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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Elements of Plumbing + +Author: Samuel Dibble + +Release Date: May 1, 2008 [EBook #25269] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING *** + + + + +Produced by Suzan Flanagan and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p><br /></p> + +<table border="2" class="tn" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" summary="Transcriber's Notes"> +<tr><td align='center'><h3>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h3> +<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation and spelling have been retained.</p> + +<p>Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved for easier reading. Click the illustrations to view larger versions.</p> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><br /></p> + +<hr /> +<p class="fm2"><span class="ls2">ELEMENTS</span></p> +<p class="fmh">OF</p> + +<p class="fm"><span class="ls">PLUMBIN</span> G</p> + + +<div class="pad3"> +<p class="fmh">BY</p> +</div> +<p class="fm3">SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE</p> + +<p class="fmh2">HEAD OF SANITARY EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION DEPT.<br /> +CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY</p> + +<div class="pad2"> +<p class="fmh"><span class="smcap">First Edition</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="fm6">M<span class="smcap">c</span>GRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, <span class="smcap">Inc.</span></p> +<p class="fmh">239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK</p> + +<hr class="fm" /> + +<p class="fm4">LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO., <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span></p> +<p class="fm5">6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C.</p> +<p class="fm4">1918</p> + + +<hr /> +<p class="fmh"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1918, by the<br /> +McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.</span></p> + +<div class="pad"><p class="fmh2">THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA</p></div> +<hr /> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> + +<p> +In preparing this manuscript the author has had in mind +the needs of young men having no technical instruction +who are anxious to become proficient in the art of Plumbing. +As a consequence each exercise is minutely described and +illustrated; so much so, perhaps, that an experienced mechanic +may find it too simple for skilled hands and a mature +mind. But the beginner will not find the exercises too +elaborately described and will profit by careful study. +Years of experience and observation have shown the author +that the methods herein described are entirely practical +and are in common use today.</p> + +<p>The various exercises in lead work will acquaint the +beginner with the correct use of tools and metals. The +exercises in iron pipe work have also been detailed to show +the correct installation of jobs.</p> + +<p>Together with the study of this book the subjects of +Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing and English +should be taken. These subjects as they bear on Plumbing +are invaluable to the mechanic in his future connection +with the trade.</p> + +<p>The author is indebted for the illustrations of fixtures in +the chapter covering the development of plumbing fixtures, +to the Thomas Maddock's Sons Co., Standard Sanitary +Mfg. Co., and The Trenton Potteries Co.</p> + +<p class="quotdate"><span class="smcap">Samuel Edward Dibble.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Pittsburgh</span>, <i>December, 1917</i>.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class="toc"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="TABLE OF CONTENTS"> +<col style="width:10%" /> +<col style="width:85%" /> +<col style="width:5%" /> + +<tr><td></td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="baseline"><span class="smcap"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></span></td> +<td></td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Chapter</span></td> +<td></td> +<td></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Plumbing Fixtures and Trade</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">The Use and Care of the Soldering Iron—Fluxes—Making Different Soldering Joints</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Mixtures of Solders for Soldering Iron and Wiping—Care of Solders—Melting Points of Metals and Alloys</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Making and Caring of Wiping Cloths</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Preparing and Wiping Joints</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Preparing and Wiping Joints (<i>Continued</i>)</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Laying Terra-cotta and Making Connections to Public Sewers—Water Connections to Mains in Streets</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Installing of French or Sub-soil Drains</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Storm and Sanitary Drainage with Sewage Disposal in View</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Soil and Waste Pipes and Vents—Tests</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">House Traps, Fresh-air Connections, Drum Traps, and Non-syphoning Traps</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Pipe Threading</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Cold-water Supply—Test</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Hot-water Heaters—Instantaneous Coil and Storage Tanks—Return Circulation, Hot-water Lines and Expansion</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Insulation of Piping to Eliminate Conduction, Radiation, Freezing and Noise</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">"Durham" or "Screw Pipe" Work—Pipe and Fittings</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Gas Fittings, Pipe and Fittings, Threading, Measuring and Testing</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">XVIII.</a></td> +<td valign="baseline">Plumbing Codes</td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="baseline"><span class="smcap"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></span></td> +<td></td> +<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h1>ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING</h1> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Plumbing Fixtures and Trade</span></h3> + + +<p>Modern plumbing as a trade is the arranging and running +of pipes to supply pure water to buildings, the erecting of +fixtures for the use of this supply, and the installing of other +pipes for the resulting waste water. The work of the trade +divides itself therefore into two parts: first the providing an +adequate supply of water; and second, the disposing of this +water after use. The first division offers few problems to +the plumber, little variety in the layout being possible, and +the result depending mostly upon the arrangement of the +pipes and fittings; but the second division calls for careful +study in the arrangement, good workmanship in the installing, +and individual attention to each fixture.</p> + +<p>The trade had its beginnings in merely supplying fresh +water to a community. This was done by means of trenching, +or conveying water from lakes, rivers, or springs through +wooden pipes or open troughs. By easy stages the trade +improved and enlarged its scope, until at the present time +it is able to provide for the adequate distribution of tons of +water under high pressure furnished by the city water works.</p> + +<p>In the early years of the trade the question of the disposal +of the waste water was easily answered, for it was allowed +to be discharged onto the ground to seek its own course. +But with the increased amount of water available, the waste-water +problem has enlarged until today it plays the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +important part of plumbing, and the trade has had to +change to meet this waste-water problem.</p> + +<p>The first simple system of a pipe running from the sink to +a point outside the building was sufficient. As larger buildings +came into use and communities were more thickly +populated, the plumbing problem demanded thought and +intense study. The waste pipes from fixtures had to be so +arranged that it would be impossible for foul odors and +germ-laden air to enter the building through a plumbing +fixture. The importance of this is evidenced by the plumbing +laws now in use throughout the country.</p> + +<p>One of the first plumbing fixtures put into common use +was a hollowed-out stone which served as a sink. It was +with considerable interest that the writer saw a sink of this +kind in actual use in the summer of 1915, at a house in a +New England village. This sink had been in service for +about 100 years. From this beginning the well-known +fixtures of today have developed. The demand for moderate +priced, sanitary closets, lavatories, and baths has led +to the rapid improvement seen in plumbing fixtures. In +the development of these fixtures, as soon as a bad feature +was recognized the fixture was at once discarded, until now +the market offers fixtures as mechanically fine as can be +produced. Plumbing fixtures were at first manufactured +so that it was necessary to support them on a wooden +frame, and this frame was enclosed in wood. The enclosure +made by this framework soon became foul and filthy and a +breeding place for all kinds of disease germs and vermin. +This bad feature was overcome by the introduction of open +plumbing, that is, fixtures so made that the enclosure +of wood could be done away with. The open plumbing +allowed a free circulation of air around the fixture and exposed +pipes, thereby making the outside of the fixture and +its immediate surroundings free from all the bad features of +the closed plumbing. Plenty of fresh air and plenty of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +light are necessary for good sanitary plumbing.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a><a href="images/fig1.jpg"><img src="images/fig1tn.jpg" width="300" height="345" class="plain" alt="Fig. 1.--Pan closet +(English)." title="Fig. 1.—Pan closet +(English)." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 1.—Pan closet +(English).</span> +</div> + +<p>The materials of which the first open-plumbing fixtures +were made consisted of marble, copper, zinc, slate, iron, +and clay. Time soon proved that marble and slate were +absorbent, copper and zinc soon leaked from wear, iron +rusted, and clay cracked and lacked strength; therefore +these materials soon became insanitary, and foul odors were +easily detected rising from the fixture. Besides these +materials being insanitary, the fact that a fixture was constructed +using a number of sections proved that joints and +seams were insanitary features on a fixture. For instance, +in a marble lavatory constructed by using one piece for the +top, another for the bowl, and still another for the back, +filth accumulated at every joint and seam. Following this +condition, developed the iron +enameled and earthenware fixtures, +constructed without seams +and with a smooth, even, glossy +white finish. The fact that these +fixtures are made of material that +is non-absorbent adds to their +value as sanitary plumbing fixtures.</p> + +<p>Another problem which is as +important as the foregoing is the +proper flushing, that is, the supplying +of sufficient water in a +manner designed to cleanse the fixture properly.</p> + +<p>The development of sanitary earthenware illustrates +how the above problems were satisfactorily solved. In the +city of London a law compelling the use of drains was enforced, +and in the early 70's the effect of this law was felt +in this country. The introduction at this time of the mechanical +water closet, known as the "pan closet," and the +English plumbing material which was brought to this country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +was the beginning of "American plumbing," which today +outstrips that of any other country in the world. The +"pan closet" continued in use for some time until the "valve +closet" was introduced as a more sanitary fixture. Closely +following these closets, in 1880, the plunger closet became +popular as a still more sanitary fixture. The plunger +closet continued in use until the present all-earthenware +closet bowl drove all other makes from the market. The +American development of the earthenware closet bowl put +the American sanitary fixture far ahead of the English +improvements, as the American earthenware is superior and +the sanitary features of the bowls are nearer perfection.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 2 and 3"> +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a><a href="images/fig2.jpg"><img src="images/fig2tn.jpg" width="500" height="230" class="plain" alt="Fig. 2.--Pan closet (American)." title="Fig. 2.—Pan closet (American)." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 2.—Pan closet (American).</span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a><a href="images/fig3.jpg"><img src="images/fig3tn.jpg" width="500" height="244" class="plain" alt="Fig. 3.--Plunger closet." title="Fig. 3.—Plunger closet." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 3.—Plunger closet.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<p>When the washout bowl was introduced it was considered +perfection. The hopper closet bowl, which was nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +more than a funnel-shaped bowl placed on top of a trap, +was placed in competition with the washout bowl. There +are a number of these bowls now in use and also being manufactured. +However, large cities prohibit their use.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a><a href="images/fig4.jpg"><img src="images/fig4tn.jpg" width="300" height="302" class="plain" alt="Fig. 4.--Plunger closet." title="Fig. 4.—Plunger closet." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 4.—Plunger closet.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>To quote Thomas Maddock's Sons Co.: "In 1876 Wm. +Smith of San Francisco patented a water closet which employed +a jet to assist in emptying the bowl and the development +of this principle is due entirely to the potter, who had +gradually and by costly experiment become the determining +factor in the evolution of the water closet." With this +improvement it became possible to do away with the boxing-in +of the bowl which up to this time had been necessary. +Closet bowls of today are made of vitreous body which does +not permit crazing or discoloring of the ware. A study of +the illustrations which show the evolution of the closet +bowl should be of interest to the student as well as to the +apprentice and journeyman. The bath tub developed +from a gouged-out stone, in which water could be stored and +used for bathing purposes, to our present-day enameled iron +and earthenware tubs. The development did not progress +very rapidly until about 25 years ago. Since then every +feature of the tub has been improved, and from a sanitary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +standpoint the tubs of today cannot be improved. The +bath tub has become an American custom, as the people +in this country have demanded that they have sanitary +equipment in their homes, while in the European countries +this demand has not developed.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a><a href="images/fig5.jpg"><img src="images/fig5tn.jpg" width="300" height="425" class="plain" alt="Fig. 5.--Modern low-tank closet." title="Fig. 5.—Modern low-tank closet." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 5.—Modern low-tank closet.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>The first tubs used in this country were of wood lined with +copper or zinc, and were built in or boxed in with wood +panelling. The plumbing ordinances of today prohibit +this boxing as it proved to be a breeding place for vermin, +etc. As the illustration shows, the woodwork encasing +the tub was in a great many cases beautifully carved and +finished.</p> + +<p>The placing on the market of a steel-clad tub, a steel +tub with a copper lining, which did away with the boxing, +was a big improvement as far as sanitary reasons were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +concerned as well as a reduction in cost of tubs. These +tubs were set up on legs which permitted cleaning and +provided good ventilation all around. With these features +they drove all other tubs from the market. The copper +and zinc were found to be hard to keep clean and they were +soon replaced by the iron enamelled and earthenware tubs. +The finish on these tubs being white and non-absorbent +makes them highly acceptable as sanitary fixtures. A +study of the illustrations will show how progress has +been made in design as well as in sanitary features.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 6 and 7"> +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a><a href="images/fig6.jpg"><img src="images/fig6tn.jpg" width="500" height="330" class="plain" alt="Fig. 6.--Encased bath tub." title="Fig. 6.—Encased bath tub." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 6.—Encased bath tub.</span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a><a href="images/fig7.jpg"><img src="images/fig7tn.jpg" width="500" height="250" class="plain" alt="Fig. 7.--Steel tub on legs." title="Fig. 7.—Steel tub on legs." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 7.—Steel tub on legs.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<p><b>The Wash Bowl.</b>—Succeeding the hand basin the first +wash basins used in this country were made of marble or +slate, with a round bowl of crockery. The bowl was 14 +inches in diameter originally, but later was changed to an +oval bowl. Like the bath tub these wash stands were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +encased in wood, the encasing being used to support the +marble top. Ornamental brackets were introduced and the +wood encasement done away with.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 8 and 9"> +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a><a href="images/fig8.jpg"><img src="images/fig8tn.jpg" width="500" height="272" class="plain" alt="Fig. 8.--Modern built-in tub." title="Fig. 8.—Modern built-in tub." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 8.—Modern built-in tub.</span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a><a href="images/fig9.jpg"><img src="images/fig9tn.jpg" width="300" height="310" class="plain" alt="Fig. 9.--Encased wash bowl." title="Fig. 9.—Encased wash bowl." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 9.—Encased wash bowl.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<p>About 1902 the iron-enamelled lavatory appeared on the +market and drove all other kinds from the market at once. +The reason for this is clear. The marble stands were +absorbent and were made with three parts, top, back, and +bowl; the enamelled iron lavatory is made all in one piece +of material non-absorbent. A study of the illustrations +will show clearly how the lavatory has been improved. +Strange to say, in all plumbing fixtures, and especially the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +lavatory, as improvements were made to make them more +sanitary a reduction has been made in the price of an +individual fixture.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 10 and 11"> +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a><a href="images/fig10.jpg"><img src="images/fig10tn.jpg" width="300" height="308" class="plain" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 10.</span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a><a href="images/fig11.jpg"><img src="images/fig11tn.jpg" width="500" height="312" class="plain" alt="Fig. 11.--Bath room of early 80's. All fixtures are enclosed." title="Fig. 11.—Bath room of early 80's. All fixtures are enclosed." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 11.—Bath room of early 80's. All fixtures are enclosed.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<p>The development of the urinal, showers, wash trays, +drinking fountains and other fixtures I will not attempt to +cover. As the demand has been evident for fixtures of +certain types, the plumber has been alert to anticipate and +supply it. There is need, however, for improvement in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +all our fixtures, especially that part which connects with the +waste pipes, also the hanging, that is the arrangement or +lack of arrangement for hanging fixtures to the wall. The +waste and overflow of all fixtures need considerable change +to make them sanitary. The opportunity is, therefore, +before anyone who will apply himself to this development. +Much money, thought, and time have been spent by the +manufacturers of iron enamelled ware and by the potteries +to gather suggestions made by the plumber in regard to +fixtures, and then to perfect them. To these manufacturers +is due the beautiful design, stability, and perfect sanitary +material which make up our plumbing fixtures of today.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a><a href="images/fig12.jpg"><img src="images/fig12tn.jpg" width="500" height="432" class="plain" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 12.</span> +</div></div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Use and Care of the Soldering Iron. Fluxes. +Making Different Soldering Joints</span></h3> + +<p><b>The Soldering Iron.</b>—The soldering iron is one of the +first tools a plumber has to master. This tool is sometimes +called a "copper bit" as it is made of copper; and so throughout +this book the words "soldering iron," "copper bit," +"iron," and "bit" are used synonymously. There are +several different-shaped irons in common use today, but +an iron shaped like the one in <a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a> is the one for use in the +following work. Take the iron as it is purchased, having +a wooden handle and the copper exposed on pointed end. +Before it can be used the point must be faced and tinned. +To do this, proceed as follows:</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, heat the iron on the furnace.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, place in vise and file the four surfaces of the point.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, run a file over edges and point.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, heat the iron until it will melt solder.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, put 6 or 8 drops of solder and a piece of rosin the +size of a chestnut on an ordinary red brick. (This rosin is +called a flux.)</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, take the hot iron and melt the solder and rosin on +the brick.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, rub the four surfaces of the point of the iron on +the brick keeping the point in the melted solder.</li></ol> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a><a href="images/fig13.gif"><img src="images/fig13tn.gif" width="500" height="61" class="plain" alt="Fig. 13.--Copper." title="Fig. 13.—Copper." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 13.—Copper.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>The solder will soon stick to the copper surfaces and then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +the iron is ready for use.</p> + +<p>Another way to tin the iron that is in common use is to +rub the point of a hot iron on a piece of sal-ammoniac, or dip +the hot iron in reduced muriatic acid, then rub the stick +of solder on the iron. The use of muriatic acid in tinning +the iron is not recommended. In the first place, it is not +always possible to carry it, and in the second place it eats +holes in the surface of iron, which makes it necessary to file +and smooth the surfaces again. The constant use of +muriatic acid on the copper soon wears it away and makes +it unfit for use. Rosin is easily carried and applied and is +by far the best to use in regular work.</p> + +<p><b>Points to Remember in the Care of the Soldering Iron.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, proper tinning is absolutely necessary for rapid and +good work.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, do not allow the iron to heat red hot.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, keep the point of the iron properly shaped.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, use the same flux in tinning as is to be used in +soldering.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, when filing iron, file as little as possible.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, keep in use two irons of the same size.</li></ol> + + +<h3>FLUX</h3> + +<p>A flux is used to clean the surfaces of joints and seams +to be soldered, also to keep them from oxidizing and to +help the metals to fuse.</p> + +<p>The following list gives the names of various fluxes in +common use, how they are applied, and on what material +they are most commonly used:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="flux uses"> +<col style="width:35%" /> +<col style="width:30%" /> +<col style="width:35%" /> +<tr><th>Flux</th><th>How applied</th><th>Used on</th></tr> + +<tr><td>Rosin</td><td><span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">Sprinkled on</span></td><td>Lead, tin, and brass</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tallow</td><td><span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">Melted</span></td><td>Lead and brass</td></tr> +<tr><td>Muriatic acid (reduced)</td><td><span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">With swab</span></td><td>Copper, galvanized iron</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and brass</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>Muriatic acid (raw)</td><td><span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">With swab</span></td><td>Dirty galvanized iron</td></tr></table> +</div> + +<p><b>Rosin.</b>—Rosin is purchased by the pound and comes in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +chunks. It is very brittle and powders easily. Plumbers +generally take a piece of 1<span class="frac"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span> N. P. brass tubing, solder a +trap screw in one end and a cone-shaped piece of copper +on the other. The point of the cone is left open. Rosin +is put into this tube and is easily sprinkled on work when +needed.</p> + +<p><b>Tallow.</b>—A plumber's <i>tallow candle</i> answers the purpose +for tallow flux. Some plumbers carry a can for the tallow, +making it cleaner to handle.</p> + +<p><b>Muriatic Acid.</b>—Muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid is +used both raw and reduced. Raw acid is not diluted or +reduced. Reduced acid is made as follows: Put some zinc +chips in a lead receptacle and then pour in the muriatic +acid. The acid will at once act on the zinc. The fumes +should be allowed to escape into the outer air. When +chemical action ceases, the liquid remaining is called reduced +acid.</p> + + +<h3>PLUMBERS' SOILS AND PASTE</h3> + +<p>It is necessary when soldering or wiping a joint to cover +the parts of pipe adjoining the portion that is to be soldered +or wiped so that the solder will not stick to it. There are +a number of preparations for this. The one used by the +best mechanics today is paste, made as follows:</p> + +<ul class="lsoff"> +<li>8 teaspoons of flour.</li> +<li>1 teaspoon of salt.</li> +<li>1 teaspoon of sugar.</li> +<li>Mix with water and boil down to a thick paste.</li></ul> + +<p>The advantages of paste as a soil are many:</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, it is made of materials easily obtained.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, solder will not stick to it.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, if pipe is thoroughly cleaned, the paste will not rub +off easily.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, poor workmanship cannot be covered up.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, when the work is completed, a wet cloth will wipe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +it off and leave the work clean.</li></ol> + +<p>Another soil used is <i>lampblack</i> and <i>glue</i>. A quantity of +glue is melted and then lampblack is added. This needs +to be heated and water added each time it is used. This +soil is put on pipes with a short stubby brush. The work +when completed with the silvery joint and jet black borders +appears to the uninitiated very artistic and neat, but when +the black soil is worn away the uneven edges of the joint +appear, disclosing the reason for using a black soil that +covers all defects. The mechanic of today who takes pride +in his ability for good workmanship will not cover his work +with black soil.</p> + +<p>It can readily be seen that the use of lampblack soil +encourages poor workmanship, while the use of paste forces, +to a certain extent, good workmanship on the part of the +mechanic.</p> + +<p>Before soil or paste is applied, the pipe needs to be +cleansed. Grease and dirt accumulate on the pipe. The +methods employed to remove all foreign matter are simply +to scrape the surface with fine sand or emery paper; sand +and water will also answer for this purpose. This cleans +the surface and allows the soil or paste to stick to the pipe.</p> + + +<h3>MAKING DIFFERENT SOLDER JOINTS</h3> + +<p>The tools used in making the different solder joints as +described and illustrated in this chapter are shown in <a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a>.</p> + +<p><b>Cup Joint.</b>—The materials necessary for the work (<a href="#Fig_15">Fig. +15</a>): 12 inches of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch AA lead pipe, paste, rosin, <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and +<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> solder.</p> + +<p>If a gas furnace is not on the bench to heat the iron, then +a gasoline furnace is necessary.</p> + +<p>Each of the following operations must be done thoroughly +to insure a perfect job:</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, with the <b>saw</b> cut off 12 inches of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch AA lead<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +pipe from the coil. When cutting off a piece of lead pipe +from a coil or reel, always straighten out 1 foot more than +is needed. This leaves 1 foot of straight pipe always on +the coil.</li></ol> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a><a href="images/fig14.gif"><img src="images/fig14tn.gif" width="500" height="362" class="plain" alt="Fig. 14.--Tools used for making solder joints." title="Fig. 14.—Tools used for making solder joints." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 14.—Tools used for making solder joints.</span> +</div></div> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li> +<p><i>Second</i>, with the flat side of the <b>rasp</b>, square the ends of +the 12-inch piece of pipe. (A good way to do this is to +hold the pipe at right angles with the edge of the bench, +run the rasp across the end of the pipe, keeping the rasp +<i>parallel</i> with the edge of the bench. Apply this to all work +when necessary to square the ends of pipe.)</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, cut the pipe with the saw, making two pieces each +6 inches in length.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth</i>, square the ends just cut.</p> + +<p><i>Fifth</i>, rasp the edges of one end as shown in the cut. Hold +the work in such a way that the stroke of the rasp can be +seen without moving the pipe.</p> + +<p><i>Sixth</i>, take the other 6-inch piece of pipe and with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +<b>turn pin</b> spread one end of it. The turn pin must be +struck squarely in the center with the <b>hammer</b>, the point +of the turn pin being kept in the center of the pipe. The +pipe should be turned after each blow of the hammer. +The pipe must not rest on the bench but should be held +in the hand while using the turn pin. If the pipe bends, +it can be straightened with <b>bending irons</b>. If the pipe is +spread more on one side than the other, the turn pin should +be hit on the opposite side so as to even the spread.</p> +</li></ol> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a><a href="images/fig15.gif"><img src="images/fig15tn.gif" width="300" height="443" class="plain" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 15.</span> +</div></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;"> +<a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a><a href="images/fig16.gif"><img src="images/fig16tn.gif" width="141" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 16.--Cup joint." title="Fig. 16.—Cup joint." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 16.—Cup joint.</span> +</div> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li> +<p><i>Seventh</i>, when the pipes are properly fitted, moisten the +tips of the fingers with paste and rub the paste on parts of +pipe marked "paste." Put the pipe aside to allow the +paste to dry.</p> + +<p><i>Eighth</i>, put the soldering iron on to heat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Ninth</i>, with the <b>shave hook</b> scrape off the paste and surface +dirt as shown in the figure. The inside of the cup +will look bright, but must be scraped.</p> + +<p><i>Tenth</i>, place the two pieces into position as shown +in <a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a>, sprinkle rosin on the joint, melt +a few drops of solder on the joint and +with the iron melt the solder on the joint, +drawing the iron around the pipe keeping +the solder melted around the iron all the +time.</p> + +<p><i>Eleventh</i>, fill the joint with solder and continue +to draw the hot iron around the joint +until a smooth and bright surface is obtained. +To master the correct use of the +soldering iron in this work, considerable +practice will be necessary.</p> +</li></ol> + +<p><b>Overcast Joints.</b>—(<a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>.)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Each operation must be performed +thoroughly.</p></div> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li> +<p><i>First</i>, saw off from a coil of 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch D +lead pipe a 10-inch piece of pipe.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, square the ends with the rasp, +as previously explained.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, take a 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch <b>drift plug</b> and +drive through the pipe (<a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Fourth</i>, saw the pipe into two pieces of +5 inches each.</p> + +<p><i>Fifth</i>, square the ends of the pipe with the rasp.</p> + +<p><i>Sixth</i>, rasp off the outside edge of one end of the pipe as +shown.</p> + +<p><i>Seventh</i>, rasp off the inside edge of one end of the pipe.</p> + +<p><i>Eighth</i>, finish rasped surfaces with a file. Both surfaces +should have the same angle.</p> +</li></ol> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 17 to 19"> +<tr><td colspan="2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +<a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a><a href="images/fig17.gif"><img src="images/fig17tn.gif" width="300" height="301" class="plain" alt="Fig. 17." title="Fig. 17." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 17.</span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="baseline"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 168px;"> +<a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a><a href="images/fig18.gif"><img src="images/fig18tn.gif" width="168" height="350" class="plain" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 18.</span> +</div></td> + +<td valign="baseline"><div class="figright" style="width: 244px;"> +<a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a><a href="images/fig19.gif"><img src="images/fig19tn.gif" width="244" height="350" class="plain" alt="Fig. 19.--Overcast joint." title="Fig. 19.—Overcast joint." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 19.—Overcast joint.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li> +<p><i>Ninth</i>, with a shave hook scrape the outside surface of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +each pipe for about 1 inch from the end.</p> + +<p><i>Tenth</i>, put the soldering iron on to heat.</p> + +<p><i>Eleventh</i>, paste paper on the joint as shown in the cut.</p> + +<p><i>Twelfth</i>, fit the pieces together and lay on the bench. +Drop some melted solder on the joint and with the hot +iron proceed to flow the solder around the joint by turning +the pipe. Use plenty of flux (rosin). The pipes must be +tacked in three or four places at first or they will have a +tendency to spread.</p> + +<p><i>Thirteenth</i>, to finish the joint, lift the iron straight up.</p> +</li></ol> + +<p>This joint when finished will have a bright smooth finish. +The two foregoing joints need considerable practice and +should be perfectly mastered before going on to the next +job.</p> + + +<h3>SEAMS</h3> + +<p>A description of the making of wiped seams for lead-lined +tanks will not be attempted as very few are made +now. The plumber, however, is often called upon to make +a seam joining two pieces of sheet lead. The beginner +will do well to go over the following exercise carefully and +practice it thoroughly.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a><a href="images/fig20.gif"><img src="images/fig20tn.gif" width="500" height="210" class="plain" alt="Fig. 20.--Flat seam." title="Fig. 20.—Flat seam." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 20.—Flat seam.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Materials.</b>—Two pieces of 8-pound sheet lead, 6 by 10 +inches each; one bar of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> solder; paste, paper, and +rosin.</p> + +<p><b>Tools.</b>—Rasp, shave hook, and soldering iron.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> + +<p>The 10-inch side of each piece is rasped and fitted together. +The edges are cleaned and paper is pasted on leaving <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> +inch for solder. Paste without the paper can be put on. +This will make a joint <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inch wide.</p> + +<p>Apply the rosin to the joint, then with the heated iron +and some solder tack the seam on the top, then on the +bottom and middle. This will prevent the seam from +spreading when the lead is heated. Solder and rosin can now +be put on the full length of the joint. With a hot iron proceed +to float the solder down the seam. The soldering iron +must not rest at full length on the pieces of lead or it will +melt the lead and render the work useless. The solder will +flow and form a clean neat seam, if the iron is at the right +heat and the right amount of solder is put on. If the iron is +too hot, the solder will flow instantly when the iron is laid +on it and the solder will disappear as it runs through the +seam. If the iron is too cold the solder will not melt +enough to flow. Too much solder on the seam will cause it +to overflow, that is, the solder will spread beyond the +papered edges. After a little practice this surplus solder +can be drawn in on the seam with the iron and carried +along the seam to some point that has not enough solder. +When the seam is completed the edges should be perfectly +straight and even. The iron is carried along the seam with +one stroke which makes the seam appear smooth and +bright.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Mixtures of Solders for Soldering Iron and Wiping.<br /> +Care of Solders. Melting Points of<br /> +Metals and Alloys</span></h3> + + +<p>The importance of good solder, that is, solder correctly +mixed and thoroughly cleaned, should not be overlooked. +Work is more quickly and neatly done and the job presents +a more finished appearance when solder that is correctly +made is used.</p> + +<p>The solder used in the following work with the soldering +iron is called <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>. This means <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> (50 per cent.) lead +and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> (50 per cent.) tin.</p> + +<p>In the mixture of solder, only pure metals should be used. +The lead should be melted first and all the dross cleaned +off. The tin should then be added and mixed.</p> + +<p>The solder to be used in wiping the joints in the following +chapter is a mixture of 37 per cent. tin and 63 per cent. lead. +This is called wiping solder.</p> + +<p>The following table gives the melting points, etc.:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="melting points"> +<col style="width:22%" /> +<col style="width:23%" /> +<col style="width:55%" /> +<tr><th class="bt" align="center">Metal</th><th class="bbox" align="center">Melting point</th><th class="bt" align="center">Mixture</th></tr> +<tr><td class="brt">Sulphur.............</td><td align="center">228</td><td class="blt">Pure</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Tin....................</td><td align="center">446</td><td class="bl">Pure</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Lead.................</td><td align="center">626</td><td class="bl">Pure</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Zinc..................</td><td align="center">680</td><td class="bl">Pure</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Fine solder........</td><td align="center">400</td><td class="bl">50 per cent. tin, 50 per cent. lead (wt.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="brb">Wiping solder....</td><td align="center" class="brb">370</td><td class="bb">37 per cent. tin, 63 per cent. lead (wt.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>To recognize fine solder, run off a bar into a mold and let<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +it cool. If there is a frosted streak in the center, the metal +has not enough tin. The surface should be bright. To +recognize wiping solder, pour some on a brick. When this +is cool, the top should be frosty and the under side should +have four or five bright spots. The amount poured on the +brick should be about the size of a half dollar. If poured on +iron, the metal will cool too quickly and show bright all +over the under side.</p> + +<p><b>To Make <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> Solder or Plumber's Fine Solder.</b>—The +possibility of getting pure clean metals to mix solder is +very remote. Old pieces of lead pipe, lead trap, old block +tin pipe are used to make solder when pure metals are not at +hand.</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li> +<p><i>First</i>, in a cast-iron pot melt the lead to about 800°, or a +dull red.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, clean off the dross.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, add (to a 15-pound pot) <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> pound of sulphur in +three applications. Each time mix the sulphur thoroughly +with the metal with a long stick.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth</i>, add tin before the last application of sulphur. +Mix thoroughly.</p> + +<p><i>Fifth</i>, pour off two bars and look for the frosty streak in +the center. Add a little more tin, if necessary.</p> +</li></ol> + +<p><b>To Mix Wiping Solder.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li> +<p><i>First</i>, proceed as described in <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>, melting the +metals and <i>burning</i> out with sulphur, adding the percentage +of tin according to the preceding table. Then test the +solder for bright spots on the under side.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, keep the metal thoroughly mixed when burning +and keep all dross cleaned off the surface.</p> +</li></ol> + +<p>The working heat of wiping solder is 500°F. Sulphur is +used to collect all zinc and dross. The sulphur should come +in contact with all parts of the metal. This is why the +metal should be stirred when the sulphur is put in.</p> + +<p>A few good points in the economical care of solder are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +listed below.</p> + +<p><b>Care of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> Solder.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li> +<p><i>First</i>, do not drop melted solder on the floor or dirty bench.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, use all small ends by melting on a new bar.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, put clean paper under work and use droppings.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth</i>, have the mold free from dirt when pouring.</p> +</li></ol> + +<p><b>Care of Wiping Solder.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li> +<p><i>First</i>, do not heat red hot.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, do not file brass where the filings will get into the +solder.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, do not allow lead chips to get into the solder.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth</i>, clean the solder occasionally.</p> + +<p><i>Fifth</i>, learn to distinguish solder from lead by its hardness.</p> + +<p><i>Sixth</i>, have different-shaped pot for lead and solder.</p> + +<p><i>Seventh</i>, do not <i>tin</i> brass by dipping into solder.</p> + +<p><i>Eighth</i>, do not put cold or wet ladle into hot solder.</p> +</li></ol> + +<p>A pot holding about 15 pounds of solder is the size commonly +in use.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Making and Care of Wiping Cloths</span></h3> + + +<p>A good wiping cloth is essential for wiping joints. The +exact size and the flexibility of the cloth depend a great +deal upon the mechanic who handles the cloth. Some +mechanics like a stiff cloth, but the writer has always used +a flexible cloth. The sizes, shape, and methods of folding +and breaking in as shown in <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a> below have proved +successful. Cloths made of whalebone ticking are inexpensive +and make the best for ordinary use.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a><a href="images/fig21.gif"><img src="images/fig21tn.gif" width="500" height="294" class="plain" alt="Fig. 21.--Folding a wiping cloth." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 21.—Folding a wiping cloth.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><br /></p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="wiping cloths"> +<col style="width:40%" /> +<col style="width:20%" /> +<col style="width:40%" /> +<tr><th>Size of cloth open</th><th> </th><th>Size of cloth folded</th></tr> +<tr><td>14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> by 14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches</td><td align="center">equals</td><td>3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> by 3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches</td></tr> +<tr><td>13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> by 13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches</td><td align="center">equals</td><td>3 by 3 inches</td></tr> +<tr><td> 8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> by 12<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches</td><td align="center">equals</td><td>2 by 3 inches</td></tr> <!--Changed '×' to 'by' for consistency--> +</table></div></div> + +<p>For the joint-wiping jobs to follow, the above sizes are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +the best. The largest size, 14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> by 14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches is used for +<i>catch cloth</i>. The 13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> by 13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches is the <i>wiping cloth</i>. +The 8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> by 12<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches is the <i>branch cloth</i>.</p> + +<p>Proceed as follows to cut and complete a cloth:</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, lay the ticking on the flat bench and square the +sides 14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> by 14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, the ticking should be cut off with shears and not +torn or cut with a knife.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, fold as shown in the cut.</li> +</ol> + +<p>Each fold should be moistened with a little water and +pressed with a hot iron. The cloth should not be pulled +or stretched, but should be kept as square as possible.</p> + +<p>The first and second folds require a little care; the corners +when folded to the center should be kept in a little, thus +making the outside edge slightly rounded. If this is done, +the corners will not stick out when the cloth is finished. +After the cloth is carefully folded, pressed, and dried, take +a needle and thread and sew the open corners about <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inch +in from the edge of the cloth. By carefully studying the +cut, one can readily see each operation and, by following +directions, make a perfect cloth.</p> + +<p>When the cloth is done, an amount of oil sufficient to soak +through about three layers of cloth should be applied and +then rubbed on a smooth surface. The oil should be rubbed +in well about the edges. It will not be necessary to apply +anything else to the cloth to prepare it for wiping. Paste, +soil, chalk, etc., are not needed and do not benefit the cloth. +When using oil on the cloth, it must not be used too freely, +that is, the cloth must not be soaked in oil, as oil is a rapid +conductor of heat and the cloth would soon become too hot +to handle.</p> + +<p><b>Care of Wiping Cloths.</b>—The ticking will burn if allowed +to become too hot. If hot solder is poured directly on the +cloth, it will soon burn and be destroyed.</p> + +<p>Keep the surface on both sides of the cloth well oiled.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> + +<p>Use both sides of the cloth.</p> + +<p>Use both wiping edges of the cloth.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a><a href="images/fig22.gif"><img src="images/fig22tn.gif" width="250" height="275" class="plain" alt="Fig. 22.--Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses of ticking." title="Fig. 22.—Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses of ticking." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 22.—Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses of ticking.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>When the cloth is not in use, it should not be thrown in +with the other tools and allowed to curl up into all sorts of +shapes, but should be kept in some flat place. A good way +to keep the cloths is to have two pieces of wood between +which the cloths may be kept and held there by means of +a strap. The length of time which a wiping cloth can be +used depends a great deal upon its making and upon the +care which is given it.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Preparing and Wiping Joints</span></h3> + + +<p>When the writer first started to carry the tools for a +plumber and to prepare joints for wiping, the remark was +often heard that joint wiping would soon be a thing of the +past. I have heard this many times since from many different +sources. Personally, I fail to see the passing of the +wiped joint. More lead pipe is being made today than ever +before, which goes to show that lead pipe is being used and +the only successful way of joining is with the wiped joint. +Some plumbers' helpers of today seem to think that joint +wiping is of no account. To a certain extent, I can sympathize +with them. Most of these boys are learning a +trade in large cities and working for concerns that do nothing +but a large contracting business. This large work is +carried on differently from the small work. Wrought-iron +or steel pipes are used to a great extent in this work and a +very small amount of lead is used. Sometimes the job +will be completed without the use of lead. The boy who +works continually on this kind of work soon comes to think +that lead pipes are no longer in use. The writer has found +that a boy who has learned to do nothing but screw-pipe +work is absolutely lost and cannot perform the duties of a +plumber, other than screw-pipe work. It must be borne in +mind that lead pipe and cast-iron pipe work are being used +today in all parts of the country and in some parts more than +in others. Therefore, the boy must grasp all branches of +the trade that he has chosen to follow and not be a one-sided +man. Joint wiping belongs to the plumber alone. The +plumbing trade differs from all other trades in that it has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +joint wiping for its distinctive feature.</p> + +<p>A few attempts at joint wiping will convince the beginner +that it is not the easiest thing in the world to learn. Let me +caution the beginner not to get discouraged. He must have +patience and a firm resolve to master the art of joint wiping +and not let it master him and keep him back.</p> + +<p>So, as we now start on exercises of joint wiping, let the +beginner constantly keep in mind that all boys must become +perfectly skilled in the art of joint wiping before they +can be considered plumbers. Keep in mind also that the +examination that one must take to get a plumber's license +contains an actual exercise in joint wiping. The one word +of advice is not to get discouraged. Continued practice is +the only way to success.</p> + +<p>The soldering iron is, or should be, conquered by this +time. As joint wiping is the next exercise, I shall go over +a few general points that experience has taught me and +cannot fail to be of assistance to the beginner if they are +heeded. In fact, to become proficient, the beginner should +remember all the points suggested under this heading. It is +necessary in wiping to have good solder. In the chapter on +solder, I have given the correct mixtures and how to recognize +the proper mixtures. The place where wiping is to be +done should be considered. No draught should be allowed +to blow across the work as it tends to chill the solder and +pipe. Proper support for the work should be procured. +If gasoline is to be used for fuel to heat the solder, make sure +that the tank is full before starting, otherwise the fire +may go out just when the heat is needed most and the solder +in the pot has become too cool to wipe with. Have a catch +pan and keep all the solder droppings to put back into the +pot, otherwise the solder will pile up and the fingers are +likely to be pushed into the pile and badly burned. Hold +the ladle about 2 inches above the work, the catch cloth +about 1 inches below. Do not drop the solder in the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +place. Keep moving the ladle. Do not pour the solder on +the pipe in a steady stream, but drop it on. It is not a +large amount of solder that is wanted on the joint at first, +it is heat that is needed. This can be secured better by +dropping the solder on than by pouring a large quantity +on the pipe. The edges of the joint cool very quickly; +therefore heat the edges well and keep them covered with +molten solder until the joint is ready to wipe. When preparing +joints for wiping, always do the work thoroughly +and fit the pieces together tightly so that no solder can get +through.</p> + +<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> + +<li><i>First</i>, good solder.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, place of wiping.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, support.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, full tank of gasoline.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, drip pan.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, ladle 2 inches above the work.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, cloth 1 inches below the work.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, move the ladle continually.</li> + +<li><i>Ninth</i>, <i>drop</i> the solder.</li> + +<li><i>Tenth</i>, <i>heat</i>, not solder wanted at first.</li> + +<li><i>Eleventh</i>, heat the edges.</li> + +<li><i>Twelfth</i>, careful preparation.</li> + +<li><i>Thirteenth</i>, clean grease from the pipe.</li> + +<li><i>Fourteenth</i>, cut clean straight edges on paper.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>HALF-INCH ROUND WIPED JOINT</h3> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—Take 12 inches of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch strong lead pipe +and square off the ends with a rasp. Take the shave hook +and scrape the center of the pipe perfectly bright; a space +3 inches each side of the center is correct. The size of the +joint when completed should be 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches long. If we +should undertake to wipe the joint with the pipe in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +present condition, the solder would adhere to all the pipe +that was shaved bright. Therefore, we take a piece of paper +sufficient to encircle the pipe twice and after putting paste +on one side of the paper wrap it around the pipe so that the +edge that is cut straight and even is 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches from the +center of the pipe. Another piece of paper is pasted on the +other side of the center leaving a clean, bright space of 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> +inches. All the pipe should be covered with paper except +the 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches in the center.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a><a href="images/fig23.gif"><img src="images/fig23tn.gif" width="500" height="391" class="plain" alt="Fig. 23." title="Fig. 23." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 23.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>To Put the Pipe in Position for Wiping.</b>—The most practical +way is to take two common red bricks with the 2 by 8 +face down and place them 9 inches apart. Lay the pipe on +the bricks and place a weight on each end. The solder will +drop on to the bench, so it is best to place a piece of paper +or a pan of black iron under the pipe to catch the solder +that drops. The pan or paper can then be taken up and +the solder put back into the pot without waste. A cast-iron<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +pot holding 15 pounds of solder is then placed on the +furnace. When the solder has melted and has reached 500° +it is ready for use. This can best be determined by putting +a piece of paper in the solder. If the paper scorches, the +solder is at the right heat; if the paper catches fire, it is too +hot.</p> + +<p>Now take a 3-inch ladle and heat it over the fire and then +dip it into the solder and skim off any dross that may have +collected.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—With the ladle full of solder in the right hand +and the large cloth or the catch cloth in the left hand, begin +to drop the solder on the joint. The cloth should catch all +the solder as it falls off the pipe. If hot solder is held against +the bottom of the pipe, it is heated to the proper heat. +Always begin to drop the solder on the paper edges, then +drop the solder on the joint itself. Bear in mind that the +solder should not be poured on, but dropped on slowly. +After the first few drops do not drop the solder directly on +to the lead pipe but on to the solder previously put on the +pipe. This will save the pipe from burning through. +The pipe must be the same heat as the solder before the +proper heat is obtained for good wiping. The beginner +should practice dropping the solder on the joint, catching +the solder and working it around the pipe. By doing this, +one becomes familiar with the feeling of hot solder, which is +the secret of successful wiping. When the solder works +easily around the pipe, drop the ladle and take the smaller +wiping cloth in the right hand and with both cloths draw all +the solder on top of the pipe. With fingers on the corners +of both cloths, clean off the left-hand edge and with the right +hand draw the surplus solder across to the right-hand edge. +Next, clean the right-hand edge of the joint pushing the +surplus solder onto the cloth in the right hand. Work this +solder on to the bottom of the joint. Now discard the +catch cloth. Holding the wiping cloth with the index<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +fingers on lower opposite corners, shape the under and +front side of the joint. With the middle fingers on opposite +lower corners of the cloth shape the back and top. Keep +the index and middle fingers on the edge of the cloth and +the edge of the cloth on the edge of the joint. This position +together with the size and shape of the cloth will give +the joint the desired form and appearance. Particular +attention is called to the position of the fingers as shown in +the figure.</p> + +<p>The last wipe should be a quick stroke coming off of +joint on a tangent. If the solder is at right heat, the cloth +will not leave a noticeable mark. If, however, the solder +is too cold, a ragged edge will result. Sometimes a cross +wipe is made for the last stroke and a good finish obtained.</p> + + +<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, width of the joint, 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, allow no soil or paste to get on the joint.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, a 3-inch ladle should be used.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, 500° is the working heat of solder.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, paper test for solder heat.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, position of wiping cloths.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, do not drop solder on the lead pipe.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, hold the ladle 2 inches above the pipe.</li> + +<li><i>Ninth</i>, wipe the edges of the joint first.</li> + +<li><i>Tenth</i>, wipe and shape the joint quickly.</li> +</ol> + +<p>The above procedure of wiping will be found to work +out very easily if followed closely. Do not pour the hot +solder onto the cloth as the cloth will burn through and soon +be useless. A little more oil should be put on the cloth +after using it for awhile. The cloth should be turned +around and the opposite side also used. The cloth will +last considerably longer if sides are changed frequently. +The solder should not accumulate on the pan, but should be +continually put back into the pot. The "metal," as solder +is sometimes called, should never be allowed to become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +red hot.</p> + +<p>The above method of preparing pipe is suggested for +beginners only and will be found to be a great help to them. +In actual practice the joint must be prepared differently. +The method used in trade is as follows:</p> + +<p>The joint is used to join two pieces of lead pipe. Take +two pieces and rasp the four ends square. With the tap +borer clean out the end of one pipe a trifle, then with the +turn pin enlarge this end just a little as shown in the figure. +Then rasp the edge off about <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> inch as shown. Take the +other piece of pipe and rasp one end as was done in the cup +joint, making it fit into the first piece. Then place the +two ends together and with the bending iron beat the pipe, +making the joint as tight as possible.</p> + + +<h3>ROUND JOINT—45° TO RIGHT</h3> + +<p>The next position in which the beginner is to wipe a joint +is on an angle of 45° to the right.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—To prepare this joint, proceed as in the +horizontal round joint. I will enumerate a few of these +points. A piece 12 inches long of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe is cut off +and the ends squared. A strip in the center, 6 inches long, +is shaved clean. Paper and paste are put over the pipe +except 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches in the center. Grease can be put on the +pipe in between the pieces of paper and will keep the lead +from oxidizing.</p> + +<p><b>Placing Pipe in Position.</b>—There is no need of an elaborate +system of holding the pipe in position. Take a red brick +and place the 4 by 8 face down. This will do for the bottom +pipe. For the top of pipe to rest on, place two bricks +one above the other; this will give the correct position. +Place the pipe on the brick and with a ladle full of half +molten solder pour a clamp of solder over the end of the +pipe. This will hold the pipe firm for wiping. Place a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +catch pan under the joint for solder to fall in.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—The method of wiping this joint is practically +the same as wiping the horizontal joint. The catch cloth +should be held parallel with the bench tilting a little from +front toward the back. The ladle is held the same and +solder is dropped on as before. The ladle should be continually +moving while dropping solder, not allowing the +solder to drop twice in the same place. When the solder +has been worked around the pipe and is at working heat, the +solder is drawn up with both cloths and the top edge wiped +first, then the bottom edge; the surplus solder is put on the +underside of the joint, and then with three or four wipes +the joint is made symmetrical and finished.</p> + +<p><b>Things to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, prepare like the horizontal joint.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, use brick to place in position.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, hold tools as in horizontal joint.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, top edge cools first, therefore, wipe it first.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, hold the wiping cloth at an angle of 45° when wiping, +with fingers placed as noted in previous joint.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, make solder clamp for holding the pipe.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>ROUND JOINT 45°—LEFT</h3> + +<p>When the preceding joint is well mastered and a number +of good joints have been wiped, turn the pipe on an angle +of 45° to the left.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—The preparation for this joint is exactly +the same as for the horizontal joint. The beginner should +turn back and read carefully concerning the perfection of +the joint. Bear in mind that the pipe must be correctly +prepared or a good joint cannot be made. The edge of +the paper must be cut not torn.</p> + +<p><b>Placing Pipe in Position.</b>—This pipe can be placed in +position the same as the preceding one. If heavy weights +are placed on the ends of the pipe, a bad habit may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +formed by the one learning to wipe. That is, the habit of +pressing hard on the joint when wiping. In the preceding +joint, if the beginner presses too hard, the pipe will fall +off the bricks.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—Proceed as described for previous joints. The +top edge must be favored a little. The hot solder will run +down to the bottom edge; therefore less solder should be +dropped on it than on the top edge. When the solder is +at the proper heat for wiping it requires only a light touch +to wipe the joint. If it appears necessary to press hard on +the joint to wipe off surplus solder, it shows that the solder +is not at the correct wiping heat.</p> + + +<h3>ROUND JOINT—VERTICAL</h3> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—This joint can be prepared exactly like +the preceding one. In fact, the same piece of pipe can be +used throughout. When preparing this joint the end that +is to be on the bottom should be well covered with paper.</p> + +<p><b>Placing in Position.</b>—The best way to hold this joint in +position for wiping is to stand the pipe upright on one end +with the pan underneath. A piece of furring strip should +be run from the top of the pipe to the wall. Secure the +strip to the wall and drive a nail through the strip into the +bore of the pipe. Place a weight on top of the strip and the +pipe is ready.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—The procedure of wiping this joint is entirely +different from that in the other positions. The solder is +thrown onto the joint from the ladle. The catch cloth is +held up to the pipe and as much solder as possible is held on +to the pipe. Move the ladle around the joint, throwing a +little solder on as the ladle is moved. Notice now that all +the solder runs to the bottom edge, leaving the top edge +cold. The solder that accumulates on the bottom edge +should be drawn up to the top edge with the cloth. Then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +splash more solder on to the top edge and as the solder runs +down the pipe catch it with the cloth and draw it up again. +The solder can be worked around and up and down the joint, +but always keep the top edge covered with hot solder. The +solder is likely to drop off the joint entirely unless watched +closely. When the correct heat is obtained, drop the ladle. +Take the wiping cloth in the right hand and with the fingers +spread, clean off the top edge quickly, then shape the joint +with the one cloth. With a little practice you will gain this +knack. The joint can then be wiped. The left hand can +steady the pipe. Spread the index finger and third finger +to opposite sides of the cloth and wipe around the joint.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Preparing and Wiping Joints</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</h3> + + +<h3>TWO-INCH BRASS FERRULE</h3> + +<p><b>Materials.</b>—The beginner should continue wiping the +vertical round joint until he is able to obtain a symmetrical +bulb. A joint should be +wiped in each of the foregoing +positions for exhibition +purposes, so that the +beginner can have before +him the best work and +strive to make the next +joint better. This next +joint, the 2-inch brass ferrule, +is wiped in an upright +position. The materials +necessary are the 2-inch +brass ferrule, 6 inches of +2-inch light lead pipe, paste +and paper, <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> +solder, rosin, wiping solder, +catch pan, and supports.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a><a href="images/fig24.gif"><img src="images/fig24tn.gif" width="300" height="475" class="plain" alt="Fig. 24." title="Fig. 24." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 24.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Tools Required.</b>—The +tools necessary for this +work are as follows: the +saw, rasp, drift plug, +dresser, file, soldering iron, bending irons, wiping cloths, +shave hook, and ladle.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—The lead pipe must be fitted into the brass +ferrule. The brass ferrule has to be tinned first. To do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +this, proceed as follows: file the ferrule for about 2 inches +on the tapered end. Do not file too deep, but just enough +to expose the pure bright metal. Now measure from the +small end 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches down toward the beaded end. From +this point to the bead, cover the brass with paste and paper. +No paste must get on the 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-in. filed end. This end should +not be touched with the fingers. If paste gets on it, the +process of filing must be done over again as the solder will +not stick where there is paste. If the brass ferrule is filed +while the paper is on the brass, the filing will destroy the +straight edge of the paper and an even joint cannot be made. +It would therefore be necessary to re-paper the brass. Take +some powdered rosin and cover the filed end of the ferrule +with molten solder using the rosin as a flux. Do not dip +the end of the ferrule into the hot wiping solder to tin it or +pour wiping solder on the brass ferrule. This method of +tinning the ferrule will spoil the wiping solder. Always use +the soldering iron to tin the ferrule as explained above. +A little practice will develop the use of the iron in the hands +of the beginner so that this tinning process will be done very +rapidly. The iron should be put on to heat when the paper +is being pasted on the brass; the iron will then be ready +for use when needed.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 244px;"> +<a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a><a href="images/fig25.gif"><img src="images/fig25tn.gif" width="244" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 25.--Two-inch brass ferrule." title="Fig. 25.—Two-inch brass ferrule." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 25.—Two-inch brass ferrule.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Preparing the Lead.</b>—The ends of the lead pipe must be +squared with the rasp. All kinks and dents are taken out +by using the drift plug and driving it through the pipe. +Take a piece of smooth pine stick and start to beat in the +end of the lead pipe to fit the brass ferrule. The pipe +should be beaten in starting about <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches from the end. +It should be beaten in very slowly until it fits the ferrule. +The pipe is held in the hand all the time and considerable +time should be spent on this as it is the first time the beating +in of lead pipe has been called for. The knack of doing this +comes only by slow and continued practice. The lead must +be "humored" into shape and not "driven" into shape.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +The end of the pipe is tapered still more by rasping off +the end. About <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch should extend into the brass +ferrule. With the bending irons, the lead extending into +the brass ferrule is beaten against the inside wall of the +ferrule. A good way to do this is to wedge the lead pipe +in as much as possible at first, then lay the work flat on the +bench, in which position it is more easily worked. The +sketch should be thoroughly studied and each notation +be perfectly understood, before proceeding with the work. +Now that the lead pipe is perfectly fitted into place, it is +prepared for wiping. The joint overall will be 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches. +As we have already allowed 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches on the brass ferrule +for the joint, the lead will have to be cleaned that much +more. With the shave hook, shave the end of the pipe that +has been fitted into the brass ferrule. A space about 4 +inches should be cleaned. This will give a cleaned surface +free from dirt and grease for the paste and paper to adhere +to. Next paste the paper in place. The lead pipe can be +entirely covered, or 3 or 4 inches only, above the 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches +allowed for the joint. The space between the paper on +the brass and the paper on the lead should now be 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches. +The paste and paper should now be allowed to dry.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting the Pipe.</b>—This joint is wiped with the +ferrule down on the bench. A flat pan is laid on the bench +and the ferrule stood upon it. A weight on top of the lead +pipe is all that is necessary. If this does not make the +pipe rigid enough for the beginner, then a support similar +to the round vertical joint support can be used. The +beginner is advised, however, to practice the wiping of this +joint with only the weight to hold it in position. The +beginner will then be required to wipe the joint while the +solder is hot, when it does not require a heavy pressure +against the solder to wipe it in shape. These wiped +joints should be supported in place near the furnace +that heats the solder so that the solder will be handy for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +wiping.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—Wiping this joint brings in some of the methods +of the round vertical joint. If that joint was thoroughly +mastered, this joint will be wiped considerably more easily. +The ladle is held in the right hand +and the solder splashed on the +joint. The catch cloth is held in +the left hand and some of the +solder is caught and brought up on +the top edge. The top edge cools +quickly as all the hot solder runs +down to the bottom edge and into +the pan. As the solder accumulates +on the bottom edge, it is +drawn up on the top edge, and in +this manner the top edge is kept +hot. When the solder can be +worked freely around the pipe and +the edges are hot, the joint is ready +to wipe. The ladle is laid down +and the wiping cloth is taken in +the right hand and the top edge +of the joint cleaned on one side. +Then the wiping cloth is changed +to the left hand and the other side +of the top edge is cleaned. Holding +the cloth in one hand with the index and the third fingers +spread to the outside corners of the cloth, the cloth is +passed around the joint quickly. To get an even and symmetrical +joint, it is necessary to make two or three passes +around the joint holding the cloth first in the right and +then in the left hand. The free hand is used to steady +the work. This joint should be wiped very slim to allow +room for the caulking irons to pass by it and get into the +hub of the pipe. Constant wiping on the brass ferrule will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +result in the tinning on the brass ferrule coming off. The +ferrule will look black when this happens and will thus be +recognized. The wiping should then be stopped and the +ferrule filed and tinned in the same manner as it was done +at first.</p> + +<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, material—6 inches of 2-inch light lead pipe and one +2-inch brass ferrule.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, tin ferrule, using soldering iron.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, use a soft pine stick for a dresser.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, fit the lead into the ferrule.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, clean and paper the lead.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, secure the pipe into position.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, using the catch cloth and ladle, splash solder on +the joint.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, keep the top edge covered with solder.</li> + +<li><i>Ninth</i>, wipe the top edge first.</li> + +<li><i>Tenth</i>, shape and finish wiping with a few strokes.</li> + +<li><i>Eleventh</i>, tools used.</li> + +<li><i>Twelfth</i>, wipe a slim joint.</li> + +<li><i>Thirteenth</i>, steady the work with the free hand.</li> + +<li><i>Fourteenth</i>, re-tin the ferrule, if necessary.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>FOUR-INCH BRASS FERRULE</h3> + +<p>The 4-inch brass ferrule joint is the same as the 2-inch, +except for size. The materials needed for this joint are 6 +inches of 4-inch, 8-pound lead pipe, and one 4-inch brass +ferrule, one <i>full</i> pot of solder, some paste and paper, rosin, +and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> solder.</p> + +<p><b>Tools Necessary.</b>—The tools required for this joint are +as follows: saw, rasp, file, ladle, soldering iron, dresser, +bending irons, shave hook, and wiping cloths.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—<i>Lead Pipe.</i>—With the saw cut off 6 inches +of 4-inch lead pipe. This pipe comes in lengths and should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +be for this work about 8 pounds to the foot in weight. The +pipe may be dented badly, but these dents can be taken out +as follows: Take a piece of 2-inch iron pipe and put it in +a vise. The lead pipe can be slipped over this iron pipe +and any dents taken out easily by beating with the dresser. +One end of the lead pipe is +beaten with the dresser until it +fits into the ferrule. The end +is then rasped a little. Then, +after the brass ferrule has been +tinned, the pipe is fitted into it +and beaten out against the inside +wall of the brass ferrule and a +tight joint is made. The lead +is next cleaned with the shave +hook and paper is pasted on as +explained under the 2-inch brass +ferrule, the description of which +should now be read over.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 270px;"> +<a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a><a href="images/fig26.gif"><img src="images/fig26tn.gif" width="270" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 26.--Four-inch brass +ferrule." title="Fig. 26.—Four-inch brass +ferrule." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 26.—Four-inch brass +ferrule.</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Brass Ferrule.</i>—The first thing +to do with the brass ferrule is to +file the end that is to be wiped. +When the brass ferrule is filed, +it should be done away from +any part of the room where the +filings are likely to get into the solder. After the filing +has been done, paper is pasted on all of it except the +part that is to be tinned and no paste must get on +to this part of the ferrule. If any paste does get on +to it, the filing will have to be done over again. When +using paste and paper, neatness must be cultivated, or +paste will be spread over parts of the pipe that are supposed +not to have any paste on them. Next, take the soldering +iron and heat it. Take some rosin and put it on the exposed +part of the ferrule. With the hot soldering iron<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +proceed to tin the brass ferrule, as explained before, with +<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> solder, using rosin as a flux. Now the lead pipe +that has previously been prepared is fitted into the ferrule.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 226px;"> +<a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a><a href="images/fig27.gif"><img src="images/fig27tn.gif" width="226" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 27.--Four-inch +brass ferrule." title="Fig. 27.—Four-inch +brass ferrule." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 27.—Four-inch +brass ferrule.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Supporting.</b>—Set the brass ferrule on a catch pan. The +lead pipe is upright. A weight placed on top of the lead +pipe will steady the pipe for wiping. +When the joint is wiped the free hand +can hold the pipe if the weight is not +sufficient to support it.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—Splash the solder on the +joint from the ladle, in the same +manner as was employed in the two +preceding joints. To get the proper +heat on the 4-inch joint a little more +speed is necessary, also the constant +working of the solder around the pipe. +The ladle is constantly moved around +the pipe so that all parts of the pipe +will be evenly heated and come into +contact with the hot solder direct +from the ladle. When the solder +works freely around the pipe and the +top edge is hot, the joint is shaped by +holding the wiping cloth in the right +hand, with the index and the middle +fingers spread to the opposite corners +of the cloth. The fingers are placed one on the top edge +and one on the bottom edge. The cloth is then passed +around the joint as far as possible. Then the cloth is taken +in the left hand, with the fingers spread, and passed around +the rest of the joint. If the solder does not take the shape +of the cloth readily, then the solder is not at the right +heat. This joint should be wiped very slim to allow room +for the caulking tools. When this joint is once started, +it should not be left until it has been wiped, otherwise a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +large amount of solder will accumulate on the joint and +will be hard to get off.</p> + +<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, material.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, tools.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, tin ferrule.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, use the dresser to fit the lead into the ferrule.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, clean the lead with the shave hook, and paper.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, use the catch cloth and ladle.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, keep the top edge covered with hot solder.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, wipe the top edge first.</li> + +<li><i>Ninth</i>, make a slim joint.</li> + +<li><i>Tenth</i>, steady the work with the free hand.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>STOP COCK</h3> + +<p><b>Materials Required.</b>—The materials used for this joint +are as follows: two pieces of <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>-inch extra strong lead pipe +9 inches long, each; one <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch plug stop cock for lead +pipe; paste and paper; solder; <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> solder; rosin; catch +pan and supports.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a><a href="images/fig28.gif"><img src="images/fig28tn.gif" width="500" height="122" class="plain" alt="Fig. 28." title="Fig. 28." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 28.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Tools Necessary.</b>—The tools necessary for this job are +as follows: saw, rasp, file, turn plug, shave hook, bending +irons, hammer, ladle, soldering iron, and wiping cloths.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—There are two joints to be wiped on this +job and the stop cock is supported only by the rigid fitting +of the lead pipe. Therefore the preparation must be +thoroughly done. The brass stop will be prepared first.</p> + +<p><i>Brass.</i>—The two ends of the stop cock are filed bright,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +then papered and tinned. This operation is the same, +only on a smaller scale, as the tinning of the 2-inch and the +4-inch brass ferrule. The paper is pasted over the entire +stop cock, except the two ends, which are tinned for +about 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches.</p> + +<p><i>Lead Pipe.</i>—After the lead pipe has been cut off from the +coil, the ends are squared with the rasp. One end of each +piece is reamed out a little with the tap borer and spread +a trifle with the turn pin. With the rasp, take off the outside +edge of the end that has been spread. The sketch +will show this and give the angle at which the edge is to be +rasped. The stop cock is now fitted into the lead pipe. +The brass should enter at least <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch, then the lead is +beaten against the brass until a tight joint is made. The +other end of the brass stop is fitted into the other piece +of the lead pipe and a perfect fit is made. The fitting +of these two joints must be rigid as upon them depends the +stability of the joint support. When these ends of the +lead pipe have been fitted, the pipe is cleaned with the shave +hook and paper is pasted on, allowing 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches for the +joint. Both pieces of pipe are prepared at the same time +as both ends are wiped at the same time.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting.</b>—The three pieces of pipe should be so +wedged together that they will not fall apart when put in +position for wiping. The bricks for supporting the pipe +are placed the same as in the support of the horizontal +round joint. The lead pipe ends are laid on the bricks. +This brings the stop cock in the center without any support. +If it were not for the substantial fit between it and the +lead pipe, it would not stay in place. Solder straps can +be put over each end of the lead pipe. Weights can be +used to advantage.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—When getting the heat up for these joints, +pour the solder over the two joints and over the stop cock. +This gets the heat properly distributed, so that both joints<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +can be wiped while the brass stop is heated. Get the proper +heat up on one joint and then the other. Come back to the +first joint and wipe it and then the second one. Both +joints should be wiped so as to have the same shape. The +novice will experience some trouble when wiping this joint +in getting the brass edge hot. Heating up the two joints +together will in a large degree offset this trouble. Some +mechanics take out the lever handle stop to lessen the +amount of brass to heat. This is never done by a good +mechanic as the two pieces will never fit together again +and make a tight joint. If the plug is left in place, both +the plug and body will expand equally and the pieces will +fit perfectly. When wiping is started on these joints, the +beginner must stay at it continually. When the brass is +heated, the finished wiping can be tried over and over +again. If this way is not followed, the beginner will find +that most of his time will be spent trying to get a heat on +the brass.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_29" id="Fig_29"></a><a href="images/fig29.gif"><img src="images/fig29tn.gif" width="500" height="111" class="plain" alt="Fig. 29.--Stop cock." title="Fig. 29.—Stop cock." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 29.—Stop cock.</span> +</div></div> + + +<h3>BRANCH JOINT</h3> + +<p><b>Materials Needed.</b>—The materials necessary to complete +this job are as follows: 12 inches of <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>-inch extra strong +lead pipe for the run; 6 inches of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch extra strong lead +pipe for the branch; paste and paper, and solder.</p> + +<p><b>Tools Necessary.</b>—The tools necessary for this job are +the saw, bending irons, rasp, tap borer, ladle, wiping cloths, +and the shave hook.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a><a href="images/fig30.gif"><img src="images/fig30tn.gif" width="500" height="538" class="plain" alt="Fig. 30.--Branch joint." title="Fig. 30.—Branch joint." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 30.—Branch joint.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—The preparation of this joint requires<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +the skill of the beginner more than any of the preceding +joints. The tapping of the <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> pipe for the branch connection, +pasting and cutting the paper, require the utmost +care and precision. The <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>-inch pipe is tapped with the +tap borer in the center. The tap borer is used by grasping +the handle firmly and putting the cutting point on the +mark and then pressing down on the handle. This +forces the point into the lead. Now turn the tool and +a piece of lead will be bored out. Continue this operation +and a hole will very soon appear in the lead. A +hole just large enough to allow the bending irons to enter +is made. The opening of the hole is completed with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +bending iron, working the lead back slowly into place. +Do not attempt to drive the lead back around the hole +with a few strokes. One bending iron is inserted and this +iron is struck with another iron or hammer. After a number +of strokes the opening will be of sufficient size. The +bent end of iron is inserted into the hole and the bent part +enters the bore of the pipe. This iron is struck in such a +way as to force the lead around the hole up, rather than +back. Now with the straight end of irons open the sides. +When the wall of pipe has been driven up a little the hole +can be enlarged by driving back the lead. This procedure +will form a collar around the hole to steady the branch +pipe. Good workmanship will result in having a good +substantial collar around the opening. The branch should +now be fitted. Clean the pipe with the shave hook for +about 2 inches on each side of the opening. With compasses +set at 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> inches, mark off a space on each side of the +branch on the run, or on the <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>-inch pipe. On the sides of +the pipe the two lines should be joined with an even and +symmetrical curve. A good way to make this curve is +with the shave hook. Now take a folded piece of paper +and cut out the shape of one-half of the joint, then open the +fold and the entire ellipse will be made. When this paper +is cut, a sharp knife is used, otherwise a ragged edge will +be made and a good finish of joint is impossible. The paper +is now pasted and put on the pipe. The surplus paste on +the edge of the paper should be wiped off with the fingers +before the paper is put on the pipe. This prevents any +paste squeezing out on the joint. The branch is now taken +and perfectly fitted into the run. The end is cleaned with +the shave hook and paper is pasted on the pipe, leaving 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> +inches of cleaned surface for wiping. The paste and the +paper should now be allowed to dry. The position for +wiping this joint is to have the run horizontal and the branch +on an angle of 45° pointing away from the wiper. Figure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +30 will bring out the above explanation very vividly.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting.</b>—The run of this joint is laid flat on the table +and the branch inserted in its proper place. With one hand +hold it in place, with the other, use the bending iron, tap +the collar on the run against the branch, wedging it in +place good and strong so that no solder can leak through. +If the branch is tapered with the rasp as shown the joint +can be made very tight. The run of the pipe is now laid +on two bricks as was done with the horizontal joint. The +branch is laid over on a pile of bricks or wood at an angle of +45°. The best way to secure this joint is to pour some +half-molten solder on the ends of pipe and brick, making a +solder clamp. This branch does not need any clamp or +weight if it is properly entered into the run. A strap of +solder can be run over the end of pipe if found necessary. +Place the catch pan under the joint and then the pipe will +be ready to wipe.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—In wiping this joint, the catch cloth is used not +only to catch the solder as it drops off from the pipe, but +also to hold the hot solder against the pipe to heat the +under side of the joint. Test the solder and see if it is the +correct heat for wiping. If so, prepare for wiping. After +heating the ladle, take some solder in it and proceed to drop +the molten solder on the joint. The ladle is moved constantly +as the solder is dropped on the run and then on +the branch to get the entire joint to the proper heat. As +the solder drops off from the joint, it is caught on the catch +cloth and brought up on the top of the joint where it is +re-melted by dropping hot solder on it. Then the hot solder +is held in the cloth against the under side of the joint to +get the under side properly heated. The solder is worked +around all parts of the joint. When the heat is got up +sufficiently and the solder works freely around the joint, +the branch cloth is taken and each edge of the joint is wiped +clean. Any surplus solder is brought up on top of the joint<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +and then wiped on the catch cloth. This solder is then put +on the under side of the joint. With the branch cloth +reach way around the joint and wipe each side, bringing +the cloth each time to the top and then off the joint. The +last wipe is directly across the top, wiping off any surplus +solder that may have accumulated from wiping the sides. +The difficulty with this joint is in getting the top and bottom +to have an equal amount of solder. With a little practice +and by watching each motion your faults can be noted and +remedied. If the paper starts to come off, it should be +re-papered at once. When the joint is finished, it should +be left in position until the solder has had time to set and +cool, otherwise the branch will break off and considerable +time will be lost in correcting the trouble.</p> + +<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, the use of the tap borer.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, the use of the bending irons.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, do not allow the bending irons to touch the inside +walls of the pipe when stretching the opening.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, secure the branch into the run.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, secure the pipes into position for wiping.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, spread the heat on the edges and the bottom of the +joint.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, wipe with the branch cloth.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, cut the paper.</li> + +<li><i>Ninth</i>, mark the outline of the joint.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>BRANCH JOINT PLACED FLAT</h3> + +<p>When the wiper has mastered the branch joint placed at +an angle of 45°, he can proceed to wipe the joint placed in +the next position, which is flat.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—The preparation of this joint is identical +with the preceding one placed at an angle of 45°. If a new +joint is to be prepared, it would be well to pay strict attention<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +to the details, such as keeping the paste on the paper +only and having the edge of the paper cut perfectly smooth +and even. Before putting on the paper see that the pipe is +free from all grease and dirt. The paste and paper will +stick better if all the dirt is removed. The branch should +be well fitted into the run of the pipe so that no solder will +get into the bore of the pipe. The branch should not extend +into the run of pipe enough to obstruct the bore of it. If +the instructions for preparing the pipe are not carried out +as detailed, the wiper will experience some trouble that he +may find hard to overcome.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting.</b>—The run can be supported on bricks. The +branch can be supported on a brick placed at its end the +same height as the run. This will bring the joint in the +correct flat position. The branch should point away from +the wiper. Solder straps can now be poured over the ends +of each pipe. If weights are used to hold the pipe firm instead +of solder straps, they should be so placed that they +will not interfere with the hands when wiping.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—The wiping of this joint is more difficult as the +beginner will experience trouble in heating the bottom and +keeping the solder on the bottom. Solder is dropped on +the joint and along the pipe so as to bring the pipe to the +proper wiping heat. Some solder will accumulate on top of +the joint. This is melted off on the catch cloth and this +hot solder held against the bottom of the joint. This operation +is repeated until the bottom as well as the top of the +joint is heated properly. When the solder can be worked +freely around the pipe, the branch cloth is taken and each +side is wiped from the bottom toward the top. Solder is +accumulated on the top where it is wiped off on the catch +cloth and put on the bottom of the joint. Now reach way +around each side and wipe the edge and body of the joint, +a wipe across the top completing the joint. The bottom +can be wiped with a cross wipe also if desired. The top and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +the bottom should be identical. Notice carefully the drawing +of this joint and endeavor to have the same lines. The +perfecting of these joints comes only with patient practice. +The beginner must not get discouraged because of a burn or +two. As soon as confidence in oneself has been gained, the +possibility of burning the fingers is entirely eliminated.</p> + + +<h3>BRANCH VERTICAL</h3> + +<p>The materials, tools, and preparation for this joint placed +in a vertical position are just the same, practically, as those +in the preceding branch joints. One or two points wherein +they differ are mentioned below. To rigidly support the +joint for wiping, allow the run of the pipe to rest on some +bricks as before mentioned, with the branch looking up. +Now take a piece of wood and drive a nail through one end +of it about 1 inch from the edge. Let this nail enter the +bore of the vertical branch. The wood is allowed to rest on +the back of the bench or is braced against the wall. Supporting +the pipes in this way will allow the wiper perfect +freedom. When wiping this joint, splash the solder on +from the ladle as on the upright joint. As all the sides of +this joint can be seen, it is not a difficult matter to make a +perfectly symmetrical solder bulb. When the proper heat +is gained, the top edge of the joint is wiped first, then the +lower curved edge, using the branch cloth. The body of +the joint is then wiped and the joint finished with a cross +wipe, if necessary.</p> + + +<h3>BRANCH HORIZONTAL</h3> + +<p>The next position for this joint is to have the branch pipe +horizontal and the run vertical. The materials, tools and +preparation for this joint are the same as for the preceding +ones. The supporting and wiping differ a little.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting.</b>—One end of the run is placed on the catch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +pan. The other end is held in place the same way as the +branch was held in the preceding joint. If the pictures of +this joint are carefully looked over, the methods employed +to hold the pipe will be readily noted. The branch is best +held by inserting one end of a bending iron in the bore of +the pipe and placing the other end of the iron on a brick +built up to the right height. The iron should be weighted +to keep the joint from swaying.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—The solder is now dropped on the branch as +in the round joint, and splashed on the vertical run as in +the upright joint. Sufficient solder is put on the joint to +keep the edges covered with hot solder. Solder is worked +around the joint until all parts of it are thoroughly heated +and the solder works easily, then all the edges are wiped +clean. The top half is then wiped evenly and the bottom +half wiped to match the top half. A cross wipe in front +completes the joint. When this cross wipe is made on any +joint, a thick edge of solder must not be left. The edge +must be wiped clean. This joint should be wiped first +with the branch pointing to the right and then with the +branch pointing to the left. It will take the beginner some +time to master these branch joints, for not only must they +be wiped symmetrically for the sake of appearances, but +they must be wiped while the solder is hot to secure a tight +joint. A joint that is wiped with solder that is too cold +will be porous and will leak when put under pressure. With +care the same pipe can be used throughout for all the +positions of this branch joint.</p> + + +<h3>ONE AND ONE-HALF-INCH BRANCH JOINT</h3> + +<p>Upon the completion of the small sized branch joint in +its various angles, the 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch branch joint is to be wiped. +This branch joint is wiped in the same positions as the <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> +branch was wiped. The pipe being larger, there is more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +solder for the wiper to handle, and the edges to keep clean +and to wipe are longer.</p> + +<p><b>Materials Needed.</b>—The materials needed for this job +are 12 inches of 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch light lead pipe for the run, and 6 +inches of 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe for the branch, paste, paper, solder, +and catch pan.</p> + +<p><b>Tools Needed.</b>—The tools necessary for this job are the +saw, rasp, shave hook, bending irons, drift plug, hammer, +ladle, wiping cloths, and tap borer.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—To an experienced wiper, the procedure +of preparing this joint and wiping it are so near like the +<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>-branch joint that a detailed description would be unnecessary; +but for the benefit of the beginner, I will repeat +the details as they apply to this particular joint and thereby +avoid any error. We will take the preparation of the run +first. Square the two ends of the pipe with the rasp. Mark +off the center of the pipe. With the round part of the rasp, +held at right angles with the pipe, proceed to rasp down the +crown of pipe where the center mark was made. Do not +rasp through the wall of the pipe, but just enough so that +the tap borer will enter the pipe with only a slight pressure. +With the tap borer, tap a hole large enough for the bending +irons to enter. Now proceed to enlarge the hole, first +forcing the edges up and then forcing them back, making +the hole larger and making a collar around the hole at the +same time. Continue to open the pipe until the aperture +is large enough for the branch pipe to enter. The bending +irons must not come into contact with the inside wall of +the pipe, for if they do the inside bore will be marred and +be very ragged. As these joints are usually used on waste +lines, these ragged places make an ideal place for lint and +grease to collect and cause a stoppage. To make the inside +of the hole even, a piece of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe can be used in place +of the bending irons. To cut out the oval from a piece of +paper to fit the joint, fold the paper and cut out one-half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +of the oval. Now unfold the paper and the complete oval +is obtained. The measurements of the oval are taken from +<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>, 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> inches each side of the branch lengthwise of +the run. These two lines are connected with a curved line +as shown. This curved line can be made with the shave +hook. Take the large edge of the shave hook and roll it +along between the lines to be joined. A little practice +will perfect one in doing this quickly. The beginner should +make a number of these ovals so that he can get them perfect. +The graceful appearance of this joint depends upon +the neatness with which it is prepared. I do not want the +beginner to think that a graceful shape of the joint is all +that is to be desired or that it is the most essential point. +Further along, perhaps, more vital requirements will be +brought out and the beginner will be made acquainted with +them.</p> + +<p>The ends of the 6-inch piece are now squared with the +rasp. The edges of one end are rasped off as shown in the +sketch, making a wedged fit into the run. This end is then +cleaned with the shave hook. Paper is then pasted on to +cover the pipe except the 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> inches cleaned on the end. +This cleaned part forms part of the joint, therefore no paste +or paper must be put on it. The pipe is now fitted into the +run and the collar beaten against it with the bending irons. +The run is now cleaned with the shave hook for about 3 +inches each side of the center. The paper oval cut out is +now pasted on the joint. The paste and paper are then +allowed to dry before they are handled further.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting.</b>—The supporting of this joint, which is +placed with the branch on an angle of 45° pointing away +from the wiper, is not a difficult matter. The beginner can +use his own ingenuity for supporting the pipe if conditions +do not warrant the using of the methods previously +described.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—The solder should now be tested for heat. If<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +the solder is at the proper heat, the ladle is taken and +heated. Take a ladle full of solder and drop the solder on +the joint. The lead of which this branch joint is made is +considerably lighter than any lead that has been used before. +Therefore, the beginner must drop the solder on +carefully, making sure that the solder is not dropped on the +same spot, for a hole can be burned through the pipe very +quickly. The ladle must be kept moving, then the solder +will not burn through the pipe. The heat is got up on the +pipe by dropping the solder on the run and on the branch, +catching the surplus solder on the catch cloth and heating +the under side of the joint with it. To form the joint, distribute +the solder and then wipe it into shape. Notice that +I said wipe it into shape. A beginner is very apt to try to +push or poke it into shape. This must not be done as it has +a tendency to make the joint lumpy. All the edges are +wiped off clean first, then the body of the joint is shaped and +wiped. When forming the joint, be sure that the bottom +and the top are symmetrical. Do not have one-half larger +than the other. The last wiping strokes are made swiftly +and rapidly. If the wiper will watch his movements and +note the results and then try to improve them, keeping in +mind that a symmetrical joint is wanted with thin edges, +perfection in wiping will come much more quickly than if +no attention is paid to the strokes made when wiping.</p> + + +<h3>BRANCH JOINT WIPED FLAT</h3> + +<p>The materials required for this joint do not differ from +the preceding one. If the pipe used for the branch joint +at a 45° angle is in good shape, it can be used for this joint +by simply changing positions. The tools needed will not +be any different. The ladle and the wiping cloths, of +course will be required. A pair of pliers can be used to +advantage in picking up the hot solder. The wiping cloths<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +should receive a little more oil to keep them soft and pliable. +Oil the edges of the cloths well.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting.</b>—To support this pipe for wiping have each +end rest on a brick. Each end can be weighted to hold it in +place.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—To wipe this joint, proceed to drop the solder +on the joint. When the pipe is thoroughly heated and the +solder works freely around the pipe the joint can be wiped. +The procedure is like the preceding one. The wiper is +cautioned to move the ladle constantly while dropping the +solder.</p> + + +<h3>BRANCH HELD VERTICAL</h3> + +<p>After a number of the previous joints have been wiped +successfully, the pipe is placed in such a position that the +branch will be vertical. The supporting of the pipe to +hold the joint in this position for wiping is very easily done +after handling the <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>-in. joint in this position. The following +points may be found helpful: The solder is splashed on +the joint from the ladle. The top edge of the joint is kept +hot by keeping the solder covering it. When the proper +heat has been got up, the top edge is wiped first, then the +bottom edges both front and back. The body of the joint +is wiped last and a cross wipe finishes the joint. I have +found that the beginner in many cases, when this joint is +reached, tries to wipe it with many short strokes. The +habit is a bad one and should be stopped as soon as noticed. +Learn to wipe the top edge with only two strokes, the bottom +edge with not more than four, the body of the joint with +four, and one cross wipe to finish. This joint should be +finished as symmetrically as possible and wiped while the +solder is hot.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p> +<h3>RUN HELD VERTICALLY</h3> + +<p>When the vertical branch has been conquered and the +wiper can get a good joint every time it is tried, the pipe +can be changed to a different position. The run is placed +in a vertical position and the branch horizontally to the +left. The catch pan is put under the end of the pipe. +Follow the same directions for supporting this joint as were +given under the <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>-in. branch placed in a similar position. +The wiping of this joint is so nearly like the preceding +branch joints that I will not give any instructions at all. +This joint is finished at the same point that the other branch +joints are finished. However, there are one or two matters +that should be kept in mind. Some of the small matters +are often overlooked and should be called to mind occasionally. +Do not allow the solder to accumulate in the pan. +If the cloths are burned, they should be turned, or new ones +made. If the paper has started to come off from the pipe, +new paper should be put on at once. Test the solder occasionally +and see that it does not get too hot. Upon completion +of the joint in this position, the branch joint in its +various positions is finished. The beginner has found out +while wiping these various joints a number of points that +were not mentioned in my description. No amount of +detailed description will make a good joint wiper. Patience +and practice are as important in joint wiping as good preparation +and good solder.</p> + +<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, materials—18 inches of 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-in. lead pipe.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, use of tools.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, keep bending irons away from the wall of the pipe.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, make a good collar around the opening.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, make a tight fit with branch and run.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, hot solder will quickly burn through the lead.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, use branch cloth for wiping.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, cut out paper for joint even and symmetrical.</li> +</ol> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> +<h3>BIB</h3> + +<p>This joint is another brass to lead, and is the last single +joint to be wiped in this course of joint wiping.</p> + +<p><b>Materials Needed.</b>—The materials required for this +joint are as follows: 10 inches of <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>-inch extra strong lead +pipe; one <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch brass sink bib for lead pipe; one pot of +solder, paste and paper, <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> +and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> solder, <!--Page 59: changed typo "." to ","--> catch pan, and +supports.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 327px;"> +<a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a><a href="images/fig31.gif"><img src="images/fig31tn.gif" width="327" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 31." title="Fig. 31." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 31.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Tools Required.</b>—The tools +required for this job are the +saw, rasp, tap borer, bending +irons, file, ladle, wiping cloths, +shave hook, knife and rule, +soldering iron.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation.</b>—To prepare +the lead pipe after cutting +from the coil and squaring +the ends with the rasp is very similar to the <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>-inch branch +joint. The center of the pipe is marked and a hole is made +in it with the tap borer large enough to admit the bending +irons. The hole is enlarged with the irons. A good substantial +collar is made around the hole to hold the bib in +place. One and one-eighth inches are marked off on each +side of the branch and an easy curve connects the two. +The paper is then cut out and pasted on the pipe after it +has been scraped with the shave hook.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a><a href="images/fig32.gif"><img src="images/fig32tn.gif" width="300" height="299" class="plain" alt="Fig. 32.--Bib." title="Fig. 32.—Bib." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 32.—Bib.</span> +</div> + +<p>The end of the brass bib is filed bright and tinned with +the soldering iron and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> solder. Before the tinning +is done, paper is put on the brass, leaving only 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> inches +exposed. The tinning must be thoroughly done, or it will +come off and have to be re-tinned.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting.</b>—The bib is fitted into the lead opening and +the collar is forced against the bib to hold it in place and +prevent any solder from leaking through into the bore of the +pipe. The bib must not extend too far into the lead pipe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +or it will obstruct the flow of water. The lead pipe is +laid on two bricks the same as the round joint. The bib +is laid on an angle of 45° pointing away from the wiper. +Some bricks can be piled up to the right height to hold the +bib in place and a solder strap can be made to hold it +steady. The lead pipe can be +held steady by weighting each +end. The catch pan is now +placed under the joint and everything +is ready for wiping.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—When the solder is +hot, getting the heat on the pipe +is started. Solder should be +dropped oftener on the brass bib +than on the lead pipe. It takes +more heat to heat the brass +thoroughly than it does the +lead. If this is followed out, little difficulty will be had in +getting up the heat and in wiping. Use the branch cloth +for wiping and make sure that all edges are perfectly +cleaned before making the final strokes. As this is the +only position that the joint will be wiped in, practice should +be continued until perfect joints can be obtained.</p> + +<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, materials needed.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, tools needed.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, use tap borer.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, enlarge hole with bending irons.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, make substantial collar around the opening.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, paper the lead.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, file the bib, then paper.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, tin the bib.</li> + +<li><i>Ninth</i>, place in position and wipe.</li> +</ol> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> +<h3>DRUM TRAP</h3> + +<p>The making of the drum trap will bring out the skill of +the beginner. The entire trap is made of lead pipe. The +lead will require a great deal of handling. Therefore, +care must be exercised in all operations to turn the trap out +in a workmanlike manner.</p> + +<p><b>Materials Needed.</b>—The materials needed to complete +this job are: 10 inches of 4-inch 8-pound lead pipe; 18 inches +of 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch light lead pipe; paste and paper, support, solder, +and catch pan.</p> + +<p><b>Tools Needed.</b>—The tools required for this job are: +saw, rasp, bending irons, shave hook, bending spring, tap +borer, dresser, ladle, drift plug, and wiping cloths.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a><a href="images/fig33.gif"><img src="images/fig33tn.gif" width="500" height="246" class="plain" alt="Fig. 33.--Drum trap." title="Fig. 33.—Drum trap." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 33.—Drum trap.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Preparing.</b>—Take the 10-inch piece of lead pipe and hold +it in one hand, in the other hand take a pine dresser. +Strike the lead pipe with the dresser. The pipe is struck +about 2 inches from the end and is beaten evenly all around. +The pipe is then struck nearer the end until finally the bore +of the pipe is almost closed. This closed end should be +rounding and symmetrical. To get this shape the pipe +must be continually moved and turned. One side must not +be forced in more than the other. If there are any dents +in the pipe or part of the pipe is forced in too much it may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +be driven out as follows: Take an old piece of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch lead +pipe and round one end of it with a hammer; this can be +used by hitting the inside of the closed end of the drum and +forcing out the dents. The rounded end of the trap is not +quite closed and a hole about <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch is left. This opening +is closed by shaping the edges of it with the knife, making +them smooth and beveled. Then a piece of lead is cut out +of some scrap, the same shape as the hole and fitted into +it. The top surface of this fitted piece should be a little +lower than the surface of the pipe. Strike a circle, using +the compasses, the center of the circle being the center of +the inserted piece of lead. The lead inside of this circle is +shaved clean with the shave hook, including the inserted +piece. Paper is then pasted outside of the circle and should +cover entirely the rest of the pipe. The inserted piece is +wiped on the pipe as follows:</p> + +<p><b>Wiping End.</b>—Stand the 4-in. pipe in a pan with the +rounded end of the pipe up. Be sure that the inserted +piece is fitted securely. The solder is now dropped on the +paper and shaved portion of the pipe. Exercise considerable +care not to burn a hole in the pipe. As the hot solder +runs off, catch some of it and draw it back on the joint. +When the solder can be manipulated freely and the pipe is +hot, the joint can be wiped. The cloth is drawn across the +joint, cleaning all the edges with one stroke. The joint +should be shaped to complete the rounding surface of the +pipe. The joint is comparatively easy and will not occupy +much time. As soon as it is wiped, cover the solder with +paper. This will preserve the freshness of the joint until +all wiping is completed.</p> + + +<h3>PREPARING INLET PIPE</h3> + +<p>After the above joint is completed, the 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-in. branch +inlet pipe is prepared and wiped in place. The center of +this branch is marked on the 4-inch pipe and a hole is tapped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +in the pipe, using the tap borer. A hole large enough +to admit the bending irons is made. The hole is enlarged +with the bending irons, bending the lead first <i>up</i>, then <i>back</i>. +A piece of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch iron pipe can be used as a tool to finish +the opening. The iron pipe is larger in diameter than the +bending irons and leaves a more finished surface. The +opening is made of sufficient size to admit the rasped end +of the 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe. When using the irons to enlarge the +opening in the pipe, be sure not to bruise any part of the +trap. The 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe is now taken. The ends of this +pipe are squared with the rasp. The drift plug is then +driven through the pipe to take out any bruises or flattened +places. The edge of one end is rasped off to fit the opening +made in the 4-inch pipe. The beginner must strive to make +a perfect fit. The accuracy with which these preparations +are made is what helps in a large degree to bring about a +successful job. The next operation is to paper the parts +not to be wiped. The sizes of the joint should be followed +as shown on the sketch. The pipe is first shaved with the +shave hook, after which the paper is pasted on. No paste +is allowed to get on the joint proper. The beginner should +by this time have formed the habit of being neat with his +work. Therefore the getting of paste on the joint surface +shows that he is not as neat or as far advanced as he +should be.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting.</b>—The drum is laid lengthwise on the bench +and blocks are put on each side to keep it from rolling, the +branch uppermost. The 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe is held in position +the same way as the vertical branch was held. The catch +pan is put under the drum to catch the surplus solder.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping.</b>—Splash the solder on the branch pipe, also on +the drum. The burning through of the drum is an easy +matter. Therefore do not keep dropping the solder on one +place, but keep the ladle moving continually. With the +catch cloth draw the solder up on the branch covering the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +top edge of the prepared surface. Splashing the solder on +this top edge melts the solder already on and allows it to +run down on the 4-inch pipe where it is caught with the +cloth and again brought up on the top edge of the branch. +When the solder works freely all around the joint, the top +edge is wiped clean and even. Then any surplus solder is +wiped off. The bottom edge is next wiped clean, after +which the body of the joint is wiped into shape, together +with both edges. The edges are wiped very thin so that +when the paper is removed the outline of the joint stands out +very distinctly. A thick edge on a joint gives an unworkmanlike +appearance to the work. The joint is finished with +a cross wipe.</p> + +<p>The other joints are prepared and wiped the same as the +one just completed. The 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch branch connection +taken out of the bottom of the trap is bent. As this is the +first time it has been necessary to bend lead pipe in these +jobs, I will cover this operation in detail. The pipe is +first straightened and the drift plug driven through it. The +pipe is marked where the bend is to be made. The bending +spring, size 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches, is put into the pipe, the center of +the spring coming about where the bend is to be made. +The pipe is then heated where it was marked to be bent. +The proper heat for this pipe is just so that the hand cannot +stand being laid against it. The pipe is held in the hands +and on the end nearest the heat is hit against the floor at an +angle. The pipe, with the first blow, will start to bend. +With a few more strokes the desired bend will be obtained. +The bending spring can now be pulled out. Put a little +water in the pipe, then put one end of the spring in the +vise, twist the pipe, and the spring will come out when +the pipe is pulled away from it. The bending spring +holds the pipe cylindrical while it is being bent. Without +the spring, the pipe would be badly crushed at the bend +and rendered almost unfit for service. Another good way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +to bend pipe is to plug one end and fill the pipe full of sand, +then plug the open end. The pipe is then heated where the +bend is to be made. The pipe can then be bent over the +knee. When all the joints are wiped, the paper should be +taken off and the lead cleaned with sand and water. The +trap is now complete except the brass clean-out to be soldered +on the top. The inside of the trap should not have +any rough edges or drops of solder in it.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a><a href="images/fig34.gif"><img src="images/fig34tn.gif" width="500" height="297" class="plain" alt="Fig. 34.--Drum trap." title="Fig. 34.—Drum trap." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 34.—Drum trap.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>There are two other drum traps to be made. The +materials needed are the same as for the above trap except +for 18 inches more of 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch lead pipe. The support, +preparation, and wiping are the same. The beginner by +this time should feel very well acquainted with lead and +solder. Therefore, the details of these two drum traps +can be left for the beginner to work out for himself. The +sketches are very distinct and readable and will be of considerable +assistance. The beginner should make these +traps.</p> + +<p><b>Points to be Remembered.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, use 4-inch lead pipe, 8 pounds to the foot.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, dresser and spring are new tools. Study their use.</li> + + +<li><i>Third</i>, gradually work the trap into shape with the dresser.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, plug the hole with a piece of lead pipe.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, prepare and wipe the plugged hole first.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, prepare and wipe the 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch branches.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, special care should be taken to keep the work neat.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, two ways of using the bending spring.</li> + +<li><i>Ninth</i>, wipe thin edges on joints.</li> + +<li><i>Tenth</i>, do not handle finished work.</li> + +<li><i>Eleventh</i>, clean and finish the work neatly.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>THE PRACTICAL USE OF THE PRECEDING EXERCISES</h3> + +<p>In the foregoing exercises, I have confined myself to the +actual work of making the various joints. Now I will +explain the practical use of them.</p> + +<p><b>Soldering Iron.</b>—The soldering iron is a tool that is used +in work that requires heat to fuse solder and the parts to +be united. Every plumber should have at least two irons +in his kit.</p> + +<p><b>The Cup Joint.</b>—While the cup joint is not employed to +any great extent in modern plumbing, yet it has its use in +the installation of some fixtures. Lavatories, bath and +toilets are sometimes connected with a short piece of lead on +the supply. The tail pieces on the faucets can be soldered +on the lead by means of a cup joint. A cup joint well made +with a deep cup and the solder well fused is as strong as a +wiped joint in a place of this kind. The evil of the cup +joint is that some mechanics will only fuse the surface and +leave the deep cup only filled with solder and not fused. +This makes a tight joint, but extremely weak. On tin-lined +pipe and block-tin pipe the cup joint is commonly +used. When making a cup joint on block-tin pipe the soldering +iron must not touch the pipe and fine solder should +be used. When tin-lined pipe is being soldered, the tin +lining must not be melted.</p> + +<p><b>Overcast Joint.</b>—The overcast joint is not commonly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +used, but when there is considerable lead work to do the +plumber finds it very handy in places where a wiped joint +would take up too much room. We use it for an exercise +for the reason that it teaches the beginner very rapidly +the use and control of the soldering iron.</p> + +<p><b>Flat Seams.</b>—These seams are used in the construction +of roof flashers, tanks (<a href="#Sec_33">Sec. 33</a>, Chapter XVIII) and lead +safe wastes (<a href="#Sec_27">Sec. 27</a>, plumbing code). A hatchet iron is +sometimes used on these seams.</p> + +<p><b>Wiping Cloths.</b>—The wiping cloths made of whalebone +ticking make good, serviceable, and lasting cloths. Oil +only should be used to break the cloth in. Moleskin cloths +are very good, but they are very hard to get and cost considerably +more. A plumber should always keep a good +supply of ticking cloths on hand. The cloths are used +only for wiping.</p> + +<p><b><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch Round Joint.</b>—This joint is the one most often +required in actual practice. It serves to connect two pieces +of lead pipe of the same or different diameters. It is also +used to connect lead and other materials of which pipe is +made. The workman, when he gets out on the job, finds +that his work cannot be supported for wiping in such an +easy and convenient position as illustrated in the exercises. +It will be necessary to wipe the joint at almost every conceivable +angle and position. The workman must employ +his ingenuity to overcome any difficulties that may arise. +Any draught of air should be avoided as it will make the +solder cool quickly.</p> + +<p><b>2-inch Brass Ferrule.</b>—When it is found necessary to +connect cast-iron and lead pipe, it is done by means of a +brass ferrule wiped on the lead pipe. This joint is a very +common joint and is found on sink, tray, and bath connections, +as well as in many other connections that have lead +and cast-iron pipes for wastes.</p> + +<p><b>4-inch Brass Ferrule.</b>—The 4-inch brass ferrule wiped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +on lead pipe is found under almost every closet. There is +generally a piece of lead connecting the toilet with the soil +pipe. Therefore, a brass ferrule is wiped on the lead and +the ferrule connected with the soil pipe. This joint is also +found on rain leader connections near the roof, connecting +the gutter with the rain leader stack.</p> + +<p><b>Stop Cock.</b>—When a shut-off is required in a line of lead +water pipe, these joints are used. Where it is necessary to +joint lead and brass, this joint is required. The art of heat +control over the lead and the brass is the essential point in +these joints.</p> + +<p><b>Branch Joints <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> Inches.</b>—Where it is found necessary +to take a branch from a water pipe, this joint is used at +the connection. In practice, this joint may have to be +wiped in positions that are rather difficult to reach, so the +wiping of joints in the positions called for in the exercises +is exceedingly good practice.</p> + +<p><b>Branch Joints 1½ Inches.</b>—These joints are very common +and are found on waste and vent pipes. They are also found +on urinal flush-pipe connections where the branch often is +brass and the run lead.</p> + +<p><b>Bib.</b>—When lead supplies are run directly to the bib on a +sink, this joint is necessary. It becomes necessary to wipe +in a piece of brass for a brass-pipe connection from a lead +pipe, in which case this joint is called for.</p> + +<p><b>The Drum Trap.</b>—The drum trap is used under sinks, +baths, showers, and trays.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Laying Terra-cotta and Making Connections to<br /> +Public Sewers. Water Connections To<br /> +Mains in Streets</span></h3> + + +<h3>TERRA-COTTA PIPE</h3> + +<p>One of the first pieces of work which a plumber is called +upon to do, when building operations commence, is to run +in the terra-cotta sewer from the street sewer into the +foundation wall.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 441px;"> +<a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a><a href="images/fig35.gif"><img src="images/fig35tn.gif" width="441" height="400" class="plain" alt="Fig. 35.--Connection of house sewer to main sewer." title="Fig. 35.—Connection of house sewer to main sewer." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 35.—Connection of house sewer to main sewer.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>When the street sewer is laid, Y-branches are left every +few feet. A record of the branches and their distance from +the manhole is kept generally in the Department of Sewers +or Public Works. Therefore, the exact measurement of +any branch can be obtained and the branch found by digging +down to the depth of the sewer. A branch should be chosen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +so that the pipe can be laid with a pitch, the same way as the +main sewer pitches. This can be done by getting the +measurements of two of these branches and choosing the +one that will serve best. When there is a brick sewer in +the street and no branches left out, the sewer must be tapped +wherever the house sewer requires it (see <a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Digging Trenches.</b>—After the measurements and location +of the house sewer and sewer branches are properly +located, the digging of the trench is started. The methods +employed to dig the trench vary according to the nature of +the ground, that is, whether it is sand, rock, or wet ground. +A line should be struck from sewer to foundation wall to +insure a straight trench.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a><a href="images/fig36.gif"><img src="images/fig36tn.gif" width="500" height="286" class="plain" alt="Fig. 36.--Laying of plank for trench dug in sandy ground." title="Fig. 36.—Laying of plank for trench dug in sandy ground." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 36.—Laying of plank for trench dug in sandy ground.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Sandy Ground.</b>—If the ground is sandy, the sides of the +trench will have to be sheathed or planked and the planks +braced so as to prevent the bank caving in. As the trench +is dug deeper, the planks are driven down. When the +trench is very deep, a second row of planking is necessary. +The planks must be kept well down to the bottom of the +trench and close together, otherwise the sand will run in. +It is well to test the planking as progress is made by tamping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +the sand on the bank side of the planks.</p> + +<p><b>Gravel.</b>—Where the ground is mostly gravel and well +packed, the above method of planking is unnecessary. The +bank should have a few stringers and braces to support it. +When only a few planks are used the term "corduroy the +bank" is used (see <a href="#Fig_37">Fig. 37</a>).</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a><a href="images/fig37.gif"><img src="images/fig37tn.gif" width="500" height="319" class="plain" alt="Fig. 37.--Arrangement of plank for gravel." title="Fig. 37.—Arrangement of plank for gravel." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 37.—Arrangement of plank for gravel.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Rock.</b>—Where rock is encountered, blasting is resorted +to. The plumber should not attempt to handle a job requiring +the use of powder. It is dangerous in the hands +of a person not used to handling it and the work should be +sublet.</p> + +<p>A sketch of the two methods above for planking trenches +is given and a little study will make them clear.</p> + + +<h3>LAYING OF PIPE</h3> + +<p>The pipe should be laid on the bottom of the trench to a +pitch of at least <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch per foot fall. In laying, the +start should be made at the street sewer with hubs of pipe +toward the building. The trench should be dug within +a few inches of the bottom of the pipe, then as the pipe is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +laid the exact depth is dug out, the surplus dirt being thrown +on the pipe already laid. The body length of pipe should +be on solid foundation. A space dug out for each hub as +shown in <a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a> allows for this, also allows for the proper +cementing of joints. To get the proper pitch of pipe, take +for example <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch per foot, a level 2 feet long with a +piece of wood or metal on one end <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inch thick will answer. +The end with the <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch piece on should be on the lower +hub and the other end resting on the hub of the pipe about +to be put in place. When the bubble shows level, then the +pipe has the <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-inch fall per foot. If a tile trap is used, +it should be laid level, otherwise the seal will be weakened +or entirely broken.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a><a href="images/fig38.gif"><img src="images/fig38tn.gif" width="500" height="161" class="plain" alt="Fig. 38.--Laying terra-cotta pipe." title="Fig. 38.—Laying terra-cotta pipe." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 38.—Laying terra-cotta pipe.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Cutting.</b>—The cutting of tile is not difficult, but must be +done carefully or the pipe will crack or a piece will be broken +out, thus making the pipe worthless. To cut tile or terra-cotta +pipe, stand the pipe on end with the hub down, fill the +pipe with sand to the point of cutting. With a sharp chisel +and hammer cut around the pipe two or three times and the +pipe will crack around practically straight.</p> + +<p><b>Cementing.</b>—If the pipe is free from cracks, the only +possible way roots can get into the inside of terra-cotta +pipe is through the cement joint. There are two ways of +making these joints. Both ways are explained below and +are used today on terra-cotta work.</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li> +<p><i>First.</i>—The bottom of the hub of pipe in place is filled +with cement and the straight end of the next piece of pipe is +laid in place, then more cement is placed into the hub until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +the space between the hub and the pipe is filled. In a +trench, a trowel is rather unhandy to work with, while the +hands can be used to better advantage. The cement can +be forced into place with the hands and then surfaced with +a trowel. The rest of the operation is to swab out the +inside joint to remove any cement that perchance was +forced through the joint (see <a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>). The cement used +should be <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> cement and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> clean sharp sand.</p> + +<p><i>Second.</i>—Half of the space between the hub and the pipe +is first packed with oakum and then the other half filled +with cement of the same proportions as that used above.</p> +</li></ol> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_39" id="Fig_39"></a><a href="images/fig39.gif"><img src="images/fig39tn.gif" width="500" height="82" class="plain" alt="Fig. 39.--Showing use of the swab." title="Fig. 39.—Showing use of the swab." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 39.—Showing use of the swab.</span> +</div></div> + +<h3>LAYING PIPE IN TUNNELS</h3> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_40" id="Fig_40"></a><a href="images/fig40.gif"><img src="images/fig40tn.gif" width="500" height="176" class="plain" alt="Fig. 40.--Pushing pipe through tunnel." title="Fig. 40.—Pushing pipe through tunnel." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 40.—Pushing pipe through tunnel.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>If the pipe must be run through a tunnel and there are +perhaps three or four joints that cannot be reached, they +should be put into place as follows: The pipe should be +laid in the trench from the sewer in the street as far as the +tunnel, then start at the other end of the tunnel. Lay the +first piece of pipe on a board, lengthwise with the board, +nail two cleats in the shape of a > (<a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40</a>) for the pipe to +rest in; push this pipe and board into the tunnel and then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +cement into its hub a second piece; push the two pieces in +2 feet, cement a third length into the second piece and push +the three pieces along 2 feet. A workman can be on the +sewer side of the tunnel and receive the end of the pipe as +it is pushed through the tunnel, and steer the pipe into the +hub. The joints in the tunnel will not be as secure as those +outside. This explains how pipe is run through a tunnel.</p> + +<p><b>Connecting.</b>—The proper method of connecting the house +sewer with the street sewer is shown in <a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>. The connection +should be made above the spring of the arch. The +pipe should extend well into the sewer so the sewage will +discharge into water and not drop on sides.</p> + +<p><b>Inserting.</b>—To insert a tee in a line of pipe already laid, +pursue the following method (see <a href="#Fig_41">Fig. 41</a>): Cut or break +out one joint, preserve the bottom of the hub of pipe that +is in. Cut away the top of the hub on the pipe to be inserted, +then place the pipe in position and turn around +until the part of the hub on the piece inserted is on the +bottom. The bottom part of the pipes now will have a +hub to receive the cement. The top part will have to be +cemented carefully, as it is within easy access. This can +be done without difficulty.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_41" id="Fig_41"></a><a href="images/fig41.gif"><img src="images/fig41tn.gif" width="500" height="197" class="plain" alt="Fig. 41.--Inserting length of pipe." title="Fig. 41.—Inserting length of pipe." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 41.—Inserting length of pipe.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>While laying the pipe a stopper is used to prevent the +sewer gases and foul odors from escaping. This stopper +sometimes is of tile, sometimes a plug of paper or burlap. +This stopper is sometimes cemented in by inexperienced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +men and the trouble created can only be guessed at. If a +stopper is used, the workman must see that it is taken out.</p> + +<p><b>Refilling.</b>—After the pipe is laid and cemented, it should +be covered and allowed to stand 24 hours to give the cement +time to harden. The dirt should then be thrown in and +settled by means of a tamper or by flooding with water. +The planks should not be taken out until the trench is well +filled. To pull the plank, a chain or shoe and lever will +have to be used. Where the tunnels are, dirt will have to +be rammed in with a long rammer, care being taken not to +disturb the pipe. If the refill is not well rammed and +tamped, the trench will settle and cause a bad depression +in the street surface.</p> + +<p><b>Terra-cotta Pipe.</b>—Terra-cotta pipe should be straight, +free from fire cracks, and salt-glazed. The inside of the +hub and outside of the plain end should not be glazed. This +allows the cement to take hold.</p> + +<h3> +<span class="smcap">Table of Standard Terra-cotta Pipe</span></h3> +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" summary="terra-cotta pipe standards"> +<tr><th class="btb">Size</th> +<th class="bbox">Thickness,<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inches</span></th> +<th class="bbox">Weight per ft.,<br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">pounds</span></th> +<th class="bbox">Depth of<br /><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">socket</span></th> +<th class="btb">Annular space</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">7</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">9</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">12</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">15</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">23</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.2em;">2</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">13</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">23</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.2em;">2</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br">10</td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">35</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br">12</td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.2em;">1</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">45</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br">15</td> +<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">60</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br">18</td> +<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">85</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">2<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +<td align="center"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="brb">20</td> +<td align="center" class="brb">1<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +<td align="center" class="brb">100</td> +<td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: -1.2em;">3</span></td> +<td align="center" class="bb"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>Terra-cotta pipe should not be permitted in filled-in +ground.</p> + +<p>Roots of trees find their way into the pipe through cracks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +or cement joints. When the roots get inside of the pipe +they grow until the pipe is stopped up. As the roots cannot +be forced or wired out, the sewer must be relaid. The +writer has seen a solid mass of roots 10 feet long taken out +of a tile sewer.</p> + +<p>In case terra-cotta is laid in filled-in ground, there is only +one way to insure the pipe from breaking. The pipe should +be laid on planks. Then, if the ground settles, the pipe +will not be broken.</p> + + +<h3>WATER CONNECTION AND SERVICE</h3> + +<p><b>Tapping Main.</b>—The water service for a building is put +in at the same time as the sewer is connected and run into +the house. For a 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-service pipe a <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch tap is furnished. +The water company taps the main, at the expense of the +plumber, and inserts a corporation cock.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_42" id="Fig_42"></a><a href="images/fig42.gif"><img src="images/fig42tn.gif" width="300" height="283" class="plain" alt="Fig. 42.--Showing water main and sewer in same ditch." title="Fig. 42.—Showing water main and sewer in same dit" /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 42.—Showing water main and sewer in same ditch.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Digging Trench.</b>—The trench for the water main should +be dug at least 4<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> feet deep or below frost level and the +trench should be kept straight. When the sewer is put in +at the same time, one side of the sewer trench can be cut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +out after it is filled up to the level of the water main. The +water pipe can then be laid on this shelf at least 2 feet +away from the original trench of sewer. Sometimes the +surface of the ground must not be disturbed. In this +case small holes are dug and the pipe is pushed through or +driven through under that portion not dug. These places +are often tunnelled (see <a href="#Fig_42">Fig. 42</a>).</p> + +<p>In digging in city streets, care should be taken not to +destroy any of the numerous pipes encountered.</p> + + +<h3>LAYING PIPE</h3> + +<p>The trench should be dug straight out from the house so +the pipe can be laid and the main tapped straight out from +the building. The water companies keep a record of these +taps so that in case of trouble the street can be opened and +the water shut off. In laying the water service, the pipe +from the curb to the main should be laid first. This takes +in all the pipe in the street. At the main there is a shut-off +in the tap. Another stop with T or wheel handle must +be placed just inside the curb line. This is called a curb +cock (see <a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a>). One trench either outside or inside of the +curb should be at least 15 feet long so that a full length of +pipe can be laid in the trench. It is generally impossible to +open a trench the full length the pipe is to be run. A trench +10 feet long is dug, then 8 feet left, and another 10- or 8-foot +trench is dug and the two are connected with a small tunnel +and pipe pushed through. When the pipe has been put in +place between the curb and main, the water is turned on and +the pipe flushed out. The valve at the curb should now be +shut off, and if there are any leaks they will show. The +street part is now ready to fill in. At this point <a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a> +should be studied. Note the piece of lead attached to the +pipe and corporation cock. This piece of lead should be +extra heavy and always laid in place the shape of the letter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +S or goose neck. In case the street should settle, this piece +of lead will allow for it. These "lead connections" or +"goose necks" are made as follows: 3 ft. of <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> lead pipe; +1-inch brass solder nipple (wiped on); one brass corporation +cock coupling (wiped on).</p> + +<p><b>Laying Pipe.</b>—This lead connection can be screwed on +the pipe after the pipe is laid, then bent and coupled on +the main with the coupling.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_43" id="Fig_43"></a><a href="images/fig43.gif"><img src="images/fig43tn.gif" width="500" height="272" class="plain" alt="Fig. 43.--Water main from street to foundation wall." title="Fig. 43.—Water main from street to foundation wall." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 43.—Water main from street to foundation wall.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>After the pipe has been tested as far as the curb, the +trench in the street can be filled as described later. The +pipe from the curb to the building can now be laid. If +necessary to push the pipe through a tunnel, the end of the +pipe should first be capped. Start by screwing a length +in the curb cock. If the other end of the pipe comes in a +tunnel an additional length must be put on before putting +in place so that an end will come in the open trench. When +the building is reached and before the stop cock is put on, +the valve at the curb should be opened full and the pipe +flushed out. The valve can then be put on and water +turned on to test the pipe.</p> + +<p><b>Setting Curb Box.</b>—A cast-iron box, adjustable length, +with cover should extend from the curb cock to the surface. +This makes it possible with a long rod to control<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +the water service into the building. To set a curb box +some flat stones should be laid around the curb cock and the +box set on these stones. Then the space around the box +and pipe should be closed in with brick or other covering +to keep the sand from washing in on the curb cock. The +box should be adjusted for height and then held in place +by placing the curb key rod in place and holding the rod +and box while the trench is filled. The refill should be +tamped evenly on all sides of the box.</p> + +<p><b>Refill.</b>—In refilling the trench around the corporation +cock and goose neck, the greatest care should be taken. +The writer has seen cases when indifferent workmen have +tossed heavy stones in the ditch and broken off the corporation +cock or destroyed the goose neck. After the pipe is +covered with 18 inches of refill and tunnels have been filled, +water can be run in the trench and will settle the refill.</p> + +<p>There are a number of special points concerning water +services and taps at mains that should not be overlooked. +Take for example a water service pipe which must be run +through ground where electricity is escaping under trolley +tracks, around power houses, etc. The electricity will enter +the pipe and wherever it leaves the pipe a hole is burned. +The surface of the pipe in a short time will be full of small +pith marks and will soon leak. A good way to add to the +life of the pipe under these conditions is to make a star +of copper and solder it on to the pipe in the street. Another +piece of copper should be put on the pipe near the building. +The electricity will leave the pipe by way of the points on +the star. This method may not be a cure for electrolysis, +but will add to the life of the pipe. Another method employed +is to put the pipe in the center of a square box, then +fill the box with hot pitch. When this is hardened the +pipe will have a covering that will keep out any moisture +and bar electricity to a marked degree.</p> + +<p><b>Materials Used.</b>—Galvanized steel pipe does not last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +under ground.</p> + +<p>Galvanized iron, heavy lead, and brass are used. Wooden +pipes were once used and stood years of service. No service +smaller than 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> should be used.</p> + +<p>When the water service pipe passes through the foundation +wall, the pipe should not be built in, but a small arch +should be built over the pipe or a piece of XX cast-iron pipe +can be used as a sleeve (<a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44</a>).</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a><a href="images/fig44.gif"><img src="images/fig44tn.gif" width="500" height="292" class="plain" alt="Fig. 44.--Free space around pipe passing through wall." title="Fig. 44.—Free space around pipe passing through wall." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 44.—Free space around pipe passing through wall.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Sewer Installation</span></h3> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, select good sound pipe and fittings.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, locate branch connection in street sewer.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, lay out run of house sewer.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, take out necessary permits from departments of +sewer.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, dig trench in the street, then into the house.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, lay pipe and cement joints.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, refill trench, tamping every foot.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, cast-iron pipe for sewer is found under another +heading.</li> +</ol> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> +<h3><span class="smcap">Water Service</span></h3> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, take out necessary permits.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, list material and deliver to job.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, lay out and dig trench.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, have main tapped.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, lay pipe to curb and test.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, fill in street trench.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, lay pipe into building and test.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, set curb box.</li> + +<li><i>Ninth</i>, refill trench.</li> + +<li><i>Tenth</i>, thoroughly consider any special conditions.</li> + +<li><i>Street Sewer.</i>—Large pipe in streets to receive all soil and +waste from buildings.</li> + +<li><i>House Sewer.</i>—Conveys sewage from building to street +sewer, extends from foundation wall to sewer.</li> + +<li><i>Street Main.</i>—Water pipe running parallel with the street, +belonging to the water company.</li> + +<li><i>Service Pipe.</i>—Runs from the street main into the +building.</li> + +<li><i>Corporation Cock.</i>—Brass stop tapped into street main.</li> + +<li><i>Goose Neck.</i>—Lead pipe which connects the street main +and service pipe.</li> + +<li><i>Trench.</i>—Hole dug to receive pipe.</li> + +<li><i>Main Tapped.</i>—Hole drilled through wall of main and +a thread made on it while pressure is on.</li> + +<li><i>Curb Cock.</i>—Brass shut-off placed at curb.</li> + +<li><i>Solder Nipple.</i>—Piece of brass pipe with thread on one +end and plain on the other end which connects lead and +iron.</li> + +<li><i>Coupling.</i>—Fitting which connects two pieces of pipe.</li> + +<li><i>Stop Cock.</i>—Brass fitting for stopping flow of water.</li> + +<li><i>Curb Box.</i>—Iron box extending from curb cock to surface.</li> + +<li><i>Curb Key.</i>—A long key to fit in side of curb box to operate +curb cock.</li> + +<li><i>Swab.</i>—Stick with ball of rags or paper on one end.</li> +</ol> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Installing of French or Sub-soil Drains</span></h3> + + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_45" id="Fig_45"></a><a href="images/fig45.gif"><img src="images/fig45tn.gif" width="300" height="317" class="plain" alt="Fig. 45.--Sub-soil drain." title="Fig. 45.—Sub-soil drain." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 45.—Sub-soil drain.</span> +</div> + +<p>When a building is erected on a site that is wet or springy, +some means of carrying off the surplus water in the ground +must be provided for, or the basement of the building will +be flooded with water. For the thorough understanding of +the methods employed in laying a drain of this kind, I will +go over it carefully and the beginner can read it and then +study it, and understand just how it is done. A site may +appear to be dry on the surface of the ground and yet be +very wet under the surface. If no information can be had +regarding the site, it is always well +to drain the site if it is on a slope +or near a body of water and on +the water shed of a river or lake. +If a building is a large one and +the foundation goes down very +deep, the site should always be +drained. The drain is laid under +the basement floor and around +the outside of the foundation wall +on a level with or lower than the +basement floor. The value of +draining a building site when the building is first started is +very often overlooked. The cost of the drain will be saved +in a few years as the basement will be free from all excessive +dampness. The expense of installing a sub-soil +after the building is up and in use is great as well as inconvenient. +The drain is called "sub-soil drain" on account +of its location under the ground and on account of its duty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +of taking off all surplus water that is underground. With +the surface water taken off by the surface drains and the +sub-soil drained by the sub-soil drains, a wet building site +can be made practically dry (see <a href="#Fig_45">Fig. 45</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Materials Used in Sub-soil Construction.</b>—The object +of the drain is to collect water and carry it away from the +building by means of pipes. Terra-cotta pipes, with or +without hubs, are used. Perforated tile pipe is sometimes +used. This pipe is unglazed terra-cotta pipe with 1-inch +holes in the sides about 3 or 4 inches from the center. +These holes allow the surplus water to enter the bore of the +pipe and thus be carried off beyond the building site.</p> + +<p>When the sub-soil of a small building needs draining, +the trenches made for the house drain and its branches are +used as a drain in the following manner: The trenches are +dug deeper than is required for the house drain. The +trenches are then filled to the correct level with broken +stones. There is space between these stones for the water +to find passage to a point away from the building. When +this method is employed, some provision must be made to +prevent the house drain from settling. When locating the +drain, we must consider approximately the amount of water +that is likely to be in the soil and required to be carried off. +If there is considerable water, the pipes should extend all +around the outside of the building foundation wall, also +a main pipe running under the cellar bottom with six +branches, three branches on each side.</p> + +<p>If there is not a great deal of surplus water in the soil, the +drain around the outside of the foundation wall should be +put in and one drain line running through the basement +will be sufficient.</p> + +<p><b>Laying the Pipe.</b>—The drain pipe should be handled with +care, for it is easily broken. The trench should be laid out +and dug, then the pipe can be laid in it with a grade toward +the outlet or discharge. If pipes with a hub on one end are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +used, the hub should not be cemented. A little oakum +is packed in the hub to steady the pipe and keep sand out, +the bottom of joint is cemented, a piece of tar paper can be +laid over the top of the joint to keep the sand out. With +joints made this way, the water can find its way to the bore +of the pipe and yet the sand will be kept out of the pipe. +As soon as the water gets into the bore of the pipe it has a +clear passageway to some discharge point away from the +building. If tile pipes without any hubs are used, some +covering should be put around the joint to keep out the sand +and still allow the water to find its way into the pipes.</p> + +<p><b>Discharge of Sub-soil Drain.</b>—The water that accumulates +in a sub-soil drain must be carried off to some point +away from the building. As the pipes are generally under +the cellar bottom and under the house drain, it is very +evident that this drain cannot discharge into the house +drain sewer, directly. If the building site is on a hill, the +drain can be carried out and discharged on the surface at +a point that is somewhat lower than the level of the pipe +under the building. Where this cannot be done, it will be +necessary to have the different lines of pipes discharge into +a pit. The water is accumulated in this pit until it is +filled, then it will automatically empty itself as later +explained.</p> + +<p><b>Pit Construction.</b>—The pit for the sub-soil water is +constructed of cement. A pit 2 feet square or 2 feet in +diameter and 3 feet deep will answer all requirements. A +pit of this depth will allow a pitch for all lines of pipe, and +is large enough for ordinary installations. The pit is built +up to the surface of the cemented floor of the basement +and covered with a removable iron cover.</p> + +<p><b>Cellar Drainer or Pump.</b>—A cellar drainer is employed +to empty the above-mentioned pit. The cellar drainer +works automatically. When the pit is filled with water, +the drainer operates and empties the pit and discharges<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +the water into a sink or open sewer connection. When the +pit is emptied, the drainer shuts off. The cellar drainer +is operated by water pressure. When the valve is opened, +a small jet of water is discharged into a larger pipe. The +velocity of this small jet of water creates a suction and +carries along with it some of the water in the pit. This +suction continues until the tank is empty. There should +always be a strainer on the suction pipe, also on the supply +pipe, to prevent any particles of dirt getting into the valve. +The pipes leading to and from the drainer should empty into +an open sink where it can be seen. There is a possibility +of the drainer valve leaking and then the water pressure +will leak through it, causing a waste of water. If this leakage +can be seen where it discharges, then the trouble can be +rectified. The cellar drainer is connected directly with the +water pressure and should have a valve close to the connection +to control the supply.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Storm and Sanitary Drainage with Sewage Disposal<br /> +in View</span></h3> + +<p>The accompanying drawing of storm and sanitary drains +should be studied in detail by the reader. The location of +each trap and fitting should be studied carefully and the +reason that it is put in that particular place should be +thoroughly understood. Below, each plan has been taken +and gone over in detail, bringing out the reasons for fittings +and traps, also the arrangement of the piping.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 271px;"> +<a name="Fig_46" id="Fig_46"></a><a href="images/fig46.gif"><img src="images/fig46tn.gif" width="272" height="450" class="plain" alt="Fig. 46." title="Fig. 46." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 46.</span> +</div> + +<p>The first thing to note in <a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a> is the number and kinds +of fixtures to be drained. There is in the basement a set +of three-part wash trays. This will require +a 2-inch waste and a 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch +vent. There is in the drawing a 2-inch +waste extending to the fixtures above. +On the same line is a rain leader with +a trap showing also a 4-inch floor drain. +There are two 4-inch rain leaders on the +opposite corners of the plan, in the rear +of the building. There is a 4-inch soil +stack for fixtures above and a 4-inch soil +stack in the basement on the same line +for a basement toilet. On the front +there are rain leaders in each corner. +These will be connected outside of the house trap (this +feature should be noted). The outlets that are to discharge +into the house drain are as follows:</p> + +<div class="indent"> +<ul class="lsoff"> +<li>Two 4-inch rain leaders.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></li> +<li>One 2-inch sink waste.</li> +<li>One 2-inch wash tray waste.</li> +<li>One 4-inch floor drain.</li> +<li>One 4-inch soil pipe.</li> +<li>One 4-inch closet connection.</li> +<li>Two 4-inch front rain leaders to discharge into house +sewer.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>If we were to install this job, we would first locate each +pipe that enters the house drain. The lowest outlet would +be particularly noted, in this case the 4-inch floor drain. +From this drain we must make sure that at least <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch +to the foot fall is secured. We must then locate the house +sewer where it enters the foundation wall, then the work can +be started. I will not attempt to list the material that is +necessary for this work, at this time. With all the material +at hand the house drain is started. All of this work is +installed under the ground, therefore trenches must be +dug for all the piping. The plumber must lay these trenches +out and in doing so he must have in mind all connections +and the fittings he can use so that the trenches can be dug +at the right angle. The trenches must be dug allowing a +pitch for the pipe. The height of the cellar is 8 feet below +the joists. A stick is cut 8 feet long which can be used to +get the trenches below the cement floor at the right depth. +After the digging is completed, the house trap, which is a +6-inch running trap, is caulked into a length of 6-inch +cast-iron pipe. This piece of pipe is pushed out toward +the sewer bringing the trap near the foundation wall, on +the inside. The fittings and traps and pipe are caulked +in place as fast as possible. When possible, the joints are +caulked outside of the trench in an upright position. +There are a number of different ways to caulk this pipe +together, and to make it clear to the beginner just how it +is done the following exercise is suggested. This job +brings in the caulking of pipes, traps, and fittings in various<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +positions. Two or three can work on this job together. +<a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a> shows how the pipe and fittings are put together, +which needs no further explanation. Therefore, we will +go over in detail only the caulking of the joints in the various +positions.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_47" id="Fig_47"></a><a href="images/fig47.gif"><img src="images/fig47tn.gif" width="300" height="336" class="plain" alt="Fig. 47." title="Fig. 47." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 47.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Material Needed.</b>—One length of 4-inch extra heavy +cast-iron pipe, single hub; two lengths of 4-inch extra +heavy cast-iron pipe, double hub; one running trap, one +full Y, one 4-inch <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> bend; two 4-inch clean-out screws with +iron body; one 4-inch vent cap; one 4-inch <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> bend; 30 +pounds of block lead; 2 pounds of oakum.</p> + +<p><b>Tools Required.</b>—Ladle, asbestos pourer, hammer, cold +chisel, yarning iron, two caulking irons, furnace and pot.</p> + +<p>The beginner should start at the trap and caulk the joints +with the trap held in place. The cold chisel should be +sharp as it is used to cut the cast-iron pipe.</p> + +<p>To caulk the straight end of cast-iron pipe into the hub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +end and make a water-tight joint when the pipe is in a +vertical position, the spigot end of the pipe is entered into +the hub end of another piece. A wad of oakum is taken +and forced into the hub with the yarning iron. This piece +of oakum is forced to the bottom of the hub, then another +piece is put in. The oakum is set and packed by using the +yarning iron and hammer. The hub is half filled with +oakum. The oakum is forced tight enough to make a +water-tight joint. If the oakum used comes in a bale, +pieces of it will have to be taken and rolled into long ropes +about 18 inches long, the thickness of the rope corresponding +with the space between the hub and the pipe. If +rope oakum is used, the strands of the rope can be used. +After the oakum is well packed into place and the pipe is +lined up and made straight, molten lead is poured in and +the hub filled. When the lead has cooled, set the lead with +the caulking tool and hammer, making one blow on each +side of the joint. This sets the lead evenly on every side. +If there is any surplus lead, it can now be cut off, using +the hammer and cold chisel. The caulking iron is again +taken and the lead next to the pipe is tamped, striking the +iron with the hammer at an angle to drive the lead against +the pipe. After this has been done all around, the caulking +iron is held in such a position that the lead around the +hub will receive the force of the blow. After this has been +done, the center of the lead is caulked and the joint should +be tight. With a little practice, this can be done very +rapidly. The lead should be poured in while it is very +hot. The caulking must not be done by hitting heavy +blows as there is a possibility of splitting the hub and +thereby rendering the joint unfit for use.</p> + +<p><b>Caulking Joint in Horizontal Position.</b>—It is necessary +in a great many cases to caulk a joint in a position where +the lead would run out of the joint unless provision were +made to hold it in. To caulk a joint in a position of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +kind, the pipe is lined up and secured, then the oakum is put +in and forced to the bottom of the hub. Then a joint runner, +which is an asbestos rope about 2 feet long and about +1 inch in diameter, is fitted around the pipe and forced +against the hub where it is clamped by means of an attached +clamp. The clamp is put on the top of the pipe and so +arranged that a channel will be left in a V shape. This +channel allows the hot lead to run between the asbestos +runner and the hub. When the lead has had a chance to +cool, the asbestos runner is taken off. Where the clamp +was, there will be a triangular piece of lead sticking out +beyond the face of the hub. This piece has to be cut off, +but no attempt should be made to do so until it has been +caulked in place and well set; also the rest of the lead should +be set. Then the cold chisel can be used and this extra +piece of lead taken off. The caulking of the lead in this +position is the same as in the previous position and should +be carried out closely. The beginner should understand +that it is necessary to have not only the joints tight so +that running water will not leak out of them, but that +the joints must stand a water test. The testing of soil +stacks is explained under another heading. The lines of +cast-iron pipe depend to a considerable extent upon these +joints to make the whole line rigid.</p> + +<p><b>Caulking of Fittings.</b>—The caulking of fittings, while +done the same as a straight pipe, is far more difficult. The +improper making of these joints is the cause of many +leaks. A long sweep fitting is caulked without a great +deal of difficulty. If a short bend fitting is used, the matter +of caulking is difficult. The fitting is so short that it is +almost impossible to get a caulking iron into the throat. +The mechanics will have to work at the throat from each +side until this part has been sufficiently caulked. I call +attention to this point, for I know it to be a failure in a +large number of jobs when it comes to put the test on. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +order to caulk the fittings, they must be put in their exact +location and positions before the lead is poured in, for after +the lead is once in the fitting cannot be moved. When +there is a series of fittings on a line, their positions in relation +to each other must be considered before the lead is +poured.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 48 to 51"> +<tr><td valign="middle"><div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_48" id="Fig_48"></a><a href="images/fig48.gif"><img src="images/fig48tn.gif" width="300" height="499" class="plain" alt="Fig. 48." title="Fig. 48." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 48.</span> +</div></td> + +<td valign="middle"><div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_49" id="Fig_49"></a><a href="images/fig49.gif"><img src="images/fig49tn.gif" width="300" height="519" class="plain" alt="Fig. 49." title="Fig. 49." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 49.</span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="middle"><div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_50" id="Fig_50"></a><a href="images/fig50.gif"><img src="images/fig50tn.gif" width="300" height="463" class="plain" alt="Fig. 50." title="Fig. 50." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 50.</span> +</div></td> + +<td valign="middle"><div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"> +<a name="Fig_51" id="Fig_51"></a><a href="images/fig51.gif"><img src="images/fig51tn.gif" width="260" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 51." title="Fig. 51." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 51.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<p><a href="#Fig_48">Fig. 48</a> shows the same fixture and stack connections as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +<a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>. Two 4-inch lines run through the cellar, one a +sanitary drain, the other a storm drain. Each 4-inch line +has an intercepting trap. On the sewer side of these traps +the two lines are brought together, beyond which point the +two front rain leaders connect; each of the two front +leaders is trapped separately.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 452px;"> +<a name="Fig_52" id="Fig_52"></a><a href="images/fig52.gif"><img src="images/fig52tn.gif" width="452" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 52." title="Fig. 52." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 52.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><a href="#Fig_49">Fig. 49</a> differs from the preceding one in only two points. +First, the two front leaders are brought into the cellar and +connected into the storm drain on the house side of the +intercepting trap. Second, the storm and sanitary drains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +are connected on the outside of the building.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_50">Fig. 50</a> shows the same fixtures collected into a 4-inch +house drain, and the rain leaders run entirely on the outside +of the building. This plan is a good one as all the storm +water is kept entirely outside the building. If the storm +drains are kept 5 feet away from the cellar walls (see <a href="#plumbing_code">Plumbing +Code</a>) the pipes can be of tile. Another good feature +of this plan is that all the pipes under the cellar are 4-inch.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a> is similar to <a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>, the difference being in the +location of the floor drain and the connection of the two +rear rain leaders, into the house drain.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 52</a> the drains shown take the waste and storm +water from the apartment building, also a building set in +the rear. The leader pipes in this case are trapped on the +outside of the wall. The building in the rear you will +note has a separate fresh air inlet and house trap, and the +house sewer is continued through the front house and +connected into the house drain of the front building, on +the sewer side of the intercepting trap.</p> + +<p>These drawings should be studied carefully and the +student should in each case list correctly all of the material +required for the installation of these jobs.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_53" id="Fig_53"></a><a href="images/fig53.gif"><img src="images/fig53tn.gif" width="500" height="146" class="plain" alt="Fig. 53.--Cutting cast-iron pipe." title="Fig. 53.—Cutting cast-iron pipe." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 53.—Cutting cast-iron pipe.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Cutting Cast-iron Pipe.</b>—To cut cast-iron pipe, a sharp +cold chisel and hammer are needed. The pipe is marked +all around, just where it is to be cut. Then it is laid with +the part of the pipe that is to be cut resting on a block of +wood. A groove is cut with the hammer and chisel around +the pipe. One person can turn the pipe while the other +does the cutting. After a little experience one man can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +cut and roll the pipe alone. This groove is cut deeper and +deeper until the pipe breaks apart. If standard pipe is +being cut, a file is generally resorted to for cutting the +groove. On account of the lightness of the pipe, a hammer +and chisel will crack the pipe lengthwise. When cutting +extra heavy cast-iron pipe, a good heavy blow must be +struck to cause the chisel to cut into the iron. After a +few cuts, the beginner will understand the weight of blow +that must be struck to cut the pipe quickly.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Soil and Waste Pipes and Vents. Tests</span></h3> + + +<h3>SOIL PIPES</h3> + +<p>The term "soil pipes" means pipe that receives the discharge +from water closets. The size of a soil pipe for ordinary +dwellings should be 4 inches.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Size of Soil Pipes</span></h3> +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="soil pipe sizes"> +<tr><td>One to three closets—4-inch XX cast-iron.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Four to eight closets—5-inch XX cast-iron.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Eight to twelve closets—6-inch XX cast-iron.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>There are cases when 3-inch XX cast-iron pipe is used, +but the practice is not recommended.</p> + +<p>The soil pipe should be well supported and held in place. +The connection between soil pipe and closet should be of +lead to allow for any expansion of settling that might take +place.</p> + +<p><b>Material of Soil Pipes.</b>—Soil pipe in common use today +is made of light cast iron, tar-coated, extra heavy cast +iron uncoated and coated, galvanized wrought-iron pipe, +and steel pipe. The best kind to use depends upon the +job and place where it is to be used. All kinds of bends +and fittings can be had in any of the above-mentioned +materials. In choosing the material of the pipe that is +best to use, the following points should be carefully considered.</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, new work or overhauling.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, temporary or permanent job.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, construction of building.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, amount allowed for cost of materials on job.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, size of job, that is, the number of toilets.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, size of chases and pipe partitions.</li> +</ol> + +<p><b>Location of Soil Pipe.</b>—The location of the soil pipe depends +to a great extent upon the location of the toilets. +The soil stack should be located on an inside partition. +The horizontal pipe should not run over expensively +decorated ceilings unless run inside of a trough made of +copper or sheet lead. As far as possible, the pipes should +be confined, to runs short, and the number of bends +reduced.</p> + + +<h3>SOIL-PIPE FITTINGS</h3> + +<p>Soil-pipe fittings can be had from stock almost to suit +the conditions. I will enumerate a few. The names of +these fittings should be familiar to the mechanic so that +when ordering he can give the correct name. <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span>, <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>, <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">6</span>, +<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> bend, sanitary tee, tapped tee, side outlet fitting, return +bend, cross branches, double Y, double TY, traps. The +uses of these cast-iron fittings perhaps are obvious, but +a word about the use of each one will be of service.</p> + +<p>The <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> bend is used to change the direction of run of pipe +90°. A long-sweep <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> bend is used on work requiring the +best practice. <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>, <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span>, and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">6</span> bends are used to change +the direction of pipe 45°, 22<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>°, and 16<span class="above">2</span>⁄<span class="below">3</span>°. Two <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> bends +should be used in preference to one <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> bend where there is +sufficient room. Side outlet <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> bend is used for waste +connection. They can be had with an outlet on either side +of the heel. Their use is not recommended.</p> + +<p>Return bends are used on fresh-air inlets. Tees are used +for vents only. Ys are used wherever possible. The use +of a Y-branch together with an <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> bend for a 90° connection +with the main line is always preferable to a TY or, as they +are commonly called, sanitary T. A tapped fitting gets +its name because it is tapped for iron pipe thread. Tapped +fittings are used for venting and should not be used for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +waste unless the tap enters the fitting at an angle of 45°.</p> + +<p>These fittings and pipe are joined by first caulking with +oakum and pouring, with one continuous pour, the hub +full of molten metal. When cool, the lead should be set +and then caulked around the pipe and around the hub.</p> + +<p>The amount of lead and oakum required for various-sized +joints is as follows:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="3" summary="joints"> +<tr><td>Pipe size.............</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4 </td><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5</span></td> +<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6</span></td> +<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8 </span></td><td>10</td><td>12 </td><td>15</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pounds of lead....</td><td>1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +<td>2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td><td>3</td> +<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3</span><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4</span><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9</span></td><td>11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>Oakum (ounce)...</td><td>4</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>12</td><td>16</td><td>20</td><td>24</td><td>30</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><b>Rust Joints.</b>—The plumber is called upon to run cast-iron +pipe in places where lead and oakum will not be of +service for the joints. In cases of this kind, a rust joint is +made. This "rust" is made according to the following +formula:</p> + +<ul class="lsoff"> +<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1 part flour of sulphur.</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1 part sal-ammoniac.</span></li> +<li>98 parts iron borings (free from grease).</li> +</ul> + +<p>This mixture is made the consistency of cement, using +water to mix thoroughly and bring all parts into contact +with each other. When it hardens, it becomes very hard +and makes a tight joint which overcomes the objections to +lead and oakum joints.</p> + + +<h3>WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE</h3> + +<p>This pipe comes in about 18-foot lengths and fittings of +the following makes and shapes, and their use is fully +explained. The lengths of pipe come with a thread on each +end and a coupling screwed on one end. The lengths come +in bundles up to 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inches and in single lengths over that +size. Screw pipe fittings, it will be noted, are called by a +different name than cast-iron ones. The fittings in common +use today are the 90 degree ell, 45, 22, and 16<span class="above">2</span>⁄<span class="below">3</span>. The +Y and TY, tucker fittings, and inverted Ys are used in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +practically the same way as the cast-iron fittings. The 90 +degree ell, 45, 22, and 16<span class="above">2</span>⁄<span class="below">3</span> are used to change the run of pipe +that many degrees. All 90 degree fittings, ells, and Ts are +tapped to give the pipe a pitch of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch to the foot. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +is better to use two 45 ells to make a 90 bend when it is +possible.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_54" id="Fig_54"></a><a href="images/fig54.gif"><img src="images/fig54tn.gif" width="500" height="681" class="plain" alt="CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGS +Fig. 54." title="CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGS +Fig. 54." /></a> +<span class="caption">CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGS +Fig. 54.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Inverted Y.</b>—The inverted Y is used in venting to good +advantage. The use of these fittings is illustrated in the +sketches.</p> + +<p><b>Waste Pipes.</b>—Waste pipes are the pipes that run to or +convey the discharge of waste matter to the house drain, +from wash trays, baths, lavatories, sinks, and showers.</p> + +<p>The usual size of waste pipes is 2 inches. Waste pipes +are made of the same material as soil pipe. Lead and brass +pipe are also in common use. All exposed waste pipes in +bath and toilet rooms are brass, nickel-plated. The waste +pipes under kitchen sinks and wash trays are either lead or +plain heavy brass. All waste pipes are run with a pitch +towards the house trap and should be properly vented as +explained under venting. The pipes should be easy of access, +with clean-outs in convenient places. The waste +pipes under a tile or cement floor should be covered with +waterproof paper and a metal V-shaped shield over the +entire length. If the waste pipes are over a decorated +ceiling they should be in a copper-lined or lead-lined box. +This box should have a tell-tale pipe running to the open +cellar with the end of the tell-tale pipe left open. If waste +pipes are to take the discharge from sinks in which chemicals +are thrown, either chemical lead or terra-cotta pipe should +be used. If terra-cotta is used, it should have at least +6 inches reinforced concrete around it and the joints of pipe +made of keisilgar.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Size of Waste Pipes</span></h3> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="waste pipe sizes"> +<tr><td>Urinals...................</td><td>2 inches</td></tr> +<tr><td>Kitchen sink...........</td><td>2 inches</td></tr> +<tr><td>Slop sink................</td><td>3 inches</td></tr> +<tr><td>Receptacles............</td><td>1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bath tubs................</td><td>1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lavatories..............</td><td>1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> or 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches</td></tr> +<tr><td>Wash trays.............</td><td>2 inches</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><b>Tell-tale Pipe.</b>—The tell-tale pipe is a small pipe that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +extends from the trough, pan, or box that is under a line of +pipe or fixtures to the open cellar. When water is seen +running out of this pipe, it shows that a leak exists somewhere +in the line of pipe that is in the box or trough. The +use of this pipe saves the destruction of walls and ceilings.</p> + + +<h3>VENTS</h3> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_55" id="Fig_55"></a><a href="images/fig55.gif"><img src="images/fig55tn.gif" width="300" height="284" class="plain" alt="Fig. 55.--Circuit vent." title="Fig. 55.—Circuit vent." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 55.—Circuit vent.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>Vents are the most important pipes in the plumbing +system. Modern plumbing successfully attempts to make +living in crowded and thickly populated districts, as well +as in isolated buildings, free from all unpleasant odors and +annoyances. This could not be accomplished without the +use of vents. Vents relieve all pressure in the system by +furnishing an outlet for the air that is displaced by the waste +discharged from the fixtures. Another of its functions is +to supply air when syphonic action starts, thereby stopping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +the action that would break the seal of the trap under +fixtures. The pipe extending from top fixture connection, +up to and through the roof, is called the ventilation pipe. +All vents that do not pass directly through the roof terminate +in this ventilation pipe.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_56" id="Fig_56"></a><a href="images/fig56.gif"><img src="images/fig56tn.gif" width="300" height="242" class="plain" alt="Fig. 56.--Loop vent." title="Fig. 56.—Loop vent." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 56.—Loop vent.</span> +</div> + +<p>To explain the use of vents, we might well start in the +basement of a dwelling house. Suppose there is a set of +wash trays in the laundry; the 2-inch trap of these trays +should have a 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-inch vent pipe +leading from the crown of the +trap up along side of the stack. +On the first floor a 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-inch pipe +from the crown of the kitchen +sink trap will lead into it. Here +the pipe should be increased to 2 +inches. On the second floor the +1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-inch pipes leading from the +lavatory and bath traps come +into it. The vent stack now extends up into the attic and +connects with the ventilation pipe. In a general way, the +above is an example of venting. The old method of venting +was very complicated and is almost beyond describing +with the pen.</p> + +<p>In common use today, there are several kinds of venting, +namely: circuit and loop venting, crown venting, and continuous +venting. The <i>circuit venting</i>, <a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a>, is used in +connection with the installation of closets. Take a row of +toilets in which the waste connection of each closet discharges +into a Y-branch, and there will be a series of +Y-branches. One end of this series of branches discharges +into the main stack while the other end continues and turns +up at least to the height of the top of the closet and then +enters the main vent stack. When this main vent runs +up along side of the main stack and forces the vent pipe connected +to the series of Y-branches to travel back, it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +called a loop vent. This type of vent supplies air to the +complete line of toilets and is very efficient.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 57 and 58"> +<tr><td valign="baseline"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 206px;"> +<a name="Fig_57" id="Fig_57"></a><a href="images/fig57.gif"><img src="images/fig57tn.gif" width="206" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 57.--Continuous vent." title="Fig. 57.—Continuous vent." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 57.—Continuous vent.</span> +</div></td> +<td valign="baseline"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_58" id="Fig_58"></a><a href="images/fig58.gif"><img src="images/fig58tn.gif" width="300" height="467" class="plain" alt="Fig. 58." title="Fig. 58." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 58.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div></div> + +<p><b>Continuous venting</b>, <a href="#Fig_57">Figs. 57</a> and <a href="#Fig_58">58</a>, applies more to +fixtures other than toilets. A P-trap is used and enters a T +in the stack. The lower part of the T acts as and connects +with the waste pipe while the upper half is and connects +with the vent pipe. A study of the figures will aid the +reader to understand thoroughly the above explanations. +In continuous venting the waste of the lowest fixture is discharged +into the vent pipe and extended to the main waste +stack where it is connected. This is done to allow any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +rust scales that occasionally drop down the vent pipe, and +render it unfit to perform its duty, to be washed away into +the sewer.</p> + +<p><b>Crown venting</b>, <a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59</a>, is as its name implies, a vent that +is taken from the crown of the trap, thence into the main +vent.</p> + +<p>Each one of these methods of venting is used and considered +good practice, provided it is properly installed and +correctly connected with the use of proper fittings.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_59" id="Fig_59"></a><a href="images/fig59.gif"><img src="images/fig59tn.gif" width="500" height="401" class="plain" alt="Fig. 59.--Crown venting." title="Fig. 59.—Crown venting." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 59.—Crown venting.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Things to Remember.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, venting is to prevent traps from syphoning.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, also to allow free passage of air.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, circuit vent—loop vent.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, continuous venting.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, crown venting.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, ventilation pipe extends from the top of fixture through +roof.</li> +</ol> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">House Traps, Fresh-air Connections, Drum Traps,<br /> +and Non-syphoning Traps</span></h3> + + +<p>The <i>house trap</i> is a deep seal trap placed inside the foundation +wall, and intersects the house drain and house sewer. +The trap is placed at this point for a number of reasons: +first, to keep sewer gases from entering the pipes in the +house; second, this location is where the house drain ends. +This trap should have two clean-outs, one on each side of +the seal. The clean-outs should be of extra heavy cast-iron +body with a heavy brass screw cap. The cap should +have a square nut for a wrench to tighten or unscrew the cap. +This cap should be brought up flush with the floor. When a +house trap is being set, it is necessary to set it perfectly +level, otherwise the seal of the trap is weakened and sewer +gases can enter.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the trap is located on the house sewer just +outside of the foundation wall. In this case, a pit should +be built large enough for a workman to get down to it to +clean it out when necessary.</p> + +<p><i>A mason's trap</i> was formerly used to a considerable +extent, but is very poor practice to use today on modern +work. This trap was built square of brick with a center +partition. The brick soon became foul and the trap would +be better termed a small cesspool than a trap.</p> + +<p><b>Points to Remember about House Traps.</b>—</p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, should be a running trap.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, two clean-outs.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, deep seal, at least 2 inches.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, set level.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, set inside foundation wall.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, accessible at all times.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, same size as house drain.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, fresh air should connect with it.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS</h3> + +<p>The term "fresh-air inlet" is, as its name implies, an inlet +for fresh air. It is placed directly on the house side of +the main trap. The connections made vary considerably. +A few good connections in common use are explained below.</p> + +<p>When the trap is in place, one of the clean-outs can be +used for the fresh air. If this is done, a Y-branch should +be placed in the hub of the clean-out. The Y-branch should +be used for the fresh air and the run should be used for a +clean-out.</p> + +<p>A Y-fitting can be inserted directly back of the trap and +the branch used for the fresh air. An inverted Y makes a +good fitting to use directly back of the trap. These +branches should be taken off the top of the pipe. The +branch taken off for the fresh-air inlet should not have any +waste discharge into it and should not be used for a drain +pipe of any description.</p> + +<p>The fresh-air inlet should run as directly as possible into +the outer air, at least 15 feet from any window. The pipes +terminate in a number of different ways, some with a return +bend, above the ground, some with a cowl cap, some with a +strainer. When necessary to run pipe through the sidewalk, +a box of brick is made with a heavy brass strainer +fitted level with the sidewalk into which the pipe runs. If +the pipe is run into the box on the side a little up from the +bottom, the possibility of becoming stopped up or filled up +is not great. The fresh-air inlet sometimes terminates +above the roof of the building.</p> + +<p>Special care should be given this fresh-air inlet as it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +supplies fresh air to the entire system and thus keeps the +pipes in a much better sanitary condition.</p> + +<p>Sometimes when the house drain is full of sewage, air is +pushed out of the fresh-air inlet and disagreeable odors are +evident. This is why it should be located as far as possible +from any window. Special care should be taken on the part +of the plumber not to locate the fresh-air inlet nearer than +15 feet to the fresh-air intake of the heating system.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_60" id="Fig_60"></a><a href="images/fig60.gif"><img src="images/fig60tn.gif" width="500" height="455" class="plain" alt="Fig. 60.--Fresh-air inlet." title="Fig. 60.—Fresh-air inlet." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 60.—Fresh-air inlet.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>When the pipe passes through the foundation wall, the +same care should be exercised as with other pipes. That is, +if the pipe is 4 inches, a sleeve 6 inches should be cut in the +wall for the 4-inch pipe to pass through.</p> + +<p><b>Points to Remember about Fresh Air.</b>—<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> + +<ol class="lsoff"> +<li><i>First</i>, never should be smaller than 4 inches.</li> + +<li><i>Second</i>, one size smaller than trap.</li> + +<li><i>Third</i>, location, directly back of trap.</li> + +<li><i>Fourth</i>, leads to outer air.</li> + +<li><i>Fifth</i>, keep away from windows and intake of heating system.</li> + +<li><i>Sixth</i>, always have end of pipe covered with strainer, cowl, or +return bend.</li> + +<li><i>Seventh</i>, make as few bends as possible.</li> + +<li><i>Eighth</i>, supplies fresh air to system.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>DRUM TRAP</h3> + +<p>The use of the drum trap is very handy to the plumber +as well as efficient and practicable when installed. The +trap can be purchased without any outlets +or inlets, so the plumber can put them in +according to the necessary measurements. +The making of these traps with lead is explained +in the chapter on Wiping Joints. +The open end has a brass clean-out screw +on it. When this clean-out screw comes +below the floor, another brass screw cap +and flange is screwed on the floor above +the trap so that the clean-out screw in the +trap is easily accessible.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;"> +<a name="Fig_61" id="Fig_61"></a><a href="images/fig61.gif"><img src="images/fig61tn.gif" width="251" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 61.--Drum trap." title="Fig. 61.—Drum trap." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 61.—Drum trap.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>These drum traps are called bath traps as they are used +mostly on bath wastes. They should never be installed +with the clean-out exposed to the sewer side of the trap. +In the best practice, heavy brass drum traps are used.</p> + +<h3>NON-SYPHONING TRAP</h3> +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 62 and 63"> +<tr><td valign="baseline"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;"> +<a name="Fig_62" id="Fig_62"></a><a href="images/fig62.gif"><img src="images/fig62tn.gif" width="192" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 62.--Flask trap." title="Fig. 62.—Flask trap." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 62.—Flask trap.</span> +</div></td> + +<td valign="baseline"><div class="figright" style="width: 269px;"> +<a name="Fig_63" id="Fig_63"></a><a href="images/fig63.gif"><img src="images/fig63tn.gif" width="269" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 63.--Clean-sweep trap." title="Fig. 63.—Clean-sweep trap." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 63.—Clean-sweep trap.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<p>After years of experimenting to produce a trap that would +not syphon without venting, we find in use today a large +variety of non-syphoning traps. Traps that will hold their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +seal against all practical forms of syphonic action, or other +threatening features, have been made and used and serve +the purpose for which they are intended. Various means +to prevent the breaking of the seal of these traps are employed. +While some depend on a ball or other kind of +valve, others rely on partitions and deflections of various +kinds. All of these perform the functions for which they +are designed, yet the devices employed offer an excellent +obstruction for the free passage of waste; therefore, in +time, these traps become inoperative. It should be borne +in mind that any traps with a mechanical seal or an inside +partition are not considered sanitary. The inside partition +might wear out or be destroyed and thus break the seal +without the knowledge of anyone and allow sewer gas to +enter the room. The mechanical device may also be displaced +or destroyed, leaving the trap without a seal. If the +trap were cleaned out often or examined occasionally, +these traps could be used with a greater degree of safety. +Some of the forms of non-syphon traps in common use are:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The <i>Flask Trap</i>, <a href="#Fig_62">Fig. 62</a>. This trap gets its name from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +its shape. There is an inside wall upon which the seal +depends. This trap is like the bag trap, only the two inside +walls of the pipe are combined into one. This wall should +be of heavy cast brass, free from sand holes.</p> + +<p><i>Clean Sweep Trap</i>, <a href="#Fig_63">Fig. 63</a>. Some clean sweep traps are +dependent upon an inside wall for their seals. They are +made of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-S, <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-S, and full S.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 64 and 65 and 66"> +<tr><td valign="baseline"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 230px;"> +<a name="Fig_64" id="Fig_64"></a><a href="images/fig64.gif"><img src="images/fig64tn.gif" width="230" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 64.--Mechanical-seal trap." title="Fig. 64.—Mechanical-seal trap." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 64.—Mechanical-seal trap.</span> +</div></td> + +<td valign="middle"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_65" id="Fig_65"></a><a href="images/fig65.gif"><img src="images/fig65tn.gif" width="300" height="229" class="plain" alt="Fig. 65.--Standard "S" trap." title="Fig. 65.—Standard "S" trap." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 65.—Standard "S" trap.</span> +</div></td> + +<td valign="baseline"><div class="figright" style="width: 205px;"> +<a name="Fig_66" id="Fig_66"></a><a href="images/fig66.gif"><img src="images/fig66tn.gif" width="205" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 66.--Bag trap." title="Fig. 66.—Bag trap." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 66.—Bag trap.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Sure Seal Trap.</i> The sure seal trap is designed to be +non-syphoning. This trap also has an interior waterway. +If this waterway leaks, the trap is unfit for use. If these +traps are made as shown in the second sketch with the way +inside of a larger pipe, it can be detected if the interior +wall leaks.</p> + +<p><i>Centrifugal Trap.</i> The centrifugal trap is made similar +to the clean sweep, except that the wall of the inlet pipe is +entirely separate from the body of the trap. The inlet +enters the body of the trap on a tangent, thus making the +trap self-scouring which is a good feature.</p></div> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Pipe Threading</span></h3> + +<p>The proper cutting of threads on pipe is overlooked by +some mechanics. There are many different kinds of dies +and different kinds of pipe to contend with. Steel pipe +threads very hard and the adjustable dies should be used +on it. These dies cut more easily and leave a cleaner +thread than other dies when used on steel pipe. When +threads are cut on wrought-iron pipe the adjustable dies +should be used as they cut a better and cleaner thread +than other dies. To preserve the life of the dies and the +quality of the thread, oil is used freely while the dies are +cutting.</p> + +<p><b>Threads.</b>—The standard thread on pipe and fittings is a +right-handed thread. Left threads can be cut on the pipe +and the fitting can be tapped with a left thread. When a +fitting is tapped with a left thread it is marked so. The +following table gives the standard number of threads that +a die will or should be allowed to cut on the pipe:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="pipe threads"> +<tr><th class="btb" align="center">Size</th> +<th class="bbox">Length, inches</th> +<th class="bbox">Threads per inch</th> +<th class="btb">Threads per end</th></tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">9</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">18</td> +<td align="center">10.825</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">14</td> +<td align="center">10.500</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">14</td> +<td align="center">10.500</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center" class="br">1</td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">15</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center">10.800</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1em;">1</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center">11.500</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1em;">1</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center">11.500</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center" class="brb">2</td> +<td align="center" class="brb">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +<td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="bb">12.930</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>To acquaint the beginner with iron pipe work, the following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +exercise is given. In it there are a great many of +the actual problems that come up when the pipe is put in on +a job. This is the last exercise that is required in this book. +The sketch shows clearly just what the job is and below I +have gone over each operation that is necessary to complete +the job.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 426px;"> +<a name="Fig_67" id="Fig_67"></a><a href="images/fig67.gif"><img src="images/fig67tn.gif" width="426" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 67." title="Fig. 67." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 67.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Materials Necessary.</b>—Six feet of 1-inch black pipe; +four 1-inch black ells; two 1-inch tee; one 1-inch right +and left coupling; oil.</p> + +<p><b>Tools Necessary.</b>—Two 14-inch pipe wrenches, vise, +pipe cutters, stock and 1-inch follower right and left die +and reamer.</p> + +<p>The vise is made secure on a bench or post, care being +taken before it is put in place to provide room enough to +swing the stocks. A length of 1-inch pipe is put into the +vise and the vise clamped around it. The end of the pipe +that is to be threaded should stick out through the vise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +about 9 inches. If there is a thread on this end, the dies +should be run over it to make sure that it is a standard +thread and to clean the threads. Before proceeding further +with this exercise the dies and stocks will be described and +their use shown.</p> + +<p><b>Dies.</b>—A full set of dies is taken. The full set of stocks +and dies is composed of right and left dies from <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> inch up +to 1 inch, with a guide for each size, also a small wrench +with which to turn the set screws. The dies come in sets, +two in a set. These are the Armstrong patent that I am +describing. Take the stock and the handles, and a set +of 1-inch right dies with the guides out of the box. The +dies will have marked on them 1" R (if 1-inch left were +wanted, the mark would be 1" L). The set screws are +taken out of the stock and the dies inserted in their proper +place. There is a deep mark on the edge of each die and +under it a letter S. This letter means "standard." This +mark on the die is set even with a similar mark on the stock +and when the set screws are in place and tightened, a standard +thread will be cut. There is an adjusting screw on the +stock to make the proper adjustment on the dies.</p> + +<p><b>Stock.</b>—The stock is taken and the handles are put into +it. There are two sets of set screws on the stock, one set +for holding the dies in place and the other set for adjusting +the dies. On the stock there is a deep mark to correspond +with the standard thread mark on the dies. On the +opposite side of the stock there is a place for the follower +and a set screw to hold it in place. After the stocks have +been looked over and examined thoroughly, the 1-inch +right dies are taken and inserted. Then the 1-inch follower +is put in place. The tool is now ready to cut a 1-inch +thread. Now take a piece of 1-inch pipe at least 15 inches +long and put it in the vise, letting it extend out from the vise +about 9 inches. The stock is now taken and the follower +end is put on the pipe first and the dies brought up in place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +to cut. The end of the pipe is allowed to enter in between +the two dies so that the teeth of each die rest on the pipe. +Now, holding the handles of the stock about 6 inches from +the body of the stock and standing directly in front of the +pipe, push and turn to the right at the same time and the +dies will be started. Now put some oil on the dies and +turn the stock, taking hold of the ends of the handles +and standing at one side. The dies are run up on the pipe +until the pipe extends through the face of the dies one +thread. Oil is put on the pipe and the dies at least twice +during the cutting. When the thread is long enough the +stock is turned back a little and then forward a little and the +loose chips are blown out from between the dies and pipe. +If the dies are set right, a good clean standard thread will +have been cut. This thread can now be cut off with the +pipe cutters.</p> + +<p><b>Pipe Cutters.</b>—To cut pipe with a one-wheel pipe cutter +is a simple matter. I will not dwell at length on the cutter +itself. There are one-wheel and three-wheel cutters. We +will use a one-wheel cutter tool. This cutter is forced into +the surface of the pipe with a set screw having a long tee +handle. The pressure that is brought to bear on the pipe +while being cut is sufficient to cause a large burr to form on +the inside of the pipe. Sometimes the pipe is completely +crushed and rendered unfit for use. Therefore the user of +these cutters should exercise care when cutting pipe. The +pipe is put in the vise and the cutters are so put on the pipe +that the pipe will be between the two rollers and the cutter +wheel, the cutter resting on the mark that indicates the +point at which the pipe is to be cut. The handle is screwed +down and the cutters turned around the pipe; each time the +cutters make a complete turn the handle is screwed down +more. This procedure is continued until the furrow has +been cut clear through the pipe.</p> + +<p><b>Cutting and Threading Nipples.</b>—Nipples are short<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +pieces of pipe threaded on each end. Pieces of pipe longer +than 6 inches are not called nipples. When a nipple is so +short that the threads cut on each end meet in the center of +the piece, the nipple is called a "close nipple." When there +is a space of about <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch between the threads, it is called +a "space or shoulder" nipple. To cut and thread these +nipples a nipple chuck or nipple holder is necessary.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_68" id="Fig_68"></a><a href="images/fig68.gif"><img src="images/fig68tn.gif" width="500" height="277" class="plain" alt="Fig. 68.--Nipple chuck and nipples." title="Fig. 68.—Nipple chuck and nipples." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 68.—Nipple chuck and nipples.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Nipple Holders.</b>—Take a piece of 1-inch pipe about 12 +inches long and on one end cut a thread that is 2 inches +long. Take a 1-inch coupling and screw it on this end +until the end of the pipe is almost through the end of the +coupling. At least four threads should be allowed at this +end of the coupling. Now we have a piece of pipe 12 inches +long having a thread 2 inches long on one end with a coupling +on the thread. This is called a nipple holder. Now, to +cut a nipple, cut a thread on a piece of pipe and cut the +pipe off at any desired length, say 2 inches. Put the nipple +holder in the vise with the coupling out from the vise about +8 inches. Take the 2-inch piece of pipe with a thread on +one end, screw this thread into the coupling until it touches +the pipe that has been screwed through from the other end. +Now the stocks having the 1 dies and the follower in are +put on the pipe. The follower will not go over the coupling, +therefore take the follower out of the stock. Now the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +stock will slip over the coupling and the thread can be +cut. With this procedure a nipple of any length can be +cut. There are a number of patented nipple chucks on the +market, but as they are not always at hand the above +method is resorted to and serves every purpose.</p> + +<p><b>Long Screws.</b>—To cut a long screw which comes in use +frequently on vent pipe work, a piece of pipe 12 inches long +is taken and a regular length thread is cut on one end, and +a thread 4 inches long is cut on the other end. Then a +coupling is cut while screwed on a pipe, so that a lock nut +about <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inch wide is made. The description and use of +these long screws will come under screw pipe venting.</p> + +<p>Now that the proper use of the tools has been explained, +we will proceed with the exercise according to the sketch. +With a length of pipe in the vise and the 1-inch dies in the +stock, run over the thread on the pipe. Note that all the +measurements are center to center. Screw an elbow on +the pipe and measure off the first length, which we will take +as 12 inches center to center. Place the rule on the pipe +with one end of it at the center of the opening of the elbow +just screwed on. Mark 12 inches off on the pipe. This +mark represents the center of another ell. Now take +another ell and hold the center of one outlet on this mark. +It will readily be seen that to have the measurement come +right, the pipe must be cut off at a point where it will make +up tight when screwed into the ell. Therefore, about +1 inch will have to be cut off, making the pipe 1 inch shorter +than where it was first marked. Cut the pipe, and before +taking it out of the vise make a thread on the pipe still +in the vise. After the thread is cut, take the reamer and +ream out the burr that is on the inside of the pipe caused +by the pipe cutter. An elbow can be screwed on this pipe. +The next measurement is marked off as explained, the pipe +cut, then the piece in the vise threaded and reamed. The +measurements must be accurate and the dies should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +adjusted to cut all threads the same depth. When the +measurements are all out, there should be seven pieces of +pipe, each piece having one thread. Now the threads on +the other end can be cut except the 12 inch piece that screws +into the right and left coupling. This thread is a left-handed +thread and must be cut with the left dies. Change +the dies now to the 1-inch left dies; turn the stock in the +opposite direction of the right-hand thread, and the dies +will cut the left thread. The pipe and the fittings can easily +be put together as shown in the sketch by following the +center to center measurements. The right and left coupling +is the only fitting that will cause the beginner trouble. A +right and left coupling can be used only when there is +sufficient <i>give</i> to the pipe, that is, the two ends of the pipe +to be coupled together are only <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inch apart. To get the +coupling in place to start the threads, the pipe must spread +apart at least 2 inches. If the pipe cannot be spread that +much, a right and left coupling cannot be used. The proper +way to make up a right and left coupling is as follows:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_69" id="Fig_69"></a><a href="images/fig69.gif"><img src="images/fig69tn.gif" width="500" height="215" class="plain" alt="Fig. 69.--F reads center of ell to end, C reads center of ell to center +of valve, D reads center of valve to center of T, E reads center of T to +center of ell." title="Fig. 69.—F reads center of ell to end, C reads center " /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 69.—F reads center of ell to end, C reads center of ell to center +of valve, D reads center of valve to center of T, E reads center of T to +center of ell.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>Screw home the coupling on the right thread. Mark with +a piece of chalk on the coupling and the pipe showing a point +on each where the coupling makes tight. Take off the +coupling and count the turns and make note of the number. +Now do the same on the left thread and make a note of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +number of threads. If the left thread has six turns and the +right has four and one-half, then to insure that the left +thread will be tight when the right thread is, the coupling +must be put on the left thread one and one-half turns before +it is started on the right thread. Now with four and one-half +turns, the right and the left threads will both be tight. +A little thought and practice will make this connection +clear. If all the measurements in this exercise are not cut +accurately, the right and left coupling will not go together.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Cold-water Supply. Test</span></h3> + + +<p>The supplying of cold water to buildings and then piping +it to the various fixtures makes a very interesting study. +We have gone over the methods of laying and piping for +the house service pipe. We will go over the different systems +now employed to supply the water, quickly.</p> + +<p><b>Underground Water.</b>—In thinly populated districts the +well is still employed to supply water to the building. +The water is brought to the surface by means of a large +bucket or by means of a pump. A well point can be driven +into the ground until water is reached and then the water +can be brought to the surface by means of a pump operated +by hand or by power. The water can be forced to a tank +that is open and elevated, or forced into a tank that is +closed and put under pressure. From either tank the water +will flow to any desired outlets. A windmill can be employed +to furnish power to operate the pump. Water +supply that is received directly from underground is by far +the best to use. A cesspool or outhouse must not be allowed +on the premises with a well, otherwise the well will +be contaminated and unfit for domestic use. An open +well is not as sanitary as a driven well, as the surface water +and leaves, etc., get into it and decay and pollute the water, +and soon make it unfit for domestic use.</p> + +<p><b>Streams and Brooks.</b>—The brooks and streams furnish +a good source of supply for water to a building or community +of buildings. The writer recently worked on a system +of piping that supplied 15 or 20 buildings. The water +supply came from a brook that was higher than the houses.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +Each house had a separate pipe leading down from the brook +into a tank from which the house was piped. The owner +of the brook applied business ethics to the privileges of +taking water from it. He had a scale of prices, and the +highest-priced location was an inch or so below the bed of +the brook, the next price was level with the bottom, the +next cheaper 2 inches above the bottom. As the surface +was reached, the privilege cost less. In the dry time of the +year those at the bottom of the brook always had water +while those at the top location had to wait for the water to +rise, and had to do without water during the dry time. +Where the stream is on a lower level than the building a +hydraulic ram can be used.</p> + +<p><b>Rivers and Lakes.</b>—Rivers and lakes make an abundant +supply for water systems. A sluggish-moving river is bad, +also a river that is used for carrying off the sewage of a town. +Special provision is now made for the using of water that is +polluted. A lake that is supplied by springs is by far the +best source of supply. The water is pumped from the river +or lake into a reservoir and then flows by gravity into mains +and from the mains into the buildings. The water should +always be filtered before it is allowed to enter the distributing +mains.</p> + +<p><b>Water Pressure.</b>—Pressure at a fixture or outlet so that +the water will flow is generally obtained by the force of +gravity. When this method is not sufficient, a pneumatic +system is employed. This method is employed to force the +water to the top floors or to supply the whole building in +high structures. The pneumatic system requires a pump, +an air-tight tank, and pipes to the various outlets. The +water pumped into the air-tight tank will occupy part of +the space generally occupied by the air. The air cannot +escape and is, therefore, compressed. Continued pumping +will compress the air until the limit of the apparatus is +reached. If a valve or faucet that is connected with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +tank is opened, the air will expand and force the water out +of the opening. This explains in a general way the operation +of a pneumatic water-supply system. Water can be +pumped into this air-tight tank from a well, cistern, river, +lake, or from the city supply mains.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_70" id="Fig_70"></a><a href="images/fig70.gif"><img src="images/fig70tn.gif" width="500" height="184" class="plain" alt="Fig. 70.--"Banjo."" title="Fig. 70.—"Banjo."" /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 70.—"Banjo."</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Piping.</b>—From the service pipe on which there has been +placed a shut-off, a line of piping, full size, is run through +the basement, overhead to a convenient place, perhaps to +a partition in the center of the cellar. The pipe is brought +down and connected into the end of a header. This header +or banjo is made of Ts placed 4 inches center to center. +From each T a line of pipe is run to each isolated fixture +or set of fixtures (see <a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>). A stop and waste cock is +placed on each line at such a point that all stop cocks will +come in a row near the header. A small pipe is run from +the waste of each stop and discharged into a larger pipe +which connects with a sink. This way of running pipes +while it is expensive makes a very neat and good job. Each +stop cock has a tag on it stating explicitly what it controls. +If the building is a large one a number of these panelled +headers are used. A less expensive way to run this pipe +is to branch off from the main at points where the branch +pipe will be as short as possible and use as few fittings as +possible. Stop and waste cocks are then placed on each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +branch near the main.</p> + +<p>All pipe must follow the direct line of fitting with which +it is connected. The line of pipe should be perfectly +straight. If it seems necessary to bend the pipe to get +around an obstacle, then good judgment has not been used +in placing the fitting into which the pipe is screwed. The +fitting should be re-located so that the pipe can be run +without bending. To have true alignment of pipes the +whole job or section of the job must be drawn out on paper +first and any obstacles noted and avoided before the piping +is cut. This not only saves time but it is also the forerunner +of a good job. When getting measurements for +piping the same rule or tape should be used to get out the +pipe as was used to get the measurements.</p> + +<p>The water main and branches that run through the +basement of a building are generally hung on the ceiling. +Rough hangers of wood, rope, or wire are usually used to +hold the pipe in place at first, then neat and strong adjustable +hangers are placed every 8 feet apart. There are in +use too many kinds of hangers to explain or describe them +here. The essential point of all good hangers is to have +them strong, neat, and so made that perfect alignment of +the pipe can be had. The hangers should be so placed that +no strain will come on the fitting or the valves. A hanger +should be placed near each side of unions so that when the +union is taken apart neither side of the pipe will drop and +bend. Hooks and straps should be used to hold vertical +pipes rigid and in position. A vertical pipe should be so +held in place that its weight will come on the hooks and +straps that hold it rather than on the horizontal pipe into +which it connects. Where there are six or eight horizontal +lines of pipes close together, a separate hanger for each +pipe makes a rather cumbersome job and it consumes considerable +time to install them properly. A hanger having +one support run under all the pipes will allow space for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +proper alignment and adjustment for drainage. Allowance +must be made on all lines of pipe for drainage. When +a building is vacant during cold weather, the water is +drawn off; therefore, the pipes should have a pitch to certain +points where the pipes can be opened and the entire +system drained of water.</p> + +<p><b>Kinds of Pipe.</b>—The kind of pipe that is used for cold-water +supply depends on and varies according to the kind +of water, the kind of earth through which it runs, and the +construction of the building. Wrought iron, steel, lead, +brass, tin-lined brass, are in use.</p> + +<p>The supply pipe to every fixture should have a stop on it +directly under the fixture. This will allow the water to be +shut off for repairs to the faucet without stopping the supply +of other fixtures.</p> + +<p>The making of perfect threads on pipe is an important +matter, especially on water pipes. If the pipe and the dies +were perfect, and the mechanic used sufficient oil in cutting, +and the fittings were perfectly tapped to correspond to the +dies used on the pipe, of course a perfect union between pipe +and fitting would result and the joint would be found to be +perfect on screwing the pipe home. As all the above conditions +are not found on the job, threads are made tight by +the use of red or white lead and oil. The lead is put on the +thread and when the thread is made up the lead will have +been forced into any imperfection that may be in the threads +and the joint will then be water-tight. White lead and oil +should be used on nickel-plated pipe as other pipe compounds +are too conspicuous and look badly. A pipe compound +should be used with discretion, for if too much is put on a +burr of it will collect in the bore of the pipe and reduce it +considerably. This is not tolerated, so only a small amount +is used. Water pipes should be run in accessible places, +making it possible to get at them in case of trouble. In +climates that have freezing weather water pipes should not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +be run in outside partitions. If it is found absolutely +necessary to do so, as in the case of buildings which have +no inside partitions on the first floor, the pipe should be +properly covered and protected. The different methods +of covering pipes are described in <a href="#CHAPTER_XV">Chapter XV</a>.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Hot-water Heaters. Instantaneous Coil and<br /> +Storage Tanks. Return Circulation,<br /> +Hot-water Lines and Expansion</span></h3> + + +<p>The problem of supplying hot water to plumbing fixtures +is one that has required years of study. Each job today +demands considerable thought to make it a perfect and +satisfactory hot-water system. We will find installations +today where the water is red from rust, where there is +water pounding and cracking. There are also jobs where +the fixtures get practically no hot water. As each job or +individual building has its own peculiar conditions, they +must be solved by the designer or the mechanic, using the +fundamental principles of hot-water circulation. We must +first know how much hot water is to be used, also the location +of the outlets and the construction of the building; +then the size of the pipes and the size of the tanks and their +locations can be settled. If the job is a large one, a pump +may be employed to insure the proper circulation. After +this the pipe sizes and connections can be worked out. The +one great enemy of hot-water circulation is air. Therefore, +no traps or air pockets should ever appear in the piping +system. The boiler, as it is often referred to, is the hot-water +storage tank. A copper or iron tank holding sufficient +water to supply all fixtures, even when every fixture +demands a supply at the same time, is installed in a convenient +place and the heating arrangement connected with +it. A thermostat can be placed on the system and the +temperature of the water controlled. According to the size +of the building the problem of furnishing the plumbing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +fixtures with hot water increases.</p> + +<p><b>Methods of Heating Hot Water.</b>—There are a number of +ways of furnishing hot water. Some of the installations +are listed below.</p> + +<p>A cast-iron or brass water back is placed on the fire pot +of a stove or furnace. A separate stove with the fire pot +and water jacket is used. A coil of steam pipe is placed +inside a hot-water boiler or tank. Gas coil heaters are +connected with hot water storage tank, also gas coil instantaneous +heaters are connected with the piping direct.</p> + +<p>Combinations of the above systems are in use and serve +the purpose for which they are intended. For instance, +the tank can be connected with a coal range and a gas coil +heater, heat being furnished by the range alone or the coil +heater alone, or both can be used at the same time. This +combination can be connected with the furnace in the cellar, +and during the winter months, when the furnace is in +use, the water can be heated by the furnace coil. In warm +weather, when the furnace is out, the range can supply the +necessary heat. In hot weather the coil gas heater can +supply the heat.</p> + +<p><b>Connections of Tank and Heating Apparatus.</b>—The ordinary +house boiler or hot-water storage tank has four connections, +two on top, one on the side, and one on the bottom. +The top connections are used for the entrance of cold water +into the tank and for the supply of hot water to the fixtures +(see <a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>). The cold-water inlet has a tube extending +into the tank below the side connection. This tube has +a small hole filed in it about 6 inches from the top. This +hole is to break any syphonic action that may occur at any +time. The side connection is for the connection of the pipe +coming from the top of the water back. The bottom opening +in the tank is for the connection of the pipe coming from +the lower water back connection, also for draining the +boiler. The circulation of the water can be followed thus:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +cold water enters the boiler in the tube and discharges +into the boiler below the side connection. From here it +flows out of the bottom connection into the water back, +through the upper connection into the boiler, through the +side opening, then to the top of the boiler and out to the +fixtures through the fixture supply opening.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_71" id="Fig_71"></a><a href="images/fig71.gif"><img src="images/fig71tn.gif" width="300" height="381" class="plain" alt="Fig. 71.--Storage tank, and coil heater with thermostatic control valve." title="Fig. 71.—Storage tank, and coil heater with thermostatic control valve." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 71.—Storage tank, and coil heater with thermostatic control valve.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a> shows a thermostatic control valve attached to +the bottom of a heater coil, and at the side of storage tank. +The best arrangement is at the bottom, for it does not +shut off the gas supply until the boiler is full of hot water.</p> + +<p><b>Connecting Tank and Coil Gas Heater.</b>—The boiler and +the coil gas heater have a different connection. The +bottom of the tank and the bottom of the heater are connected. +The top of the heater and the top of the boiler +are connected. The accompanying sketch shows how this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +connection is made. If the tee on the top of the boiler +into which the gas-heater connection is made is not the +first fitting and placed as close to the outlet as possible, +the water will not circulate freely into the boiler. This +connection according to the drawing should be studied +and memorized.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_72" id="Fig_72"></a><a href="images/fig72.gif"><img src="images/fig72tn.gif" width="500" height="324" class="plain" alt="Fig. 72.--Instantaneous gas heater. Showing circulation heater or +booster." title="Fig. 72.—Instantaneous gas heater. Showing circulation heater or +booster." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 72.—Instantaneous gas heater. Showing circulation heater or +booster.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Instantaneous Gas-heater Connections.</b>—An instantaneous +gas heater is placed in the basement. The copper +coil in it is connected at the bottom with the cold-water +supply and the top outlet of the coil is connected with the +hot-water system of piping. There is no need of a storage +tank with this heater. When a faucet is opened in any part +of the hot-water piping system, the water passing through +the water valve at the heater causes the gas valve to open +so that the whole set of burners in the heater is supplied +with gas, and the burners are lighted from a pilot light. +When the faucet is closed, the gas supply is shut off and +the burners are put out. The pilot is lighted all the time. +Space will not permit going over these connections in detail.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +It is a large field and requires considerable thought.</p> + +<p><b>Safety and Check Valves.</b>—When a meter is used on a +water system, the water company demands that a check +valve be placed on the hot-water system to prevent the +hot water from being forced back into the meter in case the +pressure got strong enough in the boiler. If a check valve +is used for this purpose, or for any other purpose, a safety +valve must be placed on the boiler piping system to relieve +any excessive pressure that may be caused by having the +check valve in use. There is today, with meters of modern +type, no reason to use a check valve or a safety valve. If +an excessive pressure is obtained in the boiler, it is relieved +in the water main.</p> + +<p>When water is heated, it expands. If the heat becomes +more intense and steam is formed, the expansion is much +greater, and some means must be provided to allow for it. +This expansion can be allowed to relieve itself in the water +main as explained above. When a check valve is placed +on the piping, this means of escape is shut off and a safety +valve must be employed. Without these reliefs, the pressure +would be so great that an explosion would result. +When steel pipe and steel boilers are used for storage tanks +and connections, the pipe and tank will shortly start to +rust and parts of the piping are stopped up with rust +scales. The water also becomes red with rust when the +water becomes hot enough to circulate. When the pipes +are stopped up, steam is formed and a snapping and cracking +sound is heard. To avoid these conditions, the piping +should be of brass or lead and the storage tank should be +of copper. The installation cost of brass and copper is +greater than steel, but they will not have to be replaced in +two or three years, as is the case with other material. A +valve should be placed on the cold-water supply to control +the entire hot-water piping system. A pipe with a stop cock +should be placed underneath the boiler and should extend<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +into a sink in the basement so that the boiler can be drained +at any time for cleaning or repairs.</p> + +<p><b>Connecting with Fixtures.</b>—To have all fixtures properly +supplied with hot water it is necessary to run what is termed +a circulating pipe. This circulating pipe is a circuit of +pipe extending from the top of the boiler to the vicinity of +the fixtures and then returning to the boiler and connecting +into the pipe leading out of the bottom of the boiler. From +this circuit all branches are taken to supply all fixtures +requiring hot water. This circulating pipe has hot water +circulating through it all the time. Therefore the fixtures +are supplied with hot water very quickly. The circulating +pipe and its branches are run without any traps or air +pockets.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 73 and 74 and 75"> +<tr><td valign="top"><div class="figleft" style="width: 204px;"> +<a name="Fig_73" id="Fig_73"></a><a href="images/fig73.gif"><img src="images/fig73tn.gif" width="204" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 73.--Expansion +loop. Four 90° ells." title="Fig. 73.—Expansion +loop. Four 90° ells." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 73.—Expansion +loop. Four 90° ells.</span> +</div></td> + +<td valign="middle"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px;"> +<a name="Fig_74" id="Fig_74"></a><a href="images/fig74.gif"><img src="images/fig74tn.gif" width="222" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 74.--Expansion +loop. Five 90° ells." title="Fig. 74.—Expansion +loop. Five 90° ells." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 74.—Expansion +loop. Five 90° ells.</span> +</div></td> + +<td valign="baseline"><div class="figright" style="width: 188px;"> +<a name="Fig_75" id="Fig_75"></a><a href="images/fig75.gif"><img src="images/fig75tn.gif" width="188" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 75.--Expansion +loop. Six 90° ells." title="Fig. 75.—Expansion +loop. Six 90° ells." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 75.—Expansion +loop. Six 90° ells.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<p>When running the piping, it should be borne in mind that +not only does the water expand when heated, but the pipe +expands also. Therefore due allowance must be made for +this expansion. The long risers should have an expansion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +loop as shown in Figs. <a href="#Fig_73">73</a>, <a href="#Fig_74">74</a> and <a href="#Fig_75">75</a>. There are installed on +some jobs what is known as an expansion joint. This will +allow for the expansion and contraction of the pipe. The +writer's experience with these joints has not been very +satisfactory. After a while these joints begin to leak and +they must have attention which in some cases is rather expensive. +An expansion loop as shown in the sketch, made +with elbows, will prove satisfactory. If the threads on the +fittings and pipe are good, no leak will appear on this joint.</p> + +<p>All gas heaters must be connected with a flue to carry +off the products of combustion.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Insulation of Piping to Eliminate Conduction,<br /> +Radiation, Freezing, and Noise</span></h3> + + +<p><b>Pipe Covering.</b>—Pipe covering is another important +branch of plumbing. A few years ago heating pipes were +the only pipes that it was thought necessary to cover. +The ever-increasing demands made by the public keep the +wideawake plumber continually solving problems. The +water running down a waste pipe, for instance, will annoy +some people, and provision must be made to avoid this +noise or to silence it. This is one of the many problems +that the plumber must solve by the use of pipe covering.</p> + +<p><b>Pipes that Need Covering.</b>—First of all, the covering +must be put on properly to be of high service. <i>Hot-water +circulating pipes</i> need covering to reduce the amount of +heat loss. If the pipes and the tank are not covered, considerable +more fuel will be needed to supply the necessary +amount of hot water than if the pipes and tank were covered +with a good covering. <i>Cold-water pipes</i> need covering in +places to keep them from freezing. They also need covering +under some conditions to keep them from sweating. They +are covered also to prevent the material which surrounds +them from coming into direct contact with the pipe. +<i>Waste pipes</i> need covering to prevent them from freezing +and to silence the noise caused by the rush of water through +them. <i>Ice-water pipes</i> are covered to prevent the water +from rising in temperature and to prevent any condensation +forming on the pipe. There is need for such a variety +of covering that I have listed below some of them and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +methods employed for putting them on the pipe.</p> + +<p>Magnesia, asbestos air cell, molded asbestos, wool felt, +waterproof paper and wool felt, cork, hair felt. These +coverings come in the form of pipe covering with a cloth +jacket. They also come in the shape of fittings as well as +in blocks and rolls of paper, and in powdered form. Any +thickness that is desired may be had. The pipe covering +is readily put on the pipe. The cloth jacket is pulled back +a short distance and the covering will open like a book. +It can then be clamped on the pipe and the jacket pulled +back and pasted into place. Brass bands, 1 inch wide, +come with the pipe covering. These are put on and the +pipe covering is then held securely in place. Practically +all the coverings are applied in this manner and are made up +in 3-foot lengths to fit any size pipe. To cover the fittings +and valves, the same kind of sectional covering can be +obtained and applied in the same manner as the pipe +covering. Plastic covering is often applied to the fittings +and molded into the shape of the fitting. The plastic +covering comes in bags and is dry. It is mixed with warm +water to the consistency of thick cement and applied with a +trowel. When the covering is put on the pipes and fittings, +it should be done thoroughly to get satisfactory results. +Each section of the covering has on one end an extra length +of the jacket. This is to allow a lap over on the next section +to make a tight joint. If the sections need fitting, a +saw can be used and the covering cut to any desired length.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Magnesia</i> covering is employed mostly on steam pipes, +especially high-pressure. This material can be had in the +shape of pipe covering, in blocks, or cement.</p> + +<p><i>Asbestos air cell</i> covering is employed to cover hot-water +circulating pipes. It is constructed of corrugated asbestos +paper. This material is manufactured in the sectional pipe +covering or in corrugated paper form.</p> + +<p><i>Molded asbestos</i> covering is also used on hot-water pipes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +and is manufactured in pipe covering or in blocks.</p> + +<p><i>Wool felt</i> covering is used mostly on hot-water pipes and +makes one of the best coverings. It is lined with asbestos +paper and covered with a cloth jacket.</p> + +<p><i>Waterproof paper and wool felt</i> is used on cold-water +pipes and is made in 3-foot lengths. The covering is lined +with waterproof paper and covered with a cloth jacket.</p> + +<p><i>Cork.</i>—A heavy cork covering is one of the best coverings +for ice-water pipes, and a light cork covering is used for cold-water +pipes. This covering comes in sections as other +coverings, also in blocks and sheets.</p> + +<p><i>Hair felt</i> is used to prevent pipes from freezing. It +comes in bales containing 150 to 300 square feet of various +thicknesses.</p> +</div> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">"Durham" or "Screw Pipe" Work. Pipe and<br /> +Fittings</span></h3> + + +<p>"Durham" or "screw pipe" work is the name used to denote +that the job is installed by the use of wrought-iron or +steel screw pipe. We speak of a "cast-iron job" meaning +that cast-iron pipe was used for the piping. A completely +different method of work is used when screw pipe is employed +for the wastes and vents. When screw pipe is to +be used or considered for use, it is well to know something +concerning the various makes of screw pipe. Nothing but +galvanized pipe is ever used. The value of steel screw pipe +and wrought-iron screw pipe should be studied, and every +person interested should, if possible, understand how these +different pipes are made and how the material of which they +are composed is made. In some places one pipe is better +than another and a study of their make-up would enlighten +the user and allow him to use the best for his peculiar conditions. +The maker's name should always be on the pipe. +The following table shows the sizes, weights, and thicknesses +of screw pipe:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="screw pipe stats"> +<tr><th class="btb" align="center">Size</th><th class="bbox">Thickness</th><th class="btb">No. threads<br />per inch </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">0.140</td> +<td align="center">11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">0.145</td> +<td align="center">11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">0.154</td> +<td align="center">11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">0.204</td> +<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">0.217</td> +<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">0.226</td> +<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">0.237</td> +<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">0.259</td> +<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6</span></td> +<td align="center" class="brb">0.280</td> +<td align="center" class="bb"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Screw pipe work came into common use with the advance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +of modern steel structures. Some difficulty had been experienced +in getting the cast-iron pipe joints tight and to +keep the pipe so anchored that it would not crack. The +screw pipe was found to answer all of the requirements of +modern structures and therefore has been used extensively. +The life of screw pipe is not as long as extra heavy cast-iron +pipe. This is the only serious objection to screw pipe, +which must be renewed after a term of years, while extra +heavy cast iron lasts indefinitely. Screw pipe is never used +underground. When piping is required underground, extra +heavy cast-iron pipe is used.</p> + + +<h3>PIPING</h3> + +<p>The pipe used in Durham work is galvanized extra heavy, +or standard wrought-iron, or steel pipe. It is almost impossible +to recognize wrought-iron from steel pipe without +the aid of a chemical or a magnifying glass. To test the +pipe to distinguish its base, take a sharp file and file through +the surface of the pipe that is to be tested. If the pipe is +steel, under a magnifying glass the texture of the filed surface +will appear to be smooth and have small irregular-shaped +grains, and there will also be an appearance of +compactness. If the pipe is iron, the texture will have the +appearance of being ragged and will show streaks of slag +or black. When screw pipe is cut there is always left a +large burr on the inside of the pipe. This burr greatly +reduces the bore of the pipe and is a source of stoppage in +waste pipes. After the pipe is cut this burr should be +reamed out thoroughly. One of the strong points of screw +pipe is the strength of each joint. Care should therefore +be taken to see that perfect threads are cut on the pipe and +that the threads of the fittings are perfect. The dies should +be set right and not varied on each joint. There should be +plenty of oil used when threads are cut so that the thread<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +will be clean and sharp. The follower or guide on stocks +should be the same size as the pipe that is being threaded, +otherwise a crooked thread will result. If a pipe-threading +machine is used, the pipe is set squarely between the jaws +of the vise that holds the pipe in place. When cutting +a thread on a long length of pipe, the end sticking out from +the machine must be supported firmly so that no strain +will come on the machine as the pipe turns. It is necessary +to cut crooked threads sometimes on the pipe to allow +the pipe pitch for drainage or to bring the pipe into alignment +where fitting would take up too much room. To cut +a crooked thread on a piece of pipe, simply leave the follower +out of the stock or put in the size larger. The dies not having +a guide will cut a crooked thread. Piping should be +run with as few threads as possible. With a thorough knowledge +of and the intelligent use of fittings, a minimum number +of threads will result.</p> + +<p>The pipes in a building are run in compact parallel lines +in chases designed especially for them. The tendency is to +confine the pipes to certain localities as much as possible. +This makes a very neat job and in case repairs are needed, +the work and trouble incurred will be confined to one section.</p> + + +<h3>FITTINGS</h3> + +<p>The fittings used in screw pipe work are cast-iron recess +type (see <a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54</a>). The fittings are so made that the inside +bores of the pipe and the fittings come in direct line with +each other, thus making a smooth inside surface at all bends. +The fittings are all heavily galvanized. All fittings should be +examined on the inside for any lumps of metal of sufficient +size to catch solid waste matter, and these must be removed +or the fitting discarded. All 90° bends, whether Ts or +elbows, are tapped to give the pipe that connects with them +a pitch of at least <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch to the foot. Except where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +obligatory, 90° fittings should not be used. To make a +bend of 90° a Y-branch, a nipple and a 45° bend should be +used, or two 45° bends will make a long easy sweep of the +drainage pipes and reduce the possibility of stoppage.</p> + +<p>Y-branches are inserted every 30 feet at least to allow for +a clean-out which can be placed in the branch of the fitting. +When a clean-out is placed an iron plug should not be used. +These plugs are not removed very often and an iron plug +will rust in and be almost impossible to get out. Brass +clean-out plugs are used and are easily taken out.</p> + +<p>At times it is necessary to connect cast iron and wrought +iron, or in a line where a union could be used if the pipe were +not a waste pipe, a tucker fitting is used. This fitting is +threaded on one end and has a socket on the other to allow +for caulking. To get a good idea of all the fittings in general +use, the reader should get a catalogue from one of the fitting +manufacturers and a survey of it will give the names and +sizes of the fittings. However, I show a few common ones. +In the writer's opinion, the studying of the catalogue would +be of more benefit than a description of fittings at this +point. The sizes used and the methods employed to vent +the waste-pipe systems are the same as in cast-iron work.</p> + + +<h3>HANGERS AND SUPPORTS</h3> + +<p>The hanging of screw pipe is a very essential point. The +taking of the strain off from a fitting or line of pipe by the +use of a hanger is the means of avoiding serious trouble +after a job is completed. On horizontal runs hangers are +placed not more than 8 feet apart. In a building constructed +of wood, the hangers are secured to the joists. +In a building constructed of steel beams and concrete the +hangers are secured to the steel beams by means of I-beam +hangers that clamp on the beams; also in the case of concrete +the hangers are extended through the floor and a T<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +is put on the hanger on top of the cement floor; an iron bar +or a short piece of smaller pipe run through the T holds the +hanger in place and secures it rigidly. The finished floor is +laid over the hanger so that it does not show from the top. +Hangers on the vertical lines should be placed at every +joint and under each fitting. To have the pipe in true +alignment, the hangers must be hung and placed in line. +Every riser line must have an extra support at the base to +avoid any settling of the stack which will crack the fittings +and break fixture connections.</p> + + +<h3>MEASUREMENTS</h3> + +<p>The proper installation of screw pipe work requires getting +correct and accurate measurements. Every plumber +is or should be able to get correct center to center, center to +end, end to end, center to back, and end to back measurements. +In Durham work 45° angles are continually occurring. +To get these measurements correctly, the following +table has been compiled as used by the author and found to +be correct. The reader should memorize it so that it may +be used without referring to the book.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Measurements</span></h3> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="measurements"> +<tr><th class="btb" align="center">Soil pipe</th><th class="bbox" align="center">Screw pipe</th><th class="btb" align="center">Multiplier</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">6</span> bend</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.0em;">60</span></td> +<td align="center">1.15</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> "</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.0em;">45</span></td> +<td align="center">1.41</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">12</span> "</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.0em;">30</span></td> +<td align="center">2.00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span> "</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">22<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +<td align="center">2.61</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">32</span> "</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +<td align="center">5.12</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">64</span> "</span></td> +<td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></span></td> +<td align="center" class="bb"><span style="margin-left: -0.5em;">10.22</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Before any measurements are taken, the lines of pipe are +laid out and the position of each fitting known. As I +have stated before, the plumber must look ahead with his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +work. He must have the ability of practically seeing the +pipe in place before the work is started. This requires +experience and judgment. Before the measurements are +taken and the pipe cut consideration must be given to the +fact that the fittings and pipes must be screwed into position. +Therefore, "can the fitting on the pipe be placed +where it is laid out when this is considered?" must be one of +the many questions a plumber should ask himself. Allowance +must be made for the chain tongs to swing. Whenever +possible, a fitting is made up on the pipe while the pipe +is in the vise.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_76" id="Fig_76"></a><a href="images/fig76.gif"><img src="images/fig76tn.gif" width="500" height="206" class="plain" alt="Fig. 76.--The offset is B or 12 inches center to center. The offset is +made using 45 degree fittings. Therefore the length of A from the center +of one fitting to the center of the other is B × 1.41 = 12 × 1.41 = 16.92 +inches." title="Fig. 76.—The offset is B or 12 inches center to cente" /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 76.—The offset is B or 12 inches center to center. The offset is +made using 45 degree fittings. Therefore the length of A from the center +of one fitting to the center of the other is B × 1.41 = 12 × 1.41 = 16.92 +inches.</span> +</div></div> + + +<h3>FIXTURE CONNECTIONS</h3> + +<p>The fixture connections when screw pipe is used are necessarily +different than when cast-iron pipe is used. A brass +nipple is wiped on a piece of lead pipe and then screwed into +the fitting left for the closet connection. The lead is +flanged over above the floor and the closet set on it. The +lead is soldered to a brass flange. The brass flange is +secured to the floor and then the closet bowl secured to the +brass flange. Another method employed is to screw a brass +flange into the fitting so that when it is made up the flange +will come level with the floor; the closet bowl is then secured +to this flange. There are a number of patented floor +flanges for closet bowl connections that can be used to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +advantage. Slop sinks have practically the same connections +as the closets. Other fixtures such as the urinal, +lavatory, and bath, can be connected with a short piece of +lead wiped on a solder nipple, or the trimmings for the fixture +can be had with brass having iron pipe size threads, +and the connection can then be made directly with the +outlet on the waste line. This is a very general way to +describe the connections, but space will not allow a detailed +description of these connections. It is always well +to allow for short lead connections for fixtures so that the +lead will give if the stack settles.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Gas Fitting, Pipe and Fittings, Threading, Measuring,<br /> +and Testing</span></h3> + + +<h3>GAS AND ITS USE IN BUILDINGS</h3> + +<p>Gas is in common use in all classes of buildings today. +Dwellings use it for cooking and illuminating, factories, +office buildings, and public buildings for power. In some +parts of the country natural gas is found. In these places +it is used freely for heating fuel. The actual making of +gas is something that every plumber should understand. +If space permitted I would describe a gas plant with all of +its by-products. However, we shall deal only with the +actual installation of gas piping in buildings. Gas mains +are run through the streets the same as water mains are +run. Branches are taken off these mains and extended +into the buildings requiring gas. The gas company +generally installs the gas service pipe inside of the basement +wall and places a stop cock on it free of charge. This stop +that is placed on the pipe is a plug core type, the handle +for turning it off is square, and a wrench is required to +turn it. The square top has a lug on it. There is also a +lug corresponding to it on the body of the valve. When +the valve is shut off, these two lugs are together. Each +lug has a hole in it large enough for a padlock ring to pass +through. This gives the gas company absolute control of +the gas in the building.</p> + +<p><b>Setting of the Meter.</b>—Every building that is supplied +with gas has a meter that registers the amount of gas consumed. +This meter is placed on the service pipe on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +house side of the above-mentioned stop cock. This meter +is furnished free of charge with a trivial charge made for +setting up. The actual setting of this meter is not made +until the piping throughout the building has had a thorough +and satisfactory test and is found free from all leaks. The +meter must be set level on a substantial bracket and in a +place, if possible, where it will not require an artificial light +to read its dial. The dry meter is usually used in dwellings. +The interesting construction and mechanism of this meter +cannot be discussed here.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_77" id="Fig_77"></a><a href="images/fig77.gif"><img src="images/fig77tn.gif" width="500" height="326" class="plain" alt="Fig. 77.--Gas-meter dials." title="Fig. 77.—Gas-meter dials." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 77.—Gas-meter dials.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>The reading of the dials on a gas meter comes in the province +of the plumber and he should be able to read them. +The sketch shows the dial plate of a meter. The ordinary +house meter has only three recording dials. Large meters +have five or more. To read the amount of gas consumed +according to the meter we will read the dials as they are +indicated on <a href="#Fig_77">Fig. 77</a>. We will call the four dials No. 1, +No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4. In each of these dials a complete revolution +of the index hand denotes 1,000, 10,000, 100,000 and +1,000,000, cubic feet respectively. The index hands on No. +1 and No. 3 revolve in the same direction, while No. 2 and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +No. 4 revolve in the opposite direction. Two ciphers are +added to the figures that are indicated on the dials and the +statement of the meter will be had. To tell just how much +gas has been consumed in a given time, the statement of the +meter is taken at the beginning of this given time and at the +end of the time. The difference in the figures indicates the +number of cubic feet of gas that have been consumed. A +gas cock should be placed on the house side of the meter. +The dials of meter read 658,800 cubic feet. The dial +having the highest number is read first No. 4 dial points +to 6, this indicates that No. 3 dial has revolved 6 times. +Dial No. 3 reads 5, therefore the reading of dial No. 3 and +No. 4 is 65. Dial No. 2 reads 8 making the readings of +the three dials 658. Dial No. 1 reads 8 making the readings +of the four dials 6588 add two ciphers to this figure +and 658,800 is the correct reading.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures"> +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_78" id="Fig_78"></a><a href="images/fig78.gif"><img src="images/fig78tn.gif" width="500" height="260" class="plain" alt="Fig. 78." title="Fig. 78." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 78.</span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_79" id="Fig_79"></a><a href="images/fig79.gif"><img src="images/fig79tn.gif" width="500" height="301" class="plain" alt="Fig. 79." title="Fig. 79." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 79.</span> +</div></td></tr></table></div> + +<p><b>Pipe and Fittings.</b>—The pipe used in gas fitting is wrought +iron or steel. In special places, rubber hose is used. Brass +pipe is occasionally used to advantage. The fittings used +in iron pipe gas work should be galvanized. No plain fittings +should be allowed. The plain fittings very often +have sand holes in them and a leak will result. Sometimes +this leak does not appear until after the piping has been +in use some time and the expense of replacing the fitting +can only be guessed at. By using galvanized fittings, this +trouble will be eliminated. All fittings used should be of +the beaded type. The fitting and measurement of this +work is practically the same as described under iron pipe +work. To have the beginner get a clearer idea of gas-piping +a building, the piping of the small building sketched +will be gone over in detail and studied. One of the first +important steps that a gas fitter is confronted with is the +locating of the various lights and openings. With these +located as shown on the plan, Figs. <a href="#Fig_78">78</a>, <a href="#Fig_79">79</a> and <a href="#Fig_80">80</a>, we will +proceed to work out the piping. The first floor rise will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +1-inch, the second floor will be 1-inch. The horizontal pipe +supplying the first floor outlets will be <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-inch pipe. The +horizontal pipe on the second floor will be <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-inch. The +balance of the pipe will be <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>- or <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch. At this point +your attention is called to the sketch of piping, sizes, and +measurements. This sketch should be studied and understood +in detail. The good mechanic will employ a sketch +of this kind when installing any piping. The poor mechanic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +will take two or three measurements and get them out, +put them in, and then get some more. This method is +extremely costly and unworkmanlike. There is no reason, +except the ability of the workman, why he cannot take a +building like the sketch and get all the piping measurements +for the job, then get them out, go to the job and put +them in. The amount of time saved in this way is so great +that a workman should not consider himself a full-fledged +mechanic until he can get the measurements this way, and +get them accurately. With a tape line, gimlet, and plumb-bob, +a mechanic is fully equipped with tools to get his +measurements. If the measurements are taken with a tape +line, the same tape line should be used when measuring +the pipe and cutting it. When laying out the piping, never +allow a joist to be cut except within 6 inches of its bearing. +It is good policy never to cut timber unless absolutely +necessary and then only after consulting with the carpenter. +When joists have to be notched they should be +cut only on the top side. The pipe as it is put in place +should be braced rigidly. Wherever there is an outlet +pipe extending through the wall, the pipe should be braced +from all sides so that when the fixture is screwed in it will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +be perfectly rigid.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_80" id="Fig_80"></a><a href="images/fig80.gif"><img src="images/fig80tn.gif" width="500" height="255" class="plain" alt="Fig. 80." title="Fig. 80." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 80.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>The measurements on the piping sketch, <a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>, are +taken from the accompanying sketch of a dwelling, and if +they were to be actually put in, they would fit. The reader +would do well to copy this sketch and follow the piping +and check the measurements according to the plan, and +note how the different risers, drops, etc., are drawn. It +is not necessary in a sketch of this kind to draw to a scale. +After the different measurements are the letters <i>C.C.</i>, +<i>E.C.</i>, <i>E.E.</i>, <i>C.B.</i> and <i>E.B.</i>, meaning center to center, end +to center, end to end, center to back, and end to back, +respectively. Offsetting pipe is a very convenient way of +getting the pipe or fittings back to the wall for support.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +To offset pipe properly and with little trouble, take a piece +of scantling 2 by 4 and brace it between the floor and +ceiling. Bore a few different-sized holes through it and +you will have a very handy device for offsetting pipe. +There is a little trick in offsetting pipe that one will have to +practice to obtain. The pipe must be held firmly in the +place where the pipe is to be bent. Large offsets and bends +should not be made; 2 to 4 inches is as large as should be +used. Larger offsets that are required should be made +with fittings. Always make the offsets true and have the +ends perfectly straight. Before putting a piece of pipe permanently +in place, always look or blow through it, to ascertain +if its bore is obstructed or not. Sometimes dirt or slag +will collect and cause stoppage.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_81" id="Fig_81"></a><a href="images/fig81.gif"><img src="images/fig81tn.gif" width="300" height="406" class="plain" alt="Fig. 81.--Pipe sketch." title="Fig. 81.—Pipe sketch." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 81.—Pipe sketch.</span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>Reading the Pipe Sketch.</b>—Vertical lines represent +vertical pipes (see <a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>). Horizontal lines represent +horizontal pipes running parallel to the front. Diagonal +lines represent horizontal pipes running from back to +front. Any line that is drawn perpendicular to any other +line stands for a horizontal pipe. A diagonal line separating +a vertical line or horizontal line or set of lines represents +a different horizontal plane. With this explanation the +sketch will be made clear to one after drawing it. The +reader should now take each measurement and check it on +the plan. This is easily done by using a scale rule. The +height of the ceiling is 8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> feet on the first floor, the second +floor is 8 feet. The first floor joists are 10 inches, the second +floor joists are 9 inches. An outlet is indicated by a small +circle. In the piping sketch, this circle is connected with +the riser or drop by a horizontal line. At the junction of +these two lines a short perpendicular line is drawn, and indicates +the direction of the outlet.</p> + +<p>Let me again emphasize the need to understand thoroughly +this piping sketch, and to become so familiar with +it that it can readily be put to use. The value of a mechanic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +is determined by the quality and the quantity of work +that he can turn out; and a mechanic who can lay out his +work and see it completed before he starts, and then proceeds +to install his work, is by far of more value to his employer +than the man who can see only far enough ahead to +cut out two or three measurements and spends most of his +time walking between the vise and place of installing the +pipe.</p> + +<p><b>Testing.</b>—The system of gas piping must be tested before +the pipes have been covered by the advance of building +operations. If the job is of considerable size, the job can +be tested in sections, and if found tight the sections can be +covered. The necessity of having the piping rigidily +secured can be appropriately explained here. If the test +has been made and the system found tight and some pipe +that is not securely anchored is accidentally or otherwise +pushed out of place and bent by some of the mechanics +working about the building, a leak may be caused and yet +not discovered until the final test is made after the plastering +is finished. The expense and trouble thus caused is considerable +and could have been avoided by simply putting +in the proper supports for the pipe.</p> + +<p>To test the piping, an air pump and a gage connected +with the pipes are placed in a convenient position. The +job should now be thoroughly gone over, making sure that +all plugs and caps are on and that no outlet is open, also +that all pipe that is to be put in has been installed. After +this has been attended to, the pump is operated until 10 +pounds is registered on the gage. The connection leading +to the pump and the piping is now shut off. If the gage +drops rapidly, there is a bad leak in the system. This +leak should be found without difficulty and repaired. If +the gage drops slowly, it denotes a very small leak, such as +a sand hole or a bad thread. This kind of leak is more +troublesome to find. When it has been found, the pipe or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +fitting causing the leak should be taken out and replaced. +If black caps have been used to cap the outlets, the chances +are that a sand hole will be found in one of them. Nothing +but galvanized fittings should be used. In case the small +leak mentioned above cannot be found by going over the +pipe once, there are other means of locating the leak. Two +of the methods used, I will explain. If the job is small, +each fitting is painted with soap suds until the fitting is +found that causes the leak. If the leak is not in the fittings, +then the pipe can be gone over in the same way. As soon as +the soap suds strikes the leak, a large bubble is made and +the leak discovered. It is possible that there are more leaks, +so the gage is noted and if it still drops, the search should +be continued. The pump should be operated to keep the +pressure up to 10 pounds while the search is being made +for the leak. When the gage stands at 10 pounds without +dropping, the job is then tight. The pump and gage fitting +should be gone over first to ascertain if they leak. The +other method employed to discover leaks is to force a little +ether or oil of peppermint (not essence) into the system by +means of the pump. A leak can readily be noted by the +odor. To make this method successful, the ether or peppermint +should not be handled by the men who are to hunt +for the leak. The bottle containing the fluid should not +be opened in the building except to pour some into the +piping, otherwise the odor will get into the building and as +the odor comes out of the leak it will not be noted. For +the benefit of the gas fitter, the piping should be tested again +after the plastering is completed. The next test is made +when the fixtures are put on, and as the piping is tight any +leak that develops in this test indicates that the fixtures +leak. There are in common use various methods to stop +leaks in gas pipe when they are found. If a piece of piping +or a fitting is defective, it should be taken out and replaced. +This should be remembered so that while the piping is being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +installed any defects should be noted and the defective fitting +or pipe thrown out. Before the gas job is accepted, +the gas company will inspect it and look for traps and sags +in the pipe. Therefore, the piping should be installed without +any traps and it should be arranged to pitch toward +the meter, or toward a convenient place from which any +condensation can be taken out. If provision is not made +for this condensation, it will accumulate and stop the flow +of gas.</p> + + +<h3>SHOWER-BATH CONNECTIONS</h3> + +<p>The sketches show clearly the methods employed to make +a shower-bath waste and stall water-tight. The shower +bath, as a separate fixture, is in use and the demand for it +as a separate fixture is increasing rapidly. This demand +comes from the owners of private houses. The plumber +must therefore devise some way to make these connections +tight and prevent any leak from showing in the room below. +This fixture is so constructed that all waste pipes and trap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +come under the floor level with no way of getting to them +from below. Therefore the piping for this fixture must be +of a permanent nature. No pipe or trap made of material +that is liable to give out in a short time should be allowed +under a shower-bath fixture or stall. The two sketches, +Figs. <a href="#Fig_82">82</a> and <a href="#Fig_83">83</a> illustrate two methods of connecting and +making tight a shower stall. A plumber should always +consider it his special duty to make his work complete and +free from all objections. He should always prepare for +any emergency that may occur in the future. This is +rather a big task, yet the plumber when accepting all of +his responsibilities has a big task. I state this to the +beginner and emphasize the all-important fact that he must +learn to perform and think deeply of the elements of +plumbing to be able later on to handle successfully the +problems that present themselves in the plumbing trade.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_82" id="Fig_82"></a><a href="images/fig82.gif"><img src="images/fig82tn.gif" width="500" height="324" class="plain" alt="Fig. 82.--Shower stall with lead pan extending outside of stall." title="Fig. 82.—Shower stall with lead pan extending outside of stall." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 82.—Shower stall with lead pan extending outside of stall.</span> +</div></div> + +<p>The heavy brass trap shown in the sketch has proved +itself very satisfactory and can be made to fit almost any +condition of piping or building construction. A flashing +of sheet lead is soldered on the trap and carried out to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +outside edge of the stall where it is turned up 1 inch, or to +the floor level. When the flashing is carried out for only a +foot on each side of the trap, the possibilities of a leak are +greater.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_83" id="Fig_83"></a><a href="images/fig83.gif"><img src="images/fig83tn.gif" width="500" height="315" class="plain" alt="Fig. 83.--Shower stall with lead pan extending six inches beyond strainer." title="Fig. 83.—Shower stall with lead pan extending six inches beyond strainer." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 83.—Shower stall with lead pan extending six inches beyond strainer.</span> +</div></div> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<h3><a name="plumbing_code" id="plumbing_code"></a><span class="smcap">Plumbing Codes</span></h3> + + +<p>The work of plumbing has a direct result on the health of +the occupants of buildings; therefore in order that the +plumbing may not be installed improperly and impair the +health of the occupants, it is necessary to provide a code +governing the installation of plumbing. Naturally these +laws at first were under the control of the health department +of cities, but of late years the building departments have +assumed control of the codes with the result that coöperation +with the building codes is now the practice rather than +the exception.</p> + +<p>To make certain the carrying out of the plumbing codes, +it is required that a plan indicating the run, size, and length +of pipes, location and number of fixtures of the prospective +job be filed in the building department of the city, before +the work is started. If the plan is approved by the plumbing +inspector and acceptance is sent, then the work can be +started. After a job is completed a test is made and the +job is inspected by the plumbing inspector, and if found to +meet requirements a written acceptance of the work is +given by the building department. An effort is being made +throughout the country to have the plumbing codes under +State control rather than have a number of different codes +in as many different cities and towns. The State code can +be so arranged that it will apply to either city or town.</p> + +<p>The installation of plumbing varies in different States. +In the northern part of the United States all pipes which +pass through the roof, if less than 4-inch must be increased +to 4-inch. A pipe smaller than 4-inch will be filled with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +hoar frost during the winter and render the pipe useless to +perform its function as a vent pipe. Pipes laid under +ground in the Northern States must be at least 4 feet below +the surface to protect them from freezing. In the Southern +States the frost does not penetrate the ground to such a +distance and the pipes can be laid on the surface.</p> + +<p>Following is a State or City plumbing code insofar as +it relates to the actual installation of plumbing.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_1" id="Sec_1"></a>Sec. 1. Plans and Specifications.</span>—There shall be a separate +plan for each building, public or private, or any addition thereto, +or alterations thereof, accompanied by specifications showing +the location, size and kind of pipe, traps, closets and fixtures to +be used, which plans and specifications shall be filed with the board +or bureau of buildings. The said plans and specifications shall +be furnished by the architect, plumber or owner, and filed by the +plumber. All applications for change in plans must be made in +writing.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_2" id="Sec_2"></a>Sec. 2. Filing Plans and Specifications.</span>—Plumbers before +commencing the construction of plumbing work in any building +(except in case of repairs, which are here defined to relate to the +mending of leaks in soil, vent, or waste pipes, faucets, valves and +water-supply pipes, and shall not be construed to admit of the +replacing of any fixture, such as water closets, bath tubs, lavatories, +sinks, etc., or the respective traps for such fixtures) shall +submit to the bureau plans and specifications, legibly drawn in +ink, on blanks to be furnished by said board or bureau. Where +two or more buildings are located together and on the same +street, and the plumbing work is identical in each, one plan will +be sufficient. Plans will be approved or rejected within 24 hours +after their receipt.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_3" id="Sec_3"></a>Sec. 3. Material of House Drain and Sewer.</span>—House +drains or soil pipes laid beneath floor must be extra heavy cast-iron +pipe, with leaded and caulked joints, and carried 5 feet +outside cellar wall. All drains and soil pipes connected with +main drain where it is above the cellar floor shall be extra heavy +cast-iron pipe with leaded joints properly secured or of heavy +wrought-iron pipe with screw joints properly secured and carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +5 feet outside cellar wall and all arrangements for soil and waste +pipes shall be run as direct as possible. Changes of direction on +pipes shall be made with "Y"-branches, both above and below +the ground, and where such pipes pass through a new foundation-wall +a relieving arch shall be built over it, with a 2-inch space on +either side of the pipe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_4" id="Sec_4"></a>Sec.</span> 4.—The size of main house drain shall be determined by +the total area of the buildings and paved surfaces to be drained, +according to the following table, if iron pipe is used. If the pipe +is terra-cotta the pipe shall be one size larger than for the same +amount of area drainage.</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="drainage pipes"> +<tr><th align="center" class="btb">Diameter</th> +<th align="center" class="bbox">Fall <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch per foot</th> +<th align="center" class="btb">Fall <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inch per foot</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4 inches.....</span></td> +<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1,800 square feet drainage</span></td> +<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2,500 square feet drainage area</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5 inches.....</span></td> +<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3,000 square feet drainage</span></td> +<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4,500 square feet drainage area</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6 inches.....</span></td> +<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5,000 square feet drainage</span></td> +<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7,500 square feet drainage area</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8 inches.....</span></td> +<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9,100 square feet drainage</span></td> +<td>13,600 square feet drainage area</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="brb">10 inches.....</td> +<td class="brb">14,000 square feet drainage</td> +<td class="bb">20,000 square feet drainage area</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The main house drains may be decreased in diameter beyond +the rain-water conductor or surface inlet by permission of the +bureau, when the plans show that the conditions are such as to +warrant such decrease, but in no case shall the main house drain +be less than 4 inches in diameter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_5" id="Sec_5"></a>Sec. 5. Main Trap.</span>—An iron running trap with two clean-outs +must be placed in the house drain near the front wall of the +house, and on the sewer side of all connections. If placed outside +the house or below the cellar floor the clean-outs must extend to +surface with brass screw cap ferrules caulked in. If outside the +house, it must never be placed less than 4 feet below the surface +of the ground.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_6" id="Sec_6"></a>Sec. 6. Fresh-air Inlet.</span>—A fresh-air inlet pipe must be +connected with the house drain just inside of the house trap and +extended to the outer air, terminating with a return bend, or a +vent cap or a grating with an open end 1 foot above grade at the +most available point to be determined by the building department.</p> + +<p>The fresh-air inlet pipe must be 4 inches in diameter for house<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +drains of 6 inches or less and as much larger as the building department +may direct for house drains more than 6 inches in diameter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_7" id="Sec_7"></a>Sec. 7. Laying of House Sewers and Drains.</span>—House +sewers and house drains must, where possible, be given an even +grade to the main sewer of not less than <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch to the foot. +Full-sized "Y"- and "T"-branch fittings for handhole clean-outs +must be provided where required on house drain and its branches. +No clean-out need be larger than 6 inches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_8" id="Sec_8"></a>Sec. 8. Floor Drains.</span>—Floor or other drains will only be +permitted when it can be shown to the satisfaction of the department +of building that their use is absolutely necessary, and arrangements +made to maintain a permanent water seal, and be provided +with check or back-water valves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_9" id="Sec_9"></a>Sec. 9. Weight and Thickness of Cast-iron Pipe.</span>—All cast-iron +pipes must be uncoated excepting all laid under ground, +which shall be thoroughly tarred, sound, cylindrical and smooth, +free from cracks, sand holes and other defects, and of uniform +thickness and of grade known to commerce as extra heavy. Cast-iron +pipe including the hub shall weigh not less than the following +weights per linear foot:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="cast-iron pipes"> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2-inch pipe...............</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> pounds per foot.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3-inch pipe...............</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> pounds per foot.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>13 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>17 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>20 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>27 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>33<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> pounds per foot.</td></tr> +<tr><td>10-inch pipe...............</td><td>45 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>12-inch pipe...............</td><td>54 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>All cast-iron pipe must be tested to 50 pounds and marked with +the maker's name.</p> + +<p>All joints in cast-iron pipe must be made with picked oakum +and molten lead and caulked gas-tight. Twelve ounces of soft +pig lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the diameter +of the pipe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_10" id="Sec_10"></a>Sec. 10. Wrought-iron and Steel Pipe.</span>—All wrought-iron +and steel pipe shall be galvanized. Fittings used for drainage +must be galvanized and of recess type known as drainage fittings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +All fittings used for venting shall be galvanized and of the style +known as steam pattern. No plain black pipe or fittings will be +permitted.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_11" id="Sec_11"></a>Sec. 11. Sub-soil Drains.</span>—Sub-soil drains must be discharged +into a sump or receiving tank, the contents of which must be +lifted and discharged into the drainage system above the cellar +floor by some approved method. Where directly sewer-connected, +they must be cut off from the rest of the building and plumbing +system by a brass flap valve on the inlet to the catch basin and +the trap on the drain from the catch basin must be water-supplied.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_12" id="Sec_12"></a>Sec. 12. Yard and Area Drains.</span>—All yard, area and court +drains when sewer-connected must have connection not less than +4 inches in diameter. They should be controlled by one trap—the +leader trap if possible. All yards, areas and courts must be drained. +Tenement houses and lodging houses must have yards, areas and +courts drained into sewer.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_13" id="Sec_13"></a>Sec. 13. Use of Old Drains and Sewers.</span>—Old house drains +and sewers may be used in connection with new buildings or new +plumbing, only when they are found, on examination by the +department of building, to conform in all respects to the requirements +governing new sewers and drains. All extensions to old +house drains must be of extra heavy cast-iron pipe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_14" id="Sec_14"></a>Sec. 14. Leader Pipes.</span>—All building shall be provided with +proper metallic leaders for conducting water from the roofs in +such manner as shall protect the walls and foundations of such +buildings from injury. In no case shall the water from such +leaders be allowed to flow upon the sidewalk but the same shall +be conducted by a pipe or pipes to the sewer. If there is no +sewer in the street upon which such building fronts, then the +water from said leader shall be conducted, by proper pipes below +the surface of the sidewalk, to the street gutter.</p> + +<p>Inside leaders shall be constructed of cast iron, wrought iron +or steel, with roof connections made gas-and water-tight by means +of heavy copper drawn tubing slipped into the pipe. The tubing +must slip at least 7 inches into the pipe. Outside leaders may +be of sheet metal, but they must connect with the house drain +by means of cast-iron pipe extending vertically 5 feet above grade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +level, where the building is located along public driveways or sidewalks. +Where the building is located off building line, and not +liable to be damaged the connection shall be made with iron pipe +extending 1 foot above the grade level.</p> + +<p>All leaders must be trapped with running traps of cast iron, so +placed as to prevent freezing.</p> + +<p>Rain leaders must not be used as soil, waste or vent pipes, nor +shall such pipes be used as rain leaders.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_15" id="Sec_15"></a>Sec. 15.—Exhaust from Steam Pipes, Etc.</span>—No steam discharge +or exhaust, blow-off or drip pipe shall connect with the +sewer or the house drain, leader, soil pipe, waste or vent pipe. +Such pipes shall discharge into a tank or condenser, from which +suitable outlet to the sewer shall be made. Such condenser +shall be supplied with water, to help condensation and help +protect the sewer, and shall also be supplied with relief vent to +carry off dry steam.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_16" id="Sec_16"></a>Sec. 16. Diameter of Soil Pipe.</span>—The smallest diameter +of soil pipe permitted to be used shall be 4 inches. The size of +soil pipes must not be less than those set forth in the following +tables.</p> + +<p>Maximum number of fixtures connected to:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" summary="maximum fixtures"> +<tr><th rowspan="2" align="center" class="btb">Size of pipe</th> +<th colspan="2" align="center" class="bbox">Waste and soil combined</th> +<th colspan="2" align="center" class="btb" >Soil pipe alone</th></tr> + +<tr> +<th align="center" class="bbox">Branch<br />fixtures</th> +<th align="center" class="bbox">Main<br />fixtures</th> +<th align="center" class="bbox">Branch<br />water closets</th> +<th align="center" class="bb">Main<br />water closets</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4-inch</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">48</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">96</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8</span></td> +<td align="center">16</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="br">4.5-inch</td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">96</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">192</td> +<td align="center" class="br">16</td> +<td align="center">32</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6-inch</span></td> +<td align="center" class="brb">268</td> +<td align="center" class="brb">336</td> +<td align="center" class="brb">34</td> +<td align="center" class="bb">68</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>If the building is six (6) and less than twelve (12) stories in +height, the diameter shall not be less than 5 inches. If more than +twelve (12) it shall be 6 inches, in diameter. A building six +(6) or more stories in height, with fixtures located below the sixth +floor, soil pipe 4 inches in diameter will be allowed to extend +through the roof provided the number of fixtures does not exceed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +the number given in the table. All soil pipes must extend at +least 2 feet above the highest window, and must not be reduced +in size. Traps will not be permitted on main, vertical, soil or +waste-pipe lines. Each house must have a separate line of soil +and vent pipes. No soil or waste line shall be constructed on the +outside of a building.</p> + +<p> +Fixtures with: <br /></p> + +<ul class="lsoff"> +<li>1–1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-inch traps count as one fixture.</li> +<li>1–1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps count as one fixture.</span></li> +<li>1–2<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps count as two fixtures.</span></li> +<li>1–2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps count as three fixtures.</span></li> +<li>1–3<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps (water closets) count as four fixtures.</span></li> +<li>1–4<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps count as five fixtures.</span></li> +</ul> + + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_17" id="Sec_17"></a>Sec. 17. Change in Direction.</span>—All sewer, soil, and waste +pipes must be as direct as possible. Changes in direction must +be made with "Y"- or half "Y"-branches or one-eighth bends. +Offsets in soil or waste pipes will not be permitted when they +can be avoided, nor, in any case unless suitable provision is made +to prevent the accumulation of rust or other obstruction. Offsets +must be made with fourth degree bends or similar fittings. The +use of T "Y"s (sanitary Ts) will be permitted on upright lines +only.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_18" id="Sec_18"></a>Sec. 18. Joints on Soil and Waste Pipes.</span>—Connection on +lead and cast-iron pipe shall be made with brass sleeve or ferrule, +of the same size as the lead pipe inserted in the hub of the iron +pipe, and caulked with lead. The lead must be attached to the +ferrule by means of a wiped joint. Joints between lead and +wrought-iron pipes must be made with brass nipple, of same size +as lead pipe. The lead pipe must be attached to the brass nipple +by means of a wiped joint. All connections of lead waste pipes +must be made by means of wiped joints.</p> + +<p>Short nipples on wrought-iron and steel pipes must be of thickness +and weight known as "extra heavy" or "extra strong."</p> + +<p>Brass ferrules must be best quality, extra heavy cast brass, not +less than 4 inches long and 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>, 3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and 4<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches in diameter +and not less than the following weights:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p> +<div class="figs"> +<table summary="brass ferrules" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><th align="center">Diameters</th><th align="center">Weights</th></tr> +<tr><td>2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches.........................</td><td>1 pound <span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">0 ounce.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches.........................</td><td>1 pound 12 ounces.</td></tr> +<tr><td>4<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches.........................</td><td>2 pounds <span style="margin-left: 0.2em;">8 ounces.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_19" id="Sec_19"></a>Sec. 19. Solder Nipples.</span>—Solder nipples must be heavy cast +brass or of brass pipe, iron pipe size. When cast they must be +not less than the following weights:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table summary="solder nipples" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><th align="center">Diameters</th><th align="center">Weights</th></tr> +<tr><td>1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches.........................</td><td>0 pound <span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8 ounces.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>2<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches.........................</span></td><td>0 pound 14 ounces.</td></tr> +<tr><td>2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches.........................</td><td>1 pound <span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6 ounces.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>3<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches.........................</span></td><td>2 pounds <span style="margin-left: 0.2em;">0 ounce.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>4<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches.........................</span></td><td>3 pounds <span style="margin-left: 0.2em;">8 ounces.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_20" id="Sec_20"></a>Sec. 20. Brass Clean-outs.</span>—Brass screw caps for clean-outs +must be extra heavy, not less than <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> inch thick. The screw cap +must have a solid square or hexagonal nut not less than 1 inch +high and a least diameter of 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches. The body of the clean-out +ferrule must be at least equal in weight and thickness to the +caulking ferrule for the same size pipe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_21" id="Sec_21"></a>Sec. 21. Lead Waste Pipe.</span>—All lead waste, soil vent and flush +pipes must be of the best quality, known in commerce as "<i>D</i>," +and of not less than the following weights per linear foot:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table summary="lead waste pipes" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><th align="center">Diameters</th><th align="center">Weights</th></tr> +<tr><td>1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches..............................</td><td>2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> pounds.</td></tr> +<tr><td>1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches..............................</td><td>3 <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">pounds.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>2<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches..............................</span></td><td>4 <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">pounds.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>3<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches..............................</span></td><td>6 <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">pounds.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>4<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches..............................</span></td><td>8 <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">pounds.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>All lead traps and bends must be of the same weight and thicknesses +as their corresponding pipe branches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_22" id="Sec_22"></a>Sec. 22. Roof Flashers.</span>—Sheet lead for roof flashings must +be 6-pound lead and must extend not less than 6 inches from the +pipe and the joint made water-tight.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_23" id="Sec_23"></a>Sec. 23. Traps for Bath Tubs, Water Closets, Etc.</span>—Every +sink, bath tub, basin, water closet, slop hopper, or fixtures +having a waste pipe, must be furnished with a trap, which shall +be placed as close as practicable to the fixture that it serves and +in no case shall it be more than 1 foot. The waste pipe from the +bath tub or other fixtures must not be connected with a water-closet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +trap.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_24" id="Sec_24"></a>Sec. 24. Size of Horizontal and Vertical Waste Pipes, +Traps and Branches.</span>—</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table summary="pipe sizes" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><th align="center">Horizontal and vertical</th><th align="center">Number of small fixtures</th></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-inch..............................</td><td align="center">1</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch..............................</td><td align="center">2</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">2 -inch..............................</td><td align="center">3 to 8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch..............................</td><td align="center">9 to 20</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">3 -inch..............................</td><td align="center">21 to 44</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>If building is ten (10) or more stories in height, the vertical +waste pipe shall not be less than 3 inches in diameter. The use +of wrought-iron pipe for waste pipe 2 inches or less in diameter +is prohibited.</p> + +<p>The size of traps and waste branches, for a given fixture, shall +be as follows:</p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table summary="fixtures" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><th align="center" rowspan="2" class="btb">Kind of fixtures</th> +<th align="center" colspan="2" class="blt">Size in inches</th></tr> + +<tr><th align="center" class="bbox">Trap</th> +<th align="center" class="btb">Branch</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="br">Water closet...................................................</td><td align="center" class="br">3</td><td align="center">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Slop sink with trap combined..........................</td><td align="center" class="br">3</td><td align="center">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Slop sink ordinary...........................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Pedestal urinal................................................</td><td align="center" class="br">3</td><td align="center">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Floor drain or wash.........................................</td><td align="center" class="br">4</td><td align="center">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Yard drain or catch basin................................</td><td align="center" class="br">4</td><td align="center">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Urinal trough...................................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Laundry trays, two or five................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Combination sink and tray (for each fixture).....</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> </span></td><td align="center">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Kitchen sinks, small.........................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td> +<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> </span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Kitchen sinks, large hotel, etc..........................</td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Kitchen sinks, grease trap...............................</td><td class="br"></td><td align="center">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Pantry sinks....................................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td><td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Wash basin, one only......................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span></td><td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Bath tub..........................................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Shower baths..................................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td><td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Shower baths, floor.........................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Sitz bath..........................................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td><td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="brb">Drinking fountains............................................</td><td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span></td><td align="center" class="bb"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_25" id="Sec_25"></a>Sec. 25. Overflow Pipes.</span>—Overflow pipes from fixtures must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +in all cases be connected on the inlet side of the traps.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_26" id="Sec_26"></a>Sec. 26. Setting of Traps Without Re-vent.</span>—All traps +must be substantially supported and set true with respect to +their water levels. No pot, bottle or "D" trap will be permitted +nor any form of trap that is not self-cleaning, nor that has interior +chambers or mechanism nor any trap except earthenware ones +that depend upon interior partitions for a seal. In case there is +an additional fixture required in building and it is impossible to +re-vent pipe for the trap, the building department may designate +the kind of trap to be used. This shall not be construed to allow +traps without re-vents in new buildings.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_27" id="Sec_27"></a>Sec. 27. Safe and Refrigerator Pipes.</span>—Safe-waste pipes +must not connect directly with any part of the plumbing system. +Safe-waste pipes must discharge over an open, water-supplied, +publicly-placed, ordinary-used sink, placed not more than 3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> +feet above the cellar floor. The safe waste from a refrigerator +must be trapped at the bottom of the line only and must not discharge +upon the ground floor, but over an ordinary open pan, or +some properly-trapped, water-supplied sink, as above. In no +case shall the refrigerator waste pipe discharge into a sink located +in a living room.</p> + +<p>The branches on vertical lines must be made by means of "Y" +fittings and be carried to the safe with as much pitch as possible. +Where there is an offset on the refrigerator waste pipe in the cellar, +there must be clean-outs placed. These clean-outs must be of +brass.</p> + +<p>In tenement and lodging houses the refrigerator waste pipe +must extend above the roof, and not be larger than 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches and +the branches not smaller than 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches. Refrigerator waste +pipes, except in tenement houses, and all safe-waste pipes, must +have brass flap valve on the lower ends. Lead safes must be +graded and neatly turned over beveled strips at their edges.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_28" id="Sec_28"></a>Sec. 28. Vent-pipe Material.</span>—Material for vent pipes shall +be of lead, brass, enameled iron or galvanized iron.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_29" id="Sec_29"></a>Sec. 29. Ventilation of Traps and Soil Lines.</span>—Traps +shall be protected from siphonage or air pressure by special vent +pipes of a size of not less than the following tables:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figs"> +<table summary="traps" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><th align="center" rowspan="2" class="btb">Size of pipe</th> +<th align="center" class="bbox">Maximum<br />length in feet</th> +<th align="center" colspan="2" class="btb">Number of traps vented</th></tr> + +<tr><th align="center" class="bbox">Mains</th> +<th align="center" class="bbox">Branch</th> +<th align="center" class="btb">Main vertical</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>-inch vent..........</td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -0.5em;">20 feet</span></td> +<td align="left" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch vent..........</td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -0.5em;">40 feet</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2 or less</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br">2-inch vent..............</td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -0.5em;">65 feet</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">10 or less</td> +<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">20 or less</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="br">2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>-inch vent..........</td> +<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.0em;">100 feet</span></td> +<td align="center" class="br">20 or less</td> +<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">40 or less</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="brb">3-inch vent..............</td> +<td align="center" class="brb">10 or more<br />stories</td> +<td align="center" class="brb">60 or less</td> +<td align="center" class="bb">100 or less</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The branch vent shall not be less than the following sizes:</p> + +<ul class="lsoff"> +<li>1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inches in diameter for 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> inch trap.</li> +<li>1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches in diameter for 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inch to 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inch trap.</li> +<li>2 inches in diameter for 3 inch to 4 inch trap.</li> +<li>One-half their diameter, for traps 3 inches and over.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Where two or more closets are placed side by side, on a horizontal +branch, the branch line shall have a relief extended as a +loop. A pipe 2 inches in diameter shall be sufficient as a loop vent +for two closets. A pipe 3 inches in diameter shall be sufficient +as a relief for three or four closets; and where more than four +closets are located on the same branch the relief shall not be less +than 4 inches in diameter. All house drains and soil lines on +which a water closet is located must have a 4-inch main vent line. +Where an additional closet is located in the cellar or basement, +and within 10 feet of main soil or vent line, no relief vent will be +required for said closet; but where it is more than 10 feet, a 2-inch +vent line will be required. Relief vent pipes for water closets +must not be less than 2 inches in diameter, for a length of 40 feet, +and not less than 3 inches in diameter, for more than 40 feet.</p> + +<p>No re-vent from traps under bell traps will be required.</p> + +<p>In any building having a sewer connection with a private or +public sewer used for bell-trap connections or floor drainage only, +a 2-inch relief line must be extended to the roof of the building +from rear end of main. House drains, constructed for roof drainage +only, will not require a relief vent.</p> + +<p>A floor trap for a shower shall be vented, unless located in the +cellar or ground floor the paving of which renders the trap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +inaccessible.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_30" id="Sec_30"></a>Sec. 30. Horizontal Vent Pipes.</span>—Where rows of fixtures +are placed in a line, fitting of not less than 45° to the horizontal +must be used on vent lines to prevent filling with rust or condensation; +except on brick or tile walls, where it is necessary to channel +same for pipes, 90° fittings will be allowed. Trapped vent pipes +are strictly prohibited. No vent pipe from the house side of any +trap shall connect with the ventilation pipe or with sewer, soil or +waste pipe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_31" id="Sec_31"></a>Sec. 31. Offset on Vent Lines.</span>—All offsets on vent lines +must be made at an angle of not less than 45° to the horizontal, +and all lines must be connected at the bottom with a soil or waste +pipe, or the drain, in such manner as to prevent the accumulation +of rust, scale or condensation.</p> + +<p>No sheet metal, brick, or other flue shall be used as a vent pipe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_32" id="Sec_32"></a>Sec. 32. Setting of Fixtures.</span>—All fixtures must be set open +and free from all enclosing woodwork. Water closets and urinals +must not be connected directly or flushed from the water-supply +pipes except when flushometer valves are used. Each water +closet must be flushed from a separate cistern, the water from +which is used for no other purpose, or may be flushed through +flushometer valves.</p> + +<p>Rubber connection and elbows are not permitted.</p> + +<p>Pan, plunger, or hopper closets will not be permitted in any +building. No range closet either wet or dry, nor any evaporating +system of closets shall be constructed or allowed inside of any +building.</p> + +<p>A separate building constructed especially for the purpose, must +be provided in which such range closets shall be set.</p> + +<p>All earthenware traps must have heavy brass floor flange plates, +soldered to the lead bends and bolted to the trap flange, and the +joint made permanently secure and gas-tight.</p> + +<p>In all buildings sewer-connected there must be at least one water +closet in each building. There must be a sufficient number of +water closets so that there will never be more than 15 people +to each water closet.</p> + +<p>Separate water closets and toilet rooms must be provided for +each sex in buildings used as workshops, office buildings, factories,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +hotels and all places of public assembly.</p> + +<p>In all buildings the water closet and urinal apartments must be +ventilated into the outer air by windows opening on the same lot +as the building is situated on or by a ventilating skylight placed +over each room or apartment where such fixtures are located.</p> + +<p>In all buildings the outside partition of any water closet or +urinal apartment must be air-tight and extend to the ceiling or +be independently ceiled over. When necessary to light such +apartments properly the upper part of the partition must be +provided with translucent glass. The interior partitions of such +apartments must be dwarfed partitions.</p> + +<p>In alteration work where it is not practicable to ventilate a +closet or urinal apartment by windows or skylight to the outer +air, there must be provided a sheet-iron duct extending to the +outer air, the area of the duct must be at least 144 square inches +for one water closet or urinal, and an additional 72 square inches +for each addition closet or urinal added therein.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_33" id="Sec_33"></a>Sec. 33. Urinals.</span>—All urinals must be constructed of materials +impervious to moisture and that will not corrode under the action +of urine. The floors and walls of urinal apartments must be lined +with similar non-absorbent and non-corrosive material.</p> + +<p>The platforms and treads of urinal stalls must be connected +independently of the plumbing system, nor can they be connected +with any safe-waste pipe.</p> + +<p>The copper lining of water closet and urinal cisterns must not +be lighter than 12 ounces copper, and must be stamped on lining +with maker's name. Where lead is used it must not weigh less +than 4 pounds to the square foot. All other materials are +prohibited.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_34" id="Sec_34"></a>Sec. 34. Fixtures Prohibited.</span>—Wooden wash trays, sinks, +or bath tubs are prohibited inside buildings. Such fixtures must +be constructed of non-absorbent materials. Cement or artificial +stone tubs will not be permitted, unless approved by the plumbing +inspector and building department.</p> + +<p>Yard water closets will not be permitted except as approved +by the plumbing inspector and then passed by the building +department.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_35" id="Sec_35"></a>Sec. 35. Privy Vaults and Cesspools.</span>—No privy vault or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +cesspool for sewage, shall be constructed in any part of the city +where a sewer is at all accessible. In parts of the city where no +sewer exists privy vaults and cesspools shall not be located within +2 feet of party or street line nor within 20 feet of any building. +Before these are constructed application for permission therefore +shall be made to the building department.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_36" id="Sec_36"></a>Sec. 36. Material and Workmanship.</span>—All material used in +the work of plumbing and drainage must be of good quality and +free from defects. The work must be executed in a thorough and +workmanlike manner.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<div class="figs"> +<table style="width:65%;" border="0" summary="index jumps"> + <tr align="center"> + <td> <a href="#IX_A">A</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_B">B</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_C">C</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_D">D</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_E">E</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_F">F</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_G">G</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_H">H</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_I">I</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_J">J</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_K">K</a></td> + </tr> + <tr align="center"> + <td> <a href="#IX_L">L</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_M">M</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_N">N</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_O">O</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_P">P</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_R">R</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_S">S</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_T">T</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_U">U</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_V">V</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_W">W</a></td> + </tr> +</table></div> + +<p><br /></p> + +<div class="index"> +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_A" id="IX_A">A</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Acid, muriatic, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_B" id="IX_B">B</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Banjo, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> +<li>Bath-tub, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>–<a href="#Page_6">6</a>–<a href="#Page_7">7</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>size waste, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bending irons, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li>Bib, wiping, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +<li>Bowls, closet, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_C" id="IX_C">C</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Caulking joints, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> +<li>Cellar drainer, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Cement, pipe joint, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> +<li>Cementing, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Circulation, hot water, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Closets, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> +<li>Cocks, stop and waste, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> +<li>Code-plumbing, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>brass clean-outs, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + <li>change in direction, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + <li>diameter of soil pipes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + <li>exhaust from steam pipes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + <li>filing plans, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + <li>floor drains, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + <li>fresh-air inlet, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + <li>joints, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + <li>laying of drains, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + <li>lead waste pipe, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + <li>leader pipes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + <li>main trap, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + <li>materials of drains, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + <li>old drains and sewers, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + <li>over-flow pipes, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + <li>plans and specification, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + <li>roof flashers, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + <li>safe and refrigerator pipes, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + <li>size of drains, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + <li>of waste pipes, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + <li>solder nipples, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + <li>traps, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + <li>without vents, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + <li>yard and area drains, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Code, fixtures prohibited, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>horizontal vents, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + <li>material and workmanship, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + <li>offsets, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + <li>privy vaults and cesspools, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + <li>setting of fixtures, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + <li>urinals, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + <li>vent, pipe material, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + <li>ventilation of traps, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Connecting, sewers, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Connections, of fixtures, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> +<li>Corporation cock and tap, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>–<a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Coupling, right and left, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Covering, pipe, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li>Cup joint, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>–<a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Curb cock, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>–<a href="#Page_81">81</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>box, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>–<a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cutters, pipe, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li>Cutting, terra-cotta pipe, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>cast-iron pipe, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> + </ul></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_D" id="IX_D">D</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Dies, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li>Drainage, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> +<li>Drains, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li>Drift plugs, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li>Drum trap, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li>Durham work, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_E" id="IX_E">E</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Earthenware, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>–<a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> +<li>Expansion joints, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_F" id="IX_F">F</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Ferrule, brass, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>–<a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>File, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Fittings, drainage, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>gas, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + <li>screw pipe, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + <li>soil pipe, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fixtures, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> +<li>Flushing, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> +<li>Flux, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li>Fresh-air inlet, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_G" id="IX_G">G</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Gas pipe and fittings, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>piping, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Goose neck, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_H" id="IX_H">H</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Half and half solder, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Hammer, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Hangers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li>Heaters, flue connection, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>gas coil, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> + <li>instantaneous, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hot water supply, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>House drains, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>traps, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> + </ul></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_I" id="IX_I">I</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Inserting, terra-cotta pipe, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Intercepting trap, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li>Iron enamelled ware, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_J" id="IX_J">J</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Joints, amount of lead and oakum, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>caulk, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + <li>cup, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>expansion, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + <li>of sub-soil, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + <li>overcast, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + <li>runner, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> + <li>rust, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + <li>seams, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + <li>solder, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + </ul></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_K" id="IX_K">K</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Kitchen sinks, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_L" id="IX_L">L</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Lavatories, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li>Lead connection, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>used in caulked joints, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lead pipe, for water mains, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>preparing for wiping, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li>use of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Leaders, pipes and traps, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li>Long screws, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_M" id="IX_M">M</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Main sewer, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Mason trap, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li>Measurements of piping, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></li> +<li>Melting point of metals, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Metal, wiping, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li>Meter, reading gas, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_N" id="IX_N">N</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Nipples, cutting and threading, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>holders, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + </ul></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_O" id="IX_O">O</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Oakum, use of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li>Overcast joint, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_P" id="IX_P">P</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Paste, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Pipe, brass, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>covering, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + <li>cutting, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> + <li>kinds of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + <li>service, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + <li>soil, location, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> + <li>steel, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + <li>tell-tale, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + <li>terra-cotta, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + <li>threading, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + <li>wrought iron, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pipe laying, sewer, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>water, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + <li>in tunnel, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Piping, water, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>drainage, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Planking, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>Pressure, water, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_R" id="IX_R">R</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Rain leaders, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Reaming, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li>Receptors, showers, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li>Refill, trench, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>tunnels, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Right and left couplings, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_S" id="IX_S">S</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Sanitary drains, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li>Screw-pipe work, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Seams, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Sewerage, system of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Sewers, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Shoe, use of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Shower stall, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +<li>Sinks, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> +<li>Soil pipe, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li>Soils, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Soldering iron, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Solders, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Stopcock, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> +<li>Sulphur, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li>Swab, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_T" id="IX_T">T</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Tables, angle measurements, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>brass ferrules, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + <li>fixtures and traps, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + <li>lead waste pipe, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + <li>measurements, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + <li>roof drainage, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + <li>screw-pipe, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + <li>size of vent pipes, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + <li>of waste pipe, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + <li>soil and waste pipe, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + <li>standard, threads, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + <li>terra-cotta pipe, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + <li>waste pipe, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + <li>weight of cast-iron pipe, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + <li>of solder nipples, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tallow, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Tank, storage connections of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></li> +<li>Tell-tale pipe, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Terra-cotta pipe, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>cutting, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Testing, gas pipe, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Thermostat, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +<li>Tinning, brass, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>bib, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tools, bending iron, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>caulking iron, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + <li>cold chisel, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> + <li>file, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li>hammer, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li>joint runner, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> + <li>ladle, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + <li>pipe cutters, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + <li>rasp, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li>saw, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li>shave hook, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li>soldering iron, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li>tap-borer, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + <li>turn pin, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li>vise, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + <li>yarning iron, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Traps, bag, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>centrifugal, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + <li>cleansweep, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> + <li>drum, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + <li>flask, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> + <li>house, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> + <li>intercepting, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + <li>mechanical, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + <li>non-syphoning, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + <li>"S," <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + <li>sure-seal, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Trenches, digging, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>refilling, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + <li>water service, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tubs, bath, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> +<li>Tunnels, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_U" id="IX_U">U</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Urinals, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_V" id="IX_V">V</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Valves, check, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>closet, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + <li>safety, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ventilation pipe, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li>Vents, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>–<a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_W" id="IX_W">W</a></span> +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Wash trays, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li>Water connection, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>supply, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + <li>rivers and lakes, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> + <li>streams and brooks, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + <li>under pressure, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> + <li>underground, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wiping, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>bib, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + <li>branch joints, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>cloths, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + <li>drum trap, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + <li>2-inch brass ferrule, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li>4-inch brass ferrule, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + <li>round joint, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li>solder, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + <li>stopcock, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + </ul></li> +</ul></li></ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Elements of Plumbing, by Samuel Dibble + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING *** + +***** This file should be named 25269-h.htm or 25269-h.zip ***** 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