly curved + or shrivelled. The tail of the hind wings forms a perfect stalk, and + touches the stick while the insect is supported by the middle pair of + legs, which are not noticed among the twigs and fibres that surround it. + The head and antennae are drawn back between the wings so as to be quite + concealed, and there is a little notch hollowed out at the very base of + the wings, which allows the head to be retracted sufficiently. All these + varied details combine to produce a disguise that is so complete and + marvellous as to astonish everyone who observes it; and the habits of the + insects are such as to utilize all these peculiarities, and render them + available in such a manner as to remove all doubt of the purpose of this + singular case of mimicry, which is undoubtedly a protection to the insect. + </p> + <p> + Its strong and swift flight is sufficient to save it from its enemies when + on the wing, but if it were equally conspicuous when at rest it could not + long escape extinction, owing to the attacks of the insectivorous birds + and reptiles that abound in the tropical forests. A very closely allied + species, Kallima inachis, inhabits India, where it is very common, and + specimens are sent in every collection from the Himalayas. On examining a + number of these, it will be seen that no two are alike, but all the + variations correspond to those of dead leaves. Every tint of yellow, ash, + brown, and red is found here, and in many specimens there occur patches + and spots formed of small black dots, so closely resembling the way in + which minute fungi grow on leaves that it is almost impossible at first + not to believe that fungi have grown on the butterflies themselves! + </p> + <p> + If such an extraordinary adaptation as this stood alone, it would be very + difficult to offer any explanation of it; but although it is perhaps the + most perfect case of protective imitation known, there are hundreds of + similar resemblances in nature, and from these it is possible to deduce a + general theory of the manner in which they have been slowly brought about. + The principle of variation and that of "natural selection," or survival of + the fittest, as elaborated by Mr. Darwin in his celebrated "Origin of + Species," offers the foundation for such a theory; and I have myself + endeavoured to apply it to all the chief cases of imitation in an article + published in the "Westminster Review" for 1867, entitled, "Mimicry, and + other Protective Resemblances Among Animals," to which any reader is + referred who wishes to know more about this subject. + </p> + <p> + In Sumatra, monkeys are very abundant, and at Lobo Kaman they used to + frequent the trees which overhang the guard-house, and give me a fine + opportunity of observing their gambols. Two species of Semnopithecus were + most plentiful—monkeys of a slender form, with very long tails. Not + being much shot at they are rather bold, and remain quite unconcerned when + natives alone are present; but when I came out to look at them, they would + stare for a minute or two and then make off. They take tremendous leaps + from the branches of one tree to those of another a little lower, and it + is very amusing when one strong leader takes a bold jump, to see the + others following with more or less trepidation; and it often happens that + one or two of the last seem quite unable to make up their minds to leap + until the rest are disappearing, when, as if in desperation at being left + alone, they throw themselves frantically into the air, and often go + crashing through the slender branches and fall to the ground. + </p> + <p> + A very curious ape, the Siamang, was also rather abundant, but it is much + less bold than the monkeys, keeping to the virgin forests and avoiding + villages. This species is allied to the little long-armed apes of the + genus Hylobates, but is considerably larger, and differs from them by + having the two first fingers of the feet united together, nearly to the + end as does its Latin name, Siamanga syndactyla. It moves much more slowly + than the active Hylobates, keeping lower down in trees, and not indulging + in such tremendous leaps; but it is still very active, and by means of its + immense long arms, five feet six inches across in an adult about three + feet high, can swing itself along among the trees at a great rate. I + purchased a small one, which had been caught by the natives and tied up so + tightly as to hurt it. It was rather savage at first, and tried to bite; + but when we had released it and given it two poles under the verandah to + hang upon, securing it by a short cord, running along the pole with a ring + so that it could move easily, it became more contented, and would swing + itself about with great rapidity. It ate almost any kind of fruit and + rice, and I was in hopes to have brought it to England, but it died just + before I started. It took a dislike to me at first, which I tried to get + over by feeding it constantly myself. One day, however, it bit me so + sharply while giving it food, that I lost patience and gave it rather a + severe beating, which I regretted afterwards, as from that time it + disliked me more than ever. It would allow my Malay boys to play with it, + and for hours together would swing by its arms from pole to pole and on to + the rafters of the verandah, with so much ease and rapidity, that it was a + constant source of amusement to us. When I returned to Singapore it + attracted great attention, as no one had seen a Siamang alive before, + although it is not uncommon in some parts of the Malay peninsula. + </p> + <p> + As the Orangutan is known to inhabit Sumatra, and was in fact first + discovered there, I made many inquiries about it; but none of the natives + had ever heard of such an animal, nor could I find any of the Dutch + officials who knew anything about it. We may conclude, therefore, that it + does not inhabit the great forest plains in the east of Sumatra where one + would naturally expect to find it, but is probably confined to a limited + region in the northwest part of the island entirely in the hands of native + rulers. The other great Mammalia of Sumatra, the elephant and the + rhinoceros, are more widely distributed; but the former is much more + scarce than it was a few years ago, and seems to retire rapidly before the + spread of cultivation. Lobo Kaman tusks and bones are occasionally found + about in the forest, but the living animal is now never seen. The + rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatranus) still abounds, and I continually saw + its tracks and its dung, and once disturbed one feeding, which went + crashing away through the jungle, only permitting me a momentary glimpse + of it through the dense underwood. I obtained a tolerably perfect cranium, + and a number of teeth, which were picked up by the natives. + </p> + <p> + Another curious animal, which I had met with in Singapore and in Borneo, + but which was more abundant here, is the Galeopithecus, or flying lemur. + This creature has a broad membrane extending all around its body to the + extremities of the toes, and to the point of the rather long tail. This + enables it to pass obliquely through the air from one tree to another. It + is sluggish in its motions, at least by day, going up a tree by short runs + of a few feet, and then stopping a moment as if the action was difficult. + It rests during the day clinging to the trunks of trees, where its olive + or brown fur, mottled with irregular whitish spots and blotches, resembles + closely the colour of mottled bark, and no doubt helps to protect it. + Once, in a bright twilight, I saw one of these animals run up a trunk in a + rather open place, and then glide obliquely through the air to another + tree, on which it alighted near its base, and immediately began to ascend. + I paced the distance from the one tree to the other, and found it to be + seventy yards; and the amount of descent I estimated at not more than + thirty-five or forty feet, or less than one in five. This I think proves + that the animal must have some power of guiding itself through the air, + otherwise in so long a distance it would have little chance of alighting + exactly upon the trunk. Like the Cuscus of the Moluccas, the Galeopithecus + feeds chiefly on leaves, and possesses a very voluminous stomach and long + convoluted intestines. The brain is very small, and the animal possesses + such remarkable tenacity of life, that it is exceedingly difficult to kill + it by any ordinary means. The tail is prehensile; and is probably made use + of as an additional support while feeding. It is said to have only a + single young one at a time, and my own observation confirms this + statement, for I once shot a female with a very small blind and naked + little creature clinging closely to its breast, which was quite bare and + much wrinkled, reminding me of the young of Marsupials, to which it seemed + to form a transition. On the back, and extending over the limbs and + membrane, the fur of these animals is short, but exquisitely soft, + resembling in its texture that of the Chinchilla. + </p> + <p> + I returned to Palembang by water, and while staying a day at a village + while a boat was being made watertight, I had the good fortune to obtain a + male, female, and young bird of one of the large hornbills. I had sent my + hunters to shoot, and while I was at breakfast they returned, bringing me + a fine large male of the Buceros bicornis, which one of them assured me he + had shot while feeding the female, which was shut up in a hole in a tree. + I had often read of this curious habit, and immediately returned to the + place, accompanied by several of the natives. After crossing a stream and + a bog, we found a large tree leaning over some water, and on its lower + side, at a height of about twenty feet, appeared a small hole, and what + looked like a quantity of mud, which I was assured had been used in + stopping up the large hole. After a while we heard the harsh cry of a bird + inside, and could see the white extremity of its beak put out. I offered a + rupee to anyone who would go up and get the bird out, with the egg or + young one; but they all declared it was too difficult, and they were + afraid to try. I therefore very reluctantly came away. About an hour + afterwards, much to my surprise, a tremendous loud, hoarse screaming was + heard, and the bird was brought me, together with a young one which had + been found in the hole. This was a most curious object, as large as a + pigeon, but without a particle of plumage on any part of it. It was + exceedingly plump and soft, and with a semi-transparent skin, so that it + looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet stuck on, than like a + real bird. + </p> + <p> + The extraordinary habit of the male, in plastering up the female with her + egg, and feeding her during the whole time of incubation, and until the + young one is fledged, is common to several of the large hornbills, and is + one of those strange facts in natural history which are "stranger than + fiction." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. + </h2> + <p> + IN the first CHAPTER of this work I have stated generally the reasons + which lead us to conclude that the large islands in the western portion of + the Archipelago—Java, Sumatra, and Borneo—as well as the Malay + peninsula and the Philippine islands, have been recently separated from + the continent of Asia. I now propose to give a sketch of the Natural + History of these, which I term the Indo-Malay islands, and to show how far + it supports this view, and how much information it is able to give us of + the antiquity and origin of the separate islands. + </p> + <p> + The flora of the Archipelago is at present so imperfectly known, and I + have myself paid so little attention to it, that I cannot draw from it + many facts of importance. The Malayan type of vegetation is however a very + important one; and Dr. Hooker informs us, in his "Flora Indica," that it + spreads over all the moister and more equable parts of India, and that + many plants found in Ceylon, the Himalayas, the Nilghiri, and Khasia + mountains are identical with those of Java and the Malay peninsula. Among + the more characteristic forms of this flora are the rattans—climbing + palms of the genus Calamus, and a great variety of tall, as well as + stemless palms. Orchids, Araceae, Zingiberaceae and ferns, are especially + abundant, and the genus Grammatophyllum—a gigantic epiphytal orchid, + whose clusters of leaves and flower-stems are ten or twelve feet long—is + peculiar to it. Here, too, is the domain of the wonderful pitcher plants + (Nepenthaceae), which are only represented elsewhere by solitary species + in Ceylon, Madagascar, the Seychelles, Celebes, and the Moluccas. Those + celebrated fruits, the Mangosteen and the Durian, are natives of this + region, and will hardly grow out of the Archipelago. The mountain plants + of Java have already been alluded to as showing a former connexion with + the continent of Asia; and a still more extraordinary and more ancient + connection with Australia has been indicated by Mr. Low's collections from + the summit of Kini-balou, the loftiest mountain in Borneo. + </p> + <p> + Plants have much greater facilities for passing across arms of the sea + than animals. The lighter seeds are easily carried by the winds, and many + of them are specially adapted to be so carried. Others can float a long + time unhurt in the water, and are drifted by winds and currents to distant + shores. Pigeons, and other fruit-eating birds, are also the means of + distributing plants, since the seeds readily germinate after passing + through their bodies. It thus happens that plants which grow on shores and + lowlands have a wide distribution, and it requires an extensive knowledge + of the species of each island to determine the relations of their floras + with any approach to accuracy. At present we have no such complete + knowledge of the botany of the several islands of the Archipelago; and it + is only by such striking phenomena as the occurrence of northern and even + European genera on the summits of the Javanese mountains that we can prove + the former connection of that island with the Asiatic continent. With land + animals, however, the case is very different. Their means of passing a + wide expanse of sea are far more restricted. Their distribution has been + more accurately studied, and we possess a much more complete knowledge of + such groups as mammals and birds in most of the islands, than we do of the + plants. It is these two classes which will supply us with most of our + facts as to the geographical distribution of organized beings in this + region. + </p> + <p> + The number of Mammalia known to inhabit the Indo-Malay region is very + considerable, exceeding 170 species. With the exception of the bats, none + of these have any regular means of passing arms of the sea many miles in + extent, and a consideration of their distribution must therefore greatly + assist us in determining whether these islands have ever been connected + with each other or with the continent since the epoch of existing species. + </p> + <p> + The Quadrumana or monkey tribe form one of the most characteristic + features of this region. Twenty-four distinct species are known to inhabit + it, and these are distributed with tolerable uniformity over the islands, + nine being found in Java, ten in the Malay peninsula, eleven in Sumatra, + and thirteen in Borneo. The great man-like Orangutans are found only in + Sumatra and Borneo; the curious Siamang (next to them in size) in Sumatra + and Malacca; the long-nosed monkey only in Borneo; while every island has + representatives of the Gibbons or long-armed apes, and of monkeys. The + lemur-like animals, Nycticebus, Tarsius, and Galeopithecus, are found on + all the islands. + </p> + <p> + Seven species found on the Malay peninsula extend also into Sumatra, four + into Borneo, and three into Java; while two range into Siam and Burma, and + one into North India. With the exception of the Orangutan, the Siamang, + the Tarsius spectrum, and the Galeopithecus, all the Malayan genera of + Quadrumana are represented in India by closely allied species, although, + owing to the limited range of most of these animals, so few are absolutely + identical. + </p> + <p> + Of Carnivora, thirty-three species are known from the Indo-Malay region, + of which about eight are found also in Burma and India. Among these are + the tiger, leopard, a tiger-cat, civet, and otter; while out of the twenty + genera of Malayan Carnivora, thirteen are represented in India by more or + less closely allied species. As an example, the Malayan bear is + represented in North India by the Tibetan bear, both of which may be seen + alive at the Zoological Society's Gardens. + </p> + <p> + The hoofed animals are twenty-two in number, of which about seven extend + into Burmah and India. All the deer are of peculiar species, except two, + which range from Malacca into India. Of the cattle, one Indian species + reaches Malacca, while the Bos sondiacus of Java and Borneo is also found + in Siam and Burma. A goat-like animal is found in Sumatra which has its + representative in India; while the two-horned rhinoceros of Sumatra and + the single-horned species of Java, long supposed to be peculiar to these + islands, are now both ascertained to exist in Burma, Pegu, and Moulmein. + The elephant of Sumatra, Borneo, and Malacca is now considered to be + identical with that of Ceylon and India. + </p> + <p> + In all other groups of Mammalia the same general phenomena recur. A few + species are identical with those of India. A much larger number are + closely allied or representative forms, while there are always a small + number of peculiar genera, consisting of animals unlike those found in any + other part of the world. There are about fifty bats, of which less than + one-fourth are Indian species; thirty-four Rodents (squirrels, rats, &c.), + of which six or eight only are Indian; and ten Insectivora, with one + exception peculiar to the Malay region. The squirrels are very abundant + and characteristic, only two species out of twenty-five extending into + Siam and Burma. The Tupaias are curious insect-eaters, which closely + resemble squirrels, and are almost confined to the Malay islands, as are + the small feather-tailed Ptilocerus lowii of Borneo, and the curious + long-snouted and naked-tailed Gymnurus rafllesii. + </p> + <p> + As the Malay peninsula is a part of the continent of Asia, the question of + the former union of the islands to the mainland will be best elucidated by + studying the species which are found in the former district, and also in + some of the islands. Now, if we entirely leave out of consideration the + bats, which have the power of flight, there are still forty-eight species + of mammals common to the Malay peninsula and the three large islands. + Among these are seven Quadrumana (apes, monkeys, and lemurs), animals who + pass their whole existence in forests, who never swim, and who would be + quite unable to traverse a single mile of sea; nineteen Carnivora, some of + which no doubt might cross by swimming, but we cannot suppose so large a + number to have passed in this way across a strait which, except at one + point, is from thirty to fifty miles wide; and five hoofed animals, + including the Tapir, two species of rhinoceros, and an elephant. Besides + these there are thirteen Rodents and four Insectivora, including a + shrew-mouse and six squirrels, whose unaided passage over twenty miles of + sea is even more inconceivable than that of the larger animals. + </p> + <p> + But when we come to the cases of the same species inhabiting two of the + more widely separated islands, the difficulty is much increased. Borneo is + distant nearly 150 miles from Biliton, which is about fifty miles from + Banca, and this fifteen from Sumatra, yet there are no less than + thirty-six species of mammals common to Borneo and Sumatra. Java again is + more than 250 miles from Borneo, yet these two islands have twenty-two + species in common, including monkeys, lemurs, wild oxen, squirrels and + shrews. These facts seem to render it absolutely certain that there has + been at some former period a connection between all these islands and the + mainland, and the fact that most of the animals common to two or more of + then, show little or no variation, but are often absolutely identical, + indicates that the separation must have been recent in a geological sense; + that is, not earlier than the Newer Pliocene epoch, at which time land + animals began to assimilate closely with those now existing. + </p> + <p> + Even the bats furnish an additional argument, if one were needed, to show + that the islands could not have been peopled from each other and from the + continent without some former connection. For if such had been the mode of + stocking them with animals, it is quite certain that creatures which can + fly long distances would be the first to spread from island to island, and + thus produce an almost perfect uniformity of species over the whole + region. But no such uniformity exists, and the bats of each island are + almost, if not quite, as distinct as the other mammals. For example, + sixteen species are known in Borneo, and of these ten are found in Java + and five in Sumatra, a proportion about the same as that of the Rodents, + which have no direct means of migration. We learn from this fact, that the + seas which separate the islands from each other are wide enough to prevent + the passage even of flying animals, and that we must look to the same + causes as having led to the present distribution of both groups. The only + sufficient cause we can imagine is the former connection of all the + islands with the continent, and such a change is in perfect harmony with + what we know of the earth's past history, and is rendered probable by the + remarkable fact that a rise of only three hundred feet would convert the + wide seas that separate them into an immense winding valley or plain about + three hundred miles wide and twelve hundred long. It may, perhaps, be + thought that birds which possess the power of flight in so pre-eminent a + degree, would not be limited in their range by arms of the sea, and would + thus afford few indications of the former union or separation of the + islands they inhabit. This, however, is not the case. A very large number + of birds appear to be as strictly limited by watery barriers as are + quadrupeds; and as they have been so much more attentively collected, we + have more complete materials to work upon, and are able to deduce from + them still more definite and satisfactory results. Some groups, however, + such as the aquatic birds, the waders, and the birds of prey, are great + wanderers; other groups are little known except to ornithologists. I shall + therefore refer chiefly to a few of the best known and most remarkable + families of birds as a sample of the conclusions furnished by the entire + class. + </p> + <p> + The birds of the Indo-Malay region have a close resemblance to those of + India; for though a very large proportion of the species are quite + distinct, there are only about fifteen peculiar genera, and not a single + family group confined to the former district. If, however, we compare the + islands with the Burmese, Siamese, and Malayan countries, we shall find + still less difference, and shall be convinced that all are closely united + by the bond of a former union. In such well-known families as the + woodpeckers, parrots, trogons, barbets, kingfishers, pigeons, and + pheasants, we find some identical species spreading over all India, and as + far as Java and Borneo, while a very large proportion are common to + Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. + </p> + <p> + The force of these facts can only be appreciated when we come to treat the + islands of the Austro-Malay region, and show how similar barriers have + entirely prevented the passage of birds from one island to another, so + that out of at least three hundred and fifty land birds inhabiting Java + and Borneo, not more than ten have passed eastward into Celebes. Yet the + Straits of Macassar are not nearly so wide as the Java sea, and at least a + hundred species are common to Borneo and Java. + </p> + <p> + I will now give two examples to show how a knowledge of the distribution + of animals may reveal unsuspected facts in the past history of the earth. + At the eastern extremity of Sumatra, and separated from it by a strait + about fifteen miles wide, is the small rocky island of Banca, celebrated + for its tin mines. One of the Dutch residents there sent some collections + of birds and animals to Leyden, and among them were found several species + distinct from those of the adjacent coast of Sumatra. One of these was a + squirrel (Sciurus bangkanus), closely allied to three other species + inhabiting respectively the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, but + quite as distinct from them all as they are from each other. There were + also two new ground thrushes of the genus Pitta, closely allied to, but + quite distinct from, two other species inhabiting both Sumatra and Borneo, + and which did not perceptibly differ in these large and widely separated + islands. This is just as if the Isle of Man possessed a peculiar species + of thrush and blackbird, distinct from the birds which are common to + England and Ireland. + </p> + <p> + These curious facts would indicate that Banca may have existed as a + distinct island even longer than Sumatra and Borneo, and there are some + geological and geographical facts which render this not so improbable as + it would at first seem to be. Although on the map Banca appears so close + to Sumatra, this does not arise from its having been recently separated + from it; for the adjacent district of Palembang is new land, being a great + alluvial swamp formed by torrents from the mountains a hundred miles + distant. + </p> + <p> + Banca, on the other hand, agrees with Malacca, Singapore, and the + intervening island of Lingen, in being formed of granite and laterite; and + these have all most likely once formed an extension of the Malay + peninsula. As the rivers of Borneo and Sumatra have been for ages filling + up the intervening sea, we may be sure that its depth has recently been + greater, and it is very probable that those large islands were never + directly connected with each other except through the Malay peninsula. At + that period the same species of squirrel and Pitta may have inhabited all + these countries; but when the subterranean disturbances occurred which led + to the elevation of the volcanoes of Sumatra, the small island of Banca + may have been separated first, and its productions being thus isolated + might be gradually modified before the separation of the larger islands + had been completed. + </p> + <p> + As the southern part of Sumatra extended eastward and formed the narrow + straits of Banca, many birds and insects and some Mammalia would cross + from one to the other, and thus produce a general similarity of + productions, while a few of the older inhabitants remained, to reveal by + their distinct forms, their different origin. Unless we suppose some such + changes in physical geography to have occurred, the presence of peculiar + species of birds and mammals in such an island as Banca is a hopeless + puzzle; and I think I have shown that the changes required are by no means + so improbable as a mere glance at the map would lead us to suppose. + </p> + <p> + For our next example let us take the great islands of Sumatra and Java. + These approach so closely together, and the chain of volcanoes that runs + through them gives such an air of unity to the two, that the idea of their + having been recently dissevered is immediately suggested. The natives of + Java, however, go further than this; for they actually have a tradition of + the catastrophe which broke them asunder, and fix its date at not much + more than a thousand years ago. It becomes interesting, therefore, to see + what support is given to this view by the comparison of their animal + productions. + </p> + <p> + The Mammalia have not been collected with sufficient completeness in both + islands to make a general comparison of much value, and so many species + have been obtained only as live specimens in captivity, that their + locality has often been erroneously given, the island in which they were + obtained being substituted for that from which they originally came. + Taking into consideration only those whose distribution is more accurately + known, we learn that Sumatra is, in a zoological sense, more nearly + related to Borneo than it is to Java. The great man-like apes, the + elephant, the tapir, and the Malay bear, are all common to the two former + countries, while they are absent from the latter. Of the three long-tailed + monkeys (Semnopithecus) inhabiting Sumatra, one extends into Borneo, but + the two species of Java are both peculiar to it. So also the great Malay + deer (Rusa equina), and the small Tragulus kanchil, are common to Sumatra + and Borneo, but do not extend into Java, where they are replaced by + Tragulas javanicus. The tiger, it is true, is found in Sumatra and Java, + but not in Borneo. But as this animal is known to swim well, it may have + found its way across the Straits of Sunda, or it may have inhabited Java + before it was separated from the mainland, and from some unknown cause + have ceased to exist in Borneo. + </p> + <p> + In Ornithology there is a little uncertainty owing to the birds of Java + and Sumatra being much better known than those of Borneo; but the ancient + separation of Java as an island is well exhibited by the large number of + its species which are not found in any of the other islands. It possesses + no less than seven pigeons peculiar to itself, while Sumatra has only one. + Of its two parrots one extends into Borneo, but neither into Sumatra. Of + the fifteen species of woodpeckers inhabiting Sumatra only four reach + Java, while eight of them are found in Borneo and twelve in the Malay + peninsula. The two Trogons found in Java are peculiar to it, while of + those inhabiting Sumatra at least two extend to Malacca and one to Borneo. + There are a very large number of birds, such as the great Argus pheasant, + the fire-backed and ocellated pheasants, the crested partridge (Rollulus + coronatus), the small Malacca parrot (Psittinus incertus), the great + helmeted hornbill (Buceroturus galeatus), the pheasant ground-cuckoo + (Carpococcyx radiatus), the rose-crested bee-eater (Nyctiornis amicta), + the great gaper (Corydon sumatranus), and the green-crested gaper + (Calyptomena viridis), and many others, which are common to Malacca, + Sumatra, and Borneo, but are entirely absent from Java. On the other hand + we have the peacock, the green jungle cock, two blue ground thrushes + (Arrenga cyanea and Myophonus flavirostris), the fine pink-headed dove + (Ptilonopus porphyreus), three broad-tailed ground pigeons (Macropygia), + and many other interesting birds, which are found nowhere in the + Archipelago out of Java. + </p> + <p> + Insects furnish us with similar facts wherever sufficient data are to be + had, but owing to the abundant collections that have been made in Java, an + unfair preponderance may be given to that island. This does not, however, + seem to be the case with the true Papilionidae or swallow-tailed + butterflies, whose large size and gorgeous colouring has led to their + being collected more frequently than other insects. Twenty-seven species + are known from Java, twenty-nine from Borneo, and only twenty-one from + Sumatra. Four are entirely confined to Java, while only two are peculiar + to Borneo and one to Sumatra. The isolation of Java will, however, be best + shown by grouping the islands in pairs, and indicating the number of + species common to each pair. Thus:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Borneo .. . .. 29 species + Sumatra.. . .. 21 do. 20 species common to both islands. + + Borneo .. . .. 29 do. + Java. .. . .. 27 do. 20 do. do. + + Sumatra.. . .. 21 do. + Java. .. . .. 27 do. 11 do. do. +</pre> + <p> + Making some allowance for our imperfect knowledge of the Sumatran species, + we see that Java is more isolated from the two larger islands than they + are from each other, thus entirely confirming the results given by the + distribution of birds and Mammalia, and rendering it almost certain that + the last-named island was the first to be completely separated from the + Asiatic continent, and that the native tradition of its having been + recently separated from Sumatra is entirely without foundation. + </p> + <p> + We are now able to trace out with some probability the course of events. + Beginning at the time when the whole of the Java sea, the Gulf of Siam, + and the Straits of Malacca were dry land, forming with Borneo, Sumatra, + and Java, a vast southern prolongation of the Asiatic continent, the first + movement would be the sinking down of the Java sea, and the Straits of + Sunda, consequent on the activity of the Javanese volcanoes along the + southern extremity of the land, and leading to the complete separation of + that island. As the volcanic belt of Java and Sumatra increased in + activity, more and more of the land was submerged, until first Borneo, and + afterwards Sumatra, became entirely severed. Since the epoch of the first + disturbance, several distinct elevations and depressions may have taken + place, and the islands may have been more than once joined with each other + or with the main land, and again separated. Successive waves of + immigration may thus have modified their animal productions, and led to + those anomalies in distribution which are so difficult to account for by + any single operation of elevation or submergence. The form of Borneo, + consisting of radiating mountain chains with intervening broad alluvial + valleys, suggests the idea that it has once been much more submerged than + it is at present (when it would have somewhat resembled Celebes or Gilolo + in outline), and has been increased to its present dimensions by the + filling up of its gulfs with sedimentary matter, assisted by gradual + elevation of the land. Sumatra has also been evidently much increased in + size by the formation of alluvial plains along its northeastern coasts. + </p> + <p> + There is one peculiarity in the productions of Java that is very puzzling—the + occurrence of several species or groups characteristic of the Siamese + countries or of India, but which do not occur in Borneo or Sumatra. Among + Mammals the Rhinoceros javanicus is the most striking example, for a + distinct species is found in Borneo and Sumatra, while the Javanese + species occurs in Burma and even in Bengal. Among birds, the small + ground-dove, Geopelia striata, and the curious bronze-coloured magpie, + Crypsirhina varians, are common to Java and Siam; while there are in Java + species of Pteruthius, Arrenga, Myiophonus, Zoothera, Sturnopastor, and + Estrelda, the near allies of which are found in various parts of India, + while nothing like them is known to inhabit Borneo or Sumatra. + </p> + <p> + Such a curious phenomenon as this can only be understood by supposing + that, subsequent to the separation of Java, Borneo became almost entirely + submerged, and on its re-elevation was for a time connected with the Malay + peninsula and Sumatra, but not with Java or Siam. Any geologist who knows + how strata have been contorted and tilted up, and how elevations and + depressions must often have occurred alternately, not once or twice only, + but scores and even hundreds of times, will have no difficulty in + admitting that such changes as have been here indicated, are not in + themselves improbable. The existence of extensive coal-beds in Borneo and + Sumatra, of such recent origin that the leaves which abound in their + shales are scarcely distinguishable from those of the forests which now + cover the country, proves that such changes of level actually did take + place; and it is a matter of much interest, both to the geologist and to + the philosophic naturalist, to be able to form some conception of the + order of those changes, and to understand how they may have resulted in + the actual distribution of animal life in these countries; a distribution + which often presents phenomena so strange and contradictory, that without + taking such changes into consideration we are unable even to imagine how + they could have been brought about. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. BALI AND LOMBOCK. + </h2> + <h3> + (JUNE, JULY, 1856.) + </h3> + <p> + THE islands of Bali and Lombock, situated at the eastern end of Java, are + particularly interesting. They are the only islands of the whole + Archipelago in which the Hindu religion still maintains itself—and + they form the extreme points of the two great zoological divisions of the + Eastern hemisphere; for although so similar in external appearance and in + all physical features, they differ greatly in their natural productions. + It was after having spent two years in Borneo, Malacca and Singapore, that + I made a somewhat involuntary visit to these islands on my way to + Macassar. Had I been able to obtain a passage direct to that place from + Singapore, I should probably never have gone near them, and should have + missed some of the most important discoveries of my whole expedition the + East. + </p> + <p> + It was on the 13th of June, 1856, after a twenty days' passage from + Singapore in the "Kembang Djepoon" (Rose of Japan), a schooner belonging + to a Chinese merchant, manned by a Javanese crew, and commanded by an + English captain, that we cast anchor in the dangerous roadstead of + Bileling on the north side of the island of Bali. Going on shore with the + captain and the Chinese supercargo, I was at once introduced to a novel + and interesting scene. We went first to the house of the Chinese Bandar, + or chief merchant, where we found a number of natives, well dressed, and + all conspicuously armed with krisses, displaying their large handles of + ivory or gold, or beautifully grained and polished wood. + </p> + <p> + The Chinamen had given up their national costume and adopted the Malay + dress, and could then hardly be distinguished from the natives of the + island—an indication of the close affinity of the Malayan and + Mongolian races. Under the thick shade of some mango-trees close by the + house, several women-merchants were selling cotton goods; for here the + women trade and work for the benefit of their husbands, a custom which + Mahometan Malays never adopt. Fruit, tea, cakes, and sweetmeats were + brought to us; many questions were asked about our business and the state + of trade in Singapore, and we then took a walk to look at the village. It + was a very dull and dreary place; a collection of narrow lanes bounded by + high mud walls, enclosing bamboo houses, into some of which we entered and + were very kindly received. + </p> + <p> + During the two days that we remained here, I walked out into the + surrounding country to catch insects, shoot birds, and spy out the + nakedness or fertility of the land. I was both astonished and delighted; + for as my visit to Java was some years later, I had never beheld so + beautiful and well cultivated a district out of Europe. A slightly + undulating plain extends from the seacoast about ten or twelve miles + inland, where it is bounded by a wide range of wooded and cultivated + hills. Houses and villages, marked out by dense clumps of cocoa-nut palms, + tamarind and other fruit trees, are dotted about in every direction; while + between them extend luxuriant rice-grounds, watered by an elaborate system + of irrigation that would be the pride of the best cultivated parts of + Europe. The whole surface of the country is divided into irregular + patches, following the undulations of the ground, from many acres to a few + perches in extent, each of which is itself perfectly level, but stands a + few inches or several feet above or below those adjacent to it. Every one + of these patches can be flooded or drained at will by means of a system of + ditches and small channels, into which are diverted the whole of the + streams that descend from the mountains. Every patch now bore crops in + various stages of growth, some almost ready for cutting, and all in the + most flourishing condition and of the most exquisite green tints. + </p> + <p> + The sides of the lanes and bridle roads were often edged with prickly + Cacti and a leafless Euphorbia, but the country being so highly cultivated + there was not much room for indigenous vegetation, except upon the + sea-beach. We saw plenty of the fine race of domestic cattle descended + from the Bos banteng of Java, driven by half naked boys, or tethered in + pasture-grounds. They are large and handsome animals, of a light brown + colour, with white legs, and a conspicuous oval patch behind of the same + colour. Wild cattle of the same race are said to be still found in the + mountains. In so well-cultivated a country it was not to be expected that + I could do much in natural history, and my ignorance of how important a + locality this was for the elucidation of the geographical distribution of + animals, caused me to neglect obtaining some specimens which I never met + with again. One of these was a weaver bird with a bright yellow head, + which built its bottle-shaped nests by dozens on some trees near the + beach. It was the Ploceus hypoxantha, a native of Java; and here, at the + extreme limits of its range westerly, I shot and preserved specimens of a + wagtail-thrush, an oriole, and some starlings, all species found in Java, + and some of them peculiar to that island. I also obtained some beautiful + butterflies, richly marked with black and orange on a white ground, and + which were the most abundant insects in the country lanes. Among these was + a new species, which I have named Pieris tamar. + </p> + <p> + Leaving Bileling, a pleasant sail of two days brought us to Ampanam in the + island of Lombock, where I proposed to remain till I could obtain a + passage to Macassar. We enjoyed superb views of the twin volcanoes of Bali + and Lombock, each about eight thousand feet high, which form magnificent + objects at sunrise and sunset, when they rise out of the mists and clouds + that surround their bases, glowing with the rich and changing tints of + these the most charming moments in a tropical day. + </p> + <p> + The bay or roadstead of Ampanam is extensive, and being at this season + sheltered from the prevalent southeasterly winds, was as smooth as a lake. + The beach of black volcanic sand is very steep, and there is at all times, + a heavy surf upon it, which during spring-tides increases to such an + extent that it is often impossible for boats to land, and many serious + accidents have occurred. Where we lay anchored, about a quarter of a mile + from the shore, not the slightest swell was perceptible, but on + approaching nearer undulations began, which rapidly increased, so as to + form rollers which toppled over onto the beach at regular intervals with a + noise like thunder. Sometimes this surf increases suddenly during perfect + calms to as great a force and fury as when a gale of wind is blowing, + beating to pieces all boats that may not have been hauled sufficiently + high upon the beach, and carrying away uncautious natives. This violent + surf is probably in some way dependent upon the swell of the great + southern ocean and the violent currents that flow through the Straits of + Lombock. These are so uncertain that vessels preparing to anchor in the + bay are sometimes suddenly swept away into the straits, and are not able + to get back again for a fortnight. + </p> + <p> + What seamen call the "ripples" are also very violent in the straits, the + sea appearing to boil and foam and dance like the rapids below a cataract; + vessels are swept about helplessly, and small ones are occasionally + swamped in the finest weather and under the brightest skies. + </p> + <p> + I felt considerably relieved when all my boxes and myself had passed in + safety through the devouring surf, which the natives look upon with some + pride, saying, that "their sea is always hungry, and eats up everything it + can catch." I was kindly received by Mr. Carter, an Englishman, who is one + of the Bandars or licensed traders of the port, who offered me hospitality + and every assistance during my stay. His house, storehouses, and offices + were in a yard surrounded by a tall bamboo fence, and were entirely + constructed of bamboo with a thatch of grass, the only available building + materials. Even these were now very scarce, owing to the great consumption + in rebuilding the place since the great fire some months before, which in + an hour or two had destroyed every building in the town. + </p> + <p> + The next day I went to see Mr. S., another merchant to whom I had brought + letters of introduction, and who lived about seven miles off. Mr. Carter + kindly lent me a horse, and I was accompanied by a young Dutch gentleman + residing at Ampanam, who offered to be my guide. We first passed through + the town and suburbs along a straight road bordered by mud walls and a + fine avenue of lofty trees; then through rice-fields, irrigated in the + same manner as I had seen them at Bileling; and afterwards over sandy + pastures near the sea, and occasionally along the beach itself. Mr. S. + received us kindly, and offered me a residence at his house should I think + the neighbourhood favourable for my pursuits. After an early breakfast we + went out to explore, taking guns and insect nets. We reached some low + hills which seemed to offer the most favourable ground, passing over + swamps, sandy flats overgrown with coarse sedges, and through pastures and + cultivated grounds, finding however very little in the way of either birds + or insects. On our way we passed one or two human skeletons, enclosed + within a small bamboo fence, with the clothes, pillow, mat, and betel-box + of the unfortunate individual, who had been either murdered or executed. + Returning to the house, we found a Balinese chief and his followers on a + visit. Those of higher rank sat on chairs, the others squatted on the + floor. The chief very coolly asked for beer and brandy, and helped himself + and his followers, apparently more out of curiosity than anything else as + regards the beer, for it seemed very distasteful to them, while they drank + the brandy in tumblers with much relish. + </p> + <p> + Returning to Ampanam, I devoted myself for some days to shooting the birds + of the neighbourhood. The fine fig-trees of the avenues, where a market + was held, were tenanted by superb orioles (Oriolus broderpii) of a rich + orange colour, and peculiar to this island and the adjacent ones of + Sumbawa and Flores. All round the town were abundance of the curious + Tropidorhynchus timoriensis, allied to the Friar bird of Australia. They + are here called "Quaich-quaich," from their strange loud voice, which + seems to repeat these words in various and not unmelodious intonations. + </p> + <p> + Every day boys were to be seen walking along the roads and by the hedges + and ditches, catching dragonflies with birdlime. They carry a slender + stick, with a few twigs at the end well annointed, so that the least touch + captures the insect, whose wings are pulled off before it is consigned to + a small basket. The dragon-flies are so abundant at the time of the rice + flowering that thousands are soon caught in this way. The bodies are fried + in oil with onions and preserved shrimps, or sometimes alone, and are + considered a great delicacy. In Borneo, Celebes, and many other islands, + the larvae of bees and wasps are eaten, either alive as pulled out of the + cells, or fried like the dragonflies. In the Moluccas the grubs of the + palm-beetles (Calandra) are regularly brought to market in bamboos and + sold for food; and many of the great horned Lamellicorn beetles are + slightly roasted on the embers and eaten whenever met with. The + superabundance of insect life is therefore turned to some account by these + islanders. + </p> + <p> + Finding that birds were not very numerous, and hearing much of Labuan + Tring at the southern extremity of the bay, where there was said to be + much uncultivated country and plenty of birds as well as deer and wild + pigs, I determined to go there with my two servants, Ali, the Malay lad + from Borneo, and Manuel, a Portuguese of Malacca accustomed to + bird-skinning. I hired a native boat with outriggers to take us with our + small quantity of luggage, and a day's rowing and tracking along the shore + brought us to the place. + </p> + <p> + I had a note of introduction to an Amboynese Malay, and obtained the use + of part of his house to live and work in. His name was "Inchi Daud" (Mr. + David), and he was very civil; but his accommodations were limited, and he + could only hire me part of his reception-room. This was the front part of + a bamboo house (reached by a ladder of about six rounds very wide apart), + and having a beautiful view over the bay. However, I soon made what + arrangements were possible, and then set to work. The country around was + pretty and novel to me, consisting of abrupt volcanic hills enclosing flat + valleys or open plains. The hills were covered with a dense scrubby bush + of bamboos and prickly trees and shrubs, the plains were adorned with + hundreds of noble palm-trees, and in many places with a luxuriant shrubby + vegetation. Birds were plentiful and very interesting, and I now saw for + the first time many Australian forms that are quite absent from the + islands westward. Small white cockatoos were abundant, and their loud + screams, conspicuous white colour, and pretty yellow crests, rendered them + a very important feature in the landscape. This is the most westerly point + on the globe where any of the family are to be found. Some small + honeysuckers of the genus Ptilotis, and the strange moundmaker (Megapodius + gouldii), are also here first met with on the traveller's journey + eastward. The last mentioned bird requires a fuller notice. + </p> + <p> + The Megapodidae are a small family of birds found only in Australia and + the surrounding islands, but extending as far as the Philippines and + Northwest Borneo. They are allied to the gallinaceous birds, but differ + from these and from all others in never sitting upon their eggs, which + they bury in sand, earth, or rubbish, and leave to be hatched by the heat + of the sun or by fermentation. They are all characterised by very large + feet and long curved claws, and most of the species of Megapodius rake and + scratch together all kinds of rubbish, dead leaves, sticks, stones, earth, + rotten wood, etc., until they form a large mound, often six feet high and + twelve feet across, in the middle of which they bury their eggs. The + natives can tell by the condition of these mounds whether they contain + eggs or not; and they rob them whenever they can, as the brick-red eggs + (as large as those of a swan) are considered a great delicacy. A number of + birds are said to join in making these mounds and lay their eggs together, + so that sometimes forty or fifty may be found. The mounds are to be met + with here and there in dense thickets, and are great puzzles to strangers, + who cannot understand who can possibly have heaped together cartloads of + rubbish in such out-of-the-way places; and when they inquire of the + natives they are but little wiser, for it almost always appears to them + the wildest romance to be told that it is all done by birds. The species + found in Lombock is about the size of a small hen, and entirely of dark + olive and brown tints. It is a miscellaneous feeder, devouring fallen + fruits, earthworms, snails, and centipedes, but the flesh is white and + well-flavoured when properly cooked. + </p> + <p> + The large green pigeons were still better eating, and were much more + plentiful. These fine birds, exceeding our largest tame pigeons in size, + abounded on the palm-trees, which now bore huge bunches of fruits—mere + hard globular nuts, about an inch in diameter, and covered with a dry + green skin and a very small portion of pulp. Looking at the pigeon's bill + and head, it would seem impossible that it could swallow such large + masses, or that it could obtain any nourishment from them; yet I often + shot these birds with several palm-fruits in the crop, which generally + burst when they fell to the ground. I obtained here eight species of + Kingfishers; among which was a very beautiful new one, named by Mr. Gould, + Halcyon fulgidus. It was found always in thickets, away from water, and + seemed to feed on snails and insects picked up from the ground after the + manner of the great Laughing Jackass of Australia. The beautiful little + violet and orange species (Ceyx rufidorsa) is found in similar situations, + and darts rapidly along like a flame of fire. Here also I first met with + the pretty Australian Bee-eater (Merops ornatus). This elegant little bird + sits on twigs in open places, gazing eagerly around, and darting off at + intervals to seize some insect which it sees flying near; returning + afterwards to the same twig to swallow it. Its long, sharp, curved bill, + the two long narrow feathers in its tail, its beautiful green plumage + varied with rich brown and black and vivid blue on the throat, render it + one of the most graceful and interesting objects a naturalist can see for + the first time. + </p> + <p> + Of all the birds of Lombock, however, I sought most after the beautiful + ground thrushes (Pitta concinna), and always thought myself lucky if I + obtained one. They were found only in the dry plains densely covered with + thickets, and carpeted at this season with dead leaves. They were so shy + that it was very difficult to get a shot at them, and it was only after a + good deal of practice that I discovered how to do it. The habit of these + birds is to hop about on the ground, picking up insects, and on the least + alarm to run into the densest thicket or take a flight close to the + ground. At intervals they utter a peculiar cry of two notes which when + once heard is easily recognised, and they can also be heard hopping along + among the dry leaves. + </p> + <p> + My practice was, therefore, to walk cautiously along the narrow pathways + with which the country abounded, and on detecting any sign of a Pitta's + vicinity to stand motionless and give a gentle whistle occasionally, + imitating the notes as near as possible. After half an hour's waiting I + was often rewarded by seeing the pretty bird hopping along in the thicket. + Then I would perhaps lose sight of it again, until having my gun raised + and ready for a shot, a second glimpse would enable me to secure my prize, + and admire its soft puffy plumage and lovely colours. The upper part is + rich soft green, the head jet black with a stripe of blue and brown over + each eye; at the base of the tail and on the shoulders are bands of bright + silvery blue; the under side is delicate buff with a stripe of rich + crimson, bordered with black on the belly. Beautiful grass-green doves, + little crimson and black flower-peckers, large black cuckoos, metallic + king-crows, golden orioles, and the fine jungle-cocks—the origin of + all our domestic breeds of poultry—were among the birds that chiefly + attracted my attention during our stay at Labuan Tring. + </p> + <p> + The most characteristic feature of the jungle was its thorniness. The + shrubs were thorny; the creepers were thorny; the bamboos even were + thorny. Everything grew zigzag and jagged, and in an inextricable tangle, + so that to get through the bush with gun or net or even spectacles, was + generally not to be done, and insect-catching in such localities was out + of the question. It was in such places that the Pittas often lurked, and + when shot it became a matter of some difficulty to secure the bird, and + seldom without a heavy payment of pricks and scratches and torn clothes + could the prize be won. The dry volcanic soil and arid climate seem + favourable to the production of such stunted and thorny vegetation, for + the natives assured me that this was nothing to the thorns and prickles of + Sumbawa whose surface still bears the covering of volcanic ashes thrown + out forty years ago by the terrible eruption of Tomboro. + </p> + <p> + Among the shrubs and trees that are not prickly the Apocynaceae were most + abundant, their bilobed fruits of varied form and colour and often of most + tempting appearance, hanging everywhere by the waysides as if to invite to + destruction the weary traveller who may be unaware of their poisonous + properties. One in particular with a smooth shining skin of a golden + orange colour rivals in appearance the golden apples of the Hesperides, + and has great attractions for many birds, from the white cockatoos to the + little yellow Zosterops, who feast on the crimson seeds which are + displayed when the fruit bursts open. The great palm called "Gubbong" by + the natives, a species of Corypha, is the most striking feature of the + plains, where it grows by thousands and appears in three different states—in + leaf, in flower and fruit, or dead. It has a lofty cylindrical stem about + a hundred feet high and two to three feet in diameter; the leaves are + large and fan-shaped, and fall off when the tree flowers, which it does + only once in its life in a huge terminal spike, upon which are produced + masses of a smooth round fruit of a green colour and about an inch in + diameter. When these ripen and fall the tree dies, and remains standing a + year or two before it falls. Trees in leaf only are by far the most + numerous, then those in flower and fruit, while dead trees are scattered + here and there among them. The trees in fruit are the resort of the great + green fruit pigeons, which have been already mentioned. Troops of monkeys + (Macacus cynomolgus) may often be seen occupying a tree, showering down + the fruit in great profusion, chattering when disturbed and making an + enormous rustling as they scamper off among the dead palm leaves; while + the pigeons have a loud booming voice more like the roar of a wild beast + than the note of a bird. + </p> + <p> + My collecting operations here were carried on under more than usual + difficulties. One small room had to serve for eating, sleeping and + working, and one for storehouse and dissecting-room; in it were no + shelves, cupboards, chairs or tables; ants swarmed in every part of it, + and dogs, cats and fowls entered it at pleasure. Besides this it was the + parlour and reception-room of my host, and I was obliged to consult his + convenience and that of the numerous guests who visited us. My principal + piece of furniture was a box, which served me as a dining table, a seat + while skinning birds, and as the receptacle of the birds when skinned and + dried. To keep them free from ants we borrowed, with some difficulty, an + old bench, the four legs of which being placed in cocoa-nut shells filled + with water kept us tolerably free from these pests. The box and the bench + were, however, literally the only places where anything could be put away, + and they were generally well occupied by two insect boxes and about a + hundred birds' skins in process of drying. It may therefore be easily + conceived that when anything bulky or out of the common way was collected, + the question "Where is it to be put?" was rather a difficult one to + answer. All animal substances moreover require some time to dry + thoroughly, emit a very disagreeable odour while doing so, and are + particularly attractive to ants, flies, dogs, rats, cats, and other + vermin, calling for special cautions and constant supervision, which under + the circumstances above described were impossible. + </p> + <p> + My readers may now partially understand why a travelling naturalist of + limited means, like myself, does so much less than is expected or than he + would himself wish to do. It would be interesting to preserve skeletons of + many birds and animals, reptiles and fishes in spirits, skins of the + larger animals, remarkable fruits and woods and the most curious articles + of manufacture and commerce; but it will be seen that under the + circumstances I have just described, it would have been impossible to add + these to the collections which were my own more especial favourites. When + travelling by boat the difficulties are as great or greater, and they are + not diminished when the journey is by land. It was absolutely necessary + therefore to limit my collections to certain groups to which I could + devote constant personal attention, and thus secure from destruction or + decay what had been often obtained by much labour and pains. + </p> + <p> + While Manuel sat skinning his birds of an afternoon, generally surrounded + by a little crowd of Malays and Sassaks (as the indigenes of Lombock are + termed), he often held forth to them with the air of a teacher, and was + listened to with profound attention. He was very fond of discoursing on + the "special providences" of which he believed he was daily the subject. + "Allah has been merciful today," he would say—for although a + Christian he adopted the Mahometan mode of speech—"and has given us + some very fine birds; we can do nothing without him." Then one of the + Malays would reply, "To be sure, birds are like mankind; they have their + appointed time to die; when that time comes nothing can save them, and if + it has not come you cannot kill them." A murmur of assent follow, until + sentiments and cries of "Butul! Butul!" (Right, right.) Then Manuel would + tell a long story of one of his unsuccessful hunts—how he saw some + fine bird and followed it a long way, and then missed it, and again found + it, and shot two or three times at it, but could never hit it, "Ah!" says + an old Malay, "its time was not come, and so it was impossible for you to + kill it." A doctrine is this which is very consoling to the bad marksman, + and which quite accounts for the facts, but which is yet somehow not + altogether satisfactory. + </p> + <p> + It is universally believed in Lombock that some men have the power to turn + themselves into crocodiles, which they do for the sake of devouring their + enemies, and many strange tales are told of such transformations. I was + therefore rather surprised one evening to hear the following curious fact + stated, and as it was not contradicted by any of the persons present, I am + inclined to accept it provisionally as a contribution to the Natural + History of the island. A Bornean Malay who had been for many years + resident here said to Manuel, "One thing is strange in this country—the + scarcity of ghosts." "How so?" asked Manuel. "Why, you know," said the + Malay, "that in our countries to the westward, if a man dies or is killed, + we dare not pass near the place at night, for all sorts of noises are + heard which show that ghosts are about. But here there are numbers of men + killed, and their bodies lie unburied in the fields and by the roadside, + and yet you can walk by them at night and never hear or see anything at + all, which is not the case in our country, as you know very well." + "Certainly I do," said Manuel; and so it was settled that ghosts were very + scarce, if not altogether unknown in Lombock. I would observe, however, + that as the evidence is purely negative we should be wanting in scientific + caution if we accepted this fact as sufficiently well established. + </p> + <p> + One evening I heard Manuel, Ali, and a Malay man whispering earnestly + together outside the door, and could distinguish various allusions to + "krisses," throat-cutting, heads, etc. etc. At length Manuel came in, + looking very solemn and frightened, and said to me in English, "Sir—must + take care,—no safe here;—want cut throat." On further inquiry, + I found that the Malay had been telling them that the Rajah had just sent + down an order to the village, that they were to get a certain number of + heads for an offering in the temples to secure a good crop of rice. Two or + three other Malays and Bugis, as well as the Amboyna man in whose house we + lived, confirmed this account, and declared that it was a regular thing + every year, and that it was necessary to keep a good watch and never go + out alone. I laughed at the whole thing, and tried to persuade them that + it was a mere tale, but to no effect. They were all firmly persuaded that + their lives were in danger. Manuel would not go out shooting alone, and I + was obliged to accompany him every morning, but I soon gave him the slip + in the jungle. Ali was afraid to go and look for firewood without a + companion, and would not even fetch water from the well a few yards behind + the house unless armed with an enormous spear. I was quite sure all the + time that no such order had been sent or received, and that we were in + perfect safety. This was well shown shortly afterwards, when an American + sailor ran away from his ship on the east side of the island, and made his + way on foot and unarmed across to Ampanam, having met with the greatest + hospitality on the whole route. Nowhere would the smallest payment be + taken for the food and lodging which were willingly furbished him. On + pointing out this fact to Manuel, he replied, "He one bad man,—run + away from his ship—no one can believe word he say;" and so I was + obliged to leave him in the uncomfortable persuasion that he might any day + have his throat cut. + </p> + <p> + A circumstance occurred here which appeared to throw some light on the + cause of the tremendous surf at Ampanam. One evening I heard a strange + rumbling noise, and at the same time the house shook slightly. Thinking it + might be thunder, I asked, "What is that?" "It is an earthquake," answered + Inchi Daud, my host; and he then told me that slight shocks were + occasionally felt there, but he had never known them to be severe. This + happened on the day of the last quarter of the moon, and consequently when + tides were low and the surf usually at its weakest. On inquiry afterwards + at Ampanam, I found that no earthquake had been noticed, but that on one + night there had been a very heavy surf, which shook the house, and the + next day there was a very high tide, the water having flooded Mr. Carter's + premises, higher than he had ever known it before. These unusual tides + occur every now and then, and are not thought much of; but by careful + inquiry I ascertained that the surf had occurred on the very night I had + felt the earthquake at Labuan Tring, nearly twenty miles off. This would + seem to indicate, that although the ordinary heavy surf may be due to the + swell of the great Southern Ocean confined in a narrow channel, combined + with a peculiar form of bottom near the shore, yet the sudden heavy surfs + and high tides that occur occasionally in perfectly calm weather, may be + due to slight upheavals of the ocean-bed in this eminently volcanic + region. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. LOMBOCK: MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE. + </h2> + <p> + HAVING made a very fine and interesting collection of the birds of Labuan + Tring, I took leave of my kind host, Inchi Daud, and returned to Ampanam + to await an opportunity to reach Macassar. As no vessel had arrived bound + for that port, I determined to make an excursion into the interior of the + island, accompanied by Mr. Ross, an Englishman born in the Keeling + Islands, and now employed by the Dutch Government to settle the affairs of + a missionary who had unfortunately become bankrupt here. Mr. Carter kindly + lent me a horse, and Mr. Ross took his native groom. + </p> + <p> + Our route for some distance lay along a perfectly level country bearing + ample crops of rice. The road was straight and generally bordered with + lofty trees forming a fine avenue. It was at first sandy, afterwards + grassy, with occasional streams and mudholes. At a distance about four + miles we reached Mataram, the capital of the island and the residence of + the Rajah. It is a large village with wide streets bordered by a + magnificent avenue of trees, and low houses concealed behind mud walls. + Within this royal city no native of the lower orders is allowed to ride, + and our attendant, a Javanese, was obliged to dismount and lead his horse + while we rode slowly through. The abodes of the Rajah and of the High + Priest are distinguished by pillars of red brick constructed with much + taste; but the palace itself seemed to differ but little from the ordinary + houses of the country. Beyond Mataram and close to it is Karangassam, the + ancient residence of the native or Sassak Rajahs before the conquest of + the island by the Balinese. + </p> + <p> + Soon after passing Mataram the country began gradually to rise in gentle + undulations, swelling occasionally into low hills towards the two + mountainous tracts in the northern and southern parts of the island. It + was now that I first obtained an adequate idea of one of the most + wonderful systems of cultivation in the world, equalling all that is + related of Chinese industry, and as far as I know surpassing in the labour + that has been bestowed upon it any tract of equal extent in the most + civilized countries of Europe. I rode through this strange garden utterly + amazed and hardly able to realize the fact that in this remote and little + known island, from which all Europeans except a few traders at the port + are jealously excluded, many hundreds of square miles of irregularly + undulating country have been so skillfully terraced and levelled, and so + permeated by artificial channels, that every portion of it can be + irrigated and dried at pleasure. According as the slope of the ground is + more or less rapid, each terraced plot consists in some places of many + acres, in others of a few square yards. We saw them in every state of + cultivation; some in stubble, some being ploughed, some with rice-crops in + various stages of growth. Here were luxuriant patches of tobacco; there, + cucumbers, sweet potatoes, yams, beans or Indian-corn varied the scene. In + some places the ditches were dry, in others little streams crossed our + road and were distributed over lands about to be sown or planted. The + banks which bordered every terrace rose regularly in horizontal lines + above each other; sometimes rounding an abrupt knoll and looking like a + fortification, or sweeping around some deep hollow and forming on a + gigantic scale the seats of an amphitheatre. Every brook and rivulet had + been diverted from its bed, and instead of flowing along the lowest + ground, were to be found crossing our road half-way up an ascent, yet + bordered by ancient trees and moss-grown stones so as to have all the + appearance of a natural channel, and bearing testimony to the remote + period at which the work had been done. As we advanced further into the + country, the scene was diversified by abrupt rocky hills, by steep + ravines, and by clumps of bamboos and palm-trees near houses or villages; + while in the distance the fine range of mountains of which Lombock Peak, + eight thousand feet high, is the culminating point, formed a fit + background to a view scarcely to be surpassed either in human interest or + picturesque beauty. + </p> + <p> + Along the first part of our road we passed hundreds of women carrying + rice, fruit, and vegetables to market; and further on, an almost + uninterrupted line of horses laden with rice in bags or in the ear, on + their way to the port of Ampanam. At every few miles along the road, + seated under shady trees or slight sheds, were sellers of sugar-cane, + palm-wine, cooked rice, salted eggs, and fried plantains, with a few other + native delicacies. At these stalls a hearty meal may be made for a penny, + but we contented ourselves with drinking some sweet palm-wine, a most + delicious beverage in the heat of the day. After having travelled about + twenty miles we reached a higher and drier region, where, water being + scarce, cultivation was confined to the little flats bordering the + streams. Here the country was as beautiful as before, but of a different + character; consisting of undulating downs of short turf interspersed with + fine clumps of trees and bushes, sometimes the woodland, sometimes the + open ground predominating. We only passed through one small patch of true + forest, where we were shaded by lofty trees, and saw around us a dark and + dense vegetation, highly agreeable after the heat and glare of the open + country. + </p> + <p> + At length, about an hour after noon, we reached our destination—the + village of Coupang, situated nearly in the centre of the island—and + entered the outer court of a house belonging to one of the chiefs with + whom my friend Mr. Ross had a slight acquaintance. Here we were requested + to seat ourselves under an open shed with a raised floor of bamboo, a + place used to receive visitors and hold audiences. Turning our horses to + graze on the luxuriant grass of the courtyard, we waited until the great + man's Malay interpreter appeared, who inquired our business and informed + us that the Pumbuckle (chief) was at the Rajah's house, but would soon be + back. As we had not yet breakfasted, we begged he would get us something + to eat, which he promised to do as soon as possible. It was however about + two hours before anything appeared, when a small tray was brought + containing two saucers of rice, four small fried fish, and a few + vegetables. Having made as good a breakfast as we could, we strolled about + the village, and returning, amused ourselves by conversation with a number + of men and boys who gathered around us; and by exchanging glances and + smiles with a number of women and girls who peeped at us through + half-opened doors and other crevices. Two little boys named Mousa and Isa + (Moses and Jesus) were great friends with us, and an impudent little + rascal called Kachang (a bean) made us all laugh by his mimicry and + antics. + </p> + <p> + At length, about four o'clock, the Pumbuckle made his appearance, and we + informed him of our desire to stay with him a few days, to shoot birds and + see the country. At this he seemed somewhat disturbed, and asked if we had + brought a letter from the Anak Agong (Son of Heaven) which is the title of + the Rajah of Lombock. This we had not done, thinking it quite unnecessary; + and he then abruptly told us that he must go and speak to his Rajah, to + see if we could stay. Hours passed away, night came, and he did not + return. I began to think we were suspected of some evil designs, for the + Pumbuckle was evidently afraid of getting himself into trouble. He is a + Sassak prince, and, though a supporter of the present Rajah, is related to + some of the heads of a conspiracy which was quelled a few years since. + </p> + <p> + About five o'clock a pack-horse bearing my guns and clothes arrived, with + my men Ali and Manuel, who had come on foot. The sun set, and it soon + became dark, and we got rather hungry as we sat wearily under the shed and + no one came. Still hour after hour we waited, until about nine o'clock, + the Pumbuckle, the Rajah, some priests, and a number of their followers + arrived and took their seats around us. We shook hands, and for some + minutes there was a dead silence. Then the Rajah asked what we wanted; to + which Mr. Ross replied by endeavouring to make them understand who we + were, and why we had come, and that we had no sinister intentions + whatever; and that we had not brought a letter from the "Anak Agong," + merely because we had thought it quite unnecessary. A long conversation in + the Bali language then took place, and questions were asked about my guns, + and what powder I had, and whether I used shot or bullets; also what the + birds were for, and how I preserved them, and what was done with them in + England. Each of my answers and explanations was followed by a low and + serious conversation which we could not understand, but the purport of + which we could guess. They were evidently quite puzzled, and did not + believe a word we had told them. They then inquired if we were really + English, and not Dutch; and although we strongly asserted our nationality, + they did not seem to believe us. + </p> + <p> + After about an hour, however, they brought us some supper (which was the + same as the breakfast, but without the fish), and after it some very weak + coffee and pumpkins boiled with sugar. Having discussed this, a second + conference took place; questions were again asked, and the answers again + commented on. Between whiles lighter topics were discussed. My spectacles + (concave glasses) were tried in succession by three or four old men, who + could not make out why they could not see through them, and the fact no + doubt was another item of suspicion against me. My beard, too, was the + subject of some admiration, and many questions were asked about personal + peculiarities which it is not the custom to allude to in European society. + At length, about one in the morning, the whole party rose to depart, and, + after conversing some time at the gate, all went away. We now begged the + interpreter, who with a few boys and men remained about us, to show us a + place to sleep in, at which he seemed very much surprised, saying he + thought we were very well accommodated where we were. It was quite chilly, + and we were very thinly clad and had brought no blankets, but all we could + get after another hour's talk was a native mat and pillow, and a few old + curtains to hang round three sides of the open shed and protect us a + little from the cold breeze. We passed the rest of the night very + uncomfortably, and determined to return in the morning and not submit any + longer to such shabby treatment. + </p> + <p> + We rose at daybreak, but it was near an hour before the interpreter made + his appearance. We then asked to have some coffee and to see the + Pumbuckle, as we wanted a horse for Ali, who was lame, and wished to bid + him adieu. The man looked puzzled at such unheard-of demands and vanished + into the inner court, locking the door behind him and leaving us again to + our meditations. An hour passed and no one came, so I ordered the horses + to be saddled and the pack-horse to be loaded, and prepared to start. Just + then the interpreter came up on horse back, and looked aghast at our + preparations. "Where is the Pumbuckle?" we asked. "Gone to the Rajah's," + said he. "We are going," said I. "Oh! pray don't," said he; "wait a + little; they are having a consultation, and some priests are coming to see + you, and a chief is going off to Mataram to ask the permission of the Anak + Agong for you to stay." This settled the matter. More talk, more delay, + and another eight or ten hours' consultation were not to be endured; so we + started at once, the poor interpreter almost weeping at our obstinacy and + hurry, and assuring us "the Pumbuckle would be very sorry, and the Rajah + would be very sorry, and if we would but wait all would be right." I gave + Ali my horse, and started on foot, but he afterwards mounted behind Mr. + Ross's groom, and we got home very well, though rather hot and tired. + </p> + <p> + At Mataram we called at the house of Gusti Gadioca, one of the princes of + Lombock, who was a friend of Mr. Carter's, and who had promised to show me + the guns made by native workmen. Two guns were exhibited, one six, the + other seven feet long, and of a proportionably large bore. The barrels + were twisted and well finished, though not so finely worked as ours. The + stock was well made, and extended to the end of the barrel. Silver and + gold ornament was inlaid over most of the surface, but the locks were + taken from English muskets. The Gusti assured me, however, that the Rajah + had a man who made locks and also rifled barrels. The workshop where these + guns are made and the tools used were next shown us, and were very + remarkable. An open shed with a couple of small mud forges were the chief + objects visible. The bellows consisted of two bamboo cylinders, with + pistons worked by hand. They move very easily, having a loose stuffing of + feathers thickly set round the piston so as to act as a valve, and produce + a regular blast. Both cylinders communicate with the same nozzle, one + piston rising while the other falls. An oblong piece of iron on the ground + was the anvil, and a small vice was fixed on the projecting root of a tree + outside. These, with a few files and hammers, were literally the only + tools with which an old man makes these fine guns, finishing then himself + from the rough iron and wood. + </p> + <p> + I was anxious to know how they bored these long barrels, which seemed + perfectly true and are said to shoot admirably; and, on asking the Gusti, + received the enigmatical answer: "We use a basket full of stones." Being + utterly unable to imagine what he could mean, I asked if I could see how + they did it, and one of the dozen little boys around us was sent to fetch + the basket. He soon returned with this most extraordinary boring-machine, + the mode of using which the Gusti then explained to me. It was simply a + strong bamboo basket, through the bottom of which was stuck upright a pole + about three feet long, kept in its place by a few sticks tied across the + top with rattans. + </p> + <p> + The bottom of the pole has an iron ring, and a hole in which four-cornered + borers of hardened iron can be fitted. The barrel to be bored is buried + upright in the ground, the borer is inserted into it, the top of the stick + or vertical shaft is held by a cross-piece of bamboo with a hole in it, + and the basket is filled with stones to get the required weight. Two boys + turn the bamboo round. The barrels are made in pieces of about eighteen + inches long, which are first bored small, and then welded together upon a + straight iron rod. The whole barrel is then worked with borers of + gradually increasing size, and in three days the boring is finished. The + whole matter was explained in such a straightforward manner that I have no + doubt the process described to me was that actually used; although, when + examining one of the handsome, well-finished, and serviceable guns, it was + very hard to realize the fact that they had been made from first to last + with tools hardly sufficient for an English blacksmith to make a + horseshoe. + </p> + <p> + The day after we returned from our excursion, the Rajah came to Ampanam to + a feast given by Gusti Gadioca, who resides there; and soon after his + arrival we went to have an audience. We found him in a large courtyard + sitting on a mat under a shady tree; and all his followers, to the number + of three or four hundred, squatting on the ground in a large circle round + him. He wore a sarong or Malay petticoat and a green jacket. He was a man + about thirty-five years of age, and of a pleasing countenance, with some + appearance of intellect combined with indecision. We bowed, and took our + seats on the ground near some chiefs we were acquainted with, for while + the Rajah sits no one can stand or sit higher. He first inquired who I + was, and what I was doing in Lombock, and then requested to see some of my + birds. I accordingly sent for one of my boxes of bird-skins and one of + insects, which he examined carefully, and seemed much surprised that they + could be so well preserved. We then had a little conversation about Europe + and the Russian war, in which all natives take an interest. Having heard + much of a country-seat of the Rajah's called Gunong Sari, I took the + opportunity to ask permission to visit it and shoot a few birds there + which he immediately granted. I then thanked him, and we took our leave. + </p> + <p> + An hour after, his son came to visit Mr. Carter accompanied by about a + hundred followers, who all sat on the ground while he came into the open + shed where Manuel was skinning birds. After some time he went into the + house, had a bed arranged to sleep a little, then drank some wine, and + after an hour or two had dinner brought him from the Gusti's house, which + he ate with eight of the principal priests and princes, he pronounced a + blessing over the rice and commenced eating first, after which the rest + fell to. They rolled up balls of rice in their hands, dipped them in the + gravy and swallowed them rapidly, with little pieces of meat and fowl + cooked in a variety of ways. A boy fanned the young Rajah while eating. He + was a youth of about fifteen, and had already three wives. All wore the + kris, or Malay crooked dagger, on the beauty and value of which they + greatly pride themselves. A companion of the Rajah's had one with a golden + handle, in which were set twenty-eight diamonds and several other jewels. + He said it had cost him £700. The sheaths are of ornamental wood and + ivory, often covered on one side with gold. The blades are beautifully + veined with white metal worked into the iron, and they are kept very + carefully. Every man without exception carries a kris, stuck behind into + the large waist-cloth which all wear, and it is generally the most + valuable piece of property he possesses. + </p> + <p> + A few days afterwards our long-talked-of excursion to Gunong Sari took + place. Our party was increased by the captain and supercargo of a Hamburg + ship loading with rice for China. We were mounted on a very miscellaneous + lot of Lombock ponies, which we had some difficulty in supplying with the + necessary saddles, etc.; and most of us had to patch up our girths, + bridles, or stirrup-leathers as best we could. We passed through Mataram, + where we were joined by our friend Gusti Gadioca, mounted on a handsome + black horse, and riding as all the natives do, without saddle or stirrups, + using only a handsome saddlecloth and very ornamental bridle. + </p> + <p> + About three miles further, along pleasant byways, brought us to the place. + We entered through a rather handsome brick gateway supported by hideous + Hindu deities in stone. Within was an enclosure with two square fish-ponds + and some fine trees; then another gateway through which we entered into a + park. On the right was a brick house, built somewhat in the Hindu style, + and placed on a high terrace or platform; on the left a large fish-pond, + supplied by a little rivulet which entered it out of the mouth of a + gigantic crocodile well executed in brick and stone. The edges of the pond + were bricked, and in the centre rose a fantastic and picturesque pavilion + ornamented with grotesque statues. The pond was well stocked with fine + fish, which come every morning to be fed at the sound of a wooden gong + which is hung near for the purpose. On striking it a number of fish + immediately came out of the masses of weed with which the pond abounds, + and followed us along the margin expecting food. At the same time some + deer came out of as adjacent wood, which, from being seldom shot at and + regularly fed, are almost tame. The jungle and woods which surrounded the + park appearing to abound in birds, I went to shoot a few, and was rewarded + by getting several specimens of the fine new kingfisher, Halcyon fulgidus, + and the curious and handsome ground thrush, Zoothera andromeda. The former + belies its name by not frequenting water or feeding on fish. It lives + constantly in low damp thickets picking up ground insects, centipedes, and + small mollusca. Altogether I was much pleased with my visit to this place, + and it gave me a higher opinion than I had before entertained of the taste + of these people, although the style of the buildings and of the sculpture + is very much inferior to those of the magnificent ruins in Java. + </p> + <p> + I must now say a few words about the character, manners, and customs of + these interesting people. + </p> + <p> + The aborigines of Lombock are termed Sassaks. They are a Malay race hardly + differing in appearance from the people of Malacca or Borneo. They are + Mahometans and form the bulk of the population. The ruling classes, on the + other hand, are natives of the adjacent island of Bali, and are of the + Brahminical religion. The government is an absolute monarchy, but it seems + to be conducted with more wisdom and moderation than is usual in Malay + countries. The father of the present Rajah conquered the island, and the + people seem now quite reconciled to their new rulers, who do not interfere + with their religion, and probably do not tax them any heavier than did the + native chiefs they have supplanted. The laws now in force in Lombock are + very severe. Theft is punished by death. Mr. Carter informed me that a man + once stole a metal coffee-pot from his house. He was caught, the pot + restored, and the man brought to Mr. Carter to punish as he thought fit. + All the natives recommended Mr. Carter to have him "krissed" on the spot; + "for if you don't," said they, "he will rob you again." Mr. Carter, + however, let him off with a warning, that if he ever came inside his + premises again he would certainly be shot. A few months afterwards the + same man stole a horse from Mr. Carter. The horse was recovered, but the + thief was not caught. It is an established rule, that anyone found in a + house after dark, unless with the owner's knowledge, may be stabbed, his + body thrown out into the street or upon the beach, and no questions will + be asked. + </p> + <p> + The men are exceedingly jealous and very strict with their wives. A + married woman may not accept a cigar or a sirih leaf from a stranger under + pain of death. I was informed that some years ago one of the English + traders had a Balinese woman of good family living with him—the + connection being considered quite honourable by the natives. During some + festival this girl offended against the law by accepting a flower or some + such trifle from another man. This was reported to the Rajah (to some of + whose wives the girl was related), and he immediately sent to the + Englishman's house ordering him to give the woman up as she must be + "krissed." In vain he begged and prayed, and offered to pay any fine the + Rajah might impose, and finally refused to give her up unless he was + forced to do so. This the Rajah did not wish to resort to, as he no doubt + thought he was acting as much for the Englishman's honour as for his own; + so he appeared to let the matter drop. But some time afterwards he sent + one of his followers to the house, who beckoned the girl to the door, and + then saying, "The Rajah sends you this," stabbed her to the heart. More + serious infidelity is punished still more cruelly, the woman and her + paramour being tied back to back and thrown into the sea, where some large + crocodiles are always on the watch to devour the bodies. One such + execution took place while I was at Ampanam, but I took a long walk into + the country to be out of the way until it was all over, thus missing the + opportunity of having a horrible narrative to enliven my somewhat tedious + story. + </p> + <p> + One morning, as we were sitting at breakfast, Mr. Carter's servant + informed us that there was an "Amok" in the village—in other words, + that a man was "running a muck." Orders were immediately given to shut and + fasten the gates of our enclosure; but hearing nothing for some time, we + went out, and found there had been a false alarm, owing to a slave having + run away, declaring he would "amok," because his master wanted to sell + him. A short time before, a man had been killed at a gaming-table because, + having lost half-a-dollar more than he possessed, he was going to "amok." + Another had killed or wounded seventeen people before he could be + destroyed. In their wars a whole regiment of these people will sometimes + agree to "amok," and then rush on with such energetic desperation as to be + very formidable to men not so excited as themselves. Among the ancients + these would have been looked upon as heroes or demigods who sacrificed + themselves for their country. Here it is simply said—they made + "amok." + </p> + <p> + Macassar is the most celebrated place in the East for "running a muck." + There are said to be one or two a month on the average, and five, ten, or + twenty persons are sometimes killed or wounded at one of them. It is the + national, and therefore the honourable, mode of committing suicide among + the natives of Celebes, and is the fashionable way of escaping from their + difficulties. A Roman fell upon his sword, a Japanese rips up his stomach, + and an Englishman blows out his brains with a pistol. The Bugis mode has + many advantages to one suicidically inclined. A man thinks himself wronged + by society—he is in debt and cannot pay—he is taken for a + slave or has gambled away his wife or child into slavery—he sees no + way of recovering what he has lost, and becomes desperate. He will not put + up with such cruel wrongs, but will be revenged on mankind and die like a + hero. He grasps his kris-handle, and the next moment draws out the weapon + and stabs a man to the heart. He runs on, with bloody kris in his hand, + stabbing at everyone he meets. "Amok! Amok!" then resounds through the + streets. Spears, krisses, knives and guns are brought out against him. He + rushes madly forward, kills all he can—men, women, and children—and + dies overwhelmed by numbers amid all the excitement of a battle. And what + that excitement is those who have been in one best know, but all who have + ever given way to violent passions, or even indulged in violent and + exciting exercises, may form a very good idea. It is a delirious + intoxication, a temporary madness that absorbs every thought and every + energy. And can we wonder at the kris-bearing, untaught, brooding Malay + preferring such a death, looked upon as almost honourable to the + cold-blooded details of suicide, if he wishes to escape from overwhelming + troubles, or the merciless clutches of the hangman and the disgrace of a + public execution, when he has taken the law into his own hands and too + hastily revenged himself upon his enemy? In either case he chooses rather + to "amok." + </p> + <p> + The great staples of the trade of Lombock as well as of Bali are rice and + coffee; the former grown on the plains, the latter on the hills. The rice + is exported very largely to other islands of the Archipelago, to + Singapore, and even to China, and there are generally one or more vessels + loading in the port. It is brought into Ampanam on pack-horses, and almost + every day a string of these would come into Mr. Carter's yard. The only + money the natives will take for their rice is Chinese copper cash, twelve + hundred of which go to a dollar. Every morning two large sacks of this + money had to be counted out into convenient sums for payment. From Bali + quantities of dried beef and ox-tongues are exported, and from Lombock a + good many ducks and ponies. The ducks are a peculiar breed, which have + very long flat bodies, and walk erect almost like penguins. They are + generally of a pale reddish ash colour, and are kept in large flocks. They + are very cheap and are largely consumed by the crews of the rice ships, by + whom they are called Baly-soldiers, but are more generally known elsewhere + as penguin-ducks. + </p> + <p> + My Portuguese bird-stuffer Fernandez now insisted on breaking his + agreement and returning to Singapore; partly from homesickness, but more I + believe from the idea that his life was not worth many months' purchase + among such bloodthirsty and uncivilized peoples. It was a considerable + loss to me, as I had paid him full three times the usual wages for three + months in advance, half of which was occupied in the voyage and the rest + in a place where I could have done without him, owing to there being so + few insects that I could devote my own time to shooting and skinning. A + few days after Fernandez had left, a small schooner came in bound for + Macassar, to which place I took a passage. As a fitting conclusion to my + sketch of these interesting islands, I will narrate an anecdote which I + heard of the present Rajah; and which, whether altogether true or not, + well illustrates native character, and will serve as a means of + introducing some details of the manners and customs of the country to + which I have not yet alluded. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. LOMBOCK: HOW THE RAJAH TOOK THE CENSUS. + </h2> + <p> + The Rajah of Lombock was a very wise man and he showed his wisdom greatly + in the way he took the census. For my readers must know that the chief + revenues of the Rajah were derived from a head-tax of rice, a small + measure being paid annually by every man, woman, and child in the island, + There was no doubt that every one paid this tax, for it was a very light + one, and the land was fertile and the people well off; but it had to pass + through many hands before it reached the Government storehouses. When the + harvest was over the villagers brought their rice to the Kapala kampong, + or head of the village; and no doubt he sometimes had compassion for the + poor or sick and passed over their short measure, and sometimes was + obliged to grant a favour to those who had complaints against him; and + then he must keep up his own dignity by having his granaries better filled + than his neighbours, and so the rice that he took to the "Waidono" that + was over his district was generally good deal less than it should have + been. And all the "Waidonos" had of course to take care of themselves, for + they were all in debt and it was so easy to take a little of the + Government rice, and there would still be plenty for the Rajah. And the + "Gustis" or princes who received the rice from the Waidonos helped + themselves likewise, and so when the harvest was all over and the rice + tribute was all brought in, the quantity was found to be less each year + than the one before. Sickness in one district, and fevers in another, and + failure of the crops in a third, were of course alleged as the cause of + this falling off; but when the Rajah went to hunt at the foot of the great + mountain, or went to visit a "Gusti" on the other side of the island, he + always saw the villages full of people, all looking well-fed and happy. + And he noticed that the krisses of his chiefs and officers were getting + handsomer and handsomer; and the handles that were of yellow wood were + changed for ivory, and those of ivory were changed for gold, and diamonds + and emeralds sparkled on many of them; and he knew very well which way the + tribute-rice went. But as he could not prove it he kept silence, and + resolved in his own heart someday to have a census taken, so that he might + know the number of his people, and not be cheated out of more rice than + was just and reasonable. + </p> + <p> + But the difficulty was how to get this census. He could not go himself + into every village and every house, and count all the people; and if he + ordered it to be done by the regular officers they would quickly + understand what it was for, and the census would be sure to agree exactly + with the quantity of rice he got last year. It was evident therefore that + to answer his purpose no one must suspect why the census was taken; and to + make sure of this, no one must know that there was any census taken at + all. This was a very hard problem; and the Rajah thought and thought, as + hard as a Malay Rajah can be expected to think, but could not solve it; + and so he was very unhappy, and did nothing but smoke and chew betel with + his favourite wife, and eat scarcely anything; and even when he went to + the cock-fight did not seem to care whether his best birds won or lost. + For several days he remained in this sad state, and all the court were + afraid some evil eye had bewitched the Rajah; and an unfortunate Irish + captain who had come in for a cargo of rice and who squinted dreadfully, + was very nearly being krissed, but being first brought to the royal + presence was graciously ordered to go on board and remain there while his + ship stayed in the port. + </p> + <p> + One morning however, after about a week's continuance of this + unaccountable melancholy, a welcome change took place, for the Rajah sent + to call together all the chiefs, priests, and princes who were then in + Mataram, his capital city; and when they were all assembled in anxious + expectation, he thus addressed them: + </p> + <p> + "For many days my heart has been very sick and I knew not why, but now the + trouble is cleared away, for I have had a dream. Last night the spirit of + the 'Gunong Agong'—the great fire mountain—appeared to me, and + told me that I must go up to the top of the mountain. All of you may come + with me to near the top, but then I must go up alone, and the great spirit + will again appear to me and will tell me what is of great importance to me + and to you and to all the people of the island. Now go all of you and make + this known through the island, and let every village furnish men to make + clear a road for us to go through the forest and up the great mountain." + </p> + <p> + So the news was spread over the whole island that the Rajah must go to + meet the great spirit on the top of the mountain; and every village sent + forth its men, and they cleared away the jungle and made bridges over the + mountain streams and smoothed the rough places for the Rajah's passage. + And when they came to the steep and craggy rocks of the mountain, they + sought out the best paths, sometimes along the bed of a torrent, sometimes + along narrow ledges of the black rocks; in one place cutting down a tall + tree so as to bridge across a chasm, in another constructing ladders to + mount the smooth face of a precipice. The chiefs who superintended the + work fixed upon the length of each day's journey beforehand according to + the nature of the road, and chose pleasant places by the banks of clear + streams and in the neighbourhood of shady trees, where they built sheds + and huts of bamboo well thatched with the leaves of palm-trees, in which + the Rajah and his attendants might eat and sleep at the close of each day. + </p> + <p> + And when all was ready, the princes and priests and chief men came again + to the Rajah, to tell him what had been done and to ask him when he would + go up the mountain. And he fixed a day, and ordered every man of rank and + authority to accompany him, to do honour to the great spirit who had bid + him undertake the journey, and to show how willingly they obeyed his + commands. And then there was much preparation throughout the whole island. + The best cattle were killed and the meat salted and sun-dried; and + abundance of red peppers and sweet potatoes were gathered; and the tall + pinang-trees were climbed for the spicy betel nut, the sirih-leaf was tied + up in bundles, and every man filled his tobacco pouch and lime box to the + brim, so that he might not want any of the materials for chewing the + refreshing betel during the journey. The stores of provisions were sent on + a day in advance. And on the day before that appointed for starting, all + the chiefs both great and small came to Mataram, the abode of the king, + with their horses and their servants, and the bearers of their sirih + boxes, and their sleeping-mats, and their provisions. And they encamped + under the tall Waringin-trees that border all the roads about Mataram, and + with blazing fires frighted away the ghouls and evil spirits that nightly + haunt the gloomy avenues. + </p> + <p> + In the morning a great procession was formed to conduct the Rajah to the + mountain. And the royal princes and relations of the Rajah mounted their + black horses whose tails swept the ground; they used no saddle or + stirrups, but sat upon a cloth of gay colours; the bits were of silver and + the bridles of many-coloured cords. The less important people were on + small strong horses of various colours, well suited to a mountain journey; + and all (even the Rajah) were bare-legged to above the knee, wearing only + the gay coloured cotton waist-cloth, a silk or cotton jacket, and a large + handkerchief tastefully folded around the head. Everyone was attended by + one or two servants bearing his sirih and betel boxes, who were also + mounted on ponies; and great numbers more had gone on in advance or waited + to bring up the rear. The men in authority were numbered by hundreds and + their followers by thousands, and all the island wondered what great thing + would come of it. + </p> + <p> + For the first two days they went along good roads and through many + villages which were swept clean, and where bright cloths were hung out at + the windows; and all the people, when the Rajah came, squatted down upon + the ground in respect, and every man riding got off his horse and squatted + down also, and many joined the procession at every village. At the place + where they stopped for the night, the people had placed stakes along each + side of the roads in front of the houses. These were split crosswise at + the top, and in the cleft were fastened little clay lamps, and between + them were stuck the green leaves of palm-trees, which, dripping with the + evening dew, gleamed prettily with the many twinkling lights. And few went + to sleep that night until the morning hours, for every house held a knot + of eager talkers, and much betel-nut was consumed, and endless were the + conjectures what would come of it. + </p> + <p> + On the second day they left the last village behind them and entered the + wild country that surrounds the great mountain, and rested in the huts + that had been prepared for them on the banks of a stream of cold and + sparkling water. And the Rajah's hunters, armed with long and heavy guns, + went in search of deer and wild bulls in the surrounding woods, and + brought home the meat of both in the early morning, and sent it on in + advance to prepare the mid-day meal. On the third day they advanced as far + as horses could go, and encamped at the foot of high rocks, among which + narrow pathways only could be found to reach the mountain-top. And on the + fourth morning when the Rajah set out, he was accompanied only by a small + party of priests and princes with their immediate attendants; and they + toiled wearily up the rugged way, and sometimes were carried by their + servants, until they passed up above the great trees, and then among the + thorny bushes, and above them again on to the black and burned rock of the + highest part of the mountain. + </p> + <p> + And when they were near the summit, the Rajah ordered them all to halt, + while he alone went to meet the great spirit on the very peak of the + mountain. So he went on with two boys only who carried his sirih and + betel, and soon reached the top of the mountain among great rocks, on the + edge of the great gulf whence issue forth continually smoke and vapour. + And the Rajah asked for sirih, and told the boys to sit down under a rock + and look down the mountain, and not to move until he returned to them. And + as they were tired, and the sun was warm and pleasant, and the rock + sheltered them from the cold wind, the boys fell asleep. And the Rajah + went a little way on under another rock; and as he was tired, and the sun + was warm and pleasant, and he too fell asleep. + </p> + <p> + And those who were waiting for the Rajah thought him a long time on the + top of the mountain, and thought the great spirit must have much to say, + or might perhaps want to keep him on the mountain always, or perhaps he + had missed his way in coming down again. And they were debating whether + they should go and search for him, when they saw him coming down with the + two boys. And when he met them he looked very grave, but said nothing; and + then all descended together, and the procession returned as it had come; + and the Rajah went to his palace and the chiefs to their villages, and the + people to their houses, to tell their wives and children all that had + happened, and to wonder yet again what would come of it. + </p> + <p> + And three days afterwards the Rajah summoned the priests and the princes + and the chief men of Mataram, to hear what the great spirit had told him + on the top of the mountain. And when they were all assembled, and the + betel and sirih had been handed round, he told them what had happened. On + the top of the mountain he had fallen into a trance, and the great spirit + had appeared to him with a face like burnished gold, and had said—"Oh + Rajah! much plague and sickness and fevers are coming upon all the earth, + upon men and upon horses and upon cattle; but as you and your people have + obeyed me and have come up to my great mountain, I will teach you how you + and all the people of Lombock may escape this plague." And all waited + anxiously, to hear how they were to be saved from so fearful a calamity. + And after a short silence the Rajah spoke again and told them, that the + great spirit had commanded that twelve sacred krisses should be made, and + that to make them every village and every district must send a bundle of + needles—a needle for every head in the village. And when any + grievous disease appeared in any village, one of the sacred krisses should + be sent there; and if every house in that village had sent the right + number of needles, the disease would immediately cease; but if the number + of needles sent had not been exact, the kris would have no virtue. + </p> + <p> + So the princes and chiefs sent to all their villages and communicated the + wonderful news; and all made haste to collect the needles with the + greatest accuracy, for they feared that if but one were wanting, the whole + village would suffer. So one by one the head men of the villages brought + in their bundles of needles; those who were near Mataram came first, and + those who were far off came last; and the Rajah received them with his own + hands and put them away carefully in an inner chamber, in a camphor-wood + chest whose hinges and clasps were of silver; and on every bundle was + marked the name of the village and the district from whence it came, so + that it might be known that all had heard and obeyed the commands of the + great spirit. + </p> + <p> + And when it was quite certain that every village had sent in its bundle, + the Rajah divided the needles into twelve equal parts, and ordered the + best steelworker in Mataram to bring his forge and his bellows and his + hammers to the palace, and to make the twelve krisses under the Rajah's + eye, and in the sight of all men who chose to see it. And when they were + finished, they were wrapped up in new silk and put away carefully until + they might be wanted. + </p> + <p> + Now the journey to the mountain was in the time of the east wind when no + rain falls in Lombock. And soon after the krisses were made it was the + time of the rice harvest, and the chiefs of districts and of villages + brought their tax to the Rajah according to the number of heads in their + villages. And to those that wanted but little of the full amount, the + Rajah said nothing; but when those came who brought only half or a fourth + part of what was strictly due, he said to them mildly, "The needles which + you sent from your village were many more than came from such-a-one's + village, yet your tribute is less than his; go back and see who it is that + has not paid the tax." And the next year the produce of the tax increased + greatly, for they feared that the Rajah might justly kill those who a + second time kept back the right tribute. And so the Rajah became very + rich, and increased the number of his soldiers, and gave golden jewels to + his wives, and bought fine black horses from the white-skinned Hollanders, + and made great feasts when his children were born or were married; and + none of the Rajahs or Sultans among the Malays were so great or powerful + as the Rajah of Lombock. + </p> + <p> + And the twelve sacred krisses had great virtue. And, when any sickness + appeared in a village one of them was sent for; and sometimes the sickness + went away, and then the sacred kris was taken back again with great + Honour, and the head men of the village came to tell the Rajah of its + miraculous power, and to thank him. And sometimes the sickness would not + go away; and then everybody was convinced that there had been a mistake in + the number of needles sent from that village, and therefore the sacred + kris had no effect, and had to be taken back again by the head men with + heavy hearts, but still, with all honour—for was not the fault their + own? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. TIMOR. + </h2> + <h3> + (COUPANG, 1857-1869. DELLI, 1861.) + </h3> + <p> + THE island of Timor is about three hundred miles long and sixty wide, and + seems to form the termination of the great range of volcanic islands which + begins with Sumatra more than two thousand miles to the west. It differs + however very remarkably from all the other islands of the chain in not + possessing any active volcanoes, with the one exception of Timor Peak near + the centre of the island, which was formerly active, but was blown up + during an eruption in 1638 and has since been quiescent. In no other part + of Timor do there appear to be any recent igneous rocks, so that it can + hardly be classed as a volcanic island. Indeed its position is just + outside of the great volcanic belt, which extends from Flores through + Ombay and Wetter to Banda. + </p> + <p> + I first visited Timor in 1857, staying a day at Coupang, the chief Dutch + town at the west end of the island; and again in May 1859, when I stayed a + fortnight in the same neighbourhood. In the spring of 1861 I spent four + months at Delli, the capital of the Portuguese possessions in the eastern + part of the island. + </p> + <p> + The whole neighbourhood of Coupang appears to have been elevated at a + recent epoch, consisting of a rugged surface of coral rock, which rises in + a vertical wall between the beach and the town, whose low, white, + red-tiled houses give it an appearance very similar to other Dutch + settlements in the East. The vegetation is everywhere scanty and scrubby. + Plants of the families Apocynaceae and Euphorbiaceae, abound; but there is + nothing that can be called a forest, and the whole country has a parched + and desolate appearance, contrasting strongly with the lofty forest trees + and perennial verdure of the Moluccas or of Singapore. The most + conspicuous feature of the vegetation was the abundance of fine fan-leaved + palms (Borassus flabelliformis), from the leaves of which are constructed + the strong and durable water-buckets in general use, and which are much + superior to those formed from any other species of palm. From the same + tree, palm-wine and sugar are made, and the common thatch for houses + formed of the leaves lasts six or seven years without removal. Close to + the town I noticed the foundation of a ruined house below high-water mark, + indicating recent subsidence. Earthquakes are not severe here, and are so + infrequent and harmless that the chief houses are built of stone. + </p> + <p> + The inhabitants of Coupang consist of Malays, Chinese, and Dutch, besides + the natives, so that there are many strange and complicated mixtures among + the population. There is one resident English merchant, and whalers as + well as Australian ships often come here for stores and water. The native + Timorese preponderate, and a very little examination serves to show that + they have nothing in common with Malays, but are much more closely allied + to the true Papuans of the Aru Islands and New Guinea. They are tall, have + pronounced features, large somewhat aquiline noses, and frizzly hair, and + are generally of a dusky brown colour. The way in which the women talk to + each other and to the men, their loud voices and laughter, and general + character of self-assertion, would enable an experienced observer to + decide, even without seeing them, that they were not Malays. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Arndt, a German and the Government doctor, invited me to stay at his + house while in Coupang, and I gladly accepted his offer, as I only + intended making a short visit. We at first began speaking French, but he + got on so badly that we soon passed insensibly into Malay; and we + afterwards held long discussions on literary, scientific, and + philosophical questions in that semi-barbarous language, whose + deficiencies we made up by the free use of French or Latin words. + </p> + <p> + After a few walks in the neighbourhood of the town, I found such a poverty + of insects and birds that I determined to go for a few days to the island + of Semao at the western extremity of Timor, where I heard that there was + forest country with birds not found at Coupang. With some difficulty I + obtained a large dugout boat with outriggers, to take me over a distance + of about twenty miles. I found the country pretty well wooded, but covered + with shrubs and thorny bushes rather than forest trees, and everywhere + excessively parched and dried up by the long-continued dry season. I + stayed at the village of Oeassa, remarkable for its soap springs. One of + these is in the middle of the village, bubbling out from a little cone of + mud to which the ground rises all round like a volcano in miniature. The + water has a soapy feel and produces a strong lather when any greasy + substance is washed in it. It contains alkali and iodine, in such + quantities as to destroy all vegetation for some distance around. Close by + the village is one of the finest springs I have ever seen, contained in + several rocky basins communicating by narrow channels. These have been + neatly walled where required and partly levelled, and form fine natural + baths. The water is well tasted and clear as crystal, and the basins are + surrounded by a grove of lofty many-stemmed banyan-trees, which keep them + always cool and shady, and add greatly to the picturesque beauty of the + scene. + </p> + <p> + The village consists of curious little houses very different from any I + have seen elsewhere. They are of an oval figure, and the walls are made of + sticks about four feet high placed close together. From this rises a high + conical roof thatched with grass. The only opening is a door about three + feet high. The people are like the Timorese with frizzly or wavy hair and + of a coppery brown colour. The better class appear to have a mixture of + some superior race which has much improved their features. I saw in + Coupang some chiefs from the island of Savu further west, who presented + characters very distinct from either the Malay or Papuan races. They most + resembled Hindus, having fine well-formed features and straight thin noses + with clear brown complexions. As the Brahminical religion once spread over + all Java, and even now exists in Bali and Lombock, it is not at all + improbable that some natives of India should have reached this island, + either by accident or to escape persecution, and formed a permanent + settlement there. + </p> + <p> + I stayed at Oeassa four days, when, not finding any insects and very few + new birds, I returned to Coupang to await the next mail steamer. On the + way I had a narrow escape of being swamped. The deep coffin-like boat was + filled up with my baggage, and with vegetables, cocoa-nut and other fruit + for Coupang market, and when we had got some way across into a rather + rough sea, we found that a quantity of water was coming in which we had no + means of baling out. This caused us to sink deeper in the water, and then + we shipped seas over our sides, and the rowers, who had before declared it + was nothing, now became alarmed and turned the boat round to get back to + the coast of Semao, which was not far off. By clearing away some of the + baggage a little of the water could be baled out, but hardly so fast as it + came in, and when we neared the coast we found nothing but vertical walls + of rock against which the sea was violently beating. We coasted along some + distance until we found a little cove, into which we ran the boat, hauled + it on shore, and emptying it found a large hole in the bottom, which had + been temporarily stopped up with a plug of cocoa-nut which had come out. + Had we been a quarter of a mile further off before we discovered the leak, + we should certainly have been obliged to throw most of our baggage + overboard, and might easily have lost our lives. After we had put all + straight and secure we again started, and when we were halfway across got + into such a strong current and high cross sea that we were very nearly + being swamped a second time, which made me vow never to trust myself again + in such small and miserable vessels. + </p> + <p> + The mail steamer did not arrive for a week, and I occupied myself in + getting as many of the birds as I could, and found some which were very + interesting. Among them were five species of pigeons of as many distinct + genera, and most of them peculiar to the island; two parrots—the + fine red-winged broad-tail (Platycercus vulneratus), allied to an + Australian species, and a green species of the genus Geoffroyus. The + Tropidorhynchus timorensis was as ubiquitous and as noisy as I had found + it at Lombock; and the Sphaecothera viridis, a curious green oriole with + bare red orbits, was a great acquisition. There were several pretty + finches, warblers, and flycatchers, and among them I obtained the elegant + blue and red Cyornis hyacinthina; but I cannot recognise among my + collections the species mentioned by Dampier, who seems to have been much + struck by the number of small songbirds in Timor. He says: "One sort of + these pretty little birds my men called the ringing bird, because it had + six notes, and always repeated all his notes twice, one after the other, + beginning high and shrill and ending low. The bird was about the bigness + of a lark, having a small, sharp, black bill and blue wings; the head and + breast were of a pale red, and there was a blue streak about its neck." In + Semao, monkeys are abundant. They are the common hare-lipped monkey + (Macacus cynomolgus), which is found all over the western islands of the + Archipelago, and may have been introduced by natives, who often carry it + about captive. There are also some deer, but it is not quite certain + whether they are of the same species as are found in Java. + </p> + <p> + I arrived at Delli, the capital of the Portuguese possessions in Timor, on + January 12, 1861, and was kindly received by Captain Hart, an Englishman + and an old resident, who trades in the produce of the country and + cultivates coffee on an estate at the foot of the hills. With him I was + introduced to Mr. Geach, a mining-engineer who had been for two years + endeavouring to discover copper in sufficient quantity to be worth + working. + </p> + <p> + Delli is a most miserable place compared with even the poorest of the + Dutch towns. The houses are all of mud and thatch; the fort is only a mud + enclosure; and the custom-house and church are built of the same mean + materials, with no attempt at decoration or even neatness. The whole + aspect of the place is that of a poor native town, and there is no sign of + cultivation or civilization round about it. His Excellency the Governor's + house is the only one that makes any pretensions to appearance, and that + is merely a low whitewashed cottage or bungalow. Yet there is one thing in + which civilization exhibits itself—officials in black and white + European costume, and officers in gorgeous uniforms abound in a degree + quite disproportionate to the size or appearance of the place. + </p> + <p> + The town being surrounded for some distance by swamps and mudflats is very + unhealthy, and a single night often gives a fever to newcomers which not + unfrequently proves fatal. To avoid this malaria, Captain Hart always + slept at his plantation, on a slight elevation about two miles from the + town, where Mr. Geach also had a small house, which he kindly invited me + to share. We rode there in the evening; and in the course of two days my + baggage was brought up, and I was able to look about me and see if I could + do any collecting. + </p> + <p> + For the first few weeks I was very unwell and could not go far from the + house. The country was covered with low spiny shrubs and acacias, except + in a little valley where a stream came down from the hills, where some + fine trees and bushes shaded the water and formed a very pleasant place to + ramble up. There were plenty of birds about, and of a tolerable variety of + species; but very few of them were gaily coloured. Indeed, with one or two + exceptions, the birds of this tropical island were hardly so ornamental as + those of Great Britain. Beetles were so scarce that a collector might + fairly say there were none, as the few obscure or uninteresting species + would not repay him for the search. The only insects at all remarkable or + interesting were the butterflies, which, though comparatively few in + species, were sufficiently abundant, and comprised a large proportion of + new or rare sorts. The banks of the stream formed my best + collecting-ground, and I daily wandered up and down its shady bed, which + about a mile up became rocky and precipitous. Here I obtained the rare and + beautiful swallow-tail butterflies, Papilio aenomaus and P. liris; the + males of which are quite unlike each other, and belong in fact to distinct + sections of the genus, while the females are so much alike that they are + undistinguishable on the wing, and to an uneducated eye equally so in the + cabinet. Several other beautiful butterflies rewarded my search in this + place, among which I may especially mention the Cethosia leschenaultii, + whose wings of the deepest purple are bordered with buff in such a manner + as to resemble at first sight our own Camberwell beauty, although it + belongs to a different genus. The most abundant butterflies were the + whites and yellows (Pieridae), several of which I had already found at + Lombock and at Coupang, while others were new to me. + </p> + <p> + Early in February we made arrangements to stay for a week at a village + called Baliba, situated about four miles off on the mountains, at an + elevation of 2,000 feet. We took our baggage and a supply of all + necessaries on packhorses; and though the distance by the route we took + was not more than six or seven miles, we were half a day getting there. + The roads were mere tracks, sometimes up steep rocky stairs, sometimes in + narrow gullies worn by the horses' feet, and where it was necessary to + tuck up our legs on our horses' necks to avoid having them crushed. At + some of these places the baggage had to be unloaded, at others it was + knocked off. Sometimes the ascent or descent was so steep that it was + easier to walk than to cling to our ponies' backs; and thus we went up and + down over bare hills whose surface was covered with small pebbles and + scattered over with Eucalypti, reminding me of what I had read of parts of + the interior of Australia rather than of the Malay Archipelago. + </p> + <p> + The village consisted of three houses only, with low walls raised a few + feet on posts, and very high roofs thatched with grass hanging down to + within two or three feet of the ground. A house which was unfinished and + partly open at the back was given for our use, and in it we rigged up a + table, some benches, and a screen, while an inner enclosed portion served + us for a sleeping apartment. We had a splendid view down upon Delli and + the sea beyond. The country around was undulating and open, except in the + hollows, where there were some patches of forest, which Mr. Geach, who had + been all over the eastern part of Timor, assured me was the most luxuriant + he had yet seen in the island. I was in hopes of finding some insects + here, but was much disappointed, owing perhaps to the dampness of the + climate; for it was not until the sun was pretty high that the mists + cleared away, and by noon we were generally clouded up again, so that + there was seldom more than an hour or two of fitful sunshine. We searched + in every direction for birds and other game, but they were very scarce. On + our way I had shot the fine white-headed pigeon, Ptilonopus cinctus, and + the pretty little lorikeet, Trichoglossus euteles. I got a few more of + these at the blossoms of the Eucalypti, and also the allied species + Trichoglossus iris, and a few other small but interesting birds. The + common jungle-cock of India (Gallus bankiva) was found here, and furnished + us with some excellent meals; but we could get no deer. Potatoes are grown + higher up the mountains in abundance, and are very good. We had a sheep + killed every other day, and ate our mutton with much appetite in the cool + climate, which rendered a fire always agreeable. + </p> + <p> + Although one-half the European residents in Delli are continually ill from + fever, and the Portuguese have occupied the place for three centuries, no + one has yet built a house on these fine hills, which, if a tolerable road + were made, would be only an hour's ride from the town; and almost equally + good situations might be found on a lower level at half an hour's + distance. The fact that potatoes and wheat of excellent quality are grown + in abundance at from 3,000 to 3,500 feet elevation, shows what the climate + and soil are capable of if properly cultivated. From one to two thousand + feet high, coffee would thrive; and there are hundreds of square miles of + country over which all the varied products which require climates between + those of coffee and wheat would flourish; but no attempt has yet been made + to form a single mile of road, or a single acre of plantation! + </p> + <p> + There must be something very unusual in the climate of Timor to permit + wheat being grown at so moderate an elevation. The grain is of excellent + quality, the bread made from it being equal to any I have ever tasted, and + it is universally acknowledged to be unsurpassed by any made from imported + European or American flour. The fact that the natives have (quite of their + own accord) taken to cultivating such foreign articles as wheat and + potatoes, which they bring in small quantities on the backs of ponies by + the most horrible mountain tracks, and sell very cheaply at the seaside, + sufficiently indicates what might be done if good roads were made, and if + the people were taught, encouraged, and protected. Sheep also do well on + the mountains; and a breed of hardy ponies in much repute all over the + Archipelago, runs half-wild, so that it appears as if this island, so + barren-looking and devoid of the usual features of tropical vegetation, + were yet especially adapted to supply a variety of products essential to + Europeans, which the other islands will not produce, and which they + accordingly import from the other side of the globe. + </p> + <p> + On the 24th of February my friend Mr. Geach left Timor, having finally + reported that no minerals worth working were to be found. The Portuguese + were very much annoyed, having made up their minds that copper is + abundant, and still believing it to be so. It appears that from time + immemorial pure native copper has been found at a place on the coast about + thirty miles east of Delli. + </p> + <p> + The natives say they find it in the bed of a ravine, and many years ago a + captain of a vessel is said to have got some hundreds-weight of it. Now, + however, it is evidently very scarce, as during the two years Mr. Geach + resided in the country, none was found. I was shown one piece several + pounds' weight, having much the appearance of one of the larger Australian + nuggets, but of pure copper instead of gold. The natives and the + Portuguese have very naturally imagined that where these fragments come + from there must be more; and they have a report or tradition, that a + mountain at the head of the ravine is almost pure copper, and of course of + immense value. + </p> + <p> + After much difficulty a company was at length formed to work the copper + mountain, a Portuguese merchant of Singapore supplying most of the + capital. So confident were they of the existence of the copper, that they + thought it would be waste of time and money to have any exploration made + first; and accordingly, sent to England for a mining engineer, who was to + bring out all necessary tools, machinery, laboratory, utensils, a number + of mechanics, and stores of all kinds for two years, in order to commence + work on a copper-mine which he was told was already discovered. On + reaching Singapore a ship was freighted to take the men and stores to + Timor, where they at length arrived after much delay, a long voyage, and + very great expense. + </p> + <p> + A day was then fixed to "open the mines." Captain Hart accompanied Mr. + Geach as interpreter. The Governor, the Commandante, the Judge, and all + the chief people of the place went in state to the mountain, with Mr. + Geach's assistant and some of the workmen. As they went up the valley Mr. + Geach examined the rocks, but saw no signs of copper. They went on and on, + but still nothing except a few mere traces of very poor ore. At length + they stood on the copper mountain itself. The Governor stopped, the + officials formed a circle, and he then addressed them, saying, that at + length the day had arrived they had all been so long expecting, when the + treasures of the soil of Timor would be brought to light, and much more in + very grandiloquent Portuguese; and concluded by turning to Mr. Geach, and + requesting him to point out the best spot for them to begin work at once, + and uncover the mass of virgin copper. As the ravines and precipices among + which they had passed, and which had been carefully examined, revealed + very clearly the nature and mineral constitution of the country, Mr. Geach + simply told them that there was not a trace of copper there, and that it + was perfectly useless to begin work. The audience were thunderstruck! The + Governor could not believe his ears. At length, when Mr. Geach had + repeated his statement, the Governor told him severely that he was + mistaken; that they all knew there was copper there in abundance, and all + they wanted him to tell them, as a mining-engineer, was how best to get at + it; and that at all events he was to begin work somewhere. This Mr. Geach + refused to do, trying to explain that the ravines had cut far deeper into + the hill than he could do in years, and that he would not throw away money + or time on any such useless attempt. After this speech had been + interpreted to him, the Governor saw it was no use, and without saying a + word turned his horse and rode away, leaving my friends alone on the + mountain. They all believed there was some conspiracy that the Englishman + would not find the copper, and that they had been cruelly betrayed. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Geach then wrote to the Singapore merchant who was his employer, and + it was arranged that he should send the mechanics home again, and himself + explore the country for minerals. At first the Government threw obstacles + in his way and entirely prevented his moving; but at length he was allowed + to travel about, and for more than a year he and his assistant explored + the eastern part of Timor, crossing it in several places from sea to sea, + and ascending every important valley, without finding any minerals that + would pay the expense of working. Copper ore exists in several places, but + always too poor in quality. The best would pay well if situated in + England; but in the interior of an utterly barren country, with roads to + make, and all skilled labour and materials to import, it would have been a + losing concern. Gold also occurs, but very sparingly and of poor quality. + A fine spring of pure petroleum was discovered far in the interior, where + it can never be available until the country is civilized. The whole affair + was a dreadful disappointment to the Portuguese Government, who had + considered it such a certain thing that they had contracted for the Dutch + mail steamers to stop at Delli and several vessels from Australia were + induced to come with miscellaneous cargoes, for which they expected to + find a ready sale among the population at the newly-opened mines. The + lumps of native copper are still, however, a mystery. Mr. Geach has + examined the country in every direction without being able to trace their + origin; so that it seems probable that they result from the debris of old + copper-bearing strata, and are not really more abundant than gold nuggets + are in Australia or California. A high reward was offered to any native + who should find a piece and show the exact spot where he obtained it, but + without effect. + </p> + <p> + The mountaineers of Timor are a people of Papuan type, having rather + slender forms, bushy frizzled hair, and the skin of a dusky brown colour. + They have the long nose with overhanging apex which is so characteristic + of the Papuan, and so absolutely unknown among races of Malayan origin. On + the coast there has been much admixture of some of the Malay races, and + perhaps of Hindu, as well as of Portuguese. The general stature there is + lower, the hair wavy instead of frizzled, and the features less prominent. + The houses are built on the ground, while the mountaineers raise theirs on + posts three or four feet high. The common dress is a long cloth, twisted + around the waist and hanging to the knee, as shown in the illustration + (page 305), copied from a photograph. Both men carry the national + umbrella, made of an entire fan-shaped palm leaf, carefully stitched at + the fold of each leaflet to prevent splitting. This is opened out, and + held sloping over the head and back during a shower. The small + water-bucket is made from an entire unopened leaf of the same palm, and + the covered bamboo probably contains honey for sale. A curious wallet is + generally carried, consisting of a square of strongly woven cloth, the + four corners of which are connected by cords, and often much ornamented + with beads and tassels. Leaning against the house behind the figure on the + right are bamboos, used instead of water jars. + </p> + <p> + A prevalent custom is the "pomali," exactly equivalent to the "taboo" of + the Pacific islanders, and equally respected. It is used on the commonest + occasions, and a few palm leaves stuck outside a garden as a sign of the + "pomali" will preserve its produce from thieves as effectually as the + threatening notice of man-traps, spring guns, or a savage dog would do + with us. The dead are placed on a stage, raised six or eight feet above + the ground, sometimes open and sometimes covered with a roof. Here the + body remains until the relatives can afford to make a feast, when it is + buried. The Timorese are generally great thieves, but are not + bloodthirsty. They fight continually among themselves, and take every + opportunity of kidnapping unprotected people of other tribes for slaves; + but Europeans may pass anywhere through the country in safety. Except for + a few half-breeds in the town, there are no native Christians in the + island of Timor. The people retain their independence in a great measure, + and both dislike and despise their would-be rulers, whether Portuguese or + Dutch. + </p> + <p> + The Portuguese government in Timor is a most miserable one. Nobody seems + to care the least about the improvement of the country, and at this time, + after three hundred years of occupation, there has not been a mile of road + made beyond the town, and there is not a solitary European resident + anywhere in the interior. All the Government officials oppress and rob the + natives as much as they can, and yet there is no care taken to render the + town defensible should the Timorese attempt to attack it. So ignorant are + the military officers, that having received a small mortar and some + shells, no one could be found who knew how to use them; and during an + insurrection of the natives (while I was at Delli) the officer who + expected to be sent against the insurgents was instantly taken ill! And + they were allowed to get possession of an important pass within three + miles of the town, where they could defend themselves against ten times + the force. The result was that no provisions were brought down from the + hills; a famine was imminent; and the Governor had to send off to beg for + supplies from the Dutch Governor of Amboyna. + </p> + <p> + In its present state Timor is more trouble than profit to its Dutch and + Portuguese rulers, and it will continue to be so unless a different system + is pursued. A few good roads into the elevated districts of the interior; + a conciliatory policy and strict justice towards the natives, and the + introduction of a good system of cultivation as in Java and northern + Celebes, might yet make Timor a productive and valuable island. Rice grows + well on the marshy flats, which often fringe the coast, and maize thrives + in all the lowlands, and is the common food of the natives as it was when + Dampier visited the island in 1699. The small quantity of coffee now grown + is of very superior quality, and it might be increased to any extent. + Sheep thrive, and would always be valuable as fresh food for whalers and + to supply the adjacent islands with mutton, if not for their wool; + although it is probable that on the mountains this product might soon be + obtained by judicious breeding. Horses thrive amazingly; and enough wheat + might be grown to supply the whole Archipelago if there were sufficient + inducements to the natives to extend its cultivation, and good roads by + which it could be cheaply transported to the coast. + </p> + <p> + Under such a system the natives would soon perceive that European + government was advantageous to them. They would begin to save money, and + property being rendered secure they would rapidly acquire new wants and + new tastes, and become large consumers of European goods. This would be a + far surer source of profit to their rulers than imposts and extortion, and + would be at the same time more likely to produce peace and obedience than + the mock-military rule which has hitherto proved most ineffective. To + inaugurate such a system would however require an immediate outlay of + capital, which neither Dutch nor Portuguese seem inclined to make, and a + number of honest and energetic officials, which the latter nation at least + seems unable to produce; so that it is much to be feared that Timor will + for many years to come remain in its present state of chronic insurrection + and misgovernment. + </p> + <p> + Morality at Delli is at as low an ebb as in the far interior of Brazil, + and crimes are connived at which would entail infamy and criminal + prosecution in Europe. While I was there it was generally asserted and + believed in the place, that two officers had poisoned the husbands of + women with whom they were carrying on intrigues, and with whom they + immediately cohabited on the death of their rivals. Yet no one ever + thought for a moment of showing disapprobation of the crime, or even of + considering it a crime at all, the husbands in question being low + half-castes, who of course ought to make way for the pleasures of their + superiors. + </p> + <p> + Judging from what I saw myself and by the descriptions of Mr. Geach, the + indigenous vegetation of Timor is poor and monotonous. The lower ranges of + the hills are everywhere covered with scrubby Eucalypti, which only + occasionally grow into lofty forest trees. Mingled with these in smaller + quantities are acacias and the fragrant sandalwood, while the higher + mountains, which rise to about six or seven thousand feet, are either + covered with coarse grass or are altogether barren. In the lower grounds + are a variety of weedy bushes, and open waste places are covered + everywhere with a nettle-like wild mint. Here is found the beautiful crown + lily, Gloriosa superba, winding among the bushes, and displaying its + magnificent blossoms in great profusion. A wild vine also occurs, bearing + great irregular bunches of hairy grapes of a coarse but very luscious + flavour. In some of the valleys where the vegetation is richer, thorny + shrubs and climbers are so abundant as to make the thickets quite + impenetrable. + </p> + <p> + The soil seems very poor, consisting chiefly of decomposing clayey shales; + and the bare earth and rock is almost everywhere visible. The drought of + the hot season is so severe that most of the streams dry up in the plains + before they reach the sea; everything becomes burned up, and the leaves of + the larger trees fall as completely as in our winter. On the mountains + from two to four thousand feet elevation there is a much moister + atmosphere, so that potatoes and other European products can be grown all + the year round. Besides ponies, almost the only exports of Timor are + sandalwood and beeswax. The sandalwood (Santalum sp.) is the produce of a + small tree, which grows sparingly in the mountains of Timor and many of + the other islands in the far East. The wood is of a fine yellow colour, + and possesses a well-known delightful fragrance which is wonderfully + permanent. It is brought down to Delli in small logs, and is chiefly + exported to China, where it is largely used to burn in the temples, and in + the houses of the wealthy. + </p> + <p> + The beeswax is a still more important and valuable product, formed by the + wild bees (Apis dorsata), which build huge honeycombs, suspended in the + open air from the underside of the lofty branches of the highest trees. + These are of a semicircular form, and often three or four feet in + diameter. I once saw the natives take a bees' nest, and a very interesting + sight it was. In the valley where I used to collect insects, I one day saw + three or four Timorese men and boys under a high tree, and, looking up, + saw on a very lofty horizontal branch three large bees' combs. The tree + was straight and smooth-barked and without a branch, until at seventy or + eighty feet from the ground it gave out the limb which the bees had chosen + for their home. As the men were evidently looking after the bees, I waited + to watch their operations. One of them first produced a long piece of wood + apparently the stem of a small tree or creeper, which he had brought with + him, and began splitting it through in several directions, which showed + that it was very tough and stringy. He then wrapped it in palm-leaves, + which were secured by twisting a slender creeper round them. He then + fastened his cloth tightly round his loins, and producing another cloth + wrapped it around his head, neck, and body, and tied it firmly around his + neck, leaving his face, arms, and legs completely bare. Slung to his + girdle he carried a long thin coil of cord; and while he had been making + these preparations, one of his companions had cut a strong creeper or + bush-rope eight or ten yards long, to one end of which the wood-torch was + fastened, and lighted at the bottom, emitting a steady stream of smoke. + Just above the torch a chopping-knife was fastened by a short cord. + </p> + <p> + The bee-hunter now took hold of the bush-rope just above the torch and + passed the other end around the trunk of the tree, holding one end in each + hand. Jerking it up the tree a little above his head he set his foot + against the trunk, and leaning back began walking up it. It was wonderful + to see the skill with which he took advantage of the slightest + irregularities of the bark or obliquity of the stem to aid his ascent, + jerking the stiff creeper a few feet higher when he had found a firm hold + for his bare foot. It almost made me giddy to look at him as he rapidly + got up—thirty, forty, fifty feet above the ground; and I kept + wondering how he could possibly mount the next few feet of straight smooth + trunk. Still, however, he kept on with as much coolness and apparent + certainty as if he were going up a ladder, until he got within ten or + fifteen feet of the bees. Then he stopped a moment, and took care to swing + the torch (which hung just at his feet) a little towards these dangerous + insects, so as to send up the stream of smoke between him and them. Still + going on, in a minute more he brought himself under the limb, and, in a + manner quite unintelligible to me, seeing that both hands were occupied in + supporting himself by the creeper, managed to get upon it. + </p> + <p> + By this time the bees began to be alarmed, and formed a dense buzzing + swarm just over him, but he brought the torch up closer to him, and coolly + brushed away those that settled on his arms or legs. Then stretching + himself along the limb, he crept towards the nearest comb and swung the + torch just under it. The moment the smoke touched it, its colour changed + in a most curious manner from black to white, the myriads of bees that had + covered it flying off and forming a dense cloud above and around. The man + then lay at full length along the limb, and brushed off the remaining bees + with his hand, and then drawing his knife cut off the comb at one slice + close to the tree, and attaching the thin cord to it, let it down to his + companions below. He was all this time enveloped in a crowd of angry bees, + and how he bore their stings so coolly, and went on with his work at that + giddy height so deliberately, was more than I could understand. The bees + were evidently not stupified by the smoke or driven away far by it, and it + was impossible that the small stream from the torch could protect his + whole body when at work. There were three other combs on the same tree, + and all were successively taken, and furnished the whole party with a + luscious feast of honey and young bees, as well as a valuable lot of wax. + </p> + <p> + After two of the combs had been let down, the bees became rather numerous + below, flying about wildly and stinging viciously. Several got about me, + and I was soon stung, and had to run away, beating them off with my net + and capturing them for specimens. Several of them followed me for at least + half a mile, getting into my hair and persecuting me most pertinaciously, + so that I was more astonished than ever at the immunity of the natives. I + am inclined to think that slow and deliberate motion, and no attempt at + escape, are perhaps the best safeguards. A bee settling on a passive + native probably behaves as it would on a tree or other inanimate + substance, which it does not attempt to sting. Still they must often + suffer, but they are used to the pain and learn to bear it impassively, as + without doing so no man could be a bee-hunter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TIMOR GROUP. + </h2> + <p> + IF we look at a map of the Archipelago, nothing seems more unlikely than + that the closely connected chain of islands from Java to Timor should + differ materially in their natural productions. There are, it is true, + certain differences of climate and of physical geography, but these do not + correspond with the division the naturalist is obliged to make. Between + the two ends of the chain there is a great contrast of climate, the west + being exceedingly moist and leaving only a short and irregular dry season, + the east being as dry and parched up, and having but a short wet season. + This change, however, occurs about the middle of Java, the eastern portion + of that island having as strongly marked seasons as Lombock and Timor. + There is also a difference in physical geography; but this occurs at the + eastern termination of the chain where the volcanoes which are the marked + feature of Java, Bali, Lombock, Sumbawa, and Flores, turn northwards + through Gunong Api to Banda, leaving Timor with only one volcanic peak + near its centre, while the main portion of the island consists of old + sedimentary rocks. Neither of these physical differences corresponds with + the remarkable change in natural productions which occurs at the Straits + of Lombock, separating the island of that name from Bali, and which is at + once so large in amount and of so fundamental a character, as to form an + important feature in the zoological geography of our globe. + </p> + <p> + The Dutch naturalist Zollinger, who resided a long time on the island of + Bali, informs us that its productions completely assimilate with those of + Java, and that he is not aware of a single animal found in it which does + not inhabit the larger island. During the few days which I stayed on the + north coast of Bali on my way to Lombock, I saw several birds highly + characteristic of Javan ornithology. Among these were the yellow-headed + weaver (Ploceus hypoxantha), the black grasshopper thrush (Copsychus + amoenus), the rosy barbet (Megalaema rosea), the Malay oriole (Oriolus + horsfieldi), the Java ground starling (Sturnopastor jalla), and the + Javanese three-toed woodpecker (Chrysonotus tiga). On crossing over to + Lombock, separated from Bali by a strait less than twenty miles wide, I + naturally expected to meet with some of these birds again; but during a + stay there of three months I never saw one of them, but found a totally + different set of species, most of which were utterly unknown not only in + Java, but also in Borneo, Sumatra, and Malacca. For example, among the + commonest birds in Lombock were white cockatoos and three species of + Meliphagidae or honeysuckers, belonging to family groups which are + entirely absent from the western or Indo-Malayan region of the + Archipelago. On passing to Flores and Timor the distinctness from the + Javanese productions increases, and we find that these islands form a + natural group, whose birds are related to those of Java and Australia, but + are quite distinct from either. Besides my own collections in Lombock and + Timor, my assistant Mr. Allen made a good collection in Flores; and these, + with a few species obtained by the Dutch naturalists, enable us to form a + very good idea of the natural history of this group of islands, and to + derive therefrom some very interesting results. + </p> + <p> + The number of birds known from these islands up to this date is: 63 from + Lombock, 86 from Flores, and 118 from Timor; and from the whole group, 188 + species. With the exception of two or three species which appear to have + been derived from the Moluccas, all these birds can be traced, either + directly or by close allies, to Java on the one side or to Australia on + the other; although no less than 82 of them are found nowhere out of this + small group of islands. There is not, however, a single genus peculiar to + the group, or even one which is largely represented in it by peculiar + species; and this is a fact which indicates that the fauna is strictly + derivative, and that its origin does not go back beyond one of the most + recent geological epochs. Of course there are a large number of species + (such as most of the waders, many of the raptorial birds, some of the + kingfishers, swallows, and a few others), which range so widely over a + large part of the Archipelago that it is impossible to trace them as + having come from any one part rather than from another. There are + fifty-seven such species in my list, and besides these there are + thirty-five more which, though peculiar to the Timor group, are yet allied + to wide-ranging forms. Deducting these ninety-two species, we have nearly + a hundred birds left whose relations with those of other countries we will + now consider. + </p> + <p> + If we first take those species which, as far as we yet know, are + absolutely confined to each island, we find, in: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Lombock 4 belonging to 2 genera, of which 1 is Australian, 1 Indian. + Flores 12 " 7 " 5 are " 2 " + Timor 42 " 20 " 16 are " 4 " +</pre> + <p> + The actual number of peculiar species in each island I do not suppose to + be at all accurately determined, since the rapidly increasing numbers + evidently depend upon the more extensive collections made in Timor than in + Flores, and in Flores than in Lombock; but what we can depend more upon, + and what is of more special interest, is the greatly increased proportion + of Australian forms and decreased proportion of Indian forms, as we go + from west to east. We shall show this in a yet more striking manner by + counting the number of species identical with those of Java and Australia + respectively in each island, thus: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + In Lombock. In Flores. In Timor. + Javan birds... . 33 23 11 + Australian birds.. 4 5 10 +</pre> + <p> + Here we see plainly the course of the migration which has been going on + for hundreds or thousands of years, and is still going on at the present + day. Birds entering from Java are most numerous in the island nearest + Java; each strait of the sea to be crossed to reach another island offers + an obstacle, and thus a smaller number get over to the next island. [The + names of all the birds inhabiting these islands are to be found in the + "Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London" for the year 1863.] It + will be observed that the number of birds that appear to have entered from + Australia is much less than those which have come from Java; and we may at + first sight suppose that this is due to the wide sea that separates + Australia from Timor. But this would be a hasty and, as we shall soon see, + an unwarranted supposition. Besides these birds identical with species + inhabiting Java and Australia, there are a considerable number of others + very closely allied to species peculiar to those countries, and we must + take these also into account before we form any conclusion on the matter. + It will be as well to combine these with the former table thus: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + In Lombock. In Flores. In Timor. + Javan birds........ ... 33 23 11 + Closely allied to Javan birds.. 1 5 6 + Total.............. 34 28 17 + + Australian birds......... 4 5 10 + Closely allied to Australian birds 3 9 26 + Total..... ......... 7 14 36 +</pre> + <p> + We now see that the total number of birds which seem to have been derived + from Java and Australia is very nearly equal, but there is this remarkable + difference between the two series: that whereas the larger proportion by + far of the Java set are identical with those still inhabiting that + country, an almost equally large proportion of the Australian set are + distinct, though often very closely allied species. It is to be observed + also, that these representative or allied species diminish in number as + they recede from Australia, while they increase in number as they recede + from Java. There are two reasons for this, one being that the islands + decrease rapidly in size from Timor to Lombock, and can therefore support + a decreasing number of species; the other and the more important is, that + the distance of Australia from Timor cuts off the supply of fresh + immigrants, and has thus allowed variation to have full play; while the + vicinity of Lombock to Bali and Java has allowed a continual influx of + fresh individuals which, by crossing with the earlier immigrants, has + checked variation. + </p> + <p> + To simplify our view of the derivative origin of the birds of these + islands let us treat them as a whole, and thus perhaps render more + intelligible their respective relations to Java and Australia. + </p> + <p> + The Timor group of islands contains: + </p> + <p> + Javan birds....... 36 Australian birds... 13 Closely allied species.. 11 + Closely allied species.. 35 Derived from Java .... 47 Derived from + Australia... 48 + </p> + <p> + We have here a wonderful agreement in the number of birds belonging to + Australian and Javanese groups, but they are divided in exactly a reverse + manner, three-fourths of the Javan birds being identical species and + one-fourth representatives, while only one-fourth of the Australian forms + are identical and three-fourths representatives. This is the most + important fact which we can elicit from a study of the birds of these + islands, since it gives us a very complete clue to much of their past + history. + </p> + <p> + Change of species is a slow process—on that we are all agreed, + though we may differ about how it has taken place. The fact that the + Australian species in these islands have mostly changed, while the Javan + species have almost all remained unchanged, would therefore indicate that + the district was first peopled from Australia. But, for this to have been + the case, the physical conditions must have been very different from what + they are now. Nearly three hundred miles of open sea now separate + Australia from Timor, which island is connected with Java by a chain of + broken land divided by straits which are nowhere more than about twenty + miles wide. Evidently there are now great facilities for the natural + productions of Java to spread over and occupy the whole of these islands, + while those of Australia would find very great difficulty in getting + across. To account for the present state of things, we should naturally + suppose that Australia was once much more closely connected with Timor + than it is at present; and that this was the case is rendered highly + probable by the fact of a submarine bank extending along all the north and + west coast of Australia, and at one place approaching within twenty miles + of the coast of Timor. This indicates a recent subsidence of North + Australia, which probably once extended as far as the edge of this bank, + between which and Timor there is an unfathomed depth of ocean. + </p> + <p> + I do not think that Timor was ever actually connected with Australia, + because such a large number of very abundant and characteristic groups of + Australian birds are quite absent, and not a single Australian mammal has + entered Timor—which would certainly not have been the case had the + lands been actually united. Such groups as the bower birds + (Ptilonorhynchus), the black and red cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus), the blue + wrens (Malurus), the crowshrikes (Cracticus), the Australian shrikes + (Falcunculus and Colluricincla), and many others, which abound all over + Australia, would certainly have spread into Timor if it had been united to + that country, or even if for any long time it had approached nearer to it + than twenty miles. Neither do any of the most characteristic groups of + Australian insects occur in Timor; so that everything combines to indicate + that a strait of the sea has always separated it from Australia, but that + at one period this strait was reduced to a width of about twenty miles. + </p> + <p> + But at the time when this narrowing of the sea took place in one + direction, there must have been a greater separation at the other end of + the chain, or we should find more equality in the numbers of identical and + representative species derived from each extremity. It is true that the + widening of the strait at the Australian end by subsidence, would, by + putting a stop to immigration and intercrossing of individuals from the + mother country, have allowed full scope to the causes which have led to + the modification of the species; while the continued stream of immigrants + from Java, would, by continual intercrossing, check such modification. + This view will not, however, explain all the facts; for the character of + the fauna of the Timorese group is indicated as well by the forms which + are absent from it as by those which it contains, and is by this kind of + evidence shown to be much more Australian than Indian. No less than + twenty-nine genera, all more or less abundant in Java, and most of which + range over a wide area, are altogether absent; while of the equally + diffused Australian genera only about fourteen are wanting. This would + clearly indicate that there has been, until recently, a wide separation + from Java; and the fact that the islands of Bali and Lombock are small, + and are almost wholly volcanic, and contain a smaller number of modified + forms than the other islands, would point them out as of comparatively + recent origin. A wide arm of the sea probably occupied their place at the + time when Timor was in the closest proximity to Australia; and as the + subterranean fires were slowly piling up the now fertile islands of Bali + and Lombock, the northern shores of Australia would be sinking beneath the + ocean. Some such changes as have been here indicated, enable us to + understand how it happens, that though the birds of this group are on the + whole almost as much Indian as Australian, yet the species which are + peculiar to the group are mostly Australian in character; and also why + such a large number of common Indian forms which extend through Java to + Bali, should not have transmitted a single representative to the island + further east. + </p> + <p> + The Mammalia of Timor as well as those of the other islands of the group + are exceedingly scanty, with the exception of bats. These last are + tolerably abundant, and no doubt many more remain to be discovered. Out of + fifteen species known from Timor, nine are found also in Java, or the + islands west of it; three are Moluccan species, most of which are also + found in Australia, and the rest are peculiar to Timor. + </p> + <p> + The land mammals are only seven in number, as follows: 1. The common + monkey, Macacus cynomolgus, which is found in all the Indo-Malayan + islands, and has spread from Java through Bali and Lombock to Timor. This + species is very frequent on the banks of rivers, and may have been + conveyed from island to island on trees carried down by floods. 2. + Paradoxurus fasciatus; a civet cat, very common over a large part of the + Archipelago. 3. Felis megalotis; a tiger cat, said to be peculiar to + Timor, where it exists only in the interior, and is very rare. Its nearest + allies are in Java. 4. Cervus timoriensis; a deer, closely allied to the + Javan and Moluccan species, if distinct. 5. A wild pig, Sus timoriensis; + perhaps the same as some of the Moluccan species. 6. A shrew mouse, Sorex + tenuis; supposed to be peculiar to Timor. 7. An Eastern opossum, Cuscus + orientalis; found also in the Moluccas, if not a distinct species. + </p> + <p> + The fact that not one of these species is Australian or nearly allied to + any Australian form, is strongly corroborative of the opinion that Timor + has never formed a part of that country; as in that case some kangaroo or + other marsupial animal would almost certainly be found there. It is no + doubt very difficult to account for the presence of some of the few + mammals that do exist in Timor, especially the tiger cat and the deer. We + must consider, however, that during thousands, and perhaps hundreds of + thousands of years, these islands and the seas between them have been + subjected to volcanic action. The land has been raised and has sunk again; + the straits have been narrowed or widened; many of the islands may have + been joined and dissevered again; violent floods have again and again + devastated the mountains and plains, carrying out to sea hundreds of + forest trees, as has often happened during volcanic eruptions in Java; and + it does not seem improbable that once in a thousand, or ten thousand + years, there should have occurred such a favourable combination of + circumstances as would lead to the migration of two or three land animals + from one island to another. This is all that we need ask to account for + the very scanty and fragmentary group of Mammalia which now inhabit the + large island of Timor. The deer may very probably have been introduced by + man, for the Malays often keep tame fawns; and it may not require a + thousand, or even five hundred years, to establish new characters in an + animal removed to a country so different in climate and vegetation as is + Timor from the Moluccas. I have not mentioned horses, which are often + thought to be wild in Timor, because there are no grounds whatever for + such a belief. The Timor ponies have every one an owner, and are quite as + much domesticated animals as the cattle on a South American hacienda. + </p> + <p> + I have dwelt at some length upon the origin of the Timorese fauna because + it appears to be a most interesting and instructive problem. It is very + seldom that we can trace the animals of a district so clearly as we can in + this case to two definite sources, and still more rarely that they furnish + such decisive evidence of the time, the manner, and the proportions of + their introduction. We have here a group of Oceanic Islands in miniature—islands + which have never formed part of the adjacent lands, although so closely + approaching them; and their productions have the characteristics of true + Oceanic Islands slightly modified. These characteristics are: the absence + all Mammalia except bats; and the occurrence of peculiar species of birds, + insects, and land shells, which, though found nowhere else, are plainly + related to those of the nearest land. Thus, we have an entire absence of + all Australian mammals, and the presence of only a few stragglers from the + west which can be accounted for in the manner already indicated. Bats are + tolerably abundant. + </p> + <p> + Birds have many peculiar species, with a decided relationship to those of + the two nearest masses of land. The insects have similar relations with + the birds. As an example, four species of the Papilionidae are peculiar to + Timor, three others are also found in Java, and one in Australia. Of the + four peculiar species two are decided modifications of Javanese forms, + while the others seem allied to those of the Moluccas and Celebes. The + very few land shells known are all, curiously enough, allied to or + identical with Moluccan or Celebes forms. The Pieridae (white and yellow + butterflies) which wander more, and from frequenting open grounds, are + more liable to be blown out to sea, seem about equally related to those of + Java, Australia, and the Moluccas. + </p> + <p> + It has been objected to in Mr. Darwin's theory, of Oceanic Islands having + never been connected with the mainland, that this would imply that their + animal population was a matter of chance; it has been termed the "flotsam + and jetsam theory," and it has been maintained that nature does not work + by the "CHAPTER of accidents." But in the case which I have here + described, we have the most positive evidence that such has been the mode + of peopling the islands. Their productions are of that miscellaneous + character which we should expect from such an origin; and to suppose that + they have been portions of Australia or of Java will introduce perfectly + gratuitous difficulties, and render it quite impossible to explain those + curious relations which the best known group of animals (the birds) have + been shown to exhibit. On the other hand, the depth of the surrounding + seas, the form of the submerged banks, and the volcanic character of most + of the islands, all point to an independent origin. + </p> + <p> + Before concluding, I must make one remark to avoid misapprehension. When I + say that Timor has never formed part of Australia, I refer only to recent + geological epochs. In Secondary or even Eocene or Miocene times, Timor and + Australia may have been connected; but if so, all record of such a union + has been lost by subsequent submergence, and in accounting for the present + land-inhabitants of any country we have only to consider those changes + which have occurred since its last elevation above the waters. Since such + last elevation, I feel confident that Timor has not formed part of + Australia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. CELEBES. + </h2> + <h3> + (MACASSAR, SEPTEMBER TO NOVEMBER, 1856.) + </h3> + <p> + I LEFT Lombock on the 30th of August, and reached Macassar in three days. + It was with great satisfaction that I stepped on a shore which I had been + vainly trying to reach since February, and where I expected to meet with + so much that was new and interesting. + </p> + <p> + The coast of this part of Celebes is low and flat, lined with trees and + villages so as to conceal the interior, except at occasional openings + which show a wide extent of bare and marshy rice-fields. A few hills of no + great height were visible in the background; but owing to the perpetual + haze over the land at this time of the year, I could nowhere discern the + high central range of the peninsula, or the celebrated peak of Bontyne at + its southern extremity. In the roadstead of Macassar there was a fine + 42-gun frigate, the guardship of the place, as well as a small war steamer + and three or four little cutters used for cruising after the pirates which + infest these seas. There were also a few square-rigged trading-vessels, + and twenty or thirty native praus of various sizes. I brought letters of + introduction to a Dutch gentleman, Mr. Mesman, and also to a Danish + shopkeeper, who could both speak English and who promised to assist me in + finding a place to stay, suitable for my pursuits. In the meantime, I went + to a kind of clubhouse, in default of any hotel in the place. + </p> + <p> + Macassar was the first Dutch town I had visited, and I found it prettier + and cleaner than any I had yet seen in the East. The Dutch have some + admirable local regulations. All European houses must be kept well + white-washed, and every person must, at four in the afternoon, water the + road in front of his house. The streets are kept clear of refuse, and + covered drains carry away all impurities into large open sewers, into + which the tide is admitted at high-water and allowed to flow out when it + has ebbed, carrying all the sewage with it into the sea. The town consists + chiefly of one long narrow street along the seaside, devoted to business, + and principally occupied by the Dutch and Chinese merchants' offices and + warehouses, and the native shops or bazaars. This extends northwards for + more than a mile, gradually merging into native houses often of a most + miserable description, but made to have a neat appearance by being all + built up exactly to the straight line of the street, and being generally + backed by fruit trees. This street is usually thronged with a native + population of Bugis and Macassar men, who wear cotton trousers about + twelve inches long, covering only from the hip to half-way down the thigh, + and the universal Malay sarong, of gay checked colours, worn around the + waist or across the shoulders in a variety of ways. Parallel to this + street run two short ones which form the old Dutch town, and are enclosed + by gates. These consist of private houses, and at their southern end is + the fort, the church, and a road at right angles to the beach, containing + the houses of the Governor and of the principal officials. Beyond the + fort, again along the beach, is another long street of native huts and + many country-houses of the tradesmen and merchants. All around extend the + flat rice-fields, now bare and dry and forbidding, covered with dusty + stubble and weeds. A few months back these were a mass of verdure, and + their barren appearance at this season offered a striking contrast to the + perpetual crops on the same kind of country in Lombock and Bali, where the + seasons are exactly similar, but where an elaborate system of irrigation + produces the effect of a perpetual spring. + </p> + <p> + The day after my arrival I paid a visit of ceremony to the Governor, + accompanied by my friend the Danish merchant, who spoke excellent English. + His Excellency was very polite, and offered me every facility for + travelling about the country and prosecuting my researches in natural + history. We conversed in French, which all Dutch officials speak very + well. + </p> + <p> + Finding it very inconvenient and expensive to stay in the town, I removed + at the end of a week to a little bamboo house, kindly offered me by Mr. + Mesman. It was situated about two miles away, on a small coffee plantation + and farm, and about a mile beyond Mr. M.'s own country-house. It consisted + of two rooms raised about seven feet above the ground, the lower part + being partly open (and serving excellently to skin birds in) and partly + used as a granary for rice. There was a kitchen and other outhouses, and + several cottages nearby, occupied by men in Mr. M.'s employ. + </p> + <p> + After being settled a few days in my new house, I found that no + collections could be made without going much further into the country. The + rice-fields for some miles around resembled English stubbles late in + autumn, and were almost as unproductive of bird or insect life. There were + several native villages scattered about, so embosomed in fruit trees that + at a distance they looked like clumps or patches of forest. These were my + only collecting places; but they produced a very limited number of + species, and were soon exhausted. Before I could move to any more + promising district it was necessary to obtain permission from the Rajah of + Goa, whose territories approach to within two miles of the town of + Macassar. I therefore presented myself at the Governor's office and + requested a letter to the Rajah, to claim his protection, and permission + to travel in his territories whenever I might wish to do so. This was + immediately granted, and a special messenger was sent with me to carry the + letter. + </p> + <p> + My friend Mr. Mesman kindly lent me a horse, and accompanied me on my + visit to the Rajah, with whom he was great friends. We found his Majesty + seated out of doors, watching the erection of a new house. He was naked + from the waist up, wearing only the usual short trousers and sarong. Two + chairs were brought out for us, but all the chiefs and other natives were + seated on the ground. The messenger, squatting down at the Rajah's feet, + produced the letter, which was sewn up in a covering of yellow silk. It + was handed to one of the chief officers, who ripped it open and returned + it to the Rajah, who read it, and then showed it to Mr. M., who both + speaks and reads the Macassar language fluently, and who explained fully + what I required. Permission was immediately granted me to go where I liked + in the territories of Goa, but the Rajah desired, that should I wish to + stay any time at a place I would first give him notice, in order that he + might send someone to see that no injury was done me. Some wine was then + brought us, and afterwards some detestable coffee and wretched sweetmeats, + for it is a fact that I have never tasted good coffee where people grow it + themselves. + </p> + <p> + Although this was the height of the dry season, and there was a fine wind + all day, it was by no means a healthy time of year. My boy Ali had hardly + been a day on shore when he was attacked by fever, which put me to great + inconvenience, as at the house where I was staying, nothing could be + obtained but at mealtime. After having cured Ali, and with much difficulty + got another servant to cook for me, I was no sooner settled at my country + abode than the latter was attacked with the same disease; and, having a + wife in the town, left me. Hardly was he gone than I fell ill myself with + strong intermittent fever every other day. In about a week I got over it, + by a liberal use of quinine, when scarcely was I on my legs than Ali again + became worse than ever. Ali's fever attacked him daily, but early in the + morning he was pretty well, and then managed to cook enough for me for the + day. In a week I cured him, and also succeeded in getting another boy who + could cook and shoot, and had no objection to go into the interior. His + name was Baderoon, and as he was unmarried and had been used to a roving + life, having been several voyages to North Australia to catch trepang or + "beche de mer", I was in hopes of being able to keep him. I also got hold + of a little impudent rascal of twelve or fourteen, who could speak some + Malay, to carry my gun or insect-net and make himself generally useful. + Ali had by this time become a pretty good bird-skinner, so that I was + fairly supplied with servants. + </p> + <p> + I made many excursions into the country, in search of a good station for + collecting birds and insects. Some of the villages a few miles inland are + scattered about in woody ground which has once been virgin forest, but of + which the constituent trees have been for the most part replaced by fruit + trees, and particularly by the large palm, Arenga saccharifera, from which + wine and sugar are made, and which also produces a coarse black fibre used + for cordage. That necessary of life, the bamboo, has also been abundantly + planted. In such places I found a good many birds, among which were the + fine cream-coloured pigeon, Carpophaga luctuosa, and the rare blue-headed + roller, Coracias temmincki, which has a most discordant voice, and + generally goes in pairs, flying from tree to tree, and exhibiting while at + rest that all-in-a-heap appearance and jerking motion of the head and tail + which are so characteristic of the great Fissirostral group to which it + belongs. From this habit alone, the kingfishers, bee-eaters, rollers, + trogons, and South American puff-birds, might be grouped together by a + person who had observed them in a state of nature, but who had never had + an opportunity of examining their form and structure in detail. Thousands + of crows, rather smaller than our rook, keep up a constant cawing in these + plantations; the curious wood-swallows (Artami), which closely resemble + swallows in their habits and flight but differ much in form and structure, + twitter from the tree-tops; while a lyre-tailed drongo-shrike, with + brilliant black plumage and milk-white eyes, continually deceives the + naturalist by the variety of its unmelodious notes. + </p> + <p> + In the more shady parts butterflies were tolerably abundant; the most + common being species of Euplaea and Danais, which frequent gardens and + shrubberies, and owing to their weak flight are easily captured. A + beautiful pale blue and black butterfly, which flutters along near the + ground among the thickets, and settles occasionally upon flowers, was one + of the most striking; and scarcely less so, was one with a rich orange + band on a blackish ground—these both belong to the Pieridae, the + group that contains our common white butterflies, although differing so + much from them in appearance. Both were quite new to European naturalists. + [The former has been named Eronia tritaea; the latter Tachyris ithonae.] + Now and then I extended my walks some miles further, to the only patch of + true forest I could find, accompanied by my two boys with guns and + insect-net. We used to start early, taking our breakfast with us, and + eating it wherever we could find shade and water. At such times my + Macassar boys would put a minute fragment of rice and meat or fish on a + leaf, and lay it on a stone or stump as an offering to the deity of the + spot; for though nominal Mahometans the Macassar people retain many pagan + superstitions, and are but lax in their religious observances. Pork, it is + true, they hold in abhorrence, but will not refuse wine when offered them, + and consume immense quantities of "sagueir," or palm-wine, which is about + as intoxicating as ordinary beer or cider. When well made it is a very + refreshing drink, and we often took a draught at some of the little sheds + dignified by the name of bazaars, which are scattered about the country + wherever there is any traffic. + </p> + <p> + One day Mr. Mesman told me of a larger piece of forest where he sometimes + went to shoot deer, but he assured me it was much further off, and that + there were no birds. However, I resolved to explore it, and the next + morning at five o'clock we started, carrying our breakfast and some other + provisions with us, and intending to stay the night at a house on the + borders of the wood. To my surprise two hours' hard walking brought us to + this house, where we obtained permission to pass the night. We then walked + on, Ali and Baderoon with a gun each, Baso carrying our provisions and my + insect-box, while I took only my net and collecting-bottle and determined + to devote myself wholly to the insects. Scarcely had I entered the forest + when I found some beautiful little green and gold speckled weevils allied + to the genus Pachyrhynchus, a group which is almost confined to the + Philippine Islands, and is quite unknown in Borneo, Java, or Malacca. The + road was shady and apparently much trodden by horses and cattle, and I + quickly obtained some butterflies I had not before met with. Soon a couple + of reports were heard, and coming up to my boys I found they had shot two + specimens of one of the finest of known cuckoos, Phoenicophaus + callirhynchus. This bird derives its name from its large bill being + coloured of a brilliant yellow, red, and black, in about equal + proportions. The tail is exceedingly long, and of a fine metallic purple, + while the plumage of the body is light coffee brown. It is one of the + characteristic birds of the island of Celebes, to which it is confined. + </p> + <p> + After sauntering along for a couple of hours we reached a small river, so + deep that horses could only cross it by swimming, so we had to turn back; + but as we were getting hungry, and the water of the almost stagnant river + was too muddy to drink, we went towards a house a few hundred yards off. + In the plantation we saw a small raised hut, which we thought would do + well for us to breakfast in, so I entered, and found inside a young woman + with an infant. She handed me a jug of water, but looked very much + frightened. However, I sat down on the doorstep, and asked for the + provisions. In handing them up, Baderoon saw the infant, and started back + as if he had seen a serpent. It then immediately struck me that this was a + hut in which, as among the Dyaks of Borneo and many other savage tribes, + the women are secluded for some time after the birth of their child, and + that we did very wrong to enter it; so we walked off and asked permission + to eat our breakfast in the family mansion close at hand, which was of + course granted. While I ate, three men, two women, and four children + watched every motion, and never took eyes off me until I had finished. + </p> + <p> + On our way back in the heat of the day, I had the good fortune to capture + three specimens of a fine Ornithoptera, the largest, the most perfect, and + the most beautiful of butterflies. I trembled with excitement as I took + the first out of my net and found it to be in perfect condition. The + ground colour of this superb insect was a rich shining bronzy black, the + lower wings delicately grained with white, and bordered by a row of large + spots of the most brilliant satiny yellow. The body was marked with shaded + spots of white, yellow, and fiery orange, while the head and thorax were + intense black. On the under-side the lower wings were satiny white, with + the marginal spots half black and half yellow. I gazed upon my prize with + extreme interest, as I at first thought it was quite a new species. It + proved however to be a variety of Ornithoptera remus, one of the rarest + and most remarkable species of this highly esteemed group. I also obtained + several other new and pretty butterflies. When we arrived at our + lodging-house, being particularly anxious about my insect treasures, I + suspended the box from a bamboo on which I could detect no sign of ants, + and then began skinning some of my birds. During my work I often glanced + at my precious box to see that no intruders had arrived, until after a + longer spell of work than usual I looked again, and saw to my horror that + a column of small red ants were descending the string and entering the + box. They were already busy at work at the bodies of my treasures, and + another half-hour would have seen my whole day's collection destroyed. As + it was, I had to take every insect out, clean them thoroughly as well as + the box, and then seek a place of safety for them. As the only effectual + one, I begged a plate and a basin from my host, filled the former with + water, and standing the latter in it placed my box on the top, and then + felt secure for the night; a few inches of clean water or oil being the + only barrier these terrible pests are not able to pass. + </p> + <p> + On returning home to Mamajam (as my house was called) I had a slight + return of intermittent fever, which kept me some days indoors. As soon as + I was well, I again went to Goa, accompanied by Mr. Mesman, to beg the + Rajah's assistance in getting a small house built for me near the forest. + We found him at a cock-fight in a shed near his palace, which however, he + immediately left to receive us, and walked with us up an inclined plane of + boards which serves for stairs to his house. This was large, well-built, + and lofty, with bamboo floor and glass windows. The greater part of it + seemed to be one large hall divided by the supporting posts. Near a window + sat the Queen, squatting on a rough wooden arm-chair, chewing the + everlasting sirih and betel-nut, while a brass spittoon by her side and a + sirih-box in front were ready to administer to her wants. The Rajah seated + himself opposite to her in a similar chair, and a similar spittoon and + sirih-box were held by a little boy squatting at his side. Two other + chairs were brought for us. Several young women, some the Rajah's + daughters, others slaves, were standing about; a few were working at + frames making sarongs, but most of them were idle. + </p> + <p> + And here I might (if I followed the example of most travellers) launch out + into a glowing description of the charms of these damsels, the elegant + costumes they wore, and the gold and silver ornaments with which they were + adorned. The jacket or body of purple gauze would figure well in such a + description, allowing the heaving bosom to be seen beneath it, while + "sparkling eyes," and "jetty tresses," and "tiny feet" might be thrown in + profusely. But, alas! regard for truth will not permit me to expatiate too + admiringly on such topics, determined as I am to give as far as I can a + true picture of the people and places I visit. The princesses were, it is + true, sufficiently good-looking, yet neither their persons nor their + garments had that appearance of freshness and cleanliness without which no + other charms can be contemplated with pleasure. Everything had a dingy and + faded appearance, very disagreeable and unroyal to a European eye. The + only thing that excited some degree of admiration was the quiet and + dignified manner of the Rajah and the great respect always paid to him. + None can stand erect in his presence, and when he sits on a chair, all + present (Europeans of course excepted) squat upon the ground. The highest + seat is literally, with these people, the place of honour and the sign of + rank. So unbending are the rules in this respect, that when an English + carriage which the Rajah of Lombock had sent for arrived, it was found + impossible to use it because the driver's seat was the highest, and it had + to be kept as a show in its coach house. On being told the object of my + visit, the Rajah at once said that he would order a house to be emptied + for me, which would be much better than building one, as that would take a + good deal of time. Bad coffee and sweetmeats were given us as before. + </p> + <p> + Two days afterwards, I called on the Rajah to ask him to send a guide with + me to show me the house I was to occupy. He immediately ordered a man to + be sent for, gave him instructions, and in a few minutes we were on our + way. My conductor could speak no Malay, so we walked on in silence for an + hour, when we turned into a pretty good house and I was asked to sit down. + The head man of the district lived here, and in about half an hour we + started again, and another hour's walk brought us to the village and where + I was to be lodged. We went to the residence of the village chief, who + conversed with my conductor for some time. + </p> + <p> + Getting tired, I asked to be shown the house that was prepared for me, but + the only reply I could get was, "Wait a little," and the parties went on + talking as before. So I told them I could not wait, as I wanted to see the + house and then to go shooting in the forest. This seemed to puzzle them, + and at length, in answer to questions, very poorly explained by one or two + bystanders who knew a little Malay, it came out that no house was ready, + and no one seemed to have the least idea where to get one. As I did not + want to trouble the Rajah any more, I thought it best to try to frighten + them a little; so I told them that if they did not immediately find me a + house as the Rajah had ordered, I should go back and complain to him, but + that if a house was found me I would pay for the use of it. This had the + desired effect, and one of the head men of the village asked me to go with + him and look for a house. He showed me one or two of the most miserable + and ruinous description, which I at once rejected, saying, "I must have a + good one, and near to the forest." The next he showed me suited very well, + so I told him to see that it was emptied the next day, for that the day + after I should come and occupy it. + </p> + <p> + On the day mentioned, as I was not quite ready to go, I sent my two + Macassar boys with brooms to sweep out the house thoroughly. They returned + in the evening and told me that when they got there the house was + inhabited, and not a single article removed. However, on hearing they had + come to clean and take possession, the occupants made a move, but with a + good deal of grumbling, which made me feel rather uneasy as to how the + people generally might take my intrusion into their village. The next + morning we took our baggage on three packhorses, and, after a few + break-downs, arrived about noon at our destination. + </p> + <p> + After getting all my things set straight, and having made a hasty meal, I + determined if possible to make friends with the people. I therefore sent + for the owner of the house and as many of his acquaintances as liked to + come, to have a "bitchara," or talk. When they were all seated, I gave + them a little tobacco all around, and having my boy Baderoon for + interpreter, tried to explain to them why I came there; that I was very + sorry to turn them out of the house, but that the Rajah had ordered it + rather than build a new one, which was what I had asked for, and then + placed five silver rupees in the owner's hand as one month's rent. I then + assured them that my being there would be a benefit to them, as I should + buy their eggs and fowls and fruit; and if their children would bring me + shells and insects, of which I showed them specimens, they also might earn + a good many coppers. After all this had been fully explained to them, with + a long talk and discussion between every sentence, I could see that I had + made a favourable impression; and that very afternoon, as if to test my + promise to buy even miserable little snail-shells, a dozen children came + one after another, bringing me a few specimens each of a small Helix, for + which they duly received "coppers," and went away amazed but rejoicing. + </p> + <p> + A few days' exploration made me well acquainted with the surrounding + country. I was a long way from the road in the forest which I had first + visited, and for some distance around my house were old clearings and + cottages. I found a few good butterflies, but beetles were very scarce, + and even rotten timber and newly-felled trees (generally so productive) + here produced scarcely anything. This convinced me that there was not a + sufficient extent of forest in the neighbourhood to make the place worth + staying at long, but it was too late now to think of going further, as in + about a month the wet season would begin; so I resolved to stay here and + get what was to be had. Unfortunately, after a few days I became ill with + a low fever which produced excessive lassitude and disinclination to all + exertion. In vain I endeavoured to shake it off; all I could do was to + stroll quietly each day for an hour about the gardens near, and to the + well, where some good insects were occasionally to be found; and the rest + of the day to wait quietly at home, and receive what beetles and shells my + little corps of collectors brought me daily. I imputed my illness chiefly + to the water, which was procured from shallow wells, around which there + was almost always a stagnant puddle in which the buffaloes wallowed. Close + to my house was an enclosed mudhole where three buffaloes were shut up + every night, and the effluvia from which freely entered through the open + bamboo floor. My Malay boy Ali was affected with the same illness, and as + he was my chief bird-skinner I got on but slowly with my collections. + </p> + <p> + The occupations and mode of life of the villagers differed but little from + those of all other Malay races. The time of the women was almost wholly + occupied in pounding and cleaning rice for daily use, in bringing home + firewood and water, and in cleaning, dyeing, spinning, and weaving the + native cotton into sarongs. The weaving is done in the simplest kind of + frame stretched on the floor; and is a very slow and tedious process. To + form the checked pattern in common use, each patch of coloured threads has + to be pulled up separately by hand and the shuttle passed between them; so + that about an inch a day is the usual progress in stuff a yard and a half + wide. The men cultivate a little sirih (the pungent pepper leaf used for + chewing with betel-nut) and a few vegetables; and once a year rudely + plough a small patch of ground with their buffaloes and plant rice, which + then requires little attention until harvest time. Now and then they have + to see to the repairs of their houses, and make mats, baskets, or other + domestic utensils, but a large part of their time is passed in idleness. + </p> + <p> + Not a single person in the village could speak more than a few words of + Malay, and hardly any of the people appeared to have seen a European + before. One most disagreeable result of this was that I excited terror + alike in man and beast. Wherever I went, dogs barked, children screamed, + women ran away, and men stared as though I were some strange and terrible + cannibal or monster. Even the pack-horses on the roads and paths would + start aside when I appeared and rush into the jungle; and as to those + horrid, ugly brutes, the buffaloes, they could never be approached by me; + not for fear of my own but of others' safety. They would first stick out + their necks and stare at me, and then on a nearer view break loose from + their halters or tethers, and rush away helter-skelter as if a demon were + after them, without any regard for what might be in their way. Whenever I + met buffaloes carrying packs along a pathway, or being driven home to the + village, I had to turn aside into the jungle and hide myself until they + had passed, to avoid a catastrophe which would increase the dislike with + which I was already regarded. Everyday about noon the buffaloes were + brought into the villa, and were tethered in the shade around the houses; + and then I had to creep about like a thief by back ways, for no one could + tell what mischief they might do to children and houses were I to walk + among them. If I came suddenly upon a well where women were drawing water + or children bathing, a sudden flight was the certain result; which things + occurring day after day, were very unpleasant to a person who does not + like to be disliked, and who had never been accustomed to be treated as an + ogre. + </p> + <p> + About the middle of November, finding my health no better, and insects, + birds, and shells all very scarce, I determined to return to Mamajam, and + pack up my collections before the heavy rains commenced. The wind had + already begun to blow from the west, and many signs indicated that the + rainy season might set in earlier than usual; and then everything becomes + very damp, and it is almost impossible to dry collections properly. My + kind friend Mr. Mesman again lent me his pack-horses, and with the + assistance of a few men to carry my birds and insects, which I did not + like to trust on horses' backs, we got everything home safe. Few can + imagine the luxury it was to stretch myself on a sofa, and to take my + supper comfortably at table seated in my easy bamboo chair, after having + for five weeks taken all my meals uncomfortably on the floor. Such things + are trifles in health, but when the body is weakened by disease the habits + of a lifetime cannot be so easily set aside. + </p> + <p> + My house, like all bamboo structures in this country, was a leaning one, + the strong westerly winds of the wet season having set all its posts out + of the perpendicular to such a degree as to make me think it might someday + possibly go over altogether. It is a remarkable thing that the natives of + Celebes have not discovered the use of diagonal struts in strengthening + buildings. I doubt if there is a native house in the country two years old + and at all exposed to the wind, which stands upright; and no wonder, as + they merely consist of posts and joists all placed upright or horizontal, + and fastened rudely together with rattans. They may be seen in every stage + of the process of tumbling down, from the first slight inclination, to + such a dangerous slope that it becomes a notice to quit to the occupiers. + </p> + <p> + The mechanical geniuses of the country have only discovered two ways of + remedying the evil. One is, after it has commenced, to tie the house to a + post in the ground on the windward side by a rattan or bamboo cable. The + other is a preventive, but how they ever found it out and did not discover + the true way is a mystery. This plan is, to build the house in the usual + way, but instead of having all the principal supports of straight posts, + to have two or three of them chosen as crooked as possible. I had often + noticed these crooked posts in houses, but imputed it to the scarcity of + good, straight timber, until one day I met some men carrying home a post + shaped something like a dog's hind leg, and inquired of my native boy what + they were going to do with such a piece of wood. "To make a post for a + house," said he. "But why don't they get a straight one, there are plenty + here?" said I. "Oh," replied he, "they prefer some like that in a house, + because then it won't fall," evidently imputing the effect to some occult + property of crooked timber. A little consideration and a diagram will, + however, show, that the effect imputed to the crooked post may be really + produced by it. A true square changes its figure readily into a rhomboid + or oblique figure, but when one or two of the uprights are bent or + sloping, and placed so as to oppose each other, the effect of a strut is + produced, though in a rude and clumsy manner. + </p> + <p> + Just before I had left Mamajam the people had sown a considerable quantity + of maize, which appears above ground in two or three days, and in + favourable seasons ripens in less than two months. Owing to a week's + premature rains the ground was all flooded when I returned, and the plants + just coming into ear were yellow and dead. Not a grain would be obtained + by the whole village, but luckily it is only a luxury, not a necessity of + life. The rain was the signal for ploughing to begin, in order to sow rice + on all the flat lands between us and the town. The plough used is a rude + wooden instrument with a very short single handle, a tolerably well-shaped + coulter, and the point formed of a piece of hard palm-wood fastened in + with wedges. One or two buffaloes draw it at a very slow pace. The seed is + sown broadcast, and a rude wooden harrow is used to smooth the surface. + </p> + <p> + By the beginning of December the regular wet season had set in. Westerly + winds and driving rains sometimes continued for days together; the fields + for miles around were under water, and the ducks and buffaloes enjoyed + themselves amazingly. All along the road to Macassar, ploughing was daily + going on in the mud and water, through which the wooden plough easily + makes its way, the ploughman holding the plough-handle with one hand while + a long bamboo in the other serves to guide the buffaloes. These animals + require an immense deal of driving to get them on at all; a continual + shower of exclamations is kept up at them, and "Oh! ah! Gee! ugh!" are to + be heard in various keys and in an uninterrupted succession all day long. + At night we were favoured with a different kind of concert. The dry ground + around my house had become a marsh tenanted by frogs, who kept up a most + incredible noise from dusk to dawn. They were somewhat musical too, having + a deep vibrating note which at times closely resembles the tuning of two + or three bass-viols in an orchestra. In Malacca and Borneo I had heard no + such sounds as these, which indicates that the frogs, like most of the + animals of Celebes, are of species peculiar to it. + </p> + <p> + My kind friend and landlord, Mr. Mesman, was a good specimen of the + Macassar-born Dutchman. He was about thirty-five years of age, had a large + family, and lived in a spacious house near the town, situated in the midst + of a grove of fruit trees, and surrounded by a perfect labyrinth of + offices, stables, and native cottages occupied by his numerous servants, + slaves, or dependants. He usually rose before the sun, and after a cup of + coffee looked after his servants, horses, and dogs, until seven, when a + substantial breakfast of rice and meat was ready in a cool verandah. + Putting on a clean white linen suit, he then drove to town in his buggy, + where he had an office, with two or three Chinese clerks who looked after + his affairs. His business was that of a coffee and opium merchant. He had + a coffee estate at Bontyne, and a small prau which traded to the Eastern + islands near New Guinea, for mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell. About one + he would return home, have coffee and cake or fried plantain, first + changing his dress for a coloured cotton shirt and trousers and bare feet, + and then take a siesta with a book. About four, after a cup of tea, he + would walk round his premises, and generally stroll down to Mamajam to pay + me a visit, and look after his farm. + </p> + <p> + This consisted of a coffee plantation and an orchard of fruit trees, a + dozen horses and a score of cattle, with a small village of Timorese + slaves and Macassar servants. One family looked after the cattle and + supplied the house with milk, bringing me also a large glassful every + morning, one of my greatest luxuries. Others had charge of the horses, + which were brought in every afternoon and fed with cut grass. Others had + to cut grass for their master's horses at Macassar—not a very easy + task in the dry season, when all the country looks like baked mud; or in + the rainy season, when miles in every direction are flooded. How they + managed it was a mystery to me, but they know grass must be had, and they + get it. One lame woman had charge of a flock of ducks. Twice a day she + took them out to feed in the marshy places, let them waddle and gobble for + an hour or two, and then drove them back and shut them up in a small dark + shed to digest their meal, whence they gave forth occasionally a + melancholy quack. Every night a watch was set, principally for the sake of + the horses—the people of Goa, only two miles off, being notorious + thieves, and horses offering the easiest and most valuable spoil. This + enabled me to sleep in security, although many people in Macassar thought + I was running a great risk, living alone in such a solitary place and with + such bad neighbours. + </p> + <p> + My house was surrounded by a kind of straggling hedge of roses, + jessamines, and other flowers, and every morning one of the women gathered + a basketful of the blossoms for Mr. Mesman's family. I generally took a + couple for my own breakfast table, and the supply never failed during my + stay, and I suppose never does. Almost every Sunday Mr. M. made a shooting + excursion with his eldest son, a lad of fifteen, and I generally + accompanied him; for though the Dutch are Protestants, they do not observe + Sunday in the rigid manner practised in England and English colonies. The + Governor of the place has his public reception every Sunday evening, when + card-playing is the regular amusement. + </p> + <p> + On December 13th I went on board a prau bound for the Aru Islands, a + journey which will be described in the latter part of this work. + </p> + <p> + On my return, after a seven months' absence, I visited another district to + the north of Macassar, which will form the subject of the next CHAPTER. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. CELEBES. + </h2> + <h3> + (MACASSAR, JULY TO NOVEMBER, 1857.) + </h3> + <p> + I REACHED Macassar again on the 11th of July, and established myself in my + old quarters at Mamajam, to sort, arrange, clean, and pack up my Aru + collections. This occupied me a month; and having shipped them off for + Singapore, had my guns repaired, and received a new one from England, + together with a stock of pins, arsenic, and other collecting requisites. I + began to feel eager for work again, and had to consider where I should + spend my time until the end of the year; I had left Macassar seven months + before, a flooded marsh being ploughed up for the rice-sowing. The rains + had continued for five months, yet now all the rice was cut, and dry and + dusty stubble covered the country just as when I had first arrived there. + </p> + <p> + After much inquiry I determined to visit the district of Maros, about + thirty miles north of Macassar, where Mr. Jacob Mesman, a brother of my + friend, resided, who had kindly offered to find me house-room and give me + assistance should I feel inclined to visit him. I accordingly obtained a + pass from the Resident, and having hired a boat set off one evening for + Maros. My boy Ali was so ill with fever that I was obliged to leave him in + the hospital, under the care of my friend the German doctor, and I had to + make shift with two new servants utterly ignorant of everything. We + coasted along during the night, and at daybreak entered the Maros river, + and by three in the afternoon reached the village. I immediately visited + the Assistant Resident, and applied for ten men to carry my baggage, and a + horse for myself. These were promised to be ready that night, so that I + could start as soon as I liked in the morning. After having taken a cup of + tea I took my leave, and slept in the boat. Some of the men came at night + as promised, but others did not arrive until the next morning. It took + some time to divide my baggage fairly among them, as they all wanted to + shirk the heavy boxes, and would seize hold of some light article and + march off with it, until made to come back and wait until the whole had + been fairly apportioned. At length about eight o'clock all was arranged, + and we started for our walk to Mr. M.'s farm. + </p> + <p> + The country was at first a uniform plain of burned-up rice-grounds, but at + a few miles' distance precipitous hills appeared, backed by the lofty + central range of the peninsula. Towards these our path lay, and after + having gone six or eight miles the hills began to advance into the plain + right and left of us, and the ground became pierced here and there with + blocks and pillars of limestone rock, while a few abrupt conical hills and + peaks rose like islands. Passing over an elevated tract forming the + shoulder of one of the hills, a picturesque scene lay before us. We looked + down into a little valley almost entirely surrounded by mountains, rising + abruptly in huge precipices, and forming a succession of knolls and peaks + and domes of the most varied and fantastic shapes. In the very centre of + the valley was a large bamboo house, while scattered around were a dozen + cottages of the same material. + </p> + <p> + I was kindly received by Mr. Jacob Mesman in an airy saloon detached from + the house, and entirely built of bamboo and thatched with grass. After + breakfast he took me to his foreman's house, about a hundred yards off, + half of which was given up to me until I should decide where to have a + cottage built for my own use. I soon found that this spot was too much + exposed to the wind and dust, which rendered it very difficult to work + with papers or insects. It was also dreadfully hot in the afternoon, and + after a few days I got a sharp attack of fever, which determined me to + move. I accordingly fixed on a place about a mile off, at the foot of a + forest-covered hill, where in a few days Mr. M. built for me a nice little + house, consisting of a good-sized enclosed verandah or open room, and a + small inner sleeping-room, with a little cookhouse outside. As soon as it + was finished I moved into it, and found the change most agreeable. + </p> + <p> + The forest which surrounded me was open and free from underwood, + consisting of large trees, widely scattered with a great quantity of + palm-trees (Arenga saccharifera), from which palm wine and sugar are made. + There were also great numbers of a wild Jack-fruit tree (Artocarpus), + which bore abundance of large reticulated fruit, serving as an excellent + vegetable. The ground was as thickly covered with dry leaves as it is in + an English wood in November; the little rocky streams were all dry, and + scarcely a drop of water or even a damp place was anywhere to be seen. + About fifty yards below my house, at the foot of the hill, was a deep hole + in a watercourse where good water was to be had, and where I went daily to + bathe by having buckets of water taken out and pouring it over my body. + </p> + <p> + My host Mr. M. enjoyed a thoroughly country life, depending almost + entirely on his gun and dogs to supply his table. Wild pigs of large size + were very plentiful and he generally got one or two a week, besides deer + occasionally, and abundance of jungle-fowl, hornbills, and great fruit + pigeons. His buffaloes supplied plenty of milk from which he made his own + butter; he grew his own rice and coffee, and had ducks, fowls, and their + eggs, in profusion. His palm-trees supplied him all the year round with + "sagueir," which takes the place of beer; and the sugar made from them is + an excellent sweetmeat. All the fine tropical vegetables and fruits were + abundant in their season, and his cigars were made from tobacco of his own + raising. He kindly sent me a bamboo of buffalo-milk every morning; it was + as thick as cream, and required diluting with water to keep it fluid + during the day. It mixes very well with tea and coffee, although it has a + slight peculiar flavour, which after a time is not disagreeable. I also + got as much sweet "sagueir" as I liked to drink, and Mr. M. always sent me + a piece of each pig he killed, which with fowls, eggs, and the birds we + shot ourselves, and buffalo beef about once a fortnight, kept my larder + sufficiently well supplied. + </p> + <p> + Every bit of flatland was cleared and used as rice-fields, and on the + lower slopes of many of the hills tobacco and vegetables were grown. Most + of the slopes are covered with huge blocks of rock, very fatiguing to + scramble over, while a number of the hills are so precipitous as to be + quite inaccessible. These circumstances, combined with the excessive + drought, were very unfavourable for my pursuits. Birds were scarce, and I + got but few new to me. Insects were tolerably plentiful, but unequal. + Beetles, usually so numerous and interesting, were exceedingly scarce, + some of the families being quite absent and others only represented by + very minute species. The Flies and Bees, on the other hand, were abundant, + and of these I daily obtained new and interesting species. The rare and + beautiful Butterflies of Celebes were the chief object of my search, and I + found many species altogether new to me, but they were generally so active + and shy as to render their capture a matter of great difficulty. Almost + the only good place for them was in the dry beds of the streams in the + forest, where, at damp places, muddy pools, or even on the dry rocks, all + sorts of insects could be found. In these rocky forests dwell some of the + finest butterflies in the world. Three species of Ornithoptera, measuring + seven or eight inches across the wings, and beautifully marked with spots + or masses of satiny yellow on a black ground, wheel through the thickets + with a strong sailing flight. About the damp places are swarms of the + beautiful blue-banded Papilios, miletus and telephus, the superb golden + green P. macedon, and the rare little swallow-tail Papilio rhesus, of all + of which, though very active, I succeeded in capturing fine series of + specimens. + </p> + <p> + I have rarely enjoyed myself more than during my residence here. As I sat + taking my coffee at six in the morning, rare birds would often be seen on + some tree close by, when I would hastily sally out in my slippers, and + perhaps secure a prize I had been seeking after for weeks. The great + hornbills of Celebes (Buceros cassidix) would often come with + loud-flapping wings, and perch upon a lofty tree just in front of me; and + the black baboon-monkeys, Cynopithecus nigrescens, often stared down in + astonishment at such an intrusion into their domains while at night herds + of wild pigs roamed about the house, devouring refuse, and obliging us to + put away everything eatable or breakable from our little cooking-house. A + few minutes' search on the fallen trees around my house at sunrise and + sunset, would often produce me more beetles than I would meet with in a + day's collecting, and odd moments could be made valuable which when living + in villages or at a distance from the forest are inevitably wasted. Where + the sugar-palms were dripping with sap, flies congregated in immense + numbers, and it was by spending half an hour at these when I had the time + to spare, that I obtained the finest and most remarkable collection of + this group of insects that I have ever made. + </p> + <p> + Then what delightful hours I passed wandering up and down the dry + river-courses, full of water-holes and rocks and fallen trees, and + overshadowed by magnificent vegetation. I soon got to know every hole and + rock and stump, and came up to each with cautious step and bated breath to + see what treasures it would produce. At one place I would find a little + crowd of the rare butterfly Tachyris zarinda, which would rise up at my + approach, and display their vivid orange and cinnabar-red wings, while + among them would flutter a few of the fine blue-banded Papilios. Where + leafy branches hung over the gully, I might expect to find a grand + Ornithoptera at rest and an easy prey. At certain rotten trunks I was sure + to get the curious little tiger beetle, Therates flavilabris. In the + denser thickets I would capture the small metal-blue butterflies + (Amblypodia) sitting on the leaves, as well as some rare and beautiful + leaf-beetles of the families Hispidae and Chrysomelidae. + </p> + <p> + I found that the rotten jack-fruits were very attractive to many beetles, + and used to split them partly open and lay them about in the forest near + my house to rot. A morning's search at these often produced me a score of + species—Staphylinidae, Nitidulidae, Onthophagi, and minute + Carabidae, being the most abundant. Now and then the "sagueir" makers + brought me a fine rosechafer (Sternoplus schaumii) which they found + licking up the sweet sap. Almost the only new birds I met with for some + time were a handsome ground thrush (Pitta celebensis), and a beautiful + violet-crowned dove (Ptilonopus celebensis), both very similar to birds I + had recently obtained at Aru, but of distinct species. + </p> + <p> + About the latter part of September a heavy shower of rain fell, + admonishing us that we might soon expect wet weather, much to the + advantage of the baked-up country. I therefore determined to pay a visit + to the falls of the Maros river, situated at the point where it issues + from the mountains—a spot often visited by travellers and considered + very beautiful. Mr. M. lent me a horse, and I obtained a guide from a + neighbouring village; and taking one of my men with me, we started at six + in the morning, and after a ride of two hours over the flat rice-fields + skirting the mountains which rose in grand precipices on our left, we + reached the river about half-way between Maros and the falls, and thence + had a good bridle-road to our destination, which we reached in another + hour. The hills had closed in around us as we advanced; and when we + reached a ruinous shed which had been erected for the accommodation of + visitors, we found ourselves in a flat-bottomed valley about a quarter of + a mile wide, bounded by precipitous and often overhanging limestone rocks. + So far the ground had been cultivated, but it now became covered with + bushes and large scattered trees. + </p> + <p> + As soon as my scanty baggage had arrived and was duly deposited in the + shed, I started off alone for the fall, which was about a quarter of a + mile further on. The river is here about twenty yards wide, and issues + from a chasm between two vertical walls of limestone, over a rounded mass + of basaltic rock about forty feet high, forming two curves separated by a + slight ledge. The water spreads beautifully over this surface in a thin + sheet of foam, which curls and eddies in a succession of concentric cones + until it falls into a fine deep pool below. Close to the very edge of the + fall a narrow and very rugged path leads to the river above, and thence + continues close under the precipice along the water's edge, or sometimes + in the water, for a few hundred yards, after which the rocks recede a + little, and leave a wooded bank on one side, along which the path is + continued, until in about half a mile, a second and smaller fall is + reached. Here the river seems to issue from a cavern, the rocks having + fallen from above so as to block up the channel and bar further progress. + The fall itself can only be reached by a path which ascends behind a huge + slice of rock which has partly fallen away from the mountain, leaving a + space two or three feet wide, but disclosing a dark chasm descending into + the bowels of the mountain, and which, having visited several such, I had + no great curiosity to explore. + </p> + <p> + Crossing the stream a little below the upper fall, the path ascends a + steep slope for about five hundred feet, and passing through a gap enters + a narrow valley, shut in by walls of rock absolutely perpendicular and of + great height. Half a mile further this valley turns abruptly to the right, + and becomes a mere rift in the mountain. This extends another half mile, + the walls gradually approaching until they are only two feet apart, and + the bottom rising steeply to a pass which leads probably into another + valley, but which I had no time to explore. Returning to where this rift + had begun the main path turns up to the left in a sort of gully, and + reaches a summit over which a fine natural arch of rock passes at a height + of about fifty feet. Thence was a steep descent through thick jungle with + glimpses of precipices and distant rocky mountains, probably leading into + the main river valley again. This was a most tempting region to explore, + but there were several reasons why I could go no further. I had no guide, + and no permission to enter the Bugis territories, and as the rains might + at any time set in, I might be prevented from returning by the flooding of + the river. I therefore devoted myself during the short time of my visit to + obtaining what knowledge I could of the natural productions of the place. + </p> + <p> + The narrow chasms produced several fine insects quite new to me, and one + new bird, the curious Phlaegenas tristigmata, a large ground pigeon with + yellow breast and crown, and purple neck. This rugged path is the highway + from Maros to the Bugis country beyond the mountains. During the rainy + season it is quite impassable, the river filling its bed and rushing + between perpendicular cliffs many hundred feet high. Even at the time of + my visit it was most precipitous and fatiguing, yet women and children + came over it daily, and men carrying heavy loads of palm sugar (of very + little value). It was along the path between the lower and the upper + falls, and about the margin of the upper pool, that I found most insects. + The large semi-transparent butterfly, Idea tondana, flew lazily along by + dozens, and it was here that I at length obtained an insect which I had + hoped but hardly expected to meet with—the magnificent Papilio + androcles, one of the largest and rarest known swallow-tailed butterflies. + During my four days' stay at the falls, I was so fortunate as to obtain + six good specimens. As this beautiful creature flies, the long white tails + flicker like streamers, and when settled on the beach it carries them + raised upwards, as if to preserve them from injury. It is scarce even + here, as I did not see more than a dozen specimens in all, and had to + follow many of them up and down the river's bank repeatedly before I + succeeded in their capture. When the sun shone hottest, about noon, the + moist beach of the pool below the upper fall presented a beautiful sight, + being dotted with groups of gay butterflies—orange, yellow, white, + blue, and green—which on being disturbed rose into the air by + hundreds, forming clouds of variegated colours. + </p> + <p> + Such gorges, chasms, and precipices here abound, as I have nowhere seen in + the Archipelago. A sloping surface is scarcely anywhere to be found, huge + walls and rugged masses of rock terminating all the mountains and + enclosing the valleys. In many parts there are vertical or even + overhanging precipices five or six hundred feet high, yet completely + clothed with a tapestry of vegetation. Ferns, Pandanaceae, shrubs, + creepers, and even forest trees, are mingled in an evergreen network, + through the interstices of which appears the white limestone rock or the + dark holes and chasms with which it abounds. These precipices are enabled + to sustain such an amount of vegetation by their peculiar structure. Their + surfaces are very irregular, broken into holes and fissures, with ledges + overhanging the mouths of gloomy caverns; but from each projecting part + have descended stalactites, often forming a wild gothic tracery over the + caves and receding hollows, and affording an admirable support to the + roots of the shrubs, trees, and creepers, which luxuriate in the warm pure + atmosphere and the gentle moisture which constantly exudes from the rocks. + In places where the precipice offers smooth surfaces of solid rock, it + remains quite bare, or only stained with lichens, and dotted with clumps + of ferns that grow on the small ledges and in the minutest crevices. + </p> + <p> + The reader who is familiar with tropical nature only through the medium of + books and botanical gardens will picture to himself in such a spot many + other natural beauties. He will think that I have unaccountably forgotten + to mention the brilliant flowers, which, in gorgeous masses of crimson, + gold or azure, must spangle these verdant precipices, hang over the + cascade, and adorn the margin of the mountain stream. But what is the + reality? In vain did I gaze over these vast walls of verdure, among the + pendant creepers and bushy shrubs, all around the cascade on the river's + bank, or in the deep caverns and gloomy fissures—not one single spot + of bright colour could be seen, not one single tree or bush or creeper + bore a flower sufficiently conspicuous to form an object in the landscape. + In every direction the eye rested on green foliage and mottled rock. There + was infinite variety in the colour and aspect of the foliage; there was + grandeur in the rocky masses and in the exuberant luxuriance of the + vegetation; but there was no brilliancy of colour, none of those bright + flowers and gorgeous masses of blossom so generally considered to be + everywhere present in the tropics. I have here given an accurate sketch of + a luxuriant tropical scene as noted down on the spot, and its general + characteristics as regards colour have been so often repeated, both in + South America and over many thousand miles in the Eastern tropics, that I + am driven to conclude that it represents the general aspect of nature at + the equatorial (that is, the most tropical) parts of the tropical regions. + </p> + <p> + How is it then, that the descriptions of travellers generally give a very + different idea? and where, it may be asked, are the glorious flowers that + we know do exist in the tropics? These questions can be easily answered. + The fine tropical flowering-plants cultivated in our hothouses have been + culled from the most varied regions, and therefore give a most erroneous + idea of their abundance in any one region. Many of them are very rare, + others extremely local, while a considerable number inhabit the more arid + regions of Africa and India, in which tropical vegetation does not exhibit + itself in its usual luxuriance. Fine and varied foliage, rather than gay + flowers, is more characteristic of those parts where tropical vegetation + attains its highest development, and in such districts each kind of flower + seldom lasts in perfection more than a few weeks, or sometimes a few days. + In every locality a lengthened residence will show an abundance of + magnificent and gaily-blossomed plants, but they have to be sought for, + and are rarely at any one time or place so abundant as to form a + perceptible feature in the landscape. But it has been the custom of + travellers to describe and group together all the fine plants they have + met with during a long journey, and thus produce the effect of a gay and + flower-painted landscape. They have rarely studied and described + individual scenes where vegetation was most luxuriant and beautiful, and + fairly stated what effect was produced in them by flowers. I have done so + frequently, and the result of these examinations has convinced me that the + bright colours of flowers have a much greater influence on the general + aspect of nature in temperate than in tropical climates. During twelve + years spent amid the grandest tropical vegetation, I have seen nothing + comparable to the effect produced on our landscapes by gorse, broom, + heather, wild hyacinths, hawthorn, purple orchises, and buttercups. + </p> + <p> + The geological structure of this part of Celebes is interesting. The + limestone mountains, though of great extent, seem to be entirely + superficial, resting on a basis of basalt which in some places forms low + rounded hills between the more precipitous mountains. In the rocky beds of + the streams basalt is almost always found, and it is a step in this rock + which forms the cascade already described. From it the limestone + precipices rise abruptly; and in ascending the little stairway along the + side of the fall, you step two or three times from one rock on to the + other—the limestone dry and rough, being worn by the water and rains + into sharp ridges and honeycombed holes—the basalt moist, even, and + worn smooth and slippery by the passage of bare-footed pedestrians. The + solubility of the limestone by rain-water is well seen in the little + blocks and peaks which rise thickly through the soil of the alluvial + plains as you approach the mountains. They are all skittle-shaped, larger + in the middle than at the base, the greatest diameter occurring at the + height to which the country is flooded in the wet season, and thence + decreasing regularly to the ground. Many of them overhang considerably, + and some of the slenderer pillars appear to stand upon a point. When the + rock is less solid it becomes curiously honeycombed by the rains of + successive winters, and I noticed some masses reduced to a complete + network of stone through which light could be seen in every direction. + </p> + <p> + From these mountains to the sea extends a perfectly flat alluvial plain, + with no indication that water would accumulate at a great depth beneath + it, yet the authorities at Macassar have spent much money in boring a well + a thousand feet deep in hope of getting a supply of water like that + obtained by the Artesian wells in the London and Paris basins. It is not + to be wondered at that the attempt was unsuccessful. + </p> + <p> + Returning to my forest hut, I continued my daily search after birds and + insects. The weather, however, became dreadfully hot and dry, every drop + of water disappearing from the pools and rock-holes, and with it the + insects which frequented them. Only one group remained unaffected by the + intense drought; the Diptera, or two-winged flies, continued as + plentifully as ever, and on these I was almost compelled to concentrate my + attention for a week or two, by which means I increased my collection of + that Order to about two hundred species. I also continued to obtain a few + new birds, among which were two or three kinds of small hawks and falcons, + a beautiful brush-tongued paroquet, Trichoglossus ornatus, and a rare + black and white crow, Corvus advena. + </p> + <p> + At length, about the middle of October, after several gloomy days, down + came a deluge of rain which continued to fall almost every afternoon, + showing that the early part of the wet season had commenced. I hoped now + to get a good harvest of insects, and in some respects I was not + disappointed. Beetles became much more numerous, and under a thick bed of + leaves that had accumulated on some rocks by the side of a forest stream, + I found an abundance of Carabidae, a family generally scarce in the + tropics. The butterflies, however, disappeared. Two of my servants were + attacked with fever, dysentery, and swelled feet, just at the time that + the third had left me, and for some days they both lay groaning in the + house. When they got a little better I was attacked myself, and as my + stores were nearly finished and everything was getting very damp, I was + obliged to prepare for my return to Macassar, especially as the strong + westerly winds would render the passage in a small open boat disagreeable, + if not dangerous. + </p> + <p> + Since the rains began, numbers of huge millipedes, as thick as one's + finger and eight or ten inches long, crawled about everywhere—in the + paths, on trees, about the house—and one morning when I got up I + even found one in my bed! They were generally of a dull lead colour or of + a deep brick red, and were very nasty-looking things to be coming + everywhere in one's way, although quite harmless. Snakes too began to show + themselves. I killed two of a very abundant species—big-headed, and + of a bright green colour, which lie coiled up on leaves and shrubs and can + scarcely be seen until one is close upon them. Brown snakes got into my + net while beating among dead leaves for insects, and made me rather + cautious about inserting my hand until I knew what kind of game I had + captured. The fields and meadows which had been parched and sterile, now + became suddenly covered with fine long grass; the river-bed where I had so + many times walked over burning rocks, was now a deep and rapid stream; and + numbers of herbaceous plants and shrubs were everywhere springing up and + bursting into flower. I found plenty of new insects, and if I had had a + good, roomy, water-and-wind-proof house, I should perhaps have stayed + during the wet season, as I feel sure many things can then be obtained + which are to be found at no other time. With my summer hut, however, this + was impossible. During the heavy rains a fine drizzly mist penetrated into + every part of it, and I began to have the greatest difficulty in keeping + my specimens dry. + </p> + <p> + Early in November I returned to Macassar, and having packed up my + collections, started in the Dutch mail steamer for Amboyna and Ternate. + Leaving this part of my journey for the present, I will in the next + CHAPTER conclude my account of Celebes, by describing the extreme northern + part of the island which I visited two years later. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. CELEBES. + </h2> + <h3> + (MENADO, JUNE TO SEPTEMBER, 1859.) + </h3> + <p> + IT was after my residence at Timor-Coupang that I visited the northeastern + extremity of Celebes, touching Banda, Amboyna, and Ternate on my way. I + reached Menado on the 10th of June, 1859, and was very kindly received by + Mr. Tower, an Englishman, but a very old resident in Menado, where he + carries on a general business. He introduced me to Mr. L. Duivenboden + (whose father had been my friend at Ternate), who had much taste for + natural history; and to Mr. Neys, a native of Menado, but who was educated + at Calcutta, and to whom Dutch, English, and Malay were equally + mother-tongues. All these gentlemen showed me the greatest kindness, + accompanied me in my earliest walks about the country, and assisted me by + every means in their power. I spent a week in the town very pleasantly, + making explorations and inquiries after a good collecting station, which I + had much difficulty in finding, owing to the wide cultivation of coffee + and cacao, which has led to the clearing away of the forests for many + miles around the town, and over extensive districts far into the interior. + </p> + <p> + The little town of Menado is one of the prettiest in the East. It has the + appearance of a large garden containing rows of rustic villas with broad + paths between, forming streets generally at right angles with each other. + Good roads branch off in several directions towards the interior, with a + succession of pretty cottages, neat gardens, and thriving plantations, + interspersed with wildernesses of fruit trees. To the west and south the + country is mountainous, with groups of fine volcanic peaks 6,000 or 7,000 + feet high, forming grand and picturesque backgrounds to the landscape. + </p> + <p> + The inhabitants of Minahasa (as this part of Celebes is called) differ + much from those of all the rest of the island, and in fact from any other + people in the Archipelago. They are of a light-brown or yellow tint, often + approaching the fairness of a European; of a rather short stature, stout + and well-made; of an open and pleasing countenance, more or less + disfigured as age increases by projecting check-bones; and with the usual + long, straight, jet-black hair of the Malayan races. In some of the inland + villages where they may be supposed to be of the purest race, both men and + women are remarkably handsome; while nearer the coasts where the purity of + their blood has been destroyed by the intermixture of other races, they + approach to the ordinary types of the wild inhabitants of the surrounding + countries. + </p> + <p> + In mental and moral characteristics they are also highly peculiar. They + are remarkably quiet and gentle in disposition, submissive to the + authority of those they consider their superiors, and easily induced to + learn and adopt the habits of civilized people. They are clever mechanics, + and seem capable of acquiring a considerable amount of intellectual + education. + </p> + <p> + Up to a very recent period these people were thorough savages, and there + are persons now living in Menado who remember a state of things identical + with that described by the writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth + centuries. The inhabitants of the several villages were distinct tribes, + each under its own chief, speaking languages unintelligible to each other, + and almost always at war. They built their houses elevated upon lofty + posts to defend themselves from the attacks of their enemies. They were + headhunters like the Dyaks of Borneo, and were said to be sometimes + cannibals. When a chief died, his tomb was adorned with two fresh human + heads; and if those of enemies could not be obtained, slaves were killed + for the occasion. Human skulls were the great ornaments of the chiefs' + houses. Strips of bark were their only dress. The country was a pathless + wilderness, with small cultivated patches of rice and vegetables, or + clumps of fruit-trees, diversifying the otherwise unbroken forest. Their + religion was that naturally engendered in the undeveloped human mind by + the contemplation of grand natural phenomena and the luxuriance of + tropical nature. The burning mountain, the torrent and the lake, were the + abode of their deities; and certain trees and birds were supposed to have + special influence over men's actions and destiny. They held wild and + exciting festivals to propitiate these deities or demons, and believed + that men could be changed by them into animals—either during life or + after death. + </p> + <p> + Here we have a picture of true savage life; of small isolated communities + at war with all around them, subject to the wants and miseries of such a + condition, drawing a precarious existence from the luxuriant soil, and + living on, from generation to generation, with no desire for physical + amelioration, and no prospect of moral advancement. + </p> + <p> + Such was their condition down to the year 1822, when the coffee-plant was + first introduced, and experiments were made as to its cultivation. It was + found to succeed admirably from fifteen hundred feet, up to four thousand + feet above the sea. The chiefs of villages were induced to undertake its + cultivation. Seed and native instructors were sent from Java; food was + supplied to the labourers engaged in clearing and planting; a fixed price + was established at which all coffee brought to the government collectors + was to be paid for, and the village chiefs who now received the titles of + "Majors" were to receive five percent of the produce. After a time, roads + were made from the port of Menado up to the plateau, and smaller paths + were cleared from village to village; missionaries settled in the more + populous districts and opened schools; and Chinese traders penetrated to + the interior and supplied clothing and other luxuries in exchange for the + money which the sale of the coffee had produced. + </p> + <p> + At the same time, the country was divided into districts, and the system + of "Controlleurs," which had worked so well in Java, was introduced. The + "Controlleur" was a European, or a native of European blood, who was the + general superintendent of the cultivation of the district, the adviser of + the chiefs, the protector of the people, and the means of communication + between both and the European Government. His duties obliged him to visit + every village in succession once a month, and to send in a report on their + condition to the Resident. As disputes between adjacent villages were now + settled by appeal to a superior authority, the old and inconvenient + semi-fortified houses were disused, and under the direction of the + "Controlleurs" most of the houses were rebuilt on a neat and uniform plan. + It was this interesting district which I was now about to visit. + </p> + <p> + Having decided on my route, I started at 8 A.M. on the 22d of June. Mr. + Tower drove me the first three miles in his chaise, and Mr. Neys + accompanied me on horseback three miles further to the village of Lotta. + Here we met the Controlleur of the district of Tondano, who was returning + home from one of his monthly tours, and who had agreed to act as my guide + and companion on the journey. From Lotta we had an almost continual ascent + for six miles, which brought us on to the plateau of Tondano at an + elevation of about 2,400 feet. We passed through three villages whose + neatness and beauty quite astonished me. The main road, along which all + the coffee is brought down from the interior in carts drawn by buffaloes, + is always turned aside at the entrance of a village, so as to pass behind + it, and thus allow the village street itself to be kept neat and clean. + This is bordered by neat hedges often formed entirely of rose-trees, which + are perpetually in blossom. There is a broad central path and a border of + fine turf, which is kept well swept and neatly cut. The houses are all of + wood, raised about six feet on substantial posts neatly painted blue, + while the walls are whitewashed. They all have a verandah enclosed with a + neat balustrade, and are generally surrounded by orange-trees and + flowering shrubs. The surrounding scenery is verdant and picturesque. + Coffee plantations of extreme luxuriance, noble palms and tree ferns, + wooded hills and volcanic peaks, everywhere meet the eye. I had heard much + of the beauty of this country, but the reality far surpassed my + expectations. + </p> + <p> + About one o'clock we reached Tomohón, the chief place of a district, + having a native chief now called the "Major," at whose house we were to + dine. Here was a fresh surprise for me. The house was large, airy and very + substantially built of hard native timber, squared and put together in a + most workmanlike manner. It was furnished in European style, with handsome + chandelier lamps, and the chairs and tables all well made by native + workmen. As soon as we entered, madeira and bitters were offered us. Then + two handsome boys neatly dressed in white, and with smoothly brushed + jet-black hair, handed us each a basin of water and a clean napkin on a + salver. The dinner was excellent. Fowls cooked in various ways; wild pig + roasted, stewed and fried; a fricassee of bats, potatoes, rice and other + vegetables; all served on good china, with finger glasses and fine + napkins, and abundance of good claret and beer, seemed to me rather + curious at the table of a native chief on the mountains of Celebes. Our + host was dressed in a suit of black with patent-leather shoes, and really + looked comfortable and almost gentlemanly in them. He sat at the head of + the table and did the honours well, though he did not talk much. Our + conversation was entirely in Malay, as that is the official language here, + and in fact the mother-tongue and only language of the Controlleur, who is + a native-born half-breed. The Major's father who was chief before him, + wore, I was informed, a strip of bark as his sole costume, and lived in a + rude but raised home on lofty poles, and abundantly decorated with human + heads. Of course we were expected, and our dinner was prepared in the best + style, but I was assured that the chiefs all take a pride in adopting + European customs, and in being able to receive their visitors in a + handsome manner. + </p> + <p> + After dinner and coffee, the Controlleur went on to Tondano, and I + strolled about the village waiting for my baggage, which was coming in a + bullock-cart, and did not arrive until after midnight. Supper was very + similar to dinner, and on retiring I found an elegant little room with a + comfortable bed, gauze curtains with blue and red hangings, and every + convenience. Next morning at sunrise the thermometer in the verandah stood + at 69°, which I was told is about the usual lowest temperature at this + place, 2,500 feet above the sea. I had a good breakfast of coffee, eggs, + and fresh bread and butter, which I took in the spacious verandah amid the + odour of roses, jessamine, and other sweet-scented flowers, which filled + the garden in front; and about eight o'clock left Tomohón with a dozen men + carrying my baggage. + </p> + <p> + Our road lay over a mountain ridge about 4,000 feet above the sea, and + then descended about 500 feet to the little village of Rurúkan, the + highest in the district of Minahasa, and probably in all Celebes. Here I + had determined to stay for some time to see whether this elevation would + produce any change in the zoology. The village had only been formed about + ten years, and was quite as neat as those I had passed through, and much + more picturesque. It is placed on a small level spot, from which there is + an abrupt wooded descent down to the beautiful lake of Tondano, with + volcanic mountains beyond. On one side is a ravine, and beyond it a fine + mountainous and wooded country. + </p> + <p> + Near the village are the coffee plantations. The trees are planted in + rows, and are kept topped to about seven feet high. This causes the + lateral branches to grow very strong, so that some of the trees become + perfect hemispheres, loaded with fruit from top to bottom, and producing + from ten to twenty pounds each of cleaned coffee annually. These + plantations were all formed by the Government, and are cultivated by the + villagers under the direction of their chief. Certain days are appointed + for weeding or gathering, and the whole working population are summoned by + the sound of a gong. An account is kept of the number of hours' work done + by each family, and at the year's end, the produce of the sale is divided + among them proportionately. The coffee is taken to Government stores + established at central places over the whole country, and is paid for at a + low fixed price. Out of this a certain percentage goes to the chiefs and + majors, and the remainder is divided among the inhabitants. This system + works very well, and I believe is at present far better for the people + than free-trade would be. There are also large rice-fields, and in this + little village of seventy houses, I was informed that a hundred pounds' + worth of rice was sold annually. + </p> + <p> + I had a small house at the very end of the village, almost hanging over + the precipitous slope down to the stream, and with a splendid view from + the verandah. The thermometer in the morning often stood at 62° and never + rose so high as 80°, so that with the thin clothing used in the tropical + plains we were always cool and sometimes positively cold, while the spout + of water where I went daily for my bath had quite an icy feel. Although I + enjoyed myself very much among these fine mountains and forests, I was + somewhat disappointed as to my collections. There was hardly any + perceptible difference between the animal life in this temperate region + and in the torrid plains below, and what difference did exist was in most + respects disadvantageous to me. There seemed to be nothing absolutely + peculiar to this elevation. Birds and quadrupeds were less plentiful, but + of the same species. In insects there seemed to be more difference. The + curious beetles of the family Cleridae, which are found chiefly on bark + and rotten wood, were finer than I have seen them elsewhere. The beautiful + Longicorns were scarcer than usual, and the few butterflies were all of + tropical species. One of these, Papilio blumei, of which I obtained a few + specimens only, is among the most magnificent I have ever seen. It is a + green and gold swallow-tail, with azure-blue and spoon-shaped tails, and + was often seen flying about the village when the sun shone, but in a very + shattered condition. The great amount of wet and cloudy weather was a + great drawback all the time I was at Rurúkan. + </p> + <p> + Even in the vegetation there is very little to indicate elevation. The + trees are more covered with lichens and mosses, and the ferns and + tree-ferns are finer and more luxuriant than I had been accustomed to + seeing on the low grounds, both probably attributable to the almost + perpetual moisture that here prevails. Abundance of a tasteless raspberry, + with blue and yellow compositae, have somewhat of a temperate aspect; and + minute ferns and Orchideae, with dwarf Begonias on the rocks, make some + approach to a sub-alpine vegetation. The forest, however, is most + luxuriant. Noble palms, Pandani, and tree-ferns are abundant in it, while + the forest trees are completely festooned with Orchideae, Bromeliae, + Araceae, Lycopodiums, and mosses. The ordinary stemless ferns abound; some + with gigantic fronds ten or twelve feet long, others barely an inch high; + some with entire and massive leaves, others elegantly waving their + finely-cut foliage, and adding endless variety and interest to the forest + paths. The cocoa-nut palm still produces fruit abundantly, but is said to + be deficient in oil. Oranges thrive better than below, producing abundance + of delicious fruit; but the shaddock or pumplemous (Citrus decumana) + requires the full force of a tropical sun, for it will not thrive even at + Tondano a thousand feet lower. On the hilly slopes rice is cultivated + largely, and ripens well, although the temperature rarely or never rises + to 80°, so that one would think it might be grown even in England in fine + summers, especially if the young plants were raised under glass. + </p> + <p> + The mountains have an unusual quantity of earth and vegetable mould spread + over them. Even on the steepest slopes there is everywhere a covering of + clays and sands, and generally a good thickness of vegetable soil. It is + this which perhaps contributes to the uniform luxuriance of the forest, + and delays the appearance of that sub-alpine vegetation which depends + almost as much on the abundance of rocky and exposed surfaces as on + difference of climate. At a much lower elevation on Mount Ophir in + Malacca, Dacrydiums and Rhododendrons with abundance of Nepenthes, ferns, + and terrestrial orchids suddenly took the place of the lofty forest; but + this was plainly due to the occurrence of an extensive slope of bare, + granitic rock at an elevation of less than 3,000 feet. The quantity of + vegetable soil, and also of loose sands and clays, resting on steep + slopes, hill-tops and the sides of ravines, is a curious and important + phenomenon. It may be due in part to constant, slight earthquake shocks + facilitating the disintegration of rock; but, would also seem to indicate + that the country has been long exposed to gentle atmospheric action, and + that its elevation has been exceedingly slow and continuous. + </p> + <p> + During my stay at Rurúkan, my curiosity was satisfied by experiencing a + pretty sharp earthquake-shock. On the evening of June 29th, at a quarter + after eight, as I was sitting reading, the house began shaking with a very + gentle, but rapidly increasing motion. I sat still enjoying the novel + sensation for some seconds; but in less than half a minute it became + strong enough to shake me in my chair, and to make the house visibly rock + about, and creak and crack as if it would fall to pieces. Then began a cry + throughout the village of "Tana goyang! tana goyang!" (Earthquake! + earthquake!) Everybody rushed out of their houses—women screamed and + children cried—and I thought it prudent to go out too. On getting + up, I found my head giddy and my steps unsteady, and could hardly walk + without falling. The shock continued about a minute, during which time I + felt as if I had been turned round and round, and was almost seasick. + Going into the house again, I found a lamp and a bottle of arrack upset. + The tumbler which formed the lamp had been thrown out of the saucer in + which it had stood. The shock appeared to be nearly vertical, rapid, + vibratory, and jerking. It was sufficient, I have no doubt, to have thrown + down brick, chimneys, walls, and church towers; but as the houses here are + all low, and strongly framed of timber, it is impossible for them to be + much injured, except by a shock that would utterly destroy a European + city. The people told me it was ten years since they had had a stronger + shock than this, at which time many houses were thrown down and some + people killed. + </p> + <p> + At intervals of ten minutes to half an hour, slight shocks and tremors + were felt, sometimes strong enough to send us all out again. There was a + strange mixture of the terrible and the ludicrous in our situation. We + might at any moment have a much stronger shock, which would bring down the + house over us, or—what I feared more—cause a landslip, and + send us down into the deep ravine on the very edge of which the village is + built; yet I could not help laughing each time we ran out at a slight + shock, and then in a few moments ran in again. The sublime and the + ridiculous were here literally but a step apart. On the one hand, the most + terrible and destructive of natural phenomena was in action around us—the + rocks, the mountains, the solid earth were trembling and convulsed, and we + were utterly impotent to guard against the danger that might at any moment + overwhelm us. On the other hand was the spectacle of a number of men, + women, and children running in and out of their houses, on what each time + proved a very unnecessary alarm, as each shock ceased just as it became + strong enough to frighten us. It seemed really very much like "playing at + earthquakes," and made many of the people join me in a hearty laugh, even + while reminding each other that it really might be no laughing matter. + </p> + <p> + At length the evening got very cold, and I became very sleepy, and + determined to turn in; leaving orders to my boys, who slept nearer the + door, to wake me in case the house was in danger of falling. But I + miscalculated my apathy, for I could not sleep much. The shocks continued + at intervals of half an hour or an hour all night, just strong enough to + wake me thoroughly each time and keep me on the alert, ready to jump up in + case of danger. I was therefore very glad when morning came. Most of the + inhabitants had not been to bed at all, and some had stayed out of doors + all night. For the next two days and nights shocks still continued at + short intervals, and several times a day for a week, showing that there + was some very extensive disturbance beneath our portion of the earth's + crust. How vast the forces at work really are can only be properly + appreciated when, after feeling their effects, we look abroad over the + wide expanse of hill and valley, plain and mountain, and thus realize in a + slight degree the immense mass of matter heaved and shaken. The sensation + produced by an earthquake is never to be forgotten. We feel ourselves in + the grasp of a power to which the wildest fury of the winds and waves are + as nothing; yet the effect is more a thrill of awe than the terror which + the more boisterous war of the elements produces. There is a mystery and + an uncertainty as to the amount of danger we incur, which gives greater + play to the imagination, and to the influences of hope and fear. These + remarks apply only to a moderate earthquake. A severe one is the most + destructive and the most horrible catastrophe to which human beings can be + exposed. + </p> + <p> + A few days after the earthquake I took a walk to Tondano, a large village + of about 7,000 inhabitants, situated at the lower end of the lake of the + same name. I dined with the Controlleur, Mr. Bensneider, who had been my + guide to Tomohón. He had a fine large house, in which he often received + visitors; and his garden was the best for flowers which I had seen in the + tropics, although there was no great variety. It was he who introduced the + rose hedges which give such a charming appearance to the villages; and to + him is chiefly due the general neatness and good order that everywhere + prevail. I consulted him about a fresh locality, as I found Rurúkan too + much in the clouds, dreadfully damp and gloomy, and with a general + stagnation of bird and insect life. He recommended me a village some + distance beyond the lake, near which was a large forest, where he thought + I should find plenty of birds. As he was going himself in a few days, I + decided to accompany him. + </p> + <p> + After dinner I asked him for a guide to the celebrated waterfall on the + outlet stream of the lake. It is situated about a mile and half below the + village, where a slight rising ground closes in the basin, and evidently + once formed, the shore of the lake. Here the river enters a gorge, very + narrow and tortuous, along which it rushes furiously for a short distance + and then plunges into a great chasm, forming the head of a large valley. + Just above the fall the channel is not more than ten feet wide, and here a + few planks are thrown across, whence, half hid by luxuriant vegetation, + the mad waters may be seen rushing beneath, and a few feet farther plunge + into the abyss. Both sight and sound are grand and impressive. It was here + that, four years before my visit, the Governor-General of the Netherland + Indies committed suicide, by leaping into the torrent. This at least is + the general opinion, as he suffered from a painful disease which was + supposed to have made him weary of his life. His body was found next day + in the stream below. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, no good view of the fall could now be obtained, owing to + the quantity of wood and high grass that lined the margins of the + precipices. There are two falls, the lower being the most lofty; and it is + possible, by long circuit, to descend into the valley and see them from + below. Were the best points of view searched for and rendered accessible, + these falls would probably be found to be the finest in the Archipelago. + The chasm seems to be of great depth, probably 500 or 600 feet. + Unfortunately, I had no time to explore this valley, as I was anxious to + devote every fine day to increasing my hitherto scanty collections. + </p> + <p> + Just opposite my abode in Rurúkan was the schoolhouse. The schoolmaster + was a native, educated by the Missionary at Tomohón. School was held every + morning for about three hours, and twice a week in the evening there was + catechising and preaching. There was also a service on Sunday morning. The + children were all taught in Malay, and I often heard them repeating the + multiplication-table, up to twenty times twenty, very glibly. They always + wound up with singing, and it was very pleasing to hear many of our old + psalm-tunes in these remote mountains, sung with Malay words. Singing is + one of the real blessings which Missionaries introduce among savage + nations, whose native chants are almost always monotonous and melancholy. + </p> + <p> + On catechising evenings the schoolmaster was a great man, preaching and + teaching for three hours at a stretch much in the style of an English + ranter. This was pretty cold work for his auditors, however warming to + himself; and I am inclined to think that these native teachers, having + acquired facility of speaking and an endless supply of religious + platitudes to talk about, ride their hobby rather hard, without much + consideration for their flock. The Missionaries, however, have much to be + proud of in this country. They have assisted the Government in changing a + savage into a civilized community in a wonderfully short space of time. + Forty years ago the country was a wilderness, the people naked savages, + garnishing their rude houses with human heads. Now it is a garden, worthy + of its sweet native name of "Minahasa." Good roads and paths traverse it + in every direction; some of the finest coffee plantations in the world + surround the villages, interspersed with extensive rice-fields more than + sufficient for the support of the population. + </p> + <p> + The people are now the most industrious, peaceable, and civilized in the + whole Archipelago. They are the best clothed, the best housed, the best + fed, and the best educated; and they have made some progress towards a + higher social state. I believe there is no example elsewhere of such + striking results being produced in so short a time—results which are + entirely due to the system of government now adopted by the Dutch in their + Eastern possessions. The system is one which may be called a "paternal + despotism." Now we Englishmen do not like despotism—we hate the name + and the thing, and we would rather see people ignorant, lazy, and vicious, + than use any but moral force to make them wise, industrious, and good. And + we are right when we are dealing with men of our own race, and of similar + ideas and equal capacities with ourselves. Example and precept, the force + of public opinion, and the slow, but sure spread of education, will do + everything in time, without engendering any of those bitter feelings, or + producing any of that servility, hypocrisy, and dependence, which are the + sure results of despotic government. But what should we think of a man who + should advocate these principles of perfect freedom in a family or a + school? We should say that he was applying a good, general principle to a + case in which the conditions rendered it inapplicable—the case in + which the governed are in an admitted state of mental inferiority to those + who govern them, and are unable to decide what is best for their permanent + welfare. Children must be subjected to some degree of authority, and + guidance; and if properly managed they will cheerfully submit to it, + because they know their own inferiority, and believe their elders are + acting solely for their good. They learn many things the use of which they + cannot comprehend, and which they would never learn without some moral and + social, if not physical, pressure. Habits of order, of industry, of + cleanliness, of respect and obedience, are inculcated by similar means. + Children would never grow up into well-behaved and well-educated men, if + the same absolute freedom of action that is allowed to men were allowed to + them. Under the best aspect of education, children are subjected to a mild + despotism for the good of themselves and of society; and their confidence + in the wisdom and goodness of those who ordain and apply this despotism, + neutralizes the bad passions and degrading feelings, which under less + favourable conditions are its general results. + </p> + <p> + Now, there is not merely an analogy—there is in many respects an + identity of relation between master and pupil or parent and child on the + one hand, and an uncivilized race and its civilized rulers on the other. + We know (or think we know) that the education and industry, and the common + usages of civilized man, are superior to those of savage life; and, as he + becomes acquainted with them, the savage himself admits this. He admires + the superior acquirements of the civilized man, and it is with pride that + he will adopt such usages as do not interfere too much with his sloth, his + passions, or his prejudices. But as the willful child or the idle + schoolboy, who was never taught obedience, and never made to do anything + which of his own free will he was not inclined to do, would in most cases + obtain neither education nor manners; so it is much more unlikely that the + savage, with all the confirmed habits of manhood and the traditional + prejudices of race, should ever do more than copy a few of the least + beneficial customs of civilization, without some stronger stimulus than + precept, very imperfectly backed by example. + </p> + <p> + If we are satisfied that we are right in assuming the government over a + savage race, and occupying their country, and if we further consider it + our duty to do what we can to improve our rude subjects and raise them up + towards our own level, we must not be too much afraid of the cry of + "despotism" and "slavery," but must use the authority we possess to induce + them to do work which they may not altogether like, but which we know to + be an indispensable step in their moral and physical advancement. The + Dutch have shown much good policy in the means by which they have done + this. They have in most cases upheld and strengthened the authority of the + native chiefs, to whom the people have been accustomed to render a + voluntary obedience; and by acting on the intelligence and self-interest + of these chiefs, have brought about changes in the manners and customs of + the people, which would have excited ill-feeling and perhaps revolt, had + they been directly enforced by foreigners. + </p> + <p> + In carrying out such a system, much depends upon the character of the + people; and the system which succeeds admirably in one place could only be + very partially worked out in another. In Minahasa the natural docility and + intelligence of the race have made their progress rapid; and how important + this is, is well illustrated by the fact, that in the immediate vicinity + of the town of Menado are a tribe called Banteks, of a much less tractable + disposition, who have hitherto resisted all efforts of the Dutch + Government to induce them to adopt any systematic cultivation. These + remain in a ruder condition, but engage themselves willingly as occasional + porters and labourers, for which their greater strength and activity well + adapt them. + </p> + <p> + No doubt the system here sketched seems open to serious objection. It is + to a certain extent despotic, and interferes with free trade, free labour, + and free communication. A native cannot leave his village without a pass, + and cannot engage himself to any merchant or captain without a Government + permit. The coffee has all to be sold to Government, at less than half the + price that the local merchant would give for it, and he consequently cries + out loudly against "monopoly" and "oppression." He forgets, however, that + the coffee plantations were established by the Government at great outlay + of capital and skill; that it gives free education to the people, and that + the monopoly is in lieu of taxation. He forgets that the product he wants + to purchase and make a profit by, is the creation of the Government, + without whom the people would still be savages. He knows very well that + free trade would, as its first result, lead to the importation of whole + cargoes of arrack, which would be carried over the country and exchanged + for coffee. That drunkenness and poverty would spread over the land; that + the public coffee plantations would not be kept up; that the quality and + quantity of the coffee would soon deteriorate; that traders and merchants + would get rich, but that the people would relapse into poverty and + barbarism. That such is invariably the result of free trade with any + savage tribes who possess a valuable product, native or cultivated, is + well known to those who have visited such people; but we might even + anticipate from general principles that evil results would happen. + </p> + <p> + If there is one thing rather than another to which the grand law of + continuity or development will apply, it is to human progress. There are + certain stages through which society must pass in its onward march from + barbarism to civilization. Now one of these stages has always been some + form or other of despotism, such as feudalism or servitude, or a despotic + paternal government; and we have every reason to believe that it is not + possible for humanity to leap over this transition epoch, and pass at once + from pure savagery to free civilization. The Dutch system attempts to + supply this missing link, and to bring the people on by gradual steps to + that higher civilization, which we (the English) try to force upon them at + once. Our system has always failed. We demoralize and we extirpate, but we + never really civilize. Whether the Dutch system can permanently succeed is + but doubtful, since it may not be possible to compress the work of ten + centuries into one; but at all events it takes nature as a guide, and is + therefore, more deserving of success, and more likely to succeed, than + ours. + </p> + <p> + There is one point connected with this question which I think the + Missionaries might take up with great physical and moral results. In this + beautiful and healthy country, and with abundance of food and necessaries, + the population does not increase as it ought to do. I can only impute this + to one cause. Infant mortality, produced by neglect while the mothers are + working in the plantations, and by general ignorance of the conditions of + health in infants. Women all work, as they have always been accustomed to + do. It is no hardship to them, but I believe is often a pleasure and + relaxation. They either take their infants with them, in which case they + leave them in some shady spot on the ground, going at intervals to give + them nourishment, or they leave them at home in the care of other children + too young to work. Under neither of these circumstances can infants be + properly attended to, and great mortality is the result, keeping the + increase of population far below the rate which the general prosperity of + the country and the universality of marriage would lead us to expect. This + is a matter in which the Government is directly interested, since it is by + the increase of the population alone that there can be any large and + permanent increase in the production of coffee. The Missionaries should + take up the question because, by inducing married women to confine + themselves to domestic duties, they will decidedly promote a higher + civilization, and directly increase the health and happiness of the whole + community. The people are so docile and so willing to adopt the manners + and customs of Europeans, that the change might be easily effected by + merely showing them that it was a question of morality and civilization, + and an essential step in their progress towards an equality with their + white rulers. + </p> + <p> + After a fortnight's stay at Rurúkan, I left that pretty and interesting + village in search of a locality and climate more productive of birds and + insects. I passed the evening with the Controlleur of Tondano, and the + next morning at nine, left in a small boat for the head of the lake, a + distance of about ten miles. The lower end of the lake is bordered by + swamps and marshes of considerable extent, but a little further on, the + hills come down to the water's edge and give it very much the appearance + of a greet river, the width being about two miles. At the upper end is the + village of Kakas, where I dined with the head man in a good house like + those I have already described; and then went on to Langówan, four miles + distant over a level plain. This was the place where I had been + recommended to stay, and I accordingly unpacked my baggage and made myself + comfortable in the large house devoted to visitors. I obtained a man to + shoot for me, and another to accompany me the next day to the forest, + where I was in hopes of finding a good collecting ground. + </p> + <p> + In the morning after breakfast I started off, but found I had four miles + to walk over a wearisome straight road through coffee plantations before I + could get to the forest, and as soon as I did so, it came on to rain + heavily and did not cease until night. This distance to walk every day was + too far for any profitable work, especially when the weather was so + uncertain. I therefore decided at once that I must go further on, until I + found someplace close to or in a forest country. In the afternoon my + friend Mr. Bensneider arrived, together with the Controlleur of the next + district, called Belang, from whom I learned that six miles further on + there was a village called Panghu, which had been recently formed and had + a good deal of forest close to it; and he promised me the use of a small + house if I liked to go there. + </p> + <p> + The next morning I went to see the hot-springs and mud volcanoes, for + which this place is celebrated. A picturesque path among plantations and + ravines brought us to a beautiful circular basin about forty feet in + diameter, bordered by a calcareous ledge, so uniform and truly curved, + that it looked like a work of art. It was filled with clear water very + near the boiling point, and emitted clouds of steam with a strong + sulphureous odour. It overflows at one point and forms a little stream of + hot water, which at a hundred yards' distance is still too hot to hold the + hand in. A little further on, in a piece of rough wood, were two other + springs not so regular in outline, but appearing to be much hotter, as + they were in a continual state of active ebullition. At intervals of a few + minutes, a great escape of steam or gas took place, throwing up a column + of water three or four feet high. + </p> + <p> + We then went to the mud-springs, which are about a mile off, and are still + more curious. On a sloping tract of ground in a slight hollow is a small + lake of liquid mud, with patches of blue, red, or white, and in many + places boiling and bubbling most furiously. All around on the indurated + clay are small wells and craters full of boiling mud. These seem to be + forming continually, a small hole appearing first, which emits jets of + steam and boiling mud, which upon hardening, forms a little cone with a + crater in the middle. The ground for some distance is very unsafe, as it + is evidently liquid at a small depth, and bends with pressure like thin + ice. At one of the smaller, marginal jets which I managed to approach, I + held my hand to see if it was really as hot as it looked, when a little + drop of mud that spurted on to my finger scalded like boiling water. + </p> + <p> + A short distance off, there was a flat bare surface of rock as smooth and + hot as an oven floor, which was evidently an old mud-pool, dried up and + hardened. For hundreds of yards around where there were banks of reddish + and white clay used for whitewash, it was still so hot close to the + surface that the hand could hardly bear to be held in cracks a few inches + deep, and from which arose a strong sulphureous vapour. I was informed + that some years back a French gentleman who visited these springs ventured + too near the liquid mud, when the crust gave way and he was engulfed in + the horrible caldron. + </p> + <p> + This evidence of intense heat so near the surface over a large tract of + country was very impressive, and I could hardly divest myself of the + notion that some terrible catastrophe might at any moment devastate the + country. Yet it is probable that all these apertures are really + safety-valves, and that the inequalities of the resistance of various + parts of the earth's crust will always prevent such an accumulation of + force as would be required to upheave and overwhelm any extensive area. + About seven miles west of this is a volcano which was in eruption about + thirty years before my visit, presenting a magnificent appearance and + covering the surrounding country with showers of ashes. The plains around + the lake formed by the intermingling and decomposition of volcanic + products are of amazing fertility, and with a little management in the + rotation of crops might be kept in continual cultivation. Rice is now + grown on them for three or four years in succession, when they are left + fallow for the same period, after which rice or maize can be again grown. + Good rice produces thirty-fold, and coffee trees continue bearing + abundantly for ten or fifteen years, without any manure and with scarcely + any cultivation. + </p> + <p> + I was delayed a day by incessant rain, and then proceeded to Panghu, which + I reached just before the daily rain began at 11 A.M. After leaving the + summit level of the lake basin, the road is carried along the slope of a + fine forest ravine. The descent is a long one, so that I estimated the + village to be not more than 1,500 feet above the sea, yet I found the + morning temperature often 69°, the same as at Tondano at least 600 or 700 + feet higher. I was pleased with the appearance of the place, which had a + good deal of forest and wild country around it; and found prepared for me + a little house consisting only of a verandah and a back room. This was + only intended for visitors to rest in, or to pass a night, but it suited + me very well. I was so unfortunate, however, as to lose both my hunters + just at this time. One had been left at Tondano with fever and diarrhoea, + and the other was attacked at Langówan with inflammation of the chest, and + as his case looked rather bad I had him sent back to Menado. The people + here were all so busy with their rice-harvest, which was important for + them to finish owing to the early rains, that I could get no one to shoot + for me. + </p> + <p> + During the three weeks that I stayed at Panghu it rained nearly every day, + either in the afternoon only, or all day long; but there were generally a + few hours' sunshine in the morning, and I took advantage of these to + explore the roads and paths, the rocks and ravines, in search of insects. + These were not very abundant, yet I saw enough to convince me that the + locality was a good one, had I been there at the beginning instead of at + the end of the dry season. The natives brought me daily a few insects + obtained at the Sagueir palms, including some fine Cetonias and + stag-beetles. Two little boys were very expert with the blowpipe, and + brought me a good many small birds, which they shot with pellets of clay. + Among these was a pretty little flower-pecker of a new species + (Prionochilus aureolimbatus), and several of the loveliest honeysuckers I + had yet seen. My general collection of birds was, however, almost at a + standstill; for though I at length obtained a man to shoot for me, he was + not good for much, and seldom brought me more than one bird a day. The + best thing he shot was the large and rare fruit-pigeon peculiar to + Northern Celebes (Carpophaga forsteni), which I had long been seeking. + </p> + <p> + I was myself very successful in one beautiful group of insects, the + tiger-beetles, which seem more abundant and varied here than anywhere else + in the Archipelago. I first met with them on a cutting in the road, where + a hard clayey bank was partially overgrown with mosses and small ferns. + Here, I found running about, a small olive-green species which never took + flight; and more rarely, a fine purplish black wingless insect, which was + always found motionless in crevices, and was therefore, probably + nocturnal. It appeared to me to form a new genus. About the roads in the + forest, I found the large and handsome Cicindela heros, which I had before + obtained sparingly at Macassar; but it was in the mountain torrent of the + ravine itself that I got my finest things. On dead trunks overhanging the + water and on the banks and foliage, I obtained three very pretty species + of Cicindela, quite distinct in size, form, and colour, but having an + almost identical pattern of pale spots. I also found a single specimen of + a most curious species with very long antennae. But my finest discovery + here was the Cicindela gloriosa, which I found on mossy stones just rising + above the water. After obtaining my first specimen of this elegant insect, + I used to walk up the stream, watching carefully every moss-covered rock + and stone. It was rather shy, and would often lead me on a long chase from + stone to stone, becoming invisible every time it settled on the damp moss, + owing to its rich velvety green colour. On some days I could only catch a + few glimpses of it; on others I got a single specimen; and on a few + occasions two, but never without a more or less active pursuit. This and + several other species I never saw but in this one ravine. + </p> + <p> + Among the people here I saw specimens of several types, which, with the + peculiarities of the languages, gives me some notion of their probable + origin. A striking illustration of the low state of civilization of these + people, until quite recently, is to be found in the great diversity of + their languages. Villages three or four miles apart have separate + dialects, and each group of three or four such villages has a distinct + language quite unintelligible to all the rest; so that, until the recent + introduction of Malay by the Missionaries, there must have been a bar to + all free communication. These languages offer many peculiarities. They + contain a Celebes-Malay element and a Papuan element, along with some + radical peculiarities found also in the languages of the Siau and Sanguir + islands further north, and therefore, probably derived from the Philippine + Islands. Physical characteristics correspond. There are some of the less + civilized tribes which have semi-Papuan features and hair, while in some + villages the true Celebes or Bugis physiognomy prevails. The plateau of + Tondano is chiefly inhabited by people nearly as white as the Chinese, and + with very pleasing semi-European features. The people of Siau and Sanguir + much resemble these, and I believe them to be perhaps immigrants from some + of the islands of North Polynesia. The Papuan type will represent the + remnant of the aborigines, while those of the Bugis character show the + extension northward of the superior Malay races. + </p> + <p> + As I was wasting valuable time at Panghu, owing to the bad weather and the + illness of my hunters, I returned to Menado after a stay of three weeks. + Here I had a little touch of fever, and what with drying and packing all + of my collections and getting fresh servants, it was a fortnight before I + was again ready to start. I now went eastward over an undulating country + skirting the great volcano of Klabat, to a village called Lempias, + situated close to the extensive forest that covers the lower slopes of + that mountain. My baggage was carried from village to village by relays of + men; and as each change involved some delay, I did not reach my + destination (a distance of eighteen miles) until sunset. I was wet + through, and had to wait for an hour in an uncomfortable state until the + first installment of my baggage arrived, which luckily contained my + clothes, while the rest did not come in until midnight. + </p> + <p> + This being the district inhabited by that singular annual the Babirusa + (Hog-deer), I inquired about skulls and soon obtained several in tolerable + condition, as well as a fine one of the rare and curious "Sapi-utan" (Anoa + depressicornis). Of this animal I had seen two living specimens at Menado, + and was surprised at their great resemblance to small cattle, or still + more to the Eland of South Africa. Their Malay name signifies "forest ox," + and they differ from very small highbred oxen principally by the + low-hanging dewlap, and straight, pointed horns which slope back over the + neck. I did not find the forest here so rich in insects as I had expected, + and my hunters got me very few birds, but what they did obtain were very + interesting. Among these were the rare forest Kingfisher (Cittura + cyanotis), a small new species of Megapodius, and one specimen of the + large and interesting Maleo (Megacephalon rubripes), to obtain which was + one of my chief reasons for visiting this district. Getting no more, + however, after ten days' search, I removed to Licoupang, at the extremity + of the peninsula, a place celebrated for these birds, as well as for the + Babirusa and Sapi-utan. I found here Mr. Goldmann, the eldest son of the + Governor of the Moluccas, who was superintending the establishment of some + Government salt-works. This was a better locality, and I obtained some + fine butterflies and very good birds, among which was one more specimen of + the rare ground dove (Phlegaenas tristigmata), which I had first obtained + near the Maros waterfall in South Celebes. + </p> + <p> + Hearing what I was particularly in search of, Mr. Goldmann kindly offered + to make a hunting-party to the place where the "Maleos" are most abundant, + a remote and uninhabited sea-beach about twenty miles distant. The climate + here was quite different from that on the mountains; not a drop of rain + having fallen for four months; so I made arrangements to stay on the beach + a week, in order to secure a good number of specimens. We went partly by + boat and partly through the forest, accompanied by the Major or head-man + of Licoupang, with a dozen natives and about twenty dogs. On the way they + caught a young Sapi-utan and five wild pigs. Of the former I preserved the + head. This animal is entirely confined to the remote mountain forests of + Celebes and one or two adjacent islands which form part of the same group. + In the adults the head is black, with a white mark over each eye, one on + each cheek and another on the throat. The horns are very smooth and sharp + when young, but become thicker and ridged at the bottom with age. Most + naturalists consider this curious animal to be a small ox, but from the + character of the horns, the fine coat of hair and the descending dewlap, + it seemed closely to approach the antelopes. + </p> + <p> + Arrived at our destination, we built a but and prepared for a stay of some + days—I to shoot and skin "Maleos", and Mr. Goldmann and the Major to + hunt wild pigs, Babirusa, and Sapi-utan. The place is situated in the + large bay between the islands of Limbe and Banca, and consists of steep + beach more than a mile in length, of deep loose and coarse black volcanic + sand (or rather gravel), very fatiguing to walk over. It is bounded at + each extremity by a small river with hilly ground beyond, while the forest + behind the beach itself is tolerably level and its growth stunted. We + probably have here an ancient lava stream from the Klabat volcano, which + has flowed down a valley into the sea, and the decomposition of which has + formed the loose black sand. In confirmation of this view, it may be + mentioned that the beaches beyond the small rivers in both directions are + of white sand. + </p> + <p> + It is in this loose, hot, black sand that those singular birds, the + "Maleos" deposit their eggs. In the months of August and September, when + there is little or no rain, they come down in pairs from the interior to + this or to one or two other favourite spots, and scratch holes three or + four feet deep, just above high-water mark, where the female deposits a + single large egg, which she covers over with about a foot of sand—and + then returns to the forest. At the end of ten or twelve days she comes + again to the same spot to lay another egg, and each female bird is + supposed to lay six or eight eggs during the season. The male assists the + female in making the hole, coming down and returning with her. The + appearance of the bird when walking on the beach is very handsome. The + glossy black and rosy white of the plumage, the helmeted head and elevated + tail, like that of the common fowl, give a striking character, which their + stately and somewhat sedate walk renders still more remarkable. There is + hardly any difference between the sexes, except that the casque or bonnet + at the back of the head and the tubercles at the nostrils are a little + larger, and the beautiful rosy salmon colour a little deeper in the male + bird; but the difference is so slight that it is not always possible to + tell a male from a female without dissection. They run quickly, but when + shot at or suddenly disturbed, take wing with a heavy noisy flight to some + neighbouring tree, where they settle on a low branch; and, they probably + roost at night in a similar situation. Many birds lay in the same hole, + for a dozen eggs are often found together; and these are so large that it + is not possible for the body of the bird to contain more than one + fully-developed egg at the same time. In all the female birds which I + shot, none of the eggs besides the one large one exceeded the size of + peas, and there were only eight or nine of these, which is probably the + extreme number a bird can lay in one season. + </p> + <p> + Every year the natives come for fifty miles round to obtain these eggs, + which are esteemed as a great delicacy, and when quite fresh, are indeed + delicious. They are richer than hens' eggs and of a finer favour, and each + one completely fills an ordinary teacup, and forms with bread or rice a + very good meal. The colour of the shell is a pale brick red, or very + rarely pure white. They are elongate and very slightly smaller at one end, + from four to four and a half inches long by two and a quarter or two and a + half wide. + </p> + <p> + After the eggs are deposited in the sand, they are no further cared for by + the mother. The young birds, upon breaking the shell, work their way up + through the sand and run off at once to the forest; and I was assured by + Mr. Duivenboden of Ternate, that they can fly the very day they are + hatched. He had taken some eggs on board his schooner which hatched during + the night, and in the morning the little birds flew readily across the + cabin. Considering the great distances the birds come to deposit the eggs + in a proper situation (often ten or fifteen miles) it seems extraordinary + that they should take no further care of them. It is, however, quite + certain that they neither do nor can watch them. The eggs being deposited + by a number of hens in succession in the same hole, would render it + impossible for each to distinguish its own; and the food necessary for + such large birds (consisting entirely of fallen fruits) can only be + obtained by roaming over an extensive district, so that if the numbers of + birds which come down to this single beach in the breeding season, + amounting to many hundreds, were obliged to remain in the vicinity, many + would perish of hunger. + </p> + <p> + In the structure of the feet of this bird, we may detect a cause for its + departing from the habits of its nearest allies, the Megapodii and + Talegalli, which heap up earth, leaves, stones, and sticks into a huge + mound, in which they bury their eggs. The feet of the Maleo are not nearly + so large or strong in proportion as in these birds, while its claws are + short and straight instead of being long and much curved. The toes are, + however, strongly webbed at the base, forming a broad powerful foot, + which, with the rather long leg, is well adapted to scratch away the loose + sand (which flies up in a perfect shower when the birds are at work), but + which could not without much labour accumulate the heaps of miscellaneous + rubbish, which the large grasping feet of the Megapodius bring together + with ease. + </p> + <p> + We may also, I think, see in the peculiar organization of the entire + family of the Megapodidae or Brush Turkeys, a reason why they depart so + widely from the usual habits of the Class of birds. Each egg being so + large as entirely to fill up the abdominal cavity and with difficulty pass + the walls of the pelvis, a considerable interval is required before the + successive eggs can be matured (the natives say about thirteen days). Each + bird lays six or eight eggs or even more each season, so that between the + first and last there may be an interval of two or three months. Now, if + these eggs were hatched in the ordinary way, either the parents must keep + sitting continually for this long period, or if they only began to sit + after the last egg was deposited, the first would be exposed to injury by + the climate, or to destruction by the large lizards, snakes, or other + animals which abound in the district; because such large birds must roam + about a good deal in search of food. Here then we seem to have a case in + which the habits of a bird may be directly traced to its exceptional + organization; for it will hardly be maintained that this abnormal + structure and peculiar food were given to the Megapodidae in order that + they might not exhibit that parental affection, or possess those domestic + instincts so general in the Class of birds, and which so much excite our + admiration. + </p> + <p> + It has generally been the custom of writers on Natural History to take the + habits and instincts of animals as fixed points, and to consider their + structure and organization, as specially adapted, to be in accordance with + these. This assumption is however an arbitrary one, and has the bad effect + of stifling inquiry into the nature and causes of "instincts and habits," + treating them as directly due to a "first cause," and therefore, + incomprehensible to us. I believe that a careful consideration of the + structure of a species, and of the peculiar physical and organic + conditions by which it is surrounded, or has been surrounded in past ages, + will often, as in this case, throw much light on the origin of its habits + and instincts. These again, combined with changes in external conditions, + react upon structure, and by means of "variation" and "natural selection", + both are kept in harmony. + </p> + <p> + My friends remained three days, and got plenty of wild pigs and two Anóas, + but the latter were much injured by the dogs, and I could only preserve + the heads. A grand hunt which we attempted on the third day failed, owing + to bad management in driving in the game, and we waited for five hours + perched on platforms in trees without getting a shot, although we had been + assured that pigs, Babirusas, and Anóas would rush past us in dozens. I + myself, with two men, stayed three days longer to get more specimens of + the Maleos, and succeeded in preserving twenty-six very fine ones—the + flesh and eggs of which supplied us with abundance of good food. + </p> + <p> + The Major sent a boat, as he had promised, to take home my baggage, while + I walked through the forest with my two boys and a guide, about fourteen + miles. For the first half of the distance there was no path, and we had + often to cut our way through tangled rattans or thickets of bamboo. In + some of our turnings to find the most practicable route, I expressed my + fear that we were losing our way, as the sun being vertical, I could see + no possible clue to the right direction. My conductors, however, laughed + at the idea, which they seemed to consider quite ludicrous; and sure + enough, about half way, we suddenly encountered a little hut where people + from Licoupang came to hunt and smoke wild pigs. My guide told me he had + never before traversed the forest between these two points; and this is + what is considered by some travellers as one of the savage "instincts," + whereas it is merely the result of wide general knowledge. The man knew + the topography of the whole district; the slope of the land, the direction + of the streams, the belts of bamboo or rattan, and many other indications + of locality and direction; and he was thus enabled to hit straight upon + the hut, in the vicinity of which he had often hunted. In a forest of + which he knew nothing, he would be quite as much at a loss as a European. + Thus it is, I am convinced, with all the wonderful accounts of Indians + finding their way through trackless forests to definite points; they may + never have passed straight between the two particular points before, but + they are well acquainted with the vicinity of both, and have such a + general knowledge of the whole country, its water system, its soil and its + vegetation, that as they approach the point they are to reach, many + easily-recognised indications enable them to hit upon it with certainty. + </p> + <p> + The chief feature of this forest was the abundance of rattan palms hanging + from the trees, and turning and twisting about on the ground, often in + inextricable confusion. One wonders at first how they can get into such + queer shapes; but it is evidently caused by the decay and fall of the + trees up which they have first climbed, after which they grow along the + ground until they meet with another trunk up which to ascend. A tangled + mass of twisted living rattan, is therefore, a sign that at some former + period a large tree has fallen there, though there may be not the + slightest vestige of it left. The rattan seems to have unlimited powers of + growth, and a single plant may mount up several trees in succession, and + thus reach the enormous length they are said sometimes to attain. They + much improve the appearance of a forest as seen from the coast; for they + vary the otherwise monotonous tree-tops with feathery crowns of leaves + rising clear above them, and each terminated by an erect leafy spike like + a lightning-conductor. + </p> + <p> + The other most interesting object in the forest was a beautiful palm, + whose perfectly smooth and cylindrical stem rises erect to more than a + hundred feet high, with a thickness of only eight or ten inches; while the + fan-shaped leaves which compose its crown, are almost complete circles of + six or eight feet diameter, borne aloft on long and slender petioles, and + beautifully toothed round the edge by the extremities of the leaflets, + which are separated only for a few inches from the circumference. It is + probably the Livistona rotundifolia of botanists, and is the most complete + and beautiful fan-leaf I have ever seen, serving admirably for folding + into water-buckets and impromptu baskets, as well as for thatching and + other purposes. + </p> + <p> + A few days afterwards I returned to Menado on horse-back, sending my + baggage around by sea; and had just time to pack up all my collections to + go by the next mail steamer to Amboyna. I will now devote a few pages to + an account of the chief peculiarities of the Zoology of Celebes, and its + relation to that of the surrounding countries. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. NATURAL HISTORY OF CELEBES. + </h2> + <p> + THE position of Celebes is the most central in the Archipelago. + Immediately to the north are the Philippine islands; on the west is + Borneo; on the east are the Molucca islands; and on the south is the Timor + group—and it is on all sides so connected with these islands by its + own satellites, by small islets, and by coral reefs, that neither by + inspection on the map nor by actual observation around its coast, is it + possible to determine accurately which should be grouped with it, and + which with the surrounding districts. Such being the case, we should + naturally expect to find that the productions of this central island in + some degree represented the richness and variety of the whole Archipelago, + while we should not expect much individuality in a country, so situated, + that it would seem as if it were pre-eminently fitted to receive + stragglers and immigrants from all around. + </p> + <p> + As so often happens in nature, however, the fact turns out to be just the + reverse of what we should have expected; and an examination of its animal + productions shows Celebes to be at once the poorest in the number of its + species, and the most isolated in the character of its productions, of all + the great islands in the Archipelago. With its attendant islets it spreads + over an extent of sea hardly inferior in length and breadth to that + occupied by Borneo, while its actual land area is nearly double that of + Java; yet its Mammalia and terrestrial birds number scarcely more than + half the species found in the last-named island. Its position is such that + it could receive immigrants from every side more readily than Java, yet in + proportion to the species which inhabit it, far fewer seem derived from + other islands, while far more are altogether peculiar to it; and a + considerable number of its animal forms are so remarkable, as to find no + close allies in any other part of the world. I now propose to examine the + best known groups of Celebesian animals in some detail, to study their + relations to those of other islands, and to call attention to the many + points of interest which they suggest. + </p> + <p> + We know far more of the birds of Celebes than we do of any other group of + animals. No less than 191 species have been discovered, and though no + doubt, many more wading and swimming birds have to be added; yet the list + of land birds, 144 in number, and which for our present purpose are much + the most important, must be very nearly complete. I myself assiduously + collected birds in Celebes for nearly ten months, and my assistant, Mr. + Allen, spent two months in the Sula islands. The Dutch naturalist Forsten + spent two years in Northern Celebes (twenty years before my visit), and + collections of birds had also been sent to Holland from Macassar. The + French ship of discovery, L'Astrolabe, also touched at Menado and procured + collections. Since my return home, the Dutch naturalists Rosenberg and + Bernstein have made extensive collections both in North Celebes and in the + Sula islands; yet all their researches combined have only added eight + species of land birds to those forming part of my own collection—a + fact which renders it almost certain that there are very few more to + discover. + </p> + <p> + Besides Salayer and Boutong on the south, with Peling and Bungay on the + east, the three islands of the Sula (or Zula) Archipelago also belong + zoologically to Celebes, although their position is such that it would + seem more natural to group them with the Moluccas. About 48 land birds are + now known from the Sula group, and if we reject from these, five species + which have a wide range over the Archipelago, the remainder are much more + characteristic of Celebes than of the Moluccas. Thirty-one species are + identical with those of the former island, and four are representatives of + Celebes forms, while only eleven are Moluccan species, and two more + representatives. + </p> + <p> + But although the Sula islands belong to Celebes, they are so close to + Bouru and the southern islands of the Gilolo group, that several purely + Moluccan forms have migrated there, which are quite unknown to the island + of Celebes itself; the whole thirteen Moluccan species being in this + category, thus adding to the productions of Celebes a foreign element + which does not really belong to it. In studying the peculiarities of the + Celebesian fauna, it will therefore be well to consider only the + productions of the main island. + </p> + <p> + The number of land birds in the island of Celebes is 128, and from these + we may, as before, strike out a small number of species which roam over + the whole Archipelago (often from India to the Pacific), and which + therefore only serve to disguise the peculiarities of individual islands. + These are 20 in number, and leave 108 species which we may consider as + more especially characteristic of the island. On accurately comparing + these with the birds of all the surrounding countries, we find that only + nine extend into the islands westward, and nineteen into the islands + eastward, while no less than 80 are entirely confined to the Celebesian + fauna—a degree of individuality which, considering the situation of + the island, is hardly to be equalled in any other part of the world. If we + still more closely examine these 80 species, we shall be struck by the + many peculiarities of structure they present, and by the curious + affinities with distant parts of the world which many of them seem to + indicate. These points are of so much interest and importance that it will + be necessary to pass in review all those species which are peculiar to the + island, and to call attention to whatever is most worthy of remark. + </p> + <p> + Six species of the Hawk tribe are peculiar to Celebes; three of these are + very distinct from allied birds which range over all India to Java and + Borneo, and which thus seem to be suddenly changed on entering Celebes. + Another (Accipiter trinotatus) is a beautiful hawk, with elegant rows of + large round white spots on the tail, rendering it very conspicuous and + quite different from any other known bird of the family. Three owls are + also peculiar; and one, a barn owl (Strix rosenbergii), is very much + larger and stronger than its ally Strix javanica, which ranges from India + through all the islands as far as Lombock. + </p> + <p> + Of the ten Parrots found in Celebes, eight are peculiar. Among them are + two species of the singular racquet-tailed parrots forming the genus + Prioniturus, and which are characterised by possessing two long + spoon-shaped feathers in the tail. Two allied species are found in the + adjacent island of Mindanao, one of the Philippines, and this form of tail + is found in no other parrots in the whole world. A small species of + Lorikeet (Trichoglossus flavoviridis) seems to have its nearest ally in + Australia. + </p> + <p> + The three Woodpeckers which inhabit the island are all peculiar, and are + allied to species found in Java and Borneo, although very different from + them all. + </p> + <p> + Among the three peculiar Cuckoos, two are very remarkable. Phoenicophaus + callirhynchus is the largest and handsomest species of its genus, and is + distinguished by the three colours of its beak, bright yellow, red, and + black. Eudynamis melanorynchus differs from all its allies in having a + jet-black bill, whereas the other species of the genus always have it + green, yellow, or reddish. + </p> + <p> + The Celebes Roller (Coracias temmincki) is an interesting example of one + species of a genus being cut off from the rest. There are species of + Coracias in Europe, Asia, and Africa, but none in the Malay peninsula, + Sumatra, Java, or Borneo. The present species seems therefore quite out of + place; and what is still more curious is the fact that it is not at all + like any of the Asiatic species, but seems more to resemble those of + Africa. + </p> + <p> + In the next family, the Bee-eaters, is another equally isolated bird, + Meropogon forsteni, which combines the characters of African and Indian + Bee-eaters, and whose only near ally, Meropogon breweri, was discovered by + M. Du Chaillu in West Africa! + </p> + <p> + The two Celebes Hornbills have no close allies in those which abound in + the surrounding countries. The only Thrush, Geocichla erythronota, is most + nearly allied to a species peculiar to Timor. Two of the Flycatchers are + closely allied to Indian species, which are not found in the Malay + islands. Two genera somewhat allied to the Magpies (Streptocitta and + Charitornis), but whose affinities are so doubtful that Professor Schlegel + places them among the Starlings, are entirely confined to Celebes. They + are beautiful long-tailed birds, with black and white plumage, and with + the feathers of the head somewhat rigid and scale-like. + </p> + <p> + Doubtfully allied to the Starlings are two other very isolated and + beautiful birds. One, Enodes erythrophrys, has ashy and yellow plumage, + but is ornamented with broad stripes of orange-red above the eyes. The + other, Basilornis celebensis, is a blue-black bird with a white patch on + each side of the breast, and the head ornamented with a beautiful + compressed scaly crest of feathers, resembling in form that of the + well-known Cock-of-the-rock of South America. The only ally to this bird + is found in Ceram, and has the feathers of the crest elongated upwards + into quite a different form. + </p> + <p> + A still more curious bird is the Scissirostrum pagei, which although it is + at present classed in the Starling family, differs from all other species + in the form of the bill and nostrils, and seems most nearly allied in its + general structure to the Ox-peckers (Buphaga) of tropical Africa, next to + which the celebrated ornithologist Prince Bonaparte finally placed it. It + is almost entirely of a slatey colour, with yellow bill and feet, but the + feathers of the rump and upper tail-coverts each terminate in a rigid, + glossy pencil or tuft of a vivid crimson. These pretty little birds take + the place of the metallic-green starlings of the genus Calornis, which are + found in most other islands of the Archipelago, but which are absent from + Celebes. They go in flocks, feeding upon grain and fruits, often + frequenting dead trees, in holes of which they build their nests; and they + cling to the trunks as easily as woodpeckers or creepers. + </p> + <p> + Out of eighteen Pigeons found in Celebes, eleven are peculiar to it. Two + of them, Ptilonopus gularis and Turacaena menadensis, have their nearest + allies in Timor. Two others, Carpophaga forsteni and Phlaegenas + tristigmata, most resemble Philippine island species; and Carpophaga + radiata belongs to a New Guinea group. Lastly, in the Gallinaceous tribe, + the curious helmeted Maleo (Megacephalon rubripes) is quite isolated, + having its nearest (but still distant) allies in the Brush-turkeys of + Australia and New Guinea. + </p> + <p> + Judging, therefore, by the opinions of the eminent naturalists who have + described and classified its birds, we find that many of the species have + no near allies whatsoever in the countries which surround Celebes, but are + either quite isolated, or indicate relations with such distant regions as + New Guinea, Australia, India, or Africa. Other cases of similar remote + affinities between the productions of distant countries no doubt exist, + but in no spot upon the globe that I am yet acquainted with, do so many of + them occur together, or do they form so decided a feature in the natural + history of the country. + </p> + <p> + The Mammalia of Celebes are very few in number, consisting of fourteen + terrestrial species and seven bats. Of the former no less than eleven are + peculiar, including two which there is reason to believe may have been + recently carried into other islands by man. Three species which have a + tolerably wide range in the Archipelago, are: (1) The curious Lemur, + Tarsius spectrum, which is found in all the islands as far westward as + Malacca; (2) the common Malay Civet, Viverra tangalunga, which has a still + wider range; and (3) a Deer, which seems to be the same as the Rusa + hippelaphus of Java, and was probably introduced by man at an early + period. + </p> + <p> + The more characteristic species are as follow: + </p> + <p> + Cynopithecus nigrescens, a curious baboon-like monkey if not a true + baboon, which abounds all over Celebes, and is found nowhere else but in + the one small island of Batchian, into which it has probably been + introduced accidentally. An allied species is found in the Philippines, + but in no other island of the Archipelago is there anything resembling + them. These creatures are about the size of a spaniel, of a jet-black + colour, and have the projecting dog-like muzzle and overhanging brows of + the baboons. They have large red callosities and a short fleshy tail, + scarcely an inch long and hardly visible. They go in large bands, living + chiefly in the trees, but often descending on the ground and robbing + gardens and orchards. + </p> + <p> + Anoa depressicornis, the Sapi-utan, or wild cow of the Malays, is an + animal which has been the cause of much controversy, as to whether it + should be classed as ox, buffalo, or antelope. It is smaller than any + other wild cattle, and in many respects seems to approach some of the + ox-like antelopes of Africa. It is found only in the mountains, and is + said never to inhabit places where there are deer. It is somewhat smaller + than a small Highland cow, and has long straight horns, which are ringed + at the base and slope backwards over the neck. + </p> + <p> + The wild pig seems to be of a species peculiar to the island; but a much + more curious animal of this family is the Babirusa or Pig-deer; so named + by the Malays from its long and slender legs, and curved tusks resembling + horns. This extraordinary creature resembles a pig in general appearance, + but it does not dig with its snout, as it feeds on fallen fruits. The + tusks of the lower jaw are very long and sharp, but the upper ones instead + of growing downwards in the usual way are completely reversed, growing + upwards out of bony sockets through the skin on each side of the snout, + curving backwards to near the eyes, and in old animals often reaching + eight or ten inches in length. It is difficult to understand what can be + the use of these extraordinary horn-like teeth. Some of the old writers + supposed that they served as hooks, by which the creature could rest its + head on a branch. But the way in which they usually diverge just over and + in front of the eye has suggested the more probable idea, that they serve + to guard these organs from thorns and spines, while hunting for fallen + fruits among the tangled thickets of rattans and other spiny plants. Even + this, however, is not satisfactory, for the female, who must seek her food + in the same way, does not possess them. I should be inclined to believe + rather, that these tusks were once useful, and were then worn down as fast + as they grew; but that changed conditions of life have rendered them + unnecessary, and they now develop into a monstrous form, just as the + incisors of the Beaver or Rabbit will go on growing, if the opposite teeth + do not wear them away. In old animals they reach an enormous size, and are + generally broken off as if by fighting. + </p> + <p> + Here again we have a resemblance to the Wart-hogs of Africa, whose upper + canines grow outwards and curve up so as to form a transition from the + usual mode of growth to that of the Babirusa. In other respects there + seems no affinity between these animals, and the Babirusa stands + completely isolated, having no resemblance to the pigs of any other part + of the world. It is found all over Celebes and in the Sula islands, and + also in Bourn, the only spot beyond the Celebes group to which it extends; + and which island also shows some affinity to the Sula islands in its + birds, indicating perhaps, a closer connection between them at some former + period than now exists. + </p> + <p> + The other terrestrial mammals of Celebes are five species of squirrels, + which are all distinct from those of Java and Borneo, and mark the + furthest eastward range of the genus in the tropics; and two of Eastern + opossums (Cuscus), which are different from those of the Moluccas, and + mark the furthest westward extension of this genus and of the Marsupial + order. Thus we see that the Mammalia of Celebes are no less individual and + remarkable than the birds, since three of the largest and most interesting + species have no near allies in surrounding countries, but seem vaguely to + indicate a relation to the African continent. + </p> + <p> + Many groups of insects appear to be especially subject to local + influences, their forms and colours changing with each change of + conditions, or even with a change of locality where the conditions seem + almost identical. We should therefore anticipate that the individuality + manifested in the higher animals would be still more prominent in these + creatures with less stable organisms. On the other hand, however, we have + to consider that the dispersion and migration of insects is much more + easily effected than that of mammals or even of birds. They are much more + likely to be carried away by violent winds; their eggs may be carried on + leaves either by storms of wind or by floating trees, and their larvae and + pupae, often buried in trunks of trees or enclosed in waterproof cocoons, + may be floated for days or weeks uninjured over the ocean. These + facilities of distribution tend to assimilate the productions of adjacent + lands in two ways: first, by direct mutual interchange of species; and + secondly, by repeated immigrations of fresh individuals of a species + common to other islands, which by intercrossing, tend to obliterate the + changes of form and colour, which differences of conditions might + otherwise produce. Bearing these facts in mind, we shall find that the + individuality of the insects of Celebes is even greater than we have any + reason to expect. + </p> + <p> + For the purpose of insuring accuracy in comparisons with other islands, I + shall confine myself to those groups which are best known, or which I have + myself carefully studied. Beginning with the Papilionidae or + Swallow-tailed butterflies, Celebes possesses 24 species, of which the + large number of 18 are not found in any other island. If we compare this + with Borneo, which out of 29 species has only two not found elsewhere, the + difference is as striking as anything can be. In the family of the + Pieridae, or white butterflies, the difference is not quite so great, + owing perhaps to the more wandering habits of the group; but it is still + very remarkable. Out of 30 species inhabiting Celebes, 19 are peculiar, + while Java (from which more species are known than from Sumatra or + Borneo), out of 37 species, has only 13 peculiar. The Danaidae are large, + but weak-flying butterflies, which frequent forests and gardens, and are + plainly but often very richly coloured. Of these my own collection + contains 16 species from Celebes and 15 from Borneo; but whereas no less + than 14 are confined to the former island, only two are peculiar to the + latter. The Nymphalidae are a very extensive group, of generally + strong-winged and very bright-coloured butterflies, very abundant in the + tropics, and represented in our own country by our Fritillaries, our + Vanessas, and our Purple-emperor. Some months ago I drew up a list of the + Eastern species of this group, including all the new ones discovered by + myself, and arrived at the following comparative results:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Species of Species peculiar to Percentage + Nymphalidae. each island. of peculiar Species. + + Java..... 70...... 23.......... 33 + Borneo.... 52...... 15.......... 29 + Celebes ... 48...... 35.......... 73 +</pre> + <p> + The Coleoptera are so extensive that few of the groups have yet been + carefully worked out. I will therefore refer to one only, which I have + myself recently studied—the Cetoniadae or Rose-chafers—a group + of beetles which, owing to their extreme beauty, have been much sought + after. From Java 37 species of these insects are known, and from Celebes + only 30; yet only 13, or 35 percent, are peculiar to the former island, + and 19, or 63 percent, to the latter. + </p> + <p> + The result of these comparisons is, that although Celebes is a single, + large island with only a few smaller ones closely grouped around it, we + must really consider it as forming one of the great divisions of the + Archipelago, equal in rank and importance to the whole of the Moluccan or + Philippine groups, to the Papuan islands, or to the Indo-Malay islands + (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay peninsula). Taking those families of + insects and birds which are best known, the following table shows the + comparison of Celebes with the other groups of islands:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + PAPILIONIDAE AND HAWKS, PARROTS, AND + PERIDAE PIGEONS. + Percent of peculiar Percent of peculiar + Species. Species. + Indo-Malay region.... 56.......... 54 + Philippine group .... 66.......... 73 + Celebes......... 69.......... 60 + Moluccan group ..... 52.......... 62 + Timor group....... 42.......... 47 + Papuan group ...... 64.......... 74 +</pre> + <p> + These large and well-known families well represent the general character + of the zoology of Celebes; and they show that this island is really one of + the most isolated portions of the Archipelago, although situated in its + very centre. + </p> + <p> + But the insects of Celebes present us with other phenomena more curious + and more difficult to explain than their striking individuality. The + butterflies of that island are in many cases characterised by a + peculiarity of outline, which distinguishes them at a glance from those of + any other part of the world. It is most strongly manifested in the + Papilios and the Pieridae, and consists in the forewings being either + strongly curved or abruptly bent near the base, or in the extremity being + elongated and often somewhat hooked. Out of the 14 species of Papilio in + Celebes, 13 exhibit this peculiarity in a greater or less degree, when + compared with the most nearly allied species of the surrounding islands. + Ten species of Pieridae have the same character, and in four or five of + the Nymphalidae it is also very distinctly marked. In almost every case, + the species found in Celebes are much larger than those of the islands + westward, and at least equal to those of the Moluccas, or even larger. The + difference of form is, however, the most remarkable feature, as it is + altogether a new thing for a whole set of species in one country to differ + in exactly the same way from the corresponding sets in all the surrounding + countries; and it is so well marked, that without looking at the details + of colouring, most Celebes Papilios and many Pieridae, can be at once + distinguished from those of other islands by their form alone. + </p> + <p> + The outside figure of each pair here given, shows the exact size and form + of the fore-wing in a butterfly of Celebes, while the inner one represents + the most closely allied species from one of the adjacent islands. Figure 1 + shows the strongly curved margin of the Celebes species, Papilio gigon, + compared with the much straighter margin of Papilio demolion from + Singapore and Java. Figure 2 shows the abrupt bend over the base of the + wing in Papilio miletus of Celebes, compared with the slight curvature in + the common Papilio sarpedon, which has almost exactly the same form from + India to New Guinea and Australia. Figure 3 shows the elongated wing of + Tachyris zarinda, a native of Celebes, compared with the much shorter wing + of Tachyris nero, a very closely allied species found in all the western + islands. The difference of form is in each case sufficiently obvious, but + when the insects themselves are compared, it is much more striking than in + these partial outlines. + </p> + <p> + From the analogy of birds, we should suppose that the pointed wing gave + increased rapidity of flight, since it is a character of terns, swallows, + falcons, and of the swift-flying pigeons. A short and rounded wing, on the + other hand, always accompanies a more feeble or more laborious flight, and + one much less under command. We might suppose, therefore, that the + butterflies which possess this peculiar form were better able to escape + pursuit. But there seems no unusual abundance of insectivorous birds to + render this necessary; and as we cannot believe that such a curious + peculiarity is without meaning, it seems probable that it is the result of + a former condition of things, when the island possessed a much richer + fauna, the relics of which we see in the isolated birds and Mammalia now + inhabiting it; and when the abundance of insectivorous creatures rendered + some unusual means of escape a necessity for the large-winged and showy + butterflies. It is some confirmation of this view, that neither the very + small nor the very obscurely coloured groups of butterflies have elongated + wings, nor is any modification perceptible in those strong-winged groups + which already possess great strength and rapidity of flight. These were + already sufficiently protected from their enemies, and did not require + increased power of escaping from them. It is not at all clear what effect + the peculiar curvature of the wings has in modifying flight. + </p> + <p> + Another curious feature in the zoology of Celebes is also worthy of + attention. I allude to the absence of several groups which are found on + both sides of it, in the Indo-Malay islands as well as in the Moluccas; + and which thus seem to be unable, from some unknown cause, to obtain a + footing in the intervening island. In Birds we have the two families of + Podargidae and Laniadae, which range over the whole Archipelago and into + Australia, and which yet have no representative in Celebes. The genera + Ceyx among Kingfishers, Criniger among Thrushes, Rhipidura among + Flycatchers, Calornis among Starlings, and Erythrura among Finches, are + all found in the Moluccas as well as in Borneo and Java—but not a + single species belonging to any one of them is found in Celebes. Among + insects, the large genus of Rose-chafers, Lomaptera, is found in every + country and island between India and New Guinea, except Celebes. This + unexpected absence of many groups, from one limited district in the very + centre of their area of distribution, is a phenomenon not altogether + unique, but, I believe, nowhere so well marked as in this case; and it + certainly adds considerably to the strange character of this remarkable + island. + </p> + <p> + The anomalies and eccentricities in the natural history of Celebes which I + have endeavoured to sketch in this CHAPTER, all point to an origin in a + remote antiquity. The history of extinct animals teaches us that their + distribution in time and in space are strikingly similar. The rule is, + that just as the productions of adjacent areas usually resemble each other + closely, so do the productions of successive periods in the same area; and + as the productions of remote areas generally differ widely, so do the + productions of the same area at remote epochs. We are therefore led + irresistibly to the conclusion, that change of species, still more of + generic and of family form, is a matter of time. But time may have led to + a change of species in one country, while in another the forms have been + more permanent, or the change may have gone on at an equal rate but in a + different manner in both. In either case, the amount of individuality in + the productions of a district will be to some extent a measure of the time + that a district has been isolated from those that surround it. Judged by + this standard, Celebes must be one of the oldest parts of the Archipelago. + It probably dates from a period not only anterior to that when Borneo, + Java, and Sumatra were separated from the continent, but from that still + more remote epoch when the land that now constitutes these islands had not + risen above the ocean. + </p> + <p> + Such an antiquity is necessary, to account for the number of animal forms + it possesses, which show no relation to those of India or Australia, but + rather with those of Africa; and we are led to speculate on the + possibility of there having once existed a continent in the Indian Ocean + which might serve as a bridge to connect these distant countries. Now it + is a curious fact, that the existence of such a land has been already + thought necessary, to account for the distribution of the curious + Quadrumana forming the family of the Lemurs. These have their metropolis + in Madagascar, but are found also in Africa, in Ceylon, in the peninsula + of India, and in the Malay Archipelago as far as Celebes, which is its + furthest eastern limit. Dr. Sclater has proposed for the hypothetical + continent connecting these distant points, and whose former existence is + indicated by the Mascarene islands and the Maldive coral group, the name + of Lemuria. Whether or not we believe in its existence in the exact form + here indicated, the student of geographical distribution must see in the + extraordinary and isolated productions of Celebes, proof of the former + existence of some continent from whence the ancestors of these creatures, + and of many other intermediate forms, could have been derived. + </p> + <p> + In this short sketch of the most striking peculiarities of the Natural + History of Celebes, I have been obliged to enter much into details that I + fear will have been uninteresting to the general reader, but unless I had + done so, my exposition would have lost much of its force and value. It is + by these details alone that I have been able to prove the unusual features + that Celebes presents to us. Situated in the very midst of an Archipelago, + and closely hemmed in on every side by islands teeming with varied forms + of life, its productions have yet a surprising amount of individuality. + While it is poor in the actual number of its species, it is yet + wonderfully rich in peculiar forms, many of which are singular or + beautiful, and are in some cases absolutely unique upon the globe. We + behold here the curious phenomenon of groups of insects changing their + outline in a similar manner when compared with those of surrounding + islands, suggesting some common cause which never seems to have acted + elsewhere in exactly the same way. Celebes, therefore, presents us with a + most striking example of the interest that attaches to the study of the + geographical distribution of animals. We can see that their present + distribution upon the globe is the result of all the more recent changes + the earth's surface has undergone; and, by a careful study of the + phenomena, we are sometimes able to deduce approximately what those past + changes must have been in order to produce the distribution we find to + exist. In the comparatively simple case of the Timor group, we were able + to deduce these changes with some approach to certainty. In the much more + complicated case of Celebes, we can only indicate their general nature, + since we now see the result, not of any single or recent change only, but + of a whole series of the later revolutions which have resulted in the + present distribution of land in the Eastern Hemisphere. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. BANDA. + </h2> + <h3> + (DECEMBER 1857, MAY 1859, APRIL 1861.) + </h3> + <p> + THE Dutch mail steamer in which I travelled from Macassar to Banda and + Amboyna was a roomy and comfortable vessel, although it would only go six + miles an hour in the finest weather. As there were but three passengers + besides myself, we had abundance of room, and I was able to enjoy a voyage + more than I had ever done before. The arrangements are somewhat different + from those on board English or Indian steamers. There are no cabin + servants, as every cabin passenger invariably brings his own, and the + ship's stewards attend only to the saloon and the eating department. At + six A.M. a cup of tea or coffee is provided for those who like it. At + seven to eight there is a light breakfast of tea, eggs, sardines, etc. At + ten, Madeira, Gin and bitters are brought on deck as a whet for the + substantial eleven o'clock breakfast, which differs from a dinner only in + the absence of soup. Cups of tea and coffee are brought around at three + P.M.; bitters, etc. again at five, a good dinner with beer and claret at + half-past six, concluded by tea and coffee at eight. Between whiles, beer + and sodawater are supplied when called for, so there is no lack of little + gastronomical excitements to while away the tedium of a sea voyage. + </p> + <p> + Our first stopping place was Coupang, at the west end of the large island + of Timor. We then coasted along that island for several hundred miles, + having always a view of hilly ranges covered with scanty vegetation, + rising ridge behind ridge to the height of six or seven thousand feet. + Turning off towards Banda we passed Pulo-Cambing, Wetter, and Roma, all of + which are desolate and barren volcanic islands, almost as uninviting as + Aden, and offering a strange contrast to the usual verdure and luxuriance + of the Archipelago. In two days more we reached the volcanic group of + Banda, covered with an unusually dense and brilliant green vegetation, + indicating that we had passed beyond the range of the hot dry winds from + the plains of Central Australia. Banda is a lovely little spot, its three + islands enclosing a secure harbour from whence no outlet is visible, and + with water so transparent, that living corals and even the minutest + objects are plainly seen on the volcanic sand at a depth of seven or eight + fathoms. The ever smoking volcano rears its bare cone on one side, while + the two larger islands are clothed with vegetation to the summit of the + hills. + </p> + <p> + Going on shore, I walked up a pretty path which leads to the highest point + of the island on which the town is situated, where there is a telegraph + station and a magnificent view. Below lies the little town, with its neat + red-tiled white houses and the thatched cottages of the natives, bounded + on one side by the old Portuguese fort. Beyond, about half a mile distant, + lies the larger island in the shape of a horseshoe, formed of a range of + abrupt hills covered with fine forest and nutmeg gardens; while close + opposite the town is the volcano, forming a nearly perfect cone, the lower + part only covered with a light green bushy vegetation. On its north side + the outline is more uneven, and there is a slight hollow or chasm about + one-fifth of the way down, from which constantly issue two columns of + smoke, as well as a good deal from the rugged surface around and from some + spots nearer the summit. A white efflorescence, probably sulphur, is + thickly spread over the upper part of the mountain, marked by the narrow + black vertical lines of water gullies. The smoke unites as it rises, and + forms a dense cloud, which in calm, damp weather spreads out into a wide + canopy hiding the top of the mountain. At night and early morning, it + often rises up straight and leaves the whole outline clear. + </p> + <p> + It is only when actually gazing on an active volcano that one can fully + realize its awfulness and grandeur. Whence comes that inexhaustible fire + whose dense and sulphurous smoke forever issues from this bare and + desolate peak? Whence the mighty forces that produced that peak, and still + from time to time exhibit themselves in the earthquakes that always occur + in the vicinity of volcanic vents? The knowledge from childhood of the + fact that volcanoes and earthquakes exist, has taken away somewhat of the + strange and exceptional character that really belongs to them. The + inhabitant of most parts of northern Europe sees in the earth the emblem + of stability and repose. His whole life-experience, and that of all his + age and generation, teaches him that the earth is solid and firm, that its + massive rocks may contain water in abundance, but never fire; and these + essential characteristics of the earth are manifest in every mountain his + country contains. A volcano is a fact opposed to all this mass of + experience, a fact of so awful a character that, if it were the rule + instead of the exception, it would make the earth uninhabitable a fact so + strange and unaccountable that we may be sure it would not be believed on + any human testimony, if presented to us now for the first time, as a + natural phenomenon happening in a distant country. + </p> + <p> + The summit of the small island is composed of a highly crystalline basalt; + lower down I found a hard, stratified slatey sandstone, while on the beach + are huge blocks of lava, and scattered masses of white coralline + limestone. The larger island has coral rock to a height of three or four + hundred feet, while above is lava and basalt. It seems probable, + therefore, that this little group of four islands is the fragment of a + larger district which was perhaps once connected with Ceram, but which was + separated and broken up by the same forces which formed the volcanic cone. + When I visited the larger island on another occasion, I saw a considerable + tract covered with large forest trees—dead, but still standing. This + was a record of the last great earthquake only two years ago, when the sea + broke in over this part of the island and so flooded it as to destroy the + vegetation on all the lowlands. Almost every year there is an earthquake + here, and at intervals of a few years, very severe ones which throw down + houses and carry ships out of the harbour bodily into the streets. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the losses incurred by these terrific visitations, and the + small size and isolated position of these little islands, they have been + and still are of considerable value to the Dutch Government, as the chief + nutmeg-garden in the world. Almost the whole surface is planted with + nutmegs, grown under the shade of lofty Kanary trees (Kanarium commune). + The light volcanic soil, the shade, and the excessive moisture of these + islands, where it rains more or less every month in the year, seem exactly + to suit the nutmeg-tree, which requires no manure and scarcely any + attention. All the year round flowers and ripe fruit are to be found, and + none of those diseases occur which under a forced and unnatural system of + cultivation have ruined the nutmeg planters of Singapore and Penang. + </p> + <p> + Few cultivated plants are more beautiful than nutmeg-trees. They are + handsomely shaped and glossy-leaved, growing to the height of twenty or + thirty feet, and bearing small yellowish flowers. The fruit is the size + and colour of a peach, but rather oval. It is of a tough fleshy + consistence, but when ripe splits open, and shows the dark-brown nut + within, covered with the crimson mace, and is then a most beautiful + object. Within the thin, hard shell of the nut is the seed, which is the + nutmeg of commerce. The nuts are eaten by the large pigeons of Banda, + which digest the mace, but cast up the nut with its seed uninjured. + </p> + <p> + The nutmeg trade has hitherto been a strict monopoly of the Dutch + Government; but since leaving the country I believe that this monopoly has + been partially or wholly discontinued, a proceeding which appears + exceedingly injudicious and quite unnecessary. There are cases in which + monopolies are perfectly justifiable, and I believe this to be one of + them. A small country like Holland cannot afford to keep distant and + expensive colonies at a loss; and having possession of a very small island + where a valuable product, not a necessity of life, can be obtained at + little cost, it is almost the duty of the state to monopolise it. No + injury is done thereby to anyone, but a great benefit is conferred upon + the whole population of Holland and its dependencies, since the produce of + the state monopolies saves them from the weight of a heavy taxation. Had + the Government not kept the nutmeg trade of Banda in its own hands, it is + probable that the whole of the islands would long ago have become the + property of one or more large capitalists. The monopoly would have been + almost the same, since no known spot on the globe can produce nutmegs so + cheaply as Banda, but the profits of the monopoly would have gone to a few + individuals instead of to the nation. + </p> + <p> + As an illustration of how a state monopoly may become a state duty, let us + suppose that no gold existed in Australia, but that it had been found in + immense quantities by one of our ships in some small and barren island. In + this case it would plainly become the duty of the state to keep and work + the mines for the public benefit, since by doing so, the gain would be + fairly divided among the whole population by decrease of taxation; whereas + by leaving it open to free trade while merely keeping the government of + the island; we should certainly produce enormous evils during the first + struggle for the precious metal, and should ultimately subside into the + monopoly of some wealthy individual or great company, whose enormous + revenue would not equally benefit the community. The nutmegs of Banda and + the tin of Banca are to some extent parallel cases to this supposititious + one, and I believe the Dutch Government will act most unwisely if they + give up their monopoly. + </p> + <p> + Even the destruction of the nutmeg and clove trees in many islands, in + order to restrict their cultivation to one or two where the monopoly could + be easily guarded, usually made the theme of so much virtuous indignation + against the Dutch, may be defended on similar principles, and is certainly + not nearly so bad as many monopolies we ourselves have until very recently + maintained. Nutmegs and cloves are not necessaries of life; they are not + even used as spices by the natives of the Moluccas, and no one was + materially or permanently injured by the destruction of the trees, since + there are a hundred other products that can be grown in the same islands, + equally valuable and far more beneficial in a social point of view. It is + a case exactly parallel to our prohibition of the growth of tobacco in + England, for fiscal purposes, and is, morally and economically, neither + better nor worse. The salt monopoly which we so long maintained in India + was in much worse. As long as we keep up a system of excise and customs on + articles of daily use, which requires an elaborate array of officers and + coastguards to carry into effect, and which creates a number of purely + legal crimes, it is the height of absurdity for us to affect indignation + at the conduct of the Dutch, who carried out a much more justifiable, less + hurtful, and more profitable system in their Eastern possessions. + </p> + <p> + I challenge objectors to point out any physical or moral evils that have + actually resulted from the action of the Dutch Government in this matter; + whereas such evils are the admitted results of every one of our monopolies + and restrictions. The conditions of the two experiments are totally + different. The true "political economy" of a higher race, when governing a + lower race, has never yet been worked out. The application of our + "political economy" to such cases invariably results in the extinction or + degradation of the lower race; whence, we may consider it probable that + one of the necessary conditions of its truth is the approximate mental and + social unity of the society in which it is applied. I shall again refer to + this subject in my CHAPTER on Ternate, one of the most celebrated of the + old spice-islands. + </p> + <p> + The natives of Banda are very much mixed, and it is probable that at least + three-fourths of the population are mongrels, in various degrees of Malay, + Papuan, Arab, Portuguese, and Dutch. The first two form the bases of the + larger portion, and the dark skins, pronounced features, and more or less + frizzly hair of the Papuans preponderates. There seems little doubt that + the aborigines of Banda were Papuans, and a portion of them still exists + in the Ke islands, where they emigrated when the Portuguese first took + possession of their native island. It is such people as these that are + often looked upon as transitional forms between two very distinct races, + like the Malays and Papuans, whereas they are only examples of + intermixture. + </p> + <p> + The animal productions of Banda, though very few, are interesting. The + islands have perhaps no truly indigenous Mammalia but bats. The deer of + the Moluccas and the pig have probably been introduced. A species of + Cuscus or Eastern opossum is also found at Banda, and this may be truly + indigenous in the sense of not having been introduced by man. Of birds, + during my three visits of one or two days each, I collected eight kinds, + and the Dutch collectors have added a few others. The most remarkable is a + fine and very handsome fruit-pigeon, Carpophaga concinna, which feeds upon + the nutmegs, or rather on the mace, and whose loud booming note is to be + continually heard. This bird is found in the Ke and Matabello islands as + well as Banda, but not in Ceram or any of the larger islands, which are + inhabited by allied but very distinct species. A beautiful small + fruit-dove, Ptilonopus diadematus, is also peculiar to Banda. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. AMBOYNA. + </h2> + <h3> + (DECEMBER 1857, OCTOBER 1859, FEBRUARY 1860.) + </h3> + <p> + TWENTY hours from Banda brought us to Amboyna, the capital of the + Moluccas, and one of the oldest European settlements in the East. The + island consists of two peninsulas, so nearly divided by inlets of the sea, + as to leave only a sandy isthmus about a mile wide near their eastern + extremity. The western inlet is several miles long and forms a fine + harbour on the southern side of which is situated the town of Amboyna. I + had a letter of introduction to Dr. Mohnike, the chief medical officer of + the Moluccas, a German and a naturalist. I found that he could write and + read English, but could not speak it, being like myself a bad linguist; so + we had to use French as a medium of communication. He kindly offered me a + room during my stay in Amboyna, and introduced me to his junior, Dr. + Doleschall, a Hungarian and also an entomologist. He was an intelligent + and most amiable young man but I was shocked to find that he was dying of + consumption, though still able to perform the duties of his office. In the + evening my host took me to the residence of the Governor, Mr. Goldmann, + who received me in a most kind and cordial manner, and offered me every + assistance. The town of Amboyna consists of a few business streets, and a + number of roads set out at right angles to each other, bordered by hedges + of flowering shrubs, and enclosing country houses and huts embossed in + palms and fruit trees. Hills and mountains form the background in almost + every direction, and there are few places more enjoyable for a morning or + evening stroll than these sandy roads and shady lanes in the suburbs of + the ancient city of Amboyna. + </p> + <p> + There are no active volcanoes in the island, nor is it now subject to + frequent earthquakes, although very severe ones have occurred and may be + expected again. Mr. William Funnell, in his voyage with Dampier to the + South Seas in 1705, says: "Whilst we were here, (at Amboyna) we had a + great earthquake, which continued two days, in which time it did a great + deal of mischief, for the ground burst open in many places, and swallowed + up several houses and whole families. Several of the people were dug out + again, but most of them dead, and many had their legs or arms broken by + the fall of the houses. The castle walls were rent asunder in several + places, and we thought that it and all the houses would have fallen down. + The ground where we were swelled like a wave in the sea, but near us we + had no hurt done." There are also numerous records of eruptions of a + volcano on the west side of the island. In 1674 an eruption destroyed a + village. In 1694 there was another eruption. In 1797 much vapour and heat + was emitted. Other eruptions occurred in 1816 and 1820, and in 1824 a new + crater is said to have been formed. Yet so capricious is the action of + these subterranean fires, that since the last-named epoch all eruptive + symptoms have so completely ceased, that I was assured by many of the most + intelligent European inhabitants of Amboyna, that they had never heard of + any such thing as a volcano on the island. + </p> + <p> + During the few days that elapsed before I could make arrangements to visit + the interior, I enjoyed myself much in the society of the two doctors, + both amiable and well-educated men, and both enthusiastic entomologists, + though obliged to increase their collections almost entirely by means of + native collectors. Dr. Doleschall studied chiefly the flies and spiders, + but also collected butterflies and moths, and in his boxes I saw grand + specimens of the emerald Ornithoptera priamus and the azure Papilio + ulysses, with many more of the superb butterflies of this rich island. Dr. + Mohnike confined himself chiefly to the beetles, and had formed a + magnificent collection during many years residence in Java, Sumatra, + Borneo, Japan, and Amboyna. The Japanese collection was especially + interesting, containing both the fine Carabi of northern countries, and + the gorgeous Buprestidae and Longicorns of the tropics. The doctor made + the voyage to Jeddo by land from Nagasaki, and is well acquainted with the + character, manners, and customs of the people of Japan, and with the + geology, physical features, and natural history of the country. He showed + me collections of cheap woodcuts printed in colours, which are sold at + less than a farthing each, and comprise an endless variety of sketches of + Japanese scenery and manners. Though rude, they are very characteristic, + and often exhibit touches of great humour. He also possesses a large + collection of coloured sketches of the plants of Japan, made by a Japanese + lady, which are the most masterly things I have ever seen. Every stem, + twig, and leaf is produced by single touches of the brush, the character + and perspective of very complicated plants being admirably given, and the + articulations of stem and leaves shown in a most scientific manner. + </p> + <p> + Having made arrangements to stay for three weeks at a small hut on a newly + cleared plantation in the interior of the northern half of the island, I + with some difficulty obtained a boat and men to take me across the water—for + the Amboynese are dreadfully lazy. Passing up the harbour, in appearance + like a fine river, the clearness of the water afforded me one of the most + astonishing and beautiful sights I have ever beheld. The bottom was + absolutely hidden by a continuous series of corals, sponges, actiniae, and + other marine productions of magnificent dimensions, varied forms, and + brilliant colours. The depth varied from about twenty to fifty feet, and + the bottom was very uneven, rocks and chasms and little hills and valleys, + offering a variety of stations for the growth of these animal forests. In + and out among them, moved numbers of blue and red and yellow fishes, + spotted and banded and striped in the most striking manner, while great + orange or rosy transparent medusae floated along near the surface. It was + a sight to gaze at for hours, and no description can do justice to its + surpassing beauty and interest. For once, the reality exceeded the most + glowing accounts I had ever read of the wonders of a coral sea. There is + perhaps no spot in the world richer in marine productions, corals, shells + and fishes, than the harbour of Amboyna. + </p> + <p> + From the north side of the harbour, a good broad path passes through + swamp, clearing and forest, over hill and valley, to the farther side of + the island; the coralline rock constantly protruding through the deep red + earth which fills all the hollows, and is more or less spread over the + plains and hill-sides. The forest vegetation is here of the most luxuriant + character; ferns and palms abound, and the climbing rattans were more + abundant than I had ever seen them, forming tangled festoons over almost + every large forest tree. The cottage I was to occupy was situated in a + large clearing of about a hundred acres, part of which was already planted + with young cacao-trees and plantains to shade them, while the rest was + covered with dead and half-burned forest trees; and on one side there was + a tract where the trees had been recently felled and were not yet burned. + The path by which I had arrived continued along one side of this clearing, + and then again entering the virgin forest passed over hill and dale to the + northern aide of the island. + </p> + <p> + My abode was merely a little thatched hut, consisting of an open verandah + in front and a small dark sleeping room behind. It was raised about five + feet from the ground, and was reached by rude steps to the centre of the + verandah. The walls and floor were of bamboo, and it contained a table, + two bamboo chairs, and a couch. Here I soon made myself comfortable, and + set to work hunting for insects among the more recently felled timber, + which swarmed with fine Curculionidae, Longicorns, and Buprestidae, most + of them remarkable for their elegant forms or brilliant colours, and + almost all entirely new to me. Only the entomologist can appreciate the + delight with which I hunted about for hours in the hot sunshine, among the + branches and twigs and bark of the fallen trees, every few minutes + securing insects which were at that time almost all rare or new to + European collections. + </p> + <p> + In the shady forest paths were many fine butterflies, most conspicuous + among which was the shining blue Papilio ulysses, one of the princes of + the tribe, though at that time so rare in Europe, I found it absolutely + common in Amboyna, though not easy to obtain in fine condition, a large + number of the specimens being found when captured to have the wings torn + or broken. It flies with a rather weak undulating motion, and from its + large size, its tailed wings and brilliant colour, is one of the most + tropical-looking insects the naturalist can gaze upon. + </p> + <p> + There is a remarkable contrast between the beetles of Amboyna and those of + Macassar, the latter generally small and obscure, the former large and + brilliant. On the whole, the insects here most resemble those of the Aru + islands, but they are almost always of distinct species, and when they are + most nearly allied to each other, the species of Amboyna are of larger + size and more brilliant colours, so that one might be led to conclude that + in passing east and west into a less favourable soil and climate, they had + degenerated into less striking forms. + </p> + <p> + Of an evening I generally sat reading in the verandah, ready to capture + any insects that were attracted to the light. One night about nine + o'clock, I heard a curious noise and rustling overhead, as if some heavy + animal were crawling slowly over the thatch. The noise soon ceased, and I + thought no more about it and went to bed soon afterwards. The next + afternoon just before dinner, being rather tired with my day's work, I was + lying on the couch with a book in my hand, when gazing upwards I saw a + large mass of something overhead which I had not noticed before. Looking + more carefully I could see yellow and black marks, and thought it must be + a tortoise-shell put up there out of the way between the ridge-pole and + the roof. Continuing to gaze, it suddenly resolved itself into a large + snake, compactly coiled up in a kind of knot; and I could detect his head + and his bright eyes in the very centre of the folds. The noise of the + evening before was now explained. A python had climbed up one of the posts + of the house, and had made his way under the thatch within a yard of my + head, and taken up a comfortable position in the roof—and I had + slept soundly all night directly under him. + </p> + <p> + I called to my two boys who were skinning birds below and said, "Here's a + big snake in the roof;" but as soon as I had shown it to them they rushed + out of the house and begged me to come out directly. Finding they were too + much afraid to do anything, we called some of the labourers in the + plantation, and soon had half a dozen men in consultation outside. One of + these, a native of Bouru, where there are a great many snakes, said he + would get him out, and proceeded to work in a businesslike manner. He made + a strong noose of rattan, and with a long pole in the other hand poked at + the snake, who then began slowly to uncoil itself. He then managed to slip + the noose over its head, and getting it well on to the body, dragged the + animal down. There was a great scuffle as the snake coiled round the + chairs and posts to resist his enemy, but at length the man caught hold of + its tail, rushed out of the house (running so quick that the creature + seemed quite confounded), and tried to strike its head against a tree. He + missed however, and let go, and the snake got under a dead trunk close by. + It was again poked out, and again the Bouru man caught hold of its tail, + and running away quickly dashed its head with a swing against a tree, and + it was then easily killed with a hatchet. It was about twelve feet long + and very thick, capable of doing much mischief and of swallowing a dog or + a child. + </p> + <p> + I did not get a great many birds here. The most remarkable were the fine + crimson lory, Eos rubra—a brush-tongued parroquet of a vivid crimson + colour, which was very abundant. Large flocks of them came about the + plantation, and formed a magnificent object when they settled down upon + some flowering tree, on the nectar of which lories feed. I also obtained + one or two specimens of the fine racquet-tailed kingfisher of Amboyna, + Tanysiptera nais, one of the most singular and beautiful of that beautiful + family. These birds differ from all other kingfishers (which have usually + short tails) by having the two middle tail-feathers immensely lengthened + and very narrowly webbed, but terminated by a spoon-shaped enlargement, as + in the motmots and some of the humming-birds. They belong to that division + of the family termed king-hunters, living chiefly on insects and small + land-molluscs, which they dart down upon and pick up from the ground, just + as a kingfisher picks a fish out of the water. They are confined to a very + limited area, comprising the Moluccas, New Guinea and Northern Australia. + About ten species of these birds are now known, all much resembling each + other, but yet sufficiently distinguishable in every locality. The + Amboynese species, of which a very accurate representation is here given, + is one of the largest and handsomest. It is full seventeen inches long to + the tips of the tail-feathers; the bill is coral red, the under-surface + pure white, the back and wings deep purple, while the shoulders, head and + nape, and some spots on the upper part of the back and wings, are pure + azure blue; the tail is white, with the feathers narrowly blue-edged, but + the narrow part of the long feathers is rich blue. This was an entirely + new species, and has been well named after an ocean goddess, by Mr. R. G. + Gray. + </p> + <p> + On Christmas eve I returned to Amboyna, where I stayed about ten days with + my kind friend Dr. Mohnike. Considering that I had been away only twenty + days, and that on five or six of those I was prevented doing anything by + wet weather and slight attacks of fever, I had made a very nice collection + of insects, comprising a much larger proportion of large and brilliant + species than I had ever before obtained in so short a time. Of the + beautiful metallic Buprestidae I had about a dozen handsome species, yet + in the doctor's collection I observed four or five more very fine ones, so + that Amboyna is unusually rich in this elegant group. + </p> + <p> + During my stay here I had a good opportunity of seeing how Europeans live + in the Dutch colonies, and where they have adopted customs far more in + accordance with the climate than we have done in our tropical possessions. + Almost all business is transacted in the morning between the hours of + seven and twelve, the afternoon being given up to repose, and the evening + to visiting. When in the house during the heat of the day, and even at + dinner, they use a loose cotton dress, only putting on a suit of thin + European-made clothes for out of doors and evening wear. They often walk + about after sunset bareheaded, reserving the black hat for visits of + ceremony. Life is thus made far more agreeable, and the fatigue and + discomfort incident to the climate greatly diminished. Christmas day is + not made much of, but on New Year's day official and complimentary visits + are paid, and about sunset we went to the Governor's, where a large party + of ladies and gentlemen were assembled. Tea and coffee were handed around, + as is almost universal during a visit, as well as cigars, for on no + occasion is smoking prohibited in Dutch colonies, cigars being generally + lighted before the cloth is withdrawn at dinner, even though half the + company are ladies. I here saw for the first time the rare black lory from + New Guinea, Chalcopsitta atra. The plumage is rather glossy, and slightly + tinged with yellowish and purple, the bill and feet being entirely black. + </p> + <p> + The native Amboynese who reside in the city are a strange half-civilized, + half-savage lazy people, who seem to be a mixture of at least three races—Portuguese, + Malay, and Papuan or Ceramese, with an occasional cross of Chinese or + Dutch. The Portuguese element decidedly predominates in the old Christian + population, as indicated by features, habits, and the retention of many + Portuguese words in the Malay, which is now their language. They have a + peculiar style of dress which they wear among themselves, a close-fitting + white shirt with black trousers, and a black frock or upper shirt. The + women seem to prefer a dress entirely black. On festivals and state + occasions they adopt the swallow-tail coat, chimneypot hat, and their + accompaniments, displaying all the absurdity of our European fashionable + dress. Though now Protestants, they preserve at feasts and weddings the + processions and music of the Catholic Church, curiously mixed up with the + gongs and dances of the aborigines of the country. Their language has + still much more Portuguese than Dutch in it, although they have been in + close communication with the latter nation for more than two hundred and + fifty years; even many names of birds, trees and other natural objects, as + well as many domestic terms, being plainly Portuguese. [The following are + a few of the Portuguese words in common use by the Malay-speaking natives + of Amboyna and the other Molucca islands: Pombo (pigeon); milo (maize); + testa (forehead); horas (hours); alfinete (pin); cadeira (chair); lenco + (handkerchief); fresco (cool); trigo (flour); sono (sloop); familia + (family); histori (talk); vosse (you); mesmo (even); cunhado + (brother-in-law); senhor (sir); nyora for signora (madam). None of them, + however, have the least notion that these words belong to a European + language.] This people seems to have had a marvellous power of + colonization, and a capacity for impressing their national characteristics + on every country they conquered, or in which they effected a merely + temporary settlement. In a suburb of Amboyna there is a village of + aboriginal Malays who are Mahometans, and who speak a peculiar language + allied to those of Ceram, as well as Malay. They are chiefly fishermen, + and are said to be both more industrious and more honest than the native + Christians. + </p> + <p> + I went on Sunday, by invitation, to see a collection of shells and fish + made by a gentleman of Amboyna. The fishes are perhaps unrivalled for + variety and beauty by those of any one spot on the earth. The celebrated + Dutch ichthyologist, Dr. Blecker, has given a catalogue of seven hundred + and eighty species found at Amboyna, a number almost equal to those of all + the seas and rivers of Europe. A large proportion of them are of the most + brilliant colours, being marked with bands and spots of the purest + yellows, reds, and blues; while their forms present all that strange and + endless variety so characteristic of the inhabitants of the ocean. The + shells are also very numerous, and comprise a number of the finest species + in the world. The Mactras and Ostreas in particular struck me by the + variety and beauty of their colours. Shells have long been an object of + traffic in Amboyna; many of the natives get their living by collecting and + cleaning them, and almost every visitor takes away a small collection. The + result is that many of the commoner-sorts have lost all value in the eyes + of the amateur, numbers of the handsome but very common cones, cowries, + and olives sold in the streets of London for a penny each, being natives + of the distant isle of Amboyna, where they cannot be bought so cheaply. + The fishes in the collection were all well preserved in clear spirit in + hundreds of glass jars, and the shells were arranged in large shallow pith + boxes lined with paper, every specimen being fastened down with thread. I + roughly estimated that there were nearly a thousand different kinds of + shells, and perhaps ten thousand specimens, while the collection of + Amboyna fishes was nearly perfect. + </p> + <p> + On the 4th of January I left Amboyna for Ternate; but two years later, in + October 1859, I again visited it after my residence in Menado, and stayed + a month in the town in a small house which I hired for the sake of + assorting and packing up a large and varied collection which I had brought + with me from North Celebes, Ternate, and Gilolo. I was obliged to do this + because the mail steamer would have come the following month by way of + Amboyna to Ternate, and I should have been delayed two months before I + could have reached the former place. I then paid my first visit to Ceram, + and on returning to prepare for my second more complete exploration of + that island, I stayed (much against my will) two months at Paso, on the + isthmus which connects the two portions of the island of Amboyna. This + village is situated on the eastern side of the isthmus, on sandy ground, + with a very pleasant view over the sea to the island of Harúka. On the + Amboyna side of the isthmus there is a small river which has been + continued by a shallow canal to within thirty yards of high-water mark on + the other side. Across this small space, which is sandy and but slightly + elevated, all small boats and praus can be easily dragged, and all the + smaller traffic from Ceram and the islands of Saparúa and Harúka, passes + through Paso. The canal is not continued quite through, merely because + every spring-tide would throw up just such a sand-bank as now exists. + </p> + <p> + I had been informed that the fine butterfly Ornithoptera priamus was + plentiful here, as well as the racquet-tailed kingfisher and the + ring-necked lory. I found, however, that I had missed the time for the + former, and birds of all kinds were very scarce, although I obtained a few + good ones, including one or two of the above-mentioned rarities. I was + much pleased to get here the fine long-armed chafer, Euchirus longimanus. + This extraordinary insect is rarely or never captured except when it comes + to drink the sap of the sugar palms, where it is found by the natives when + they go early in the morning to take away the bamboos which have been + filled during the night. For some time one or two were brought me every + day, generally alive. They are sluggish insects, and pull themselves + lazily along by means of their immense forelegs. A figure of this and + other Moluccan beetles is given in the 27th CHAPTER of this work. + </p> + <p> + I was kept at Paso by an inflammatory eruption, brought on by the constant + attacks of small acari-like harvest-bugs, for which the forests of Ceram + are famous, and also by the want of nourishing food while in that island. + At one time I was covered with severe boils. I had them on my eye, cheek, + armpits, elbows, back, thighs, knees, and ankles, so that I was unable to + sit or walk, and had great difficulty in finding a side to lie upon + without pain. These continued for some weeks, fresh ones coming out as + fast as others got well; but good living and sea baths ultimately cured + them. + </p> + <p> + About the end of January Charles Allen, who had been my assistant in + Malacca and Borneo, again joined me on agreement for three years; and as + soon as I got tolerably well, we had plenty to do laying in stores and + making arrangements for our ensuing campaign. Our greatest difficulty was + in obtaining men, but at last we succeeded in getting two each. An Amboyna + Christian named Theodorus Matakena, who had been some time with me and had + learned to skin birds very well, agreed to go with Allen, as well as a + very quiet and industrious lad named Cornelius, whom I had brought from + Menado. I had two Amboynese, named Petrus Rehatta, and Mesach Matakena; + the latter of whom had two brothers, named respectively Shadrach and + Abednego, in accordance with the usual custom among these people of giving + only Scripture names to their children. + </p> + <p> + During the time I resided in this place, I enjoyed a luxury I have never + met with either before or since—the true bread-fruit. A good deal of + it has been planted about here and in the surrounding villages, and almost + every day we had opportunities of purchasing some, as all the boats going + to Amboyna were unloaded just opposite my door to be dragged across the + isthmus. Though it grows in several other parts of the Archipelago, it is + nowhere abundant, and the season for it only lasts a short time. It is + baked entire in the hot embers, and the inside scooped out with a spoon. I + compared it to Yorkshire pudding; Charles Allen said it was like mashed + potatoes and milk. It is generally about the size of a melon, a little + fibrous towards the centre, but everywhere else quite smooth and puddingy, + something in consistence between yeast-dumplings and batter-pudding. We + sometimes made curry or stew of it, or fried it in slices; but it is no + way so good as simply baked. It may be eaten sweet or savory. With meat + and gravy it is a vegetable superior to any I know, either in temperate or + tropical countries. With sugar, milk, butter, or treacle, it is a + delicious pudding, having a very slight and delicate but characteristic + flavour, which, like that of good bread and potatoes, one never gets tired + of. The reason why it is comparatively scarce is that it is a fruit of + which the seeds are entirely aborted by cultivation, and the tree can + therefore only be propagated by cuttings. The seed-bearing variety is + common all over the tropics, and though the seeds are very good eating, + resembling chestnuts, the fruit is quite worthless as a vegetable. Now + that steam and Ward's cases render the transport of young plants so easy, + it is much to be wished that the best varieties of this unequalled + vegetable should be introduced into our West India islands, and largely + propagated there. As the fruit will keep some time after being gathered, + we might then be able to obtain this tropical luxury in Covent Garden + Market. + </p> + <p> + Although the few months I at various times spent in Amboyna were not + altogether very profitable to me in the way of collections, it will always + remain as a bright spot in the review of my Eastern travels, since it was + there that I first made the acquaintance of those glorious birds and + insects which render the Moluccas classic ground in the eyes of the + naturalist, and characterise its fauna as one of the most remarkable and + beautiful upon the globe. On the 20th of February I finally quitted + Amboyna for Ceram and Waigiou, leaving Charles Allen to go by a Government + boat to Wahai on the north coast of Ceram, and thence to the unexplored + island of Mysol. + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <table summary="" border="3" cellpadding="4"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <a + href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2539/2539-h/2539-h.htm">Next + Volume</a> + </td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred Russell Wallace + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO *** + +***** This file should be named 2530-h.htm or 2530-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/3/2530/ + +Produced by Martin Adamson, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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