diff options
Diffstat (limited to '25266.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 25266.txt | 5708 |
1 files changed, 5708 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/25266.txt b/25266.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dded504 --- /dev/null +++ b/25266.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5708 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Bell's Cathedrals: The Cathedral Church of +St. Paul, by Arthur Dimock + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Bell's Cathedrals: The Cathedral Church of St. Paul + An Account of the Old and New Buildings with a Short Historical Sketch + + +Author: Arthur Dimock + + + +Release Date: April 30, 2008 [eBook #25266] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BELL'S CATHEDRALS: THE CATHEDRAL +CHURCH OF ST. PAUL*** + + +E-text prepared by Jeannie Howse, Jonathan Ingram, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 25266-h.htm or 25266-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/5/2/6/25266/25266-h/25266-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/5/2/6/25266/25266-h.zip) + + + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's Note: | + | | + | Bold-faced text is enclosed by equal signs (=bold text=) | + | in this document. | + | | + | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. For | + | a complete list, please see the end of this document. | + | | + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +THE CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF SAINT PAUL + +An Account of the Old and +New Buildings with a +Short Historical Sketch + +by + +THE REV. ARTHUR DIMOCK, M.A. + +Rector of Wetherden, Suffolk + + + + + + + + [Illustration: _Photochrom Co. Ltd. Photo._ + ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, FROM THE SOUTH BANK OF THE THAMES.] + + [Illustration: (Arms of the See)] + +With XXXIX Illustrations + + +London George Bell & Sons 1900 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The MSS. relating to St. Paul's are deficient in regard to the earlier +periods, but become gradually more complete as time progresses. They +have been published or quoted, probably, more extensively than those +belonging to any other religious foundation in this country, unless it +be such communities as St. Alban's, which have attracted the continued +attention of the editors working under the Master of the Rolls. In +consequence, although our knowledge, not only of the Romano-British +period but of many succeeding centuries, is defective or altogether +wanting, yet as time advances after the Norman Conquest the merely +printed material at our disposal becomes gradually almost +embarrassing. When we come to the present Cathedral, we know not only +exactly _when_ it was built, but to a great extent _how_ and _why_. + +In the _Parentalia_ Wren's grandson, Stephen, partly in his own words, +partly in those of his famous grandfather, lifting the curtain, +discloses the personal history and inner self of the architect at his +work. + +Among the leading authorities are the following, giving the place of +honour to the-- + +_Parentalia or Memoirs. Completed by his_ [Sir Christopher's] _son, +Christopher. Now published by his grandson, Stephen Wren, Esq._ +(London, 1858). + +_The History of St. Paul's_, by Sir William Dugdale (Ellis' edition, +1818). + +_Repertorium_, by Richard Newcourt (London, 1708). + +_Radulfi de Diceto, Decani, Lundoniensis Opera Historica_ (vols. i. +and ii., edited for the Master of the Rolls by the Bishop of Oxford). + +I have to thank the Dean for permission to consult the Chapter copy of +the _Registrum Statutorum_, edited for private circulation (1873) by +that enthusiastic and accurate St. Paul's scholar, the late Dr. +Sparrow-Simpson, one of the last of the Minor Canons on the old +foundation, Librarian and Sub-dean. There is a supplement (1897). + +Dr. Sparrow-Simpson also wrote or edited the following-- + +_Documents Illustrating the History of St. Paul's Cathedral_ (Camden +Society, 1880). + +_Chapters in the History of Old St. Paul's_ (1881). + +_Visitation of Churches_ (Camden Society, 1885). + +_Gleanings from Old St. Paul's_ (1889). + +_St. Paul's and Old City Life_ (1894). + +His remaining work, the Catalogue of the Library, I have not +consulted. + +_Annals of St. Paul's_, by Dean Milman (1868). + +The learned and talented historian did not live to see this his last +work through the press. In consequence there are printer's errors as +to dates, &c., which I have not thought it necessary to point out. + +_Domesday of St. Paul's_, by Archdeacon Hale (Camden Society, 1858). + +_The Three Cathedrals dedicated to St. Paul_, by William Longman +(Longmans, 1873). + +Amongst other sources of information are the lectures delivered in St. +Paul's by Bishop Browne when a residentiary, and published by the +S.P.C.K. The value of these to the students of early Church History is +in an inverse ratio to their size. The origin of our secular colleges +yet remains to be written; but I am again indebted to Mr. Arthur +Francis Leach for the Introduction to the _Visitations of Southwell_ +(Camden Society, 1891), for valuable information on this subject. + +In regard to the efforts to complete Wren's designs by mosaic +decorations, I have carefully observed all that has been done, and +have attentively followed much that has been said and written. In +particular I have been interested by a statement that has gone the +round of the press. Certain young ladies and gentlemen of the Slade +School of Art and elsewhere are reported to have protested that even +good and appropriate decoration would be contrary to the wishes of Sir +Christopher Wren. + +My thanks are due to the Dean for his courtesy and trouble in +rendering me all the assistance I asked for; to the Bishop of Oxford +(like the Bishop of Bristol, a former residentiary) for providing me +with a list of authorities at the commencement of my task; to the +librarians of All Souls' College, Oxford, and their committee, and +particularly to Mr. George Holden, assistant librarian, for permission +to use their invaluable collection of Wren's designs and drawings; to +the Archdeacon of Middlesex for information concerning the +inscriptions on the stalls; to Canon Milford, successor to Wren's +father as Rector of Bishop-Knoyle, for communicating to me the +irregularity about the registration of Wren's baptism, and for the +loan of Mrs. Lucy Phillimore's _Life and Times of Wren_, a work out of +print and not to be procured at the London Library; to Mr. Peter +Cazalet for kind assistance in drawing one of the arches and also in +describing the monuments; and if last, certainly not least, to the +ever courteous officials of the Cathedral, who have rendered me every +facility in my study of Wren's building. + + ARTHUR DIMOCK. + + WETHERDEN RECTORY, + HAUGHLEY, SUFFOLK, + _January 3, 1900._ + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER PAGE + + I. Foundation and History to the Accession of Dean Colet + (61-1505) 3 + + II. From the Accession of Dean Colet to the Great Fire + (1505-1666) 19 + +III. Old St. Paul's. Exterior 36 + Interior 40 + Precincts 48 + Dimensions 54 + + IV. From the Fire to the Completion of New St. Paul's + (1666-1710) 55 + + V. New St. Paul's. Exterior 77 + North and South Fronts 84 + East End 86 + West Front 86 + The Dome 89 + The Lantern 93 + + VI. New St. Paul's. Interior 94 + The Nave 95 + The Main Arcade 97 + The Triforium Belt 98 + The Clerestory 98 + The Vaulting 98 + The Nave Aisles 100 + The West Chapels 100 + The Geometrical Staircase 102 + The Dome--The Arcading 103 + The Whispering Gallery 104 + The Drum 104 + The Cupola 106 + The Pulpit 107 + The Mosaics 107 + The Transepts 111 + The Choir--The Stalls 112 + The Organ 114 + The Reredos 115 + The Apse 116 + The Mosaics 116 + The Reredos Arch 120 + The Monuments 121 + The Crypt 132 + The Galleries and Library 136 + +VII. Conclusion 138 + +APPENDIX A. Bishops and Deans 143 +APPENDIX B. Comparative Size 147 + Dimensions 148 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + PAGE +St. Paul's, from the South Side of the Thames _Frontispiece_ + +Arms of the See _Title_ + +South View of Old St. Paul's in 1658, after Hollar 2 + +Monument of John of Gaunt 12 + +The Shrine and Altar of St. Erkenwald 17 + +Dean Colet, from Holland's "Heroologia" 20 + +Tomb of Dean Colet, after Hollar 21 + +Inigo Jones' Portico, after Hollar 29 + +St. Paul's in Flames, after Hollar 33 + +The Nave of Old St. Paul's, after Hollar 41 + +The Choir of Old St. Paul's--looking East, after Hollar 43 + +St. Paul's Cross, from an old picture of 1620 49 + +The Chapter House and Cloister, after Hollar 51 + +Plan of Old St. Paul's in 1666, from Dugdale 53 + +Elevation and Section of Wren's rejected design, from his own + drawings 57 + +Sir Christopher Wren, after a portrait by Kneller 60 + +Relative Position and Area of Old and New St. Paul's 64 + +Model of Wren's First Design 66 + +Interior of the Model, from a sketch by Rev. J.L. Petit 67 + +The "Warrant Design," from Wren's drawing 69 + +A Later Design, as reproduced in Dugdale's "St. Paul's" 71 + +The West Front of St. Paul's Cathedral, from a photograph 76 + +North-East View 85 + +Section of the Dome 90 + +The Lantern, from the Clock Tower 92 + +The Choir and Nave, from the East End 96 + +The Order of the Interior, drawn by Peter Cazalet 97 + +The Geometrical Staircase 101 + +Interior of the Dome, from an engraving by G. Coney 105 + +The South Choir Aisle 110 + +Bishop's Throne and Stalls on the South Side 111 + +The Choir, Altar, and Reredos 117 + +The Wellington Monument 123 + +Nelson's Monument 128 + +Monuments of Dr. Donne and Bishop Blomfield 131 + +Nelson's Tomb 133 + +Church of St. Faith in the Crypt 135 + +The Library 136 + +PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL _At end_ + + + [Illustration: SOUTH VIEW OF OLD ST. PAUL'S IN 1658. + _After the Etching by Hollar, in Dugdale's "History of St. Paul's + Cathedral."_] + + + + +ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +ITS FOUNDATION AND HISTORY TO THE ACCESSION OF DEAN COLET (61-1505). + + +=Romano-British.=--Tacitus, in his characteristically concise style, +introduces London into authentic history during the apostolic era and +the reign of Nero.[1] Suetonius Paulinus, governor of Britain, came in +hot haste from Mona, suspending the slaughter of the Druid leaders in +this their last fastness, to restore the Roman arms. For Boadicea, +Queen of the Iceni, outraged at the treatment of herself and her two +daughters, had, like a second Deborah, raised a popular uprising +against the foreign invaders. Colchester fallen, the ninth legion +annihilated, nothing remained but to abandon the thriving mart of +London itself for a time to the fury of the natives, before the Roman +sway could be restored. + +The ground rising both from the northern bank of the Thames, some +three hundred yards distant, and from the eastern bank of the Fleet +beck, forms an eminence. Here, to protect the riverside mart below, on +or about the site of the present churchyard the Romans formed a camp; +and looking down what is now Ludgate Hill, the soldiers could see the +Fleet ebbing and flowing with each receding and advancing tide. +Northwards the country afforded a hunting ground, and a temple to +Diana Venatrix would naturally be erected. During the excavations for +New St. Paul's, Roman urns were found as well as British graves; and +in 1830, a stone altar with an image of Diana was likewise found while +digging for the foundations of Goldsmith's Hall in Foster Lane. On +such incomplete evidence rests the accuracy of the story or tradition +that a temple of Diana occupied part of the site of the present +Cathedral. + +Suetonius himself restored order in London; and in spite of +insurrections, she progressed during the next three centuries to +become a centre of such importance, Roman highways spreading in +different directions, that the accurate and impartial Ammianus +Marcellinus concedes to her (_circa_ 380) the style and title of +Augusta. And it was during these three centuries of progress that +Christianity obtained a firm footing, but when and how we know not. +The picturesque story, which deceived even Bede, how that Lucius, +"king of the Britons," sent letters to Eleutherus, a holy man, Bishop +of Rome, entreating Eleutherus to convert him and his, must now be put +down as a pious forgery.[2] Tertullian (_circa_ 208) says that the +kingdom and name of Christ were then acknowledged even in those parts +inaccessible to the Romans; and we are probably on the safe side in +asserting that missions had been successfully introduced into London +by the end of the second century. Neither are we in much doubt or +difficulty as to whence they came. Gaul, visited by missionaries from +Ephesus, in turn sent others on; and the Church in London, as +throughout these Isles, in Romano-British times can be safely +described as a daughter of Gaul, and a granddaughter of the Ephesus of +St. Timothy. Beyond we know little, if anything at all, more than that +a Bishop of London, known by the Latinised name of RESTITUTUS, was one +of three British prelates at the Council of Aries (314). And while +there is no reason to suppose otherwise than that the bishops, of whom +Restitutus could not have been anything like the first, had their +principal church erected in the neighbourhood, at least, of St. Paul's +churchyard and dedicated to that saint, neither site nor name can ever +be authenticated. When the Roman troops retired, so thoroughly did the +invading savages destroy all records, that our knowledge of the +British Church in London may be compared, not inaptly, to our +knowledge of Thornhill's paintings in the concave sphere of the dome. +We know that they exist; but even on a bright May day they are +invisible from below. + +=Saxon, Angle, and Dane.=--In the early years of the fifth century the +Romans are stated to have finally abandoned this country. If certain +lists are to be credited, Bishops of London of the original British +series continued until the flight of Theorus in 586. These lists have +now been rejected,[3] although as the taking of London by the East +Saxons was not prior to the date above, there is reason in the +suggestion that church and bishop were still in existence. In the +pages of Bede, writing about a century later, we come across something +more definite, which readers interested in St. Paul's may care to +have. + +"In the year of our Lord 604, Augustine, Archbishop of Britain, +consecrated two bishops, viz., Mellitus and Justus; Mellitus to preach +to the province of the East Saxons, who are divided from Kent by the +river Thames, and border on the eastern sea. Their metropolis is the +city of London, situated on the bank of the aforesaid river, and is +the mart of many nations resorting to it by sea and land. At that time +Sabert, nephew to Ethelbert [Augustine's King of Kent] by his sister +Ricula, reigned over the nation, though under subjection to Ethelbert, +who had command over all the nations of the English as far as the +river Humber. But when this province [East Saxons] also received the +word of truth by the preaching of Mellitus, King Ethelbert built the +church of St. Paul in the city of London, where he and his successors +should have their episcopal seat."[4] + +Bede, in one sense most interesting, becomes in a second sense most +irritating. We would give much to know how long an interval had +elapsed since the last bishop, whether this rude East Saxon building +was erected on the ruins of another or on a different site, whether +the name ST. PAUL'S was a continuation or no. Bede is silent, +ignoring the distressed and defeated Britons as an inferior race. + +Ethelbert may have given the endowment of Tillingham in Essex. "And if +any one should be tempted to take away this gift, let him be anathema +and excommunicated from all Christian society." Whether the deed with +these lines originated with him or with some unknown and later donor, +it is certain that the language has been respected; for when the +valuable estates were alienated, this particular donation was reserved +for the fabric fund; and in consequence the Dean and Chapter are by +far the oldest county family in Essex.[5] + +Sabert and Ethelbert were gathered to their fathers; and both were +succeeded by pagan sons. London and the East Saxon province or +kingdom--let us say Middlesex and Essex, with perhaps Herts--seem to +have been ruled by the three sons of Sabert in commission, who, +disregarding whatever thin veneer of Christianity they had found it +convenient to adopt during their father's lifetime, boldly +apostatised, and the East Saxons readily followed. Entering St. +Paul's, as the bishop was celebrating, the three scoffed and mocked, +"We will not enter into that laver, because we do not know we stand in +need of it; but eat of that bread we will." Giving the bishop the +alternative of compliance or expulsion, he withdrew after an +episcopate of twelve years and retired across the Channel. Returning +in answer to the entreaties of Laurentius, "the Londoners would not +receive Bishop Mellitus, choosing rather to be under their idolatrous +high priests." Eventually he succeeded Laurentius at Canterbury. And +for a second time London relapsed into paganism. + +Thus the good fruits of the mission of Augustine were completely lost. +An interval occurs, and then Sigebert the Good, on a visit to King +Oswy of Northumbria, was converted by the reasoning of his host, and +baptised by Bishop Finan of Lindisfarne. Finan had no connection with +Rome, but belonged to that remarkable body who traced their origin to +Ireland and Iona. Sigebert took south with him two brothers, English +by race, recommended by Finan, of whom one was CEDD; a third +brother was the more famous Chad. The work of re-planting was at once +set about with the help of Sigebert's example and protection. Up and +down the province they went, and gained so many converts that Finan +felt justified in consecrating Cedd bishop of the East Saxons. The new +bishop now employed much of his time in training converts, natives of +the province, for the priesthood, both at Ythancester, near +Tillingham, and at Tilbury.[6] He acted as interpreter at the Whitby +Conference, where he was won over to the continental method of +reckoning Easter, and died shortly after of the plague (664). A later +visitation of the pestilence is assigned as a cause of half of the +diocese relapsing, while the other half, governed by Sebbe, remained +faithful. King Wulfhere of Mercia--the then overlord--sent his own +bishop Jaruman with a number of clergy, who effected a complete +restoration. Mellitus, Cedd, Sabert, Sigebert, and Sebbe (said to have +been buried at St. Paul's) now appear in the transept windows as +founders of English Christianity. + +Thus we find, after various vicissitudes and relapses, the Christian +religion planted in the East Saxon province before the end of the +seventh century. The succeeding centuries must be rapidly passed over. +A staff of clergy was formed who came to be called canons; other +endowments by degrees added; the services at St. Paul's maintained as +a model for the diocese; parish churches and monasteries built. We +must even pass over Bishop Erkenwald, the hero of so many stories, and +whose shrine was the most popular in Old St. Paul's. In 962, just +after Dunstan had left the bishopric for Canterbury, St. Paul's was +burnt, and the same year rebuilt. Both before and after this London +suffered from the ravages of the Danes. + +The Primate Elfege, the victim of a drunken rabble, was buried at St. +Paul's (1014), as was Ethelred the Unready (1017), and nearly fifty +years later Edward the outlaw, the representative of the house of +Cerdic and of Alfred. + +William the Norman, bishop (1051-1075) in spite of the Confessor and +his nominee the Sparrowhawk, occupied the see long enough to greet his +countrymen on taking possession; and just before his death would be +present at the great council held in his cathedral presided over by +Lanfranc. Norman though he was, he was in touch with the citizens +around his church, and earned their enduring gratitude and friendship +by obtaining a fresh grant of their privileges, as he did for the +cathedral. "I will," said the Conqueror, "the said church to be free +in all respects, as I trust my own soul to be at the Judgment Day." + +=The Normans.=--Maurice, of course a Norman, had been only recently +elected bishop in the room of Huge de Orivalle, when the tenth century +church of Bishop Elfstan was destroyed in a fire that consumed the +greater part of the City (1086 or 1087). + +He set to work to build another on a larger scale and after the +approved Anglo-Norman method. Fresh ground was procured, and houses +pulled down for the enlargement of church and churchyard. "Barges," +says Mr. J.R. Green, "came up the river with stone from Caen for the +great arches that moved the popular wonder, while street and lane were +being levelled to make space for the famous churchyard of St. Paul's." +Maurice died before the work was anything like finished, but Richard +de Belmeis, a most munificent prelate, devoted his episcopal revenues +for the purpose. + +An earthquake in the second year of Rufus, followed two years later by +a destructive November storm, impeded the progress, but in spite of +all drawbacks and hindrances, builders and workmen toiled on, Henry I. +exempting the stone from toll. "Such is the stateliness of its +beauty," said William of Malmesbury, "that it is worthy of being +numbered amongst the most famous of buildings; such the extent of the +crypt, of such capacity the upper structure, that it seems sufficient +to contain a multitude of people." It was the variation of an inch or +two in the regularity of the arching of Maurice's new nave that +afterwards sorely vexed Wren. + +We have now come to a time when Domesday gives us some interesting +information. A commencement had been made of endowing separate stalls. +Certain of the estates were parcelled out in this way, partly because +they may have been safer from alienation, partly that the canons might +be responsible, if necessary, for the services of religion in the +manors and townships in which their endowments, technically known +afterwards as _corpses_, were situated. In Domesday, St. Pancras, +Rugmere (in St. Pancras), and Twyford, in Willesden, appear, and may +fairly be set down as the three original _prebends_, although the term +"prebend" does not yet appear, neither do the distinctive names of the +stalls. To these three some would add Consumpta-per-Mare in the Essex +Walton, so called because the glebe was _consumed_ by the +encroachments of the sea. We will dismiss this obscure subject by +anticipating a little, and stating that, what with parts of the old +endowments and what with additions, by the end of the twelfth century +the thirty prebends were complete. The names and inscriptions will be +found in the account of the interior of the present Choir. + +The two Caddingtons were a gift in Bedfordshire in the diocese of +Lincoln; the remaining twenty-eight were in Middlesex and Essex. The +corporate property of the Chapter by the same date must have reached +24,000 acres.[7] + +The Conquest brought other changes in its train. Originally the bishop +was head of the Chapter, and the canons his assistants. But, beginning +not later than with Maurice, who held high office under the Crown, the +bishops became more and more immersed in politics, and found no time +to preside, while the Chapter would naturally raise no objection to +greater independence. What our French neighbours now call a _doyen_, a +senior from among the canons, took the bishop's vacant place, and +became dean. + +John de Appleby, so late as 1364, dean by virtue of papal proviso, was +only allowed to summon the Chapter, and could not preside until he had +obtained a prebend by exchange. A hundred and fifty years later Colet +was a prebendary. I find no traces of archdeacons--London, Essex, +Middlesex, or Colchester--prior to the Conquest, but these eyes of the +bishop soon appear afterwards; and the Chanter becomes Precentor; the +Sacrist, or keeper of the plate, vestments, and other valuables, +becomes Treasurer; and the Master of the Schools, Chancellor. For the +sake of convenience looking forward a little, these changes, begun in +Norman times, were completed not long after. + +=The Plantagenets.=--As in the tenth century and as in the eleventh, +that evil demon Fire for a third time, "three days before the +Christmas of 1136," partially destroyed, or at least seriously +injured, St. Paul's, during a conflagration which reached from London +Bridge to beyond the Fleet. In rebuilding, the then method was to +throw a coating of the more refined Romanesque of the day over the +older work;[8] and this is how I explain an obscure passage in +Pepys--"It is pretty here to see how the late church was but a case +wrought over the old church; for you may see the very old pillars +standing whole within the wall of this."[9] The old pillars of the +nave were restored, and furnished with graceful engaged columns, and +vaulting shafts rising from the ground. As the choir was afterwards +superseded by another, we cannot tell what was done to it. + +We have now come to a time when it is impossible even to catalogue the +numerous stirring events which the cathedral witnessed. William +Fitzosbert the Longbeard, for thundering forth at PAUL'S +CROSS--where the citizens' folk-mote was wont to be held--against +tyranny and corruption in high quarters, suffered the extreme penalty. +But people in a higher position were soon to do the same. When John +and Innocent formed their strange alliance against the national +liberties, it was at St. Paul's that Stephen Langton produced the +Charter of Henry I. Here John publicly handed over his kingdom to the +Pope, and received it back as a vassal. Here came the counterblast, +when Louis, son of King Philip II. of France, received the kingdom +from the assembled magnates. After the death of John and Innocent the +papal claims were upheld; and at a council in 1232, at which the papal +legate presided, he took for his text, "In the midst of the throne and +round about the throne were four beasts."[10] The four beasts were not +the four Evangelists, but four opposition prelates, including the two +primates and the Bishop of London, Roger the Black. It was the great +bell of St. Paul's which in the days of Simon de Montfort summoned the +citizens to rise against their king. + +=Old St. Paul's completed.=--Whilst the nave was constantly witnessing +scenes like this, and whilst clergy and people were protesting against +encroachments on their liberties from abroad or at home, a new and +more magnificent choir, and a new or restored north aisle to either +transept were in course of construction, the ways and means being +found with the help of indulgences issued by various bishops, Scotch +and Irish included, over a lengthy period.[11] In 1240 the king and +the Cardinal Legate Otho attended the consecration of so much of the +new work as was then completed; and Bishop Roger was supported by the +Primate, Edmund Rich, and other prelates. + +East of the cathedral was St. Faith's, one of those parish churches in +which cathedral cities are notoriously prolific--churches with +parishes of the size of an average meadow, or less.[12] Whether it be +owing to greater wealth, or to greater subdivision of property, or to +enthusiasm kindled at a religious centre, nowhere do donors and +benefactors appear to have been more numerous than in these ancient +cities, like London, Norwich, and Exeter. St. Faith's was pulled down, +and the rights of the parishioners made good by allotting to them the +new crypt underneath the site of their old church. About this time +also the vaulting was renewed throughout, and various adornments added +from time to time. In 1312 the choir was paved with marble at a cost +of fivepence per foot; and three years later the old and ruinous +steeple was superseded by a new one of wood covered with lead, rising, +according to the lowest estimate--that of Wren--to a height of 460 +feet, without the cross. The cross had a "pomel well guilt" set on the +top, and contained relics of different saints, put there by Bishop +Gilbert de Selgrave with all due solemnity, accompanied by an +indulgence, for protection. Thus was finished Old St. Paul's, the most +magnificent church in England, meet to be the cathedral of the +capital, which London had now become. + + [Illustration: MONUMENT OF JOHN OF GAUNT, DUKE OF LANCASTER. + _After Hollar._] + +=Wycliffe and Gaunt.=--The Primate Sudbury and Bishop Courtenay tried +John Wycliffe at the cathedral on a charge of heresy (February 13, +1377). This was in the days of rival popes at Rome and Avignon, and +one or other or both had been described by the accused as "Antichrist, +the proud, worldly priest of Rome, and the most cursed of clippers +and purse-kervers."[13] By an alliance almost as strange as that +between John and Innocent, Wycliffe found himself supported by John of +Gaunt, with whom was the Earl Marshal, Percy, Earl of Northumberland. +Wycliffe and the Duke of Lancaster had this much in common, they both +wished to confine the clergy to their strictly clerical duties, the +latter through jealousy, the former for higher reasons. An immense +concourse filled the cathedral. Courtenay was popular with the +citizens, Gaunt was not; and Percy was strongly suspected of a wish to +abolish the mayoralty, and as Earl Marshal to appoint a captain of his +own instead. During an angry altercation Gaunt whispered loudly to a +neighbour, "Rather than I will take those words at his [Courtenay's] +hands, I would pluck the bishop by the hair out of the church." In the +tumult that followed this insult Gaunt and Percy with difficulty +escaped; the former fled across the river to Kennington, and his +palace at the Savoy was sacked. Yet, in spite of all this, Gaunt was +the only royal prince after the Conquest buried at St. Paul's. His +tomb under the arch on the north side of the high altar, enriched by a +noble canopy to which his spear, shield, and insignia were attached, +contained effigies of himself and of his second wife, Constance of +Castile. He had also a chantry. + +=Bishop Robert de Braybroke.=--On Courtenay's translation to +Canterbury, Braybroke became bishop (1382-1404). A thoroughly +practical reformer, he held out the threat of the greater +excommunication because "in our Cathedral not only men but women also, +not on common days alone but especially on Festivals, expose their +wares as it were in a public market, and buy and sell without +reverence for the holy place.... Others play at ball or other unseemly +games, both within and without the church, breaking the beautiful and +costly painted windows, to the amazement of the spectators." He also +attempted to regulate residence. Owing to the increased value of the +corporate or common property divided amongst the residentiaries or +_stagiarii_, residence was no longer reckoned a burden, but sought +after. To keep the number down to two the canons in residence would +admit no fresh colleague unless he spent during his first year from +six hundred to a thousand merks in feasting and other useless +expenditure. Braybroke put a check to this abuse, and by the +arbitration of the king the practice of Salisbury was taken as a +model.[14] It was after his death (October 15, 1414) that the Use of +St. Paul in the religious services was superseded by the Use of Sarum. + +The Petty or Minor Canons now received their charter of corporation +immediately after the death of Anne of Bohemia, wife of Richard II. +Apparently when Becket's representative ventured on his dangerous +errand, deed of excommunication in hand, the canons' vicars or vicars +choral sang the services. In Braybroke's time we find a body +intermediate between the canons and their vicars. They were twelve in +number, were required to have good voices, and to understand the art +of singing, and by their charter were to pray for their royal +benefactor, as well as for the repose of the souls of his wife and +ancestors. The first ranked as Sub-dean, taking for many purposes the +dean's place in his absence, and the two next were the Cardinals. The +Sacrist, the Almoners, and the Divinity Lecturers endowed by Bishop +Richard de Gravesend and Thomas White were appointed from among them. +They enjoyed their own common hall, and elected their own warder and +steward; and two years after incorporation, drawing up their own +Statutes, provided that they were to be read in Hall every quarter, +and that no one was to shuffle his feet during the reading.[15] + +The vicars choral either now or later had dwindled down to six, and +seem to have been only in minor orders. The Petty Canons had their own +endowments; but if the canons had to pay their own vicars, we need not +be surprised at this diminution. + +=The Wars of the Roses.=--With this period St. Paul's is closely +associated. At St. Paul's the Yorkist leaders pledged their allegiance +to the unhappy Henry VI. on the Sacrament--only to break it. After +Barnet the dead bodies of the king-maker and his brothers were +exposed, and after Tewkesbury the murdered corpse of Henry received +similar treatment. Most striking of all is the grim figure of Richard +of Gloucester. He it was who caused Jane Shore to be put to open +penance on the ground that she had bewitched him, she "going before +the Cross on a Sunday with a taper in her hand," says Stow, "out of +all aray saue her kirtle only." Hastings, the successor of Edward in +her affections, was implicated with her, and his offence read from +Paul's Cross. At Paul's Cross, newly restored by the bishop, the +younger Kempe, and while the boy king was a prisoner in the palace +hard by, that worthless sycophant, Dr. Ralph Shaw, the preacher (May +19, 1483), took for his text, "The multiplying brood of the ungodly +shall not thrive, nor take deep rooting from bastard slips, nor lay +any fast foundations" (Wisdom, iv. 3). His sermon went to prove to the +citizens that Richard was the only, or at least the senior, legitimate +member of the royal family. Richard was present to hear his own mother +dishonoured; and the preacher, pointing dramatically to him, argued +that, unlike his three elder brothers, he resembled the late Duke of +York. But the people showed no sympathy, would not cry "Long live King +Richard," and dispersed, fearing the worst for the poor lad immured in +the bishop's palace. + +=The Clergy and Services.=--We may now conveniently glance at these +important subjects. The Bishop, who appointed all the dignitaries +except the dean, was Visitor. At the great festivals he was usually +present, and the bells were rung in his honour. How the DEAN always, +or nearly so, held another stall has been already stated; how he came +to be presented by the Crown instead of elected by his brethren is +uncertain; but the Chapter somehow practically lost their right of +electing both bishop and dean, for either pope or king in effect +appointed their diocesan. The dean was visitor of the homes of the +clergy and of the chapter estates. To the four ARCHDEACONRIES of +London, Essex, Middlesex, and Colchester was afterwards added the +small one of St. Alban's on the dissolution of that important abbey, +but without a stall in the choir.[16] The office of PRECENTOR is +explained by the name. The TREASURER was responsible for the very +valuable treasures--jewels, vestments, relics, and the like--as +distinct from the moneys. Lower in rank, but in reality of greater +importance, came the CHANCELLOR. He had jurisdiction over the old +school of St. Paul's, and any others in the City with the exception of +those of St. Mary-le-Bow and St. Martin's-le-Grand, and was secretary +and keeper of the seals, receiving a pound of pepper for each deed +sealed. The thirty PREBENDARIES (or rather twenty-nine when the dean +was one) could only hold one stall each at St. Paul's, but any number +of benefices elsewhere like the higher dignitaries; and it is by no +means certain that in the thirteenth century John Mansell did not hold +three stalls at St. Paul's simultaneously among his innumerable +benefices which together, according to Matthew Paris, amounted to +4,000 merks per annum.[17] Of the prebendaries a varying minority in +residence, stagiaries (_stagiarii_, perhaps a corruption of the more +classical _stationarii_),[18] not only divided amongst themselves the +balance of the common fund, but were not above partaking of a share of +the capitular bakehouse and brewhouse. The dean, the three higher +dignitaries, and the prebendaries constituted the Chapter, in certain +matters the non-residentiaries having no jurisdiction, and, as +recorded in their Visitations, exercised a very great authority over +their various manors. Below the Chapter came the twelve PETTY CANONS, +officers peculiar to St. Paul's and Hereford;[19] and there were over +fifty CHANTRY PRIESTS when suppressed. Besides their appointed daily +masses they would divide amongst them the annual masses called +_obits_, which amounted to about a hundred, and were expected to +assist the Petty Canons. They spent their extensive leisure after the +proverbial manner of idle and ignorant men. The VICARS CHORAL had +dwindled down to six by Colet's time, were no longer in priests' +orders, and eventually became laymen pure and simple. Space would fail +us to enumerate the remaining official and semi-official officers. +Among the latter were the twelve scribes, who sat in the nave for the +service of the illiterate public, and were sworn to do nothing +detrimental to the interests of the Chapter. + +The Apostle's mass was sung the first thing in the morning, in earlier +days by a Vicar Choral, and subsequently by a Petty Canon; and next +came the two masses named after the Virgin and the Chapter, the +Cardinals taking the latter. The other daily services were the usual +Nocturns or Matins and the rest, ending with a combined evensong of +Vespers and Compline. We do not know how the old Use of St. Paul's +differed from that of Sarum. Besides the Conversion and Commemoration +of St. Paul, the Deposition (April 30th) and the Translation (November +14th) of St. Erkenwald were red-letter days when, before the peal was +sounded, the bells were rung two and two. On the eve of St. Nicholas +(December 5th), patron saint of children, the choristers elected +their boy bishop and his clerks. On St. John the Evangelist's Day +(December 27th) at evensong the newly elected boy bishop in pontifical +vestments, with his boy clerks in copes, walked in procession, and +after censing the altar of the Blessed Trinity returned and occupied +dignitaries' stalls, and any evicted dignitary had to take the boy's +place as thurifer or acolyte, the boy bishop giving the benediction. +The next day (Holy Innocents) this youth preached and took the earlier +part of the mass. These choir lads were trained to act mysteries and, +later on, stage plays.[20] + + [Illustration: THE SHRINE AND ALTAR OF ST. ERKENWALD BEHIND THE + HIGH ALTAR. + _After Hollar._] + +Each new Lord Mayor, accompanied by the Council, went in procession to +St. Thomas Acon, and from thence to the cathedral. He paid his +devotions at the tomb of Bishop William the Norman, in the nave, in +gratitude for privileges obtained from the Conqueror, and then at the +tomb of his predecessor, the Portreeve Gilbert Becket, father of +Thomas, in a little chapel in the churchyard. On Whitsunday and the +following Tuesday were great processions in which the Corporation +joined, as they did on seven other festivals. At Whitsuntide, +according to a sixteenth century account, a huge suspended censer was +swung along the nave, and the descent of the Holy Spirit illustrated +by the letting loose of a white pigeon. Those who are curious about +the shrines, and particularly of St. Erkenwald's, the scene of so many +reputed miracles of healing, and of the relics, which included a vase +believed to contain some hair, milk, and a garment of the Virgin, are +referred to Dugdale and other like works. Passing over _Te Deums_ for +victories like Agincourt and Obsequies for the dead--this latter a +source of income to the officers--we will close this chapter with the +wedding of Arthur, Prince of Wales, a lad of fifteen, to Catherine of +Aragon, in November, 1501. The next spring Arthur died, and the king +effected the betrothal of the widow of eighteen to his younger son +Henry, aged eleven. Seven years later Henry VII. died, and lay in +state at the cathedral. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Tacitus, "Annals," xiv. 33. + +[2] Bishop Browne ("The Christian Church in these Islands before the +Coming of St. Augustine," 1897, pp. 59-62; S.P.C.K.) in a learned note +disposes of this, as he does of the veteran claim of St. Peter's, +Cornhill, to take rank as the elder sister of St. Paul's. + +[3] The list in the south nave transept, compiled with the assistance +of Bishops Stubbs and Browne, leaves this period doubtful and +uncertain (_vide_ Appendix A). + +[4] "Eccles. Hist.," book ii., chap. iii. + +[5] The grant is in Dugdale, p. 288; in Domesday it runs "tenet +_semper_ Paulus." + +[6] Bishop Browne's "Conversion of the Heptarchy," p. 154 (S.P.C.K.). + +[7] Dugdale, p. 299 _et seq._, quotes the Exchequer Domesday. Also, +Hale's "Domesday of St. Paul's" and Leach's "Southwell" (the +Introduction); Freeman's "Cathedral Church of Wells," p. 50 _et seq._; +and Newcourt's "Repertorium." Hereford is the only other cathedral in +Domesday where canons held in this way. Southwell (now a cathedral, +though the prebendaries are gone), Bedford, Twyneham, and Stafford +were collegiate churches of a like kind. + +[8] Freeman's "Wells," p. 69. + +[9] "Diary," Sept. 16, 1666. So far as the pillars are concerned I +know of no other time when this "casing" could have been done; and the +architecture in Hollar's prints, as reproduced in Dugdale, agrees. + +[10] Dean Milman says the text was from Ezekiel, i. 5; was it not from +Revelation, iv. 6? + +[11] "Documents Illustrative," p. 175. + +[12] St. Faith's parish reaches westward to 62, St. Paul's Churchyard, +north side. + +[13] "Chapters in the History," p. 97. + +[14] Perhaps the residentiaries were increased to eleven. + +[15] "Gleanings," chap. i. It is disappointing to find that it was +thought necessary to provide in the Statutes against gross immorality, +and that a fine of 3s. 4d. was deemed a sufficient punishment for the +first offence, to be doubled on repetition. + +[16] Were they ever members of the chapter _ex officio_? + +[17] If he had to read his share of the Psalter every day for each, +his time for affairs of State must have been encroached upon. + +[18] So says Dr. Sparrow-Simpson. In the Gallican Church the _stage_ +was the time of qualifying for residence. In modern French a +_stagiaire_ = a licentiate in law going through his stage. + +[19] In former days. The Vicars Choral of other foundations are now +called Minor Canons. + +[20] "Chapters in the History," p. 53. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +FROM THE ACCESSION OF DEAN COLET TO THE FIRE + +(1505-1666). + + +With the Florentine studies of John Colet, remarks J.R. Green, a purer +Christianity awoke throughout Teutonic Europe. Born in 1466, a son of +a distinguished citizen who was twice Lord Mayor, after seven years at +Oxford he travelled with sufficient means to France and Italy, and +whether at home or abroad studied in particular Greek. "The knowledge +of Greek seems to have had one almost exclusive end for him,"[21] +continues Green; "Greek was the key by which he could unlock the +Gospels and the New Testament." Discarding the traditional +mediaevalisms, his faith rested simply on a vivid realisation of the +Person of Christ; and whilst his active and lucid intellect exhibit +him in many lights, everything else was subordinate to his faith. +Returning to England, he lectured gratuitously at Oxford on St. Paul's +Epistles, and formed a friendship with Erasmus. So Erasmus became the +earnest pupil of an earnest master. Taking priests' orders, he was +appointed Dean of St. Paul's and Prebendary of Mora (1505), and +established a reputation as a preacher. In those days, and until +Wolsey as legate gave the preference to Westminster, the two Houses +held their sessions in the Chapter House and Nave of Old St. Paul's, +as the opening ceremony still reminds us. Preaching at the opening in +1512, he startled Convocation by declaring, "All that is in the Church +is either the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, or the pride of +life." In vain his bishop, Richard Fitz-James, endeavoured to +establish a charge of heresy: the Primate Warham and young Henry +VIII. both admired and supported the Dean; and the Dean continued to +show his preference for the New Testament in the original Greek rather +than for the prevalent nonsense of the mediaeval schoolmen. + + [Illustration: DEAN COLET. + _After the portrait in Holland's "Heroologia," 1620._[22]] + +Where the consent of his Chapter was necessary, Colet's efforts at +reform were obstructed. The profanation of the sacred building he +could not stop: buying, selling, and promenading in the nave continued +the order of the day. The Chapter would have nothing to do with his +new statutes, but elsewhere he was more successful. The Chancellor's +School was not in accordance with his views; and in spite of Bishop, +Chancellor, and Chapter, out of his own means he built ST. PAUL'S +SCHOOL, towards the east end of the churchyard, and endowed it; +and leaving his colleagues out in the cold, left the management to the +Mercers' Company. His theology was manifest in the image over the +gate. It was neither Erkenwald nor Uncumber: it was not the Virgin or +even St. Paul himself, but the Child Jesus with the simple and +pregnant inscription, "Hear ye Him." The severity of his discipline, +although a Pauline parent or pupil would now resent it, was adapted to +those rough and hardy times, when people rose early and worked hard, +and when corporal punishment was general and often, and irrespective +of sex or age. William Lyly, an Oxford student who had studied in the +East, was his first high master. As the original St. Paul's School +became eventually absorbed in Colet's, this latter--now removed from +its old home to stately buildings on the Hammersmith Road, and +possessing (1899), as a high master, a worthy successor of +Lyly[23]--is in one sense a new foundation of Colet's, yet in another +is also a continuation of that venerable foundation under the charge +of the Chancellor. Looked at in this latter aspect, it may assert an +antiquity almost as great as St. Peter's, York, which claims--and not +without reason--to be the senior boys' school in the country. Colet so +looked forward to the different requirements of different ages that +his statutes did not tie his school down to any cut and dried course +of study; but let us hope place will always be found for the Greek +Testament. What are we to think of the preacher who, while denouncing +war, so pricked the conscience of Henry VIII. that the king sent to +consult him? What of the Bible student who thought that the story of +Creation was an allegory, and intended to teach the ignorant +Israelites that the one God had created everybody and everything? What +of the reformer who went beyond Erasmus in denouncing the profane +excesses perpetrated in the name of religion at the shrine of Becket +at Canterbury? Colet died of the "sweating sickness" at the early age +of fifty-three, in 1519; and it is idle to speculate on his action had +he lived until the breach with Rome. His monument in the south aisle +of the choir perished in the Fire; and in the new Renaissance +cathedral a second might well be erected to the memory of this great +leader of the Renaissance in theology and learning, the greatest among +many great occupants of the Dean's stall. + + [Illustration: TOMB OF JOHN COLET, D.D., DEAN OF ST. PAUL'S. + _After Hollar._] + +=Reformation Principles Opposed.=--The still smouldering doctrines of +Wycliffe were now fanned into a flame; and Wolsey endeavoured to +extinguish them without having resort to the stake Tyndal's New +Testament, translated into English in 1526 at Worms, must have been +speedily smuggled across the Channel. On the Shrove Tuesday of 1527 +Wolsey attended St. Paul's, accompanied by some six-and-thirty +prelates, mitred abbots, and other high dignitaries. Barnes of +Cambridge, formerly a friar, and five others, "Stillyard men," were +brought from the Fleet prison in penitential array, Barnes carrying a +heavy taper, the rest faggots. Testaments and other forbidden books +were in baskets by a fire in the nave. On their knees the penitents +recanted; while Barnes declared that he deserved to be burnt. Fisher +again preached; and the six pardoned offenders were taken inside the +rails and made to walk round the fire, after which the books were +burnt--by no means a solitary literary conflagration. + +=Reformation Principles Advanced.=--In order to raise money, Henry +declared that as the clergy had acquiesced in the authority of Wolsey +as legate, and as such acquiescence was contrary to the Statute of +Provisors, all these benefices were forfeit to the Crown, and a heavy +subsidy must be paid as ransom. The clergy of the diocese of London, +considering that the arch-offender against this Statute was Henry +himself, and next to him the prelates and great mitred abbots, +attended a meeting at the Chapter House, and were assisted by a number +of their parishioners. John Stokesley, Bishop designate,[24] who +presided, and who had to see the assessment made, could neither keep +order nor gain his point: "We never meddled, let the bishops and +abbots pay." Fifteen priests and four parishioners were imprisoned, +and, of course, Henry gained his point. + +Throughout 1534 the deanery was vacant. The Bishop was directed to see +that the appointed preachers at Paul's Cross taught that the Pope had +no spiritual authority of divine right. Here as elsewhere it is +remarkable with what ease and unanimity the papal jurisdiction based +on the Petrine claims was done away with. No dignitary--and Bonner +that year became Prebendary of Chiswick--no priest of humbler rank +connected with the cathedral, either resigned or got into trouble on +this important doctrinal question; although the execution of those two +earnest men, John Fisher and Thomas More, who opposed the divorce and +the abrogation of the papal claims, was followed by a pronouncement of +excommunication, deposition, and an interdict on the part of Paul III. +Yet at St. Paul's, nineteen Anabaptists--a sect whom no one +pitied--were sentenced to be burnt, and of these a man and a woman +suffered at Smithfield, and the remainder in the provinces. The next +year (1536) Hugh Latimer, as earnest and good a bishop as Fisher and +his exact opposite, preaching before Convocation, denounced abuses in +the spirit of an age which did not hesitate to call a spade a spade. +"Lift up your heads, brethren, and look about with your eyes; spy what +things are to be reformed in the Church of England." + +But more dramatic and more effective than the sonorous ring of honest +Hugh's eloquence, was the sermon at the Cross (February 14, 1538) of +Bishop John Hisley, Fisher's successor at Rochester, and formerly +Prior of the Dominicans in London. His subject was an ingenious piece +of mechanism, called the Rood of Grace, from Boxley in his diocese, a +source of revenue from devotees. Now, this product of the mechanic's +art does not seem to have had any resemblance to a Rood--_i.e._, a +large cross or crucifix--but rather was shaped like a big doll; and +Hisley demonstrated to his intelligent congregation of citizens how no +inherent power, but a man standing inside, with the aid of wires, +caused the rood to bow, and move its eyes and mouth.[25] + +The exposure was followed next St. Bartholomew's eve by the removal of +the Great Rood at the north door, and those of our Lady of Grace and +of St. Uncumber. This last saint is supposed to be a foreign princess +of early times, styled also in England St. Wilgeforte. A peck of oats +was a favourite offering at her shrine in St. Paul's by those who +wished for favours; and according to Sir Thomas More she owed her +popular name because wives unhappy in their union so offered in the +hope that she would _uncumber_ (_i.e._, disencumber) them of their +husbands. The disgrace of Thomas Cromwell put a temporary stop to +actions of this nature; and we find Gardiner at the Cross denouncing +both Rome and Luther. We further find Barnes, our quondam penitent, +amongst those who replied from the same famous pulpit, and likening +himself and Gardiner to two fighting cocks, only that the _garden_ +cock lacked good spurs. The result was that Barnes ended his chequered +career at the stake, as did others. + +=Edward VI.=--So long as Henry lived it was dangerous to uphold either +the Petrine claims or the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and +it was equally dangerous to oppose the doctrine of transubstantiation; +but the Council of the child king would not have this latter doctrine, +and was distinctly Protestant. The endowments of the chantries had been +transferred to the Court of Augmentations in the autumn of 1545 (37 +Henry VIII. c. 4) for the benefit of the king; but when at the +beginning of 1547 Edward succeeded his father, St. Paul's still +enjoyed her own. Somerset and his Protestant council not only wanted +the property, but objected to masses for the dead, and a renewing Act +was quickly passed, Edward's name taking his father's place. So went +chantries and _obits_ into the royal coffers, the list in Dugdale, as +returned to the Court, filling ten folio pages; while but little +commiseration was felt for the hard lot of these illiterate chaplains +deprived of their livelihood. And this was not all. Besides any +remaining roods and crucifixes, altars were demolished, tombs wrecked, +plate, jewels, vestments and frontals sold. Elaborate gold and silver +embroidered work found its way to Spanish cathedrals, and up to a short +time ago was reported to be still there.[26] Pardon Haugh Chapel was +desecrated, and the bones carted away to Finsbury; the Chapter House +cloisters went to build Somerset House. The dean, William May, was an +advanced Protestant; but so was not his bishop, Bonner. Bonner preached +at the Cross upholding transubstantiation, and was deprived and +imprisoned. It is to the credit of his successor, Ridley, that he +supported Bonner's mother and sister at Fulham; "Our mother Bonner"--he +was unmarried--taking the head of his table. Yet Ridley was one of the +judges at St. Paul's who sent the Anabaptist woman Joan Bucher to the +stake for heresy. During the first year or two of this reign, complains +Dean Milman, "Sunday after Sunday the Cathedral was thronged, not with +decent and respectable citizens, but with a noisy rabble, many of them +boys, to hear unseemly harangues on that solemn rite" [the Sacrament]. +Ridley, after his translation (1550) restored comparative order, and +remained bishop long enough to witness the introduction of the Second +Prayer Book. + +=Mary Tudor.=--When poor Edward came to his untimely end, Ridley sided +with the faction of Jane, and preached at the Cross, declaring both +Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate. For this he has been much censured; +but so far as the two princesses went--of course this would not make +Jane next of kin--he was but upholding the decisions of Ecclesiastical +Courts. In spite of any weakness in her title--and we have seen how +her mother had been married to Arthur at St. Paul's--Mary was +proclaimed, the bells rung, the Lords went in procession to hear _Te +Deum_ chanted; Bonner went back, and Dean May was replaced by John +Feckenham. Yet Mary's party by no means had everything their own way. +Gilbert Bourne, Prebendary of Wedland, who had retained his benefice +throughout the late reign and was now Chaplain to the Queen, preaching +at the Cross, was rudely interrupted with cries and throwing up of +caps; and had it not been for two of his brother canons, John Rogers +of St. Pancras and John Bradford of Cantlers, and others, who +conducted him in safety to the adjacent schoolroom, matters might have +gone ill with Mary's champion. Gardiner recanted his former heterodoxy +concerning the papal supremacy in a sermon; and Pole appeared as +Legate. Ridley, Rogers, and Bradford were amongst those who suffered +at the stake, while May escaped. + +Of course the old services were reintroduced; and we turn from grave to +gay in a record of one of these revived functions. A doe was offered on +the Conversion and a buck on the Commemoration of St. Paul, both in +connection with some quaint old-world land tenure. Our records tell us +that Bonner wore his mitre, and the Chapter their copes, with garlands +of roses on their heads. The buck--it was the Commemoration--was +brought to the high altar, and at some time and place not exactly +defined but within the choir, was slain; and the head, severed and +raised on a pole, was borne before the processional cross to the west +door. Here a horn was blown, and other horns in different parts of the +City answered.[27] + +=Elizabeth.=--After the death of Mary, as the diocese of London had +been the chief sufferer from the persecutions, and as the excitement +in the City ran very high, the sermons at the Cross were for a time +wisely discontinued. The Primate Pole, the last Romanist at Canterbury +and the last Legate openly accredited to an English sovereign, and +many of his suffragans likewise, died about the same time; and it was +left for Bonner to preside over a thin Upper House. + +What was to be done with the bishop? To allow him to continue in his +high office was tantamount to a grave scandal to religion, and his +person was not safe from the fury of the populace. He was replaced by +Edmund Grindal, and spent the remaining ten years of his life chiefly +in the security of the Marshalsea, without any undue vigour or +harshness. Mary's first dean, Feckenham, had been made abbot of the +resuscitated regular foundation of Westminster, and his successor was +quietly ejected in favour of the restored May, whilst a few of the +other dignitaries lost their stalls. The Epistle and Gospel were first +read in English, and eventually the Prayer Book was resumed; but the +changes were made gradually; and, considering the provocation, no +vindictive spirit was displayed. + +In June, 1561, the beautiful spire was destroyed by fire caused by +lightning or by a plumber's neglect, and the Chapter House seriously +injured. We have no trustworthy plates prior to this fire, and the +various estimates about the height of the spire and other matters are +anything but infallible. Service was held at St. Gregory's, and the +roof and other parts restored at a cost of L6,700, but the +architecture was never the same afterwards. Of course the disappointed +Romanists attributed the disaster to the Divine anger, and Bishop +Pilkington, of Durham, preaching next Sunday at the Cross, to the +still continued desecration. + +It is difficult for us to understand why this desecration was allowed +to go on. A pillory was indeed set up outside near the bishop's +palace, and a man convicted of fighting nailed there by his ears, +which were afterwards cut off; but this must have been an offence +exceptionally outrageous. "What swearing is there," says Dekker, "what +shouldering, what jostling, what jeering, what biting of thumbs to +beget quarrels." At Bishop Bancroft's Visitation a verger complained +that colliers with coal-sacks, butchers' men with meat, and others +made the interior a short cut. Bishop Corbet, of Norwich, wrote: + + "When I past Paules, and travelled in that Walke + Where all our Brittaine-sinners sweare and talke, + Ould Harry-ruffians, bankrupts, suthe-sayers, + And youth, whose cousenage is as ould as theirs." + +The choir boys even during service time were on the alert for "spur +money," a fine due for the wearing of spurs. "Paul's Walk" (the +central aisle of the nave), said Bishop Earle, of Salisbury, "is the +land's epitome.... It is the general mart of all famous lies." +Shakespeare was thinking of his own time, as well as of the time of +Henry IV. (2 Henry IV., act 1, scene 2) when he makes Falstaff engage +Bardolph, out of place and standing at the servant-men's pillow to be +hired. John Evelyn called the cathedral a den of thieves. Before, we +have mentioned that this abuse existed in mediaeval times; the above +authorities show that it still went on right up to the Fire. Doctrine +might be purified, and rites reformed; Paul's Walk was neither +purified nor reformed. + +John Felton nailed the Bull of Pius V. excommunicating and deposing +Elizabeth (_Regnans in Excelsis_) to the bishop's gate at night (May +15, 1570), and was hung on a gallows hard by. We pass on from this, +and from Elizabeth's "tuning of the pulpit" and various other matters, +to the Armada. By September some of the captured flags were displayed +on high outside, and waved over the preacher at the Cross. The last +Sunday in November was appointed for the State Thanksgiving, Aylmer +being bishop and Nowell dean. The Queen was driven in a chariot drawn +by four white horses. Bishop John Piers, of Salisbury, the Almoner, +was the preacher. His sermon has not come down, but the Form of Prayer +has--"Turning the destruction they intended against us upon their own +head." At the conclusion, the Queen remained in the City to dine with +the bishop. + +After the death of the great Queen, the leading conspirators in the +Gunpowder Plot[28] were executed outside the West Front. John King, +Dean of Christ Church, styled by James "the _king_ of preachers," was +consecrated bishop in 1611; and the next year Bartholomew Leggatt was +condemned as a heretic in the Consistory Court, and burnt at +Smithfield; and a month later Edward Wightman suffered a like fate at +Lichfield. But the Marian persecutions had made all good citizens sick +of such sights, and henceforth, says Fuller, the king yielding to +public opinion, "politically preferred that heretics, though +condemned, should silently and privately waste themselves away in +prison." + +=Inigo Jones.=--A certain Master John Farley agitated in favour of the +decaying and neglected fabric, and King James attended service in +state to hear his favourite preacher, the bishop, plead for +restoration from an appropriate text chosen by the king himself (March +26, 1620). After the service came a banquet at the bishop's palace, +and after the banquet a meeting; and a Royal Commission was appointed +before the end of the year on which the Lord Mayor was the first +person named. Amongst other commissioners was Inigo Jones, Surveyor of +the Royal Works. He had studied in Italy and was an enthusiastic +student of the Italian Renaissance. Unfortunately the public was +anything but enthusiastic, and only a small sum was contributed, which +went in the purchase of stone. Matters came to a complete standstill; +and shortly prior to his assassination the elder Villiers is reported +to have stolen part of the stone for a watergate for his new town +house. + + [Illustration: INIGO JONES' PORTICO. + _After Hollar._] + +The Commission died with the king, and Laud, becoming bishop, +persuaded Charles to issue a new one. This time a handsome sum was +collected, and work was commenced. As regards the exterior, the nave +and west sides of the two transepts were cased throughout, and some +repairs made to the east end.[29] The chief alteration in the interior +was the adornment and restoration of the choir screen, at the expense +of Sir Paul Pindar, and with the laudable object of putting an end to +desecration. Inigo Jones added a noble classical portico to the West +End as a successor to Paul's Walk. We forgive the lack of harmony with +the Norman nave, when we recall the truly religious motive. + +But evil days for the cathedral were approaching. In the House of +Commons (February 11, 1629), Oliver Cromwell, Member for Huntingdon +town, made his maiden speech in a Grand Committee on Religion. He +complained that Dr. Alablaster had preached flat Popery at Paul's +Cross, and that the Doctor's bishop, Neile of Winchester, would not +have it otherwise.[30] Alablaster was High Church, and the Third +Parliament of Charles was not. + +=The Civil War.=--The outbreak of the Civil War put an end to the +Commission, and the moneys were confiscated.[31] The Long Parliament +acquired the supremacy in the City, and from 1643 Inigo Jones ceased +to act as surveyor, dying before the Restoration. The whole staff was +expelled, and their revenues sequestrated; and Dr. Cornelius Burgess +was appointed preacher, some of the more eastern bays of the choir +being walled in by a brick partition as his chapel or conventicle. The +chief fault to be found with Burgess is that he was out of place in a +cathedral, otherwise there is much to be said in his favour. Even in +those times, when religious fanaticism went mad, he behaved with +discretion, and courageously headed the petition of London ministers +against the execution of the king. Hugh Peters figures in the crypt, +and other parts were assigned as meeting-houses. It is better to pass +over as quickly as may be the behaviour of the soldiery and populace. +"Paul's Cathedral," says Carlyle, "is now a Horseguard; horses stamp +in the Canons' stalls there [but the choir was mainly reserved for +Burgess and his sermons], and Paul's Cross itself, as smacking of +Popery ... was swept altogether away, and its leaden roof melted into +bullets, or mixed with tin for culinary pewter."[32] Its very name, +the Cross, was against it; and thus fell, never to be restored, the +most famous pulpit in England, which through successive generations +had been part and parcel of English history. Carlyle also tell us that +Trooper Lockyer, of Whalley's Horse, "of excellent parts and much +beloved," was shot in the churchyard for mutiny, "amid the tears of +men and women."[33] + +Monuments which had escaped earlier vandals were now defaced and +destroyed; the scaffolding was seized; part of the roof on the south +side fell in, and the lead was used for water-pipes. The new portico +was hacked about and turned into stalls for wares, and, in a word, +Inigo Jones' work more than undone. Other doings of the soldiery are +unfit for publication.[34] + +=The Restoration.=--Juxon was translated to Canterbury, and the +munificent and much-abused Gilbert Sheldon received London, only in +turn to succeed Juxon again three years later. At the beginning of the +Civil War the deanery had become vacant, and Richard Steward +designated for the vacancy. It was an empty appointment, and was +afterwards changed for another of a like kind, and Matthew Nicolas +became nominally dean. This preferment took actual effect from the +summer of 1660, when Nicolas was installed dean and prebendary of +Caddington Major, such of the other dignitaries as survived resuming +their stalls, and vacancies were filled up. Another bay was added to +the Burgess conventicle, and the cathedral services were resumed. But +the sad condition of the fabric called for action, and in 1663 another +Commission was appointed, and CHRISTOPHER WREN appointed +surveyor. Taking example from his uncle's cathedral at Ely, he +suggested an enlargement of the area at the junction of the four +members of the cross, and subscriptions were raised. + +=The Plague.=--There is a gap in the subscription list after March, +1665: the pestilence was already at work. As the summer advanced its +ravages were intensified; and the City, fortunate in escaping earlier +attacks, suffered so severely that the pest-houses proved +insufficient; and Harrison Ainsworth is responsible for a story which +may probably be depended on in its main outlines. The Lord Mayor and +City authorities, in conjunction with the College of Physicians, +obtained the consent of Dean Sancroft (the second from Nicolas) and +his chapter for the conversion of the cathedral into a lazar-house; +and a meeting was held in the Chapter House, at which the Primate +Sheldon was present. Sheldon employed himself, co-operating with the +Lord Mayor, in making provision for the victims. "Chapels and +shrines," says Ainsworth, "formerly adorned with rich sculptures and +costly ornaments, but stripped of them at times when they were looked +upon as idolatrous and profane, were now occupied by nurses, +chirurgeons and their attendants; while every niche and corner was +filled with surgical instruments, phials, drugs, poultices, foul rags +and linen."[35] After its chequered career, Old St. Paul's was +destined to be used last of all as a hospital. + +=The Fire.=--The house and Navy office of Samuel Pepys were in +Seething Lane, Crutched Friars, near where Fenchurch Street Station +now is. About three in the morning of Sunday, September 2, 1666, +Samuel and his wife were called by their servant Jane, who told them +of a fire visible in the south-west towards London Bridge. After +looking out, not thinking it a great matter, the couple returned to +bed; but getting up at seven Pepys heard a far worse account, and +instead of attending morning service went to the Tower, and called on +his neighbour Sir John Robinson, the Lieutenant. Robinson told him +that the house of Faryner, baker to the king, in Pudding Lane had just +caught fire, that Fish Street was in flames, and the church of St. +Magnus destroyed. These were near the north end of London Bridge, as +the Monument and St. Magnus both remind us. + +The origin of the Fire Pepys learnt later (February 24, 1667). +Faryner's people had occasion to light a candle at midnight; they went +as usual into their bakehouse to light it, but as the fire had gone +out, had to seek elsewhere. This striking a light in an unusual place +by Faryner, his son and daughter, is asserted to have been, somehow +and all unknown to them, the origin of the Fire. "Which is," says +Pepys, "a strange thing, that so horrid an effect should have so mean +and uncertain a beginning." About two in the morning, when the family +were upstairs and asleep again, the choking sensation of smoke woke +them up, just in time to escape and tell the tale. + + [Illustration: ST. PAUL'S IN FLAMES. + _Originally engraved by Hollar for the title of Dean (afterwards + Archbishop) Sancroft's sermon on the Great Fire._] + +There was a drought, and the flames spread on their mission of +devastation, assisted by a breeze. St. Paul's and most of the hundred +City churches were not likely to be used for worship that morning. "To +see the churches all filling with goods by people who themselves +should have been quietly there at the time." But service was held as +usual at the Abbey; and just about sermon time, a newly elected king's +scholar, Taswell, noticing a stir and commotion--he was standing by +the pulpit steps--ascertained the cause. The news had spread that the +City was in flames. Like most boys the prospect of something exciting +coincided with his desire to escape a long sermon, so he hastened +outside in time to see four boats on the river, the occupants of which +had escaped in blankets. Let us hope that as he was not fully +admitted, he escaped Busby's birch. All through the Sunday St. Paul's +was safe--the distance from Pudding Lane was a little over half a +mile--and even the east end of Lombard Street was intact. The +parishioners of St. Gregory and St. Faith, lulled into a false sense +of security, remained confident that even though the conflagration +spread westward, and the surrounding houses caught fire, the flames +would not leap across the vacant space of churchyard; and the +booksellers accordingly began to store their goods in St. Faith's as +though the crypt were a fireproof safe.[36] So it might possibly have +been, and in spite of sparks, had the distracted Lord Mayor been firm +enough to prevent the storing of books in the churchyard, and had the +cathedral roof been in good repair. The flames gradually encircled the +churchyard; the goods there took fire, and the flames caught the end +of a board placed on the roof to keep out the wet. The Nemesis of +neglect! + +Our young friend Taswell first saw the flame at eight o'clock on the +Tuesday evening at Westminster. It broke out at the top of St. Paul's +Church, almost scorched up by the violent heat of the air and +lightning too, and before nine blazed so conspicuous "as to enable me +to read very clearly a 16mo. edition of Terence, which I carried in my +pocket." + +Pepys corroborates as to the day "Paul's is burned and all Cheapside," +writing of Tuesday, September 4th; and under the same date, Evelyn +adds: "The stones of St. Paul's flew like grenades, the melting lead +running down the streets in a stream, and the very pavements glowing +with a fiery redness, so as no horse or man was able to tread on them, +_and the demolition had stopped all the passages, so that no help +could be applied_, the eastern wind still more impetuously driving the +flames forward." By Wednesday night the central section of the City +was so burnt out that Pepys walked through Cheapside and Newgate +market. "It is a strange thing," he remarks, "to see how long the time +did look since Sunday." "Sad sight," he adds next day, "to see how the +river looks: no houses nor church near it." Friday, the 7th, early: "A +miserable sight of Paul's Church with all the roofs fallen in, and the +body of the quire fallen into St. Fayth's; Paul's School also, Ludgate +and Fleet Street." + +We will conclude this with some more extracts from the evidence of +Pepys. On the next Sunday, when it is interesting to observe the +drought came to an end, he attended service twice, probably at St. +Olave's, Hart Street, Mark Lane, in the neighbourhood of Crutched +Friars. In the morning "Our parson made a melancholy but good sermon; +and many and most in the church cried, specially the women. The +church mighty full; but few of fashion, and most strangers. To church +again, and there preached Dean Harding [Nicolas Hardy, of Rochester]; +but methinks a bad, poor sermon, though proper for the time; nor +eloquent in saying at this time that the City is reduced from a large +folio to a decimo-tertio." The phrase "most strangers" is not +surprising, as besides St. Paul's, some eighty-five parish churches +were in ashes, including two without the walls but inside the +Liberties. Our last extract is under date 12th November following, and +illustrates how such remains as had hitherto escaped desecration were +treated in the general disorder. Bishop Braybroke's efforts at reform +have been already acknowledged: his tomb was behind the high altar +towards the east. "In the Convocation House Yard [apparently the space +within the Chapter House Cloisters] did there see the body of Robert +Braybroke, Bishop of London, that died in 1404. He fell down in the +tomb out of the great church into St. Fayth's this late fire, and is +here seen his skeleton with the flesh on; but all tough and dry like a +spongy dry leather or touchwood, all upon his bones. His head turned +aside. A great man in his time, and Lord Chancellor. And now exposed +to be handled and derided by some, though admired for its duration by +others. Many flocking to see it." + +Old St. Paul's, then, suffered the fate of its predecessors in the +first week of September, 1666. By the Friday the conflagration had so +far exhausted itself that Pepys was able to walk from Paul's Wharf to +the churchyard. The City within the Walls was well-nigh burnt out, and +of the eighty-three parish churches consumed only forty-eight were +rebuilt; and these with the thirteen untouched left accommodation more +than sufficient for the surrounding population. Our regret for the +cathedral would have been greater, had this magnificent monument of +mediaeval genius--probably of its kind as fine as any in the +world--been capable of a conservative restoration: it is to be feared +that neglect, the destroyer, and the restorer had amongst them +rendered this task well-nigh impossible. + +So far as existing authorities guide us, it remains to describe the +architecture.[37] + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[21] "Short History," pp. 298, 299. Green says, "The awakening of a +rational Christianity." + +[22] See Dr. Lupton's "Life of Colet," 1887. + +[23] When I was living in the parish of Kensington, St. Paul's School +was, as I believe it still is, _facile princeps_. + +[24] Assuming that the date of the meeting from Hall's _Chronicle_ is +correctly printed in Milman, November 7, 1530. + +[25] "Chapters in the History," p. 169. Milman (p. 202) adds that the +hearers pulled the doll to pieces. The dean is made to say "Ridley, +now bishop of Rochester"; but Ridley was bishop 1547-1550, as Milman +elsewhere implies (p. 211). + +[26] Milman, p. 216. + +[27] My authorities for this well-nigh incredible story are in "St. +Paul's and Old City Life," p. 234. + +[28] "Plot" I must continue to call it, with all due deference to +certain modern apologists. + +[29] Horace Walpole (quoted in Longman, p. 69) says that Inigo Jones +renewed the sides with "very bad Gothic." Assuming the accuracy of the +prints in Dugdale, it is difficult to see where the Gothic comes in. + +[30] Carlyle's "Cromwell," vol i., chap. iv. + +[31] There is some confusion as to receipts and expenditure. I take +Dugdale to mean that under the Charles commission L101,000 was raised, +and L35,000 spent; but it seems uncertain whether we are to include +Sir Paul Pindar's liberality in this sum. Dean Milman estimates that +only L17,000 was confiscated. The enormous cost of the army caused a +chronic deficit. + +[32] "Cromwell," vol ii., part v.: The Levellers. + +[33] Ibid. Friday, April 27, 1649. + +[34] "Gleanings," p. 283. + +[35] "Old St. Paul's," chap. v. I have found no corroboration for this +interesting incident related by Ainsworth in detail. + +[36] Yet the vacant space was in many places very narrow, and the +bishop's palace was actually connected with the south-east end of the +cathedral. + +[37] My quotations from Taswell and Evelyn are taken from Milman, +chap. xv. I cannot explain Taswell's mention of lightning. Some assert +that St. Paul's caught fire on the Monday. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +OLD ST. PAUL'S--EXTERIOR. + + +The church was cruciform, with aisles to every arm; and we will give +the external dimensions before the fire of 1561, which include the +lofty spire and exclude the portico. The figures must in all cases be +considered approximate. + +The extreme length east and west is difficult to ascertain: +authorities do not agree; neither do their different estimates with +their scales. Mr. William Longman, upon the authority of Mr. E.B. +Ferrey, estimates it at 596 feet, and his accompanying scale even +more. If the accuracy of the comparative ground-plan in "St. Paul's +and Old City Life" can be depended upon, we must put it at a little +over 580 feet; but Mr. F.C. Penrose's invaluable excavations do not +appear to have fixed the precise termination of the west front. Mr. +Longman also gives a comparative ground-plan of the two cathedrals +from a drawing of Wren's (see below, p. 64); and this, though on a +small scale, is perhaps our safest guide, and we shall probably not be +far wrong if we say 580 feet or a little over, and divide our length +as follows: nave, 252 feet; across transept, 104 feet; choir, 224 +feet. To this must be added the portico of 40 feet, making a total +length of at least 620 feet. The old west end was some 70 feet nearer +Ludgate Hill, and with the portico 110 feet nearer. Length of +transepts, 293 feet, the two arms being equal; breadth of both nave +and transepts, 104 feet, Dugdale's scale making them exactly 100 feet: +breadth of choir a trifle less. Height of nave from ground to apex of +roof, about 130 feet, and of choir, 143 feet. Height of central tower +by Wren's estimate, the lowest, 260 feet, and of spire about 200 +feet; altogether according to Wren, 460 feet, and according to others +still higher. Height of western towers with the spires I take the +liberty of adding, unknown. I have calculated the area at about 81,000 +to 82,000 square feet; and in this have excluded St. Gregory's (say 93 +X 23 feet plus the apse) and the Chapter House, with the surrounding +cloister; a square of 90 feet and more than half covered in. These two +members were structurally part and parcel of the building. + +Thus we see that Old St. Paul's was by far the largest cathedral +church in England. Its area exceeded York and Durham: its length +Winchester: the height of its graceful lead-covered spire exceeded +Salisbury; and this, taking Wren's safe and low estimate, and not +counting ball, cross and eagle weathercock of some thirty feet more. +If we allow St. Gregory and the covered part of the Chapter House +area, as we should, it equalled in area or slightly exceeded alike its +successor and Cologne and Florence, and was surpassed only by the new +St. Peter's, Milan, and Seville. "See the bigness," said Bishop Corbet +of Norwich, "and your eye never yet beheld such a goodly object." + +The difficulties which present themselves in any attempt to describe +the architecture still continue to beset us; such earlier drawings as +we have are contradictory and rude to a degree.[38] The NAVE +was Norman, rebuilt to a great extent after the fire of 1137. The +aisles had the usual round-headed windows, with the unusual (for +England) circular windows above. There were flat buttresses; but I +must reject the flying-buttresses of some restorers. The clerestory +windows are a puzzle. Everybody maintains they were Pointed, and, if +so, they would have been inserted at the same time as the new roof; +but there seems to be no trustworthy authority for this. In Finden's +engravings after Hollar they are taken at a peculiar angle which is +apt to mislead. Hollar and his engravers give two windows on the south +side in the interior, _i.e._, of the nave and clerestory. Both seem +alike; and Inigo Jones' patched-up north and south fronts represent +them both as round, so that the balance of evidence appears to be in +favour of round.[39] + +Another difficulty is the question of the existence or nonexistence +of the western towers. Mr. William Longman and Mr. E.B. Ferrey give +none in their south-west view, because "no drawings or plates are +known to exist which would settle the question." But it is our +misfortune that we have to reconstruct Old St. Paul's practically +without the help of drawings, until we come to Inigo Jones' finished +work. In Dugdale's ground-plan they cover almost exactly the same area +as one of the severies of the neighbouring aisles, and are flush with +the west front; in both respects resembling those of Wells and other +cathedrals. Besides, they are constantly mentioned, and at various +dates, as Mr. Longman duly acknowledges. The southern tower was the +original LOLLARDS' TOWER from which the Lambeth tower has +borrowed its name, and was utilised for a prison by the Bishops of +London for ecclesiastical offences. It was both bell and clock tower, +and abutted on to both the cathedral proper and St. Gregory's. So late +as 1573, Peter Burchet of the Middle Temple, shortly afterwards +executed for murdering his gaoler in the tower, was imprisoned here +for heresy, and would then have been sentenced to death but for +recanting. + +The north-west tower was likewise used at times as a prison, and was +connected with the bishop's palace. In the days of Bonner, an upper +floor almost as high as the parapet of the nave contained a room eight +feet by thirteen; and the two towers were connected by a passage in the +thickness of the west wall. Hollar's views show us that Inigo Jones +overlaid these towers with a new coating, and finished them off with +turrets. The original towers were probably crowned with spires of wood +and lead, and both projected some thirty feet from the aisles. The high +roof of the nave[40] of the middle of the thirteenth century had an +angle of about forty-five, and replaced an older one during the +rebuilding of the choir. The CENTRAL TOWER had double flying-buttresses +with pinnacles springing from the clerestory; and, assuming that the +west towers had also spires, the grouping must have been nearly +perfect. + +Yet another puzzle is the architecture of the TRANSEPTS. The +north and south windows at the ends are sometimes represented as of a +late date, but not by Hollar. They were probably Norman in their three +stages. In his report[41] Wren says, "The North and South Wings have +Aisles only on the West side, the others being originally shut up for +the 'Consistory.'" What he meant was that the two east aisles were +shut off from the rest of the transepts. Their architecture (of the +same dimensions as their western counterparts) was Geometrical as +regards windows, buttresses, and pinnacles. The rest of the transepts +resembled the nave; and this part of the south front was very much +broken. The cloister and chapter house occupied almost the whole of +the west side of the south transept, and four bays of the nave; St. +Gregory's Church occupied four more bays at the west of the nave, +leaving only three aisle windows of the nave on the south side. + +Taking the CHOIR next, we will at once dismiss as +untrustworthy the view taken in 1610 in Speed, as reproduced in "St. +Paul's Cathedral and Old City Life." Here the windows are represented +as Norman; but this is not the first time I have found Speed at fault. +We have records of the consecration of the western part in 1240, and +of the pulling down of St. Faith's and of the completion of the +eastern part by the end of the century, or, counting certain +additions, a little later. The western and earlier part extended to +the fourth window, which is broader than the rest; and the mouldings +were somewhat different in this part; but still the matter is not +without difficulty. The engravings represent the whole of the tracery +of the twelve windows on either side as Geometrical. We should have +expected the four western windows to be lancets; and there is no +explanation for the uniformity. The East End contained a great window +some thirty-seven feet in height, of seven lights and trefoiled at the +head; and above this the circular rose window, the four angles of the +square stage filled in with an arrangement of smaller circles. There +were eastern aisle windows on either side of the main window, and four +crypt lights below. + +When we add that the buttresses were crowned with pinnacles to +strengthen them in their resistance to the flying-buttresses of the +clerestory and to the aisle walls beneath, and that these pinnacles +contained niches for statues and were terminated with crockets and +finials, so far as we can judge the exterior of the choir was in every +respect a fitting completion of the exterior of Old St. Paul's. + +We have already said sufficient of Inigo Jones, how he flagged [_i.e._ +cased] the outside of the nave and transept, says Wren, "with new +stone of larger size than before."[42] Owing to this, the plates are +silent as to the window mouldings and other details. Let us pass on to +the + + +INTERIOR. + +=The Nave= was of eleven bays (not twelve), with triforium and +clerestory, and aisles in addition. The outer coating only of the +pillars was of good stone. Wren says, "They are only cased without, +and that with small stones, not one greater than a Man's Burden, but +within is nothing but a Core of small Rubbishstone, and much Mortar, +which easily crushes and yields to the Weight." Even the outer casing, +he adds, "is much torn with age, and the Neglect of the Roof."[43] +Double engaged shafts reached to the clerestory, and supported the +springers. The actual arcading sprang from these shorter engaged +shafts, which had cushioned capitals; and the arcading of the +triforium was similar. The mouldings of the arches of arcading and +triforium look like the lozenge. The vaulting, too heavy for its +supports, was quadripartite, with cross springers intervening, and the +longitudinal rib unbroken. The =Transepts= were each of four bays, and +in their details similar to the nave. Their north aisles were shut off +by blank walls which displayed here and there the architecture of the +rest; and each aisle of four bays was further divided into two equal +parts of two bays each, making four compartments altogether. In one or +other of these four the Consistory Court, according to Wren, was held. +To the arcading of nave and transepts, Wren says that in later years +four new and stronger piers were added in the common centre under the +tower for the purpose of strengthening it. As these are not shown in +Dugdale's plates, we can only conjecture their date to have been after +the fire of 1445. By the plan they were far more massive than the +others, and we can well understand Wren's complaint that they broke in +upon the perspective. + + [Illustration: THE NAVE OF OLD ST. PAUL'S. + _After Hollar._] + +The dates of the nave and transepts have already been suggested. After +the fire of 1087, Bishop Maurice and his successor built everything +afresh on a larger scale. The fire of 1136 did great damage, and +restoration on a considerable scale was effected. Mr. E.A. Freeman, by +a happy coincidence, touches on restorations at Wells of this time, +and contrasts our two dates.[44] After the fire of 1136 the +restoration would be in a style "somewhat less massive, somewhat more +highly enriched." I have already pointed out Freeman's statement that +the custom towards the middle of the eleventh century was to throw a +coating of the more refined Romanesque of the day over earlier Norman +work, and this agrees with the statements both of Wren and Pepys. + +We may, then, assume that while the former ground-plan and general +outline remained the same, after 1136 the pillars were encased and +more elaborate mouldings added. By another statement of the same +authority[45] it would seem that "the vaulting shafts run up from the +ground" belong to the second restoration, when the vaulting itself was +completed, and the date of this is indicated in Bishop Basset's letter +of 1255. + +Hence the nave and transepts were restored after the transitional +Norman style, and vaulting shafts added in the fully developed Early +English style, while the window tracery and other details of the +isolated north aisles of the transepts were Geometrical. The four +piers supporting the central tower were of a later date; but surely +there must have been others, though less massive, before, otherwise it +is difficult to understand how the tower and spire were supported. + +Dugdale gives only two monuments in the nave. Thomas Kemp, who died +bishop, reposed under the penultimate arch in the north side, in a +chapel enclosed by a screen and railings. The second was that of Sir +John Beauchamp, who died in 1358, and whose monument was under the +eastern arch on the south side. Somehow the populace entertained the +idea that this latter was the burial place of Duke Humphrey of +Gloucester, uncle to Henry VI., who was murdered in 1447 and buried at +St. Alban's. The adjacent part of the south aisle was called Duke +Humphrey's Walk: and the tomb seems to have been a sanctuary. At +dinner-time, needy people who lacked both the means to purchase a meal +and friends to provide them with one, and who chanced to loiter about +this sanctuary, were said _to dine with Duke Humphrey_, and the phrase +was equivalent to having no dinner at all. + + [Illustration: THE CHOIR, LOOKING EAST. + _After Hollar._] + +=The Choir.=--As our ancestors looked eastward from under the central +tower, both aisles of the choir were completely hidden from view by +the height of the blank wall. The choir screen in the centre was of +less altitude, had four niches for statues on either side, and a fine +Pointed doorway in the centre of three orders of arches. The plates +are of a date too late to show any rood. Entering through this door +was the choir of twelve bays. Stephen Wren implies that the whole of +this magnificent member was completed by 1240;[46] but much of the +architecture belonged to a somewhat later date, and the prints are +corroborated by numerous documents.[47] The extension eastward on the +site of Old St. Faith's must have almost amounted to a rebuilding. +Where did this extension begin, and where did the choir of 1240 end? +Wren noticed that the intercolumnar spacing was less irregular to the +east. Mr. Longman points out that the clustered pillars towards the +west differed from the others, as did their capitals and the triforium +arcading, while the fifth arch-space was greater than all the rest. +Here we have the original east end. + +Westward, the square fronts of the pillars were left bare; eastward +they were covered with clustered shafts, and the springers which +supported the vaulting were continued to the ground. Westward, +moreover, the triforium arcading differed from that to the east, and +was occasionally even left blank. + +There remains, however, this peculiarity, that according to the prints +the main aisle windows were uniform throughout, and with Geometrical +tracery. The vaulting differed from the nave in this, that the +diagonals, where they met the longitudinal rib, had bosses, and three +single cross ribs alternated instead of one. The longitudinal rib was +again unbroken throughout. + +That part of the Choir devoted to public worship was limited to the +first seven bays, of which the three to the east were on a higher +level. The stalls of the dignitaries extended four bays, and shut out +the aisles. On the north side the organ occupied the third bay, and on +the south the bishop's cathedral throne, as now, was at the end. The +Chapel of St. Mary, or Lady Chapel, was east of the presbytery at the +extreme end, with St. George's to the north and St. Dunstan's south; +and the whole of the space outside the presbytery--north, south, +east--was taken up by some of those monuments which contributed so +much to the beauty and interest of the interior, and they even +encroached inside. Dugdale gives some seventy to eighty. Between the +altar and the Lady Chapel was St. Erkenwald's noted and richly +decorated shrine, and the tombs of Bishop Braybroke and Dean Nowell. +Hard by in the north aisle slept John of Gaunt under his magnificent +canopy; and supporter of Wycliffe though he was, his tomb was rifled +and defiled during the Commonwealth. Near at hand was the monument of +Sebba, King of the East Saxons--a convert of Erkenwald, from whom he +received the cowl. In the disgraceful chaos after the Fire, the body +of Sebba, says Dugdale "was found curiously enbalmed in sweet odours +and clothed in rich robes." Here also could be read the unflattering +epitaph over the monument of Ethelred the Unready; and hard by the +tomb of John of Gaunt, in December, 1641, the corpse of another +Fleming by birth was interred. Sir Anthony Van Dyck had spent the last +nine years of his life in England at the invitation of Charles, and +this great pupil of Rubens was probably the last buried in the choir +before the Civil War. The Lady Chapel contained a wooden tablet to Sir +Philip Sidney, with the inscription: + + "England, Netherlands, the Heavens and the Arts, + The Souldiers and the World, have made six parts + Of noble Sidney; for none will suppose + That a small heap of stones can Sidney enclose. + + His body hath England, for she it bred; + Netherlands his blood, in her defence shed; + The Heavens have his soule, the Arts his fame, + All Souldiers the grief, the World his good name." + +Another wooden tablet in the north aisle was to the memory of his +father-in-law, the statesman Walsingham; and numerous other statesmen, +nobles, divines, and lawyers were buried, or at least remembered. We +can but regret that these are now things of the past, and gone, with +the exception of the effigy of Dean Donne--as remarkable as the man +himself--and a few mutilated remains. Even Colet's is gone. + +Before descending to the Crypt we may remark that the Interior must +have fully emphasised the sense of majestic beauty produced by the +Exterior. The long perspective eastward from the West Door, flanked on +either side by the arcading and terminating with a glimpse of the rose +window over the choir screen, as depicted in Dugdale, leaves nothing +to be desired. + +=The Crypt or Shrouds.=--The crypt was underneath the eight eastern +bays of the choir, and was about 170 feet in length.[48] The entrance +was from the churchyard on the north side, and the gloom was lit up by +basement windows both at the sides and east end. An additional row of +piers down the centre supported the choir pavement above; and the +whole undercroft may best be described as of eight arches in length +and four in breadth, the arches springing from engaged columns and the +vaulting quadripartite. + +The mouldings of the clustered columns were plain rounds and hollows, +and everything throughout appears to have been uniform and of the same +date. The four western bays, rather more than half, formed the parish +church of St. Faith; the eastern part the Jesus Chapel, which, after +the suppression of the Guild, was added to St. Faith's. These two +parts were separated by a wooden screen, and over the door was an +image of Jesus, and underneath the inscription: + + "Jesus our God and Saviour + To us and ours be Gouernour." + +These remarks about the Jesus Chapel, be it noted, date only from the +reign of Henry VI., by whom the Guild was incorporated, and the +members of which held high festival on the days of the Transfiguration +and of the Name of Jesus. + +At the south-west corner of St. Faith's, but outside, was the Chapel +of St. John the Baptist, and near this were the three Chapels of St. +Anne, St. Sebastian, and St. Radegund. Dugdale gives a list of sixteen +of the more noted tombs. They include that of William Lyly, the first +master of Colet's famous foundation. Had his bones not been disturbed +by Wren's workmen, they could still have been found underneath the +arcading due south-west from Dean Milman's tomb.[49] To Lyly's memory +his son George, Prebendary of Cantlers, also placed a tablet in the +nave above. + +Having mentioned our last chapel and altar, it may here be added that +the records enumerate not less than twenty chapels and three dozen +altars altogether. Besides the Guild of Jesus there were four +others--All Souls', the Annunciation, St. Catherine's, and the +Minstrels--and these do not seem to include the oldest of all, that +founded by Ralph de Diceto in 1197, which met four times a year to +celebrate the mass of the Holy Ghost. We now go on to the surrounding +buildings. + + +THE PRECINCTS. + +=St. Gregory's=, in reality part of the cathedral with the Lollards' +Tower common to both, is mentioned as a parish church in early +documents. Pulled down and rebuilt, in the plates of Hollar it appears +as an uninteresting building, hiding from view the four west bays of +the south aisle of the nave. After the Fire the parish was united for +ecclesiastical purposes to St. Mary Magdalen, Old Fish Street, and +both have since been by a further union annexed to St. Martin, Ludgate +Hill. The Petty Canons were parsons or rectors--that is to say, the +income of the benefice was devoted to their support, and so continued +until their suppression as a corporation. =The Bishop's Palace= was to +the north-west, and joined the tower. We know nothing of its +architecture, and it is last mentioned in Inigo Jones' Report of 1631. + +=Pardon Church Haugh=, or Pardonchirche Haw, on the north side and +east of the palace, was not a church at all, and was situated probably +in St. Gregory's parish. How the "Haw," or small enclosure, received +its name is doubtful: there may have been some unrecorded connection +with pardons or indulgences. Here Thomas a Becket's father, who was +Portreeve, built his chapel, rebuilt by Dean Thomas Moore, whose +executors added three chantries. The Haugh was environed by a +cloister, and the tombs in this part traditionally exceeded, both in +number and workmanship, those in the cathedral, but this is all we +know about them. In the cloister was the picture of the Dance of +Death. Death, represented by a skeleton, leading away all sorts and +conditions of mankind, beginning with Pope and Emperor. The +accompanying verse of Dean John Lydgate, monk of Bury (or his +translation from the French), was as gruesome as the picture. +Somewhere here the Petty Canons had their common hall. Near the +cloister, and on the east side, was Walter Sheryngton's Library; and +adjacent to the north-west corner of the neighbouring transept, his +chapel with its two chantries. East of the Haugh and about opposite +the north point of the transept, was the =Charnel=, a chapel with a +warden and three chantries. Underneath was a crypt or vault for the +decent reception of any bones that might be disinterred, and hence the +name. + + [Illustration: ST. PAUL'S CROSS. + _From an Engraving in Wilkinson's "Londina Illustrata," after the + picture in the possession of the Society of Antiquaries, + London._] + +We have now arrived at the north side of the transept, and inside the +angle formed by chancel and transept stood =Paul's Cross=, in St. +Faith's parish. It was an octagon of some thirty-seven feet, and stood +about twelve feet from the old cathedral. Mr. Penrose excavated for +the site, and found it just at the north-east angle of the present +choir. The last structure--of wood on a stone foundation, and with an +open roof--was the gift of Thomas Kemp; but a pulpit cover existed in +1241. Above the roof rose the cross from which the name was derived; +and from 1595 the whole was surrounded by a low brick wall, at the +gate of which a verger was stationed. Against the choir wall was a +gallery of two tiers: in the upper was the projecting royal box or +closet, below the Lord Mayor's; and the parishioners of St. Faith had +a right to seats. In very bad weather an adjournment was made to the +crypt; but our sturdy forefathers endured alike stress of weather, +length of discourse, and undiluted frankness of speech, after a manner +that altogether puts us, their degenerate descendants, to shame. + +From a rude picture, painted in 1620 at the instance of Henry Farley, +we can see the preacher for the day with a sand-glass at his right +hand. King James, in his state box, has his Queen on his right, and +his unhappy son on his left, with the Lord Mayor below. These are to +the left of the preacher, who faces the transept. The congregation, +partly composed of parishioners of St. Faith, is seated on forms; and +the men wear their steeple-crowned hats. A dog-whipper is vigorously +belabouring a poor animal with a cat-o'-nine-tails; but the cries of +the victim do not in the least disturb either preacher or audience; +and two led horses are behind the preacher. A well-dressed youth, a +late arrival, bows and accosts a grave-looking citizen with "I pray, +sir, what is the text?" and the citizen answers, "The 2nd of Chron. +xxiv." A second citizen is dropping a coin into a large money-box by +the transept door. The subject of the sermon, judging from the text, +was the much-needed restoration; and perchance the preacher was none +other than the diocesan, James' "king of preachers."[50] + +In 1633 the preaching was removed into the choir "for the repaire of +the Church," though we cannot quite see in what way this could help +the repairing. Those who shortly afterwards obtained control of the +City could tolerate neither the name nor the actual cross, and were +afraid of disturbances as well. The structure came down, and although +it was said at the time only to make way for another "fairer and +bigger," was never restored again. The endowments out of which the +preachers were paid went to the Sunday morning preachers, and these +latter are the legitimate successors of the old-time divines. + + [Illustration: THE CHAPTER HOUSE AND CLOISTER. + _After Hollar._] + +=The Clochier=, or =Bell Tower=, with its lead-covered spire crowned +with a statue of St. Paul, stood at the east end of the churchyard. +There must have been a tower here from a very early period if this was +the bell that summoned the folk-mote. The Guild of Jesus owned the +four bells of later times; and when that body was dissolved they +reverted to the Crown, and were lost at dice to a Sir Miles Partridge, +subsequently executed for sharing in the fortunes of the Protector +Somerset. The cloister of the =Chapter House=, or =Convocation House=, +shut off almost entirely the west wall of the south transept and four +bays of the south wall of the nave. This was of the unusual +arrangement of two stories, and formed a square of some ninety feet on +the plan, with seven windows in either story. This was called the +"Lesser Cloisters," apparently to distinguish it from the cloister of +Pardon Church Haugh. In the centre of the square, and approached +through a vestibule from the east, was the Chapter House, an octagon +with a diameter of nearly forty feet, supported by massive buttresses. +In Dugdale's engraving the lofty roof has gone; and the tracery of +Chapter House and Cloisters alike are Perpendicular. It will be seen +there were two places for the two Houses of Convocation, one near the +west door of the nave, and this. + +There was St. Peter's College, where the Petty Canons lived, Holmes +College, and the Lancaster College. Thomas Plantagenet, Earl of +Lancaster, executed for high treason against his cousin, Edward II., +who was canonised by the people, though not by the Pope, had a tablet +somewhere in the church at which miracles were believed to be wrought, +and two offices to himself. But whether the Lancaster College referred +to him or to John of Gaunt, or where it was situated, is uncertain. + +Of all these various buildings which surrounded the cathedral and +added to its interest, the curious, by going to the south side of the +nave, may discern some traces of the old Lesser Cloisters and Chapter +House. Everything else has gone so completely that it would be +difficult to fix even the exact site. + + [Illustration: PLAN OF OLD ST. PAUL'S IN 1666.] + + +DIMENSIONS. + +OLD ST. PAUL'S. + + + LENGTH of Nave 252 feet + LENGTH across Transept 104 feet + LENGTH of Choir 224 feet + --------- + 580 feet + LENGTH across Portico 40 feet + --------- + Total length 620 feet + + LENGTH of Transept 293 feet + + BREADTH of Nave 104 feet + + HEIGHT of Central Tower 260 feet + + HEIGHT Spire 200 feet + --------- + Total height 460[51] feet + + HEIGHT of Nave roof 130 feet + HEIGHT Choir 143 feet + + Area about 80,000 sq. ft. + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[38] Particularly so in the "Gleanings." + +[39] _I.e._, assuming that Inigo Jones did not convert pointed into +round. + +[40] Bishop Fulk Basset sent out in 1255 letters hortatory for the +contributions of the faithful. "Quod Ecclesia St. Pauli, in retroactis +temporibus, tantis turbinibus fuit quassata, &c. _ut totum ejus +tectum_, jam quasi in ruinam gravissimam declinare videtur" (Dugdale, +p. 9). + +[41] "Parentalia," p. 276. + +[42] "Parentalia," p. 275. + +[43] Ibid. + +[44] "Wells," p. 69. His exact dates are shortly after 1088 and 1136. + +[45] "Wells," p. 132. + +[46] "Parentalia," p. 273. + +[47] Particularly the 68 Indulgences between 1228-1316 cited in +"Documents Illustrating," p. 174. + +[48] This crypt, under the extension of the thirteenth century choir, +cannot be that mentioned by William of Malmesbury. According to the +plan in Dugdale, there was no crypt underneath the Norman cathedral. + +[49] "Chapters on the History" (pp. 91-93) gives more details about +the crypt. Dean Milman calls Lyly John; and Chambers' "Book of Days" +buries him in the churchyard. + +[50] "Chapters in the History," with plate, pp. 159, 222, etc. + +[51] This is Wren's estimate; others are higher. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +FROM THE FIRE TO THE COMPLETION OF NEW ST. PAUL'S (1666-1710). + + +Christopher Wren was the most distinguished member of a distinguished +family. His father's elder brother, Matthew, was fellow and senior +treasurer of Pembroke College, Cambridge, when James I. visited that +university in 1611, and won the favour of his sovereign by the ability +with which he acquitted himself in the "Philosophy Act." After serving +as chaplain to Charles in the journey to Spain, he received, amongst +other preferments, the Mastership of Pembroke and the Deaneries of +Windsor and Wolverhampton, and then was made, in quick succession, +Bishop of Hereford, Norwich, and Ely. We shall see that the Cathedral +of Ely exercised an influence over his nephew in designing the Dome of +St. Paul's. Matthew survived the Commonwealth after a lengthy +imprisonment without trial, and returned to Ely after the Restoration. +His younger brother Christopher was chaplain to Lancelot Andrewes, +Bishop of Winchester, who preferred him to the Rectory of East Knoyle, +Wilts.[52] Charles I. made him chaplain in ordinary; and when Matthew +was preferred to Norwich, his brother succeeded him in his two +deaneries. The Dean, like his brother, was a learned scholar, and to +him posterity is indebted for the preservation of many valuable +records at Windsor during the troubled times. He married Mary, +heiress of Robert Cox, of Founthill, in Wiltshire, and died in poverty +and deprived of his benefices before the Restoration. The only +surviving son of the marriage, Christopher, was born at East Knoyle, +October 20, 1632. Like others who have eventually lived to an extreme +old age, he was delicate during childhood, and, instead of being sent +early to school, received his primary instruction privately. Like his +father before him, he displayed great aptitude for mathematics, both +pure and applied, and was fortunate enough to have a capable teacher +in Dr. William Holder, the husband of a sister, in whose house his +father took refuge and died after his ejection from Windsor. At the +age of thirteen he was sent for a short period to Westminster, and +about the same time invented a new astronomical instrument. The next +year he was admitted as a gentleman commoner at Wadham College, +Oxford. Both the Warden, Dr. John Wilkins, and the Savilian Professor +of Astronomy, Dr. Seth Ward, observed his early promise, and gave him +every encouragement in the pursuit of his favourite studies, and he +continued to design ingenious instruments and models, Dr. Charles +Scarborough, a surgeon of note, making use of his talents in preparing +pasteboard models for his anatomical lectures.[53] His intellectual +precocity can only be compared to that of John Stuart Mill, and with +this difference, that whereas Mill was forced by his father like a +plant under glass, Wren's studies were spontaneous and voluntary. + +Graduating in 1650, he was elected three years later, after taking his +Master's degree, to a Fellowship of All Souls, the next year began his +friendship with John Evelyn, and he was subsequently chosen Professor +of Astronomy at Gresham College[54] and Savilian Professor at Oxford. +Isaac Newton in the "Principia" cites him as an authority on +mathematics, and, had he never turned his attention to architecture, +he would still have taken high rank in other ways. By 1663, as appears +by a letter of Thomas Sprat, afterwards Bishop of Rochester, he was +looked upon as the fittest man to restore the dilapidated St. +Paul's, and was about the same time asked to go to Tangiers to direct +the extensive fortifications and harbour projected there. He refused +the offer of Tangiers on the plea of health, "and humbly prayed his +Majesty to allow of his Excuse, and to command his duty in England." +Although this post was to be accompanied by a reversionary grant of +the Surveyor Generalship of the Royal Works, one may well ask the +question, who, had he accepted it, would have rebuilt St. Paul's?[55] + + [Illustration: ELEVATION AND SECTION OF WREN'S REJECTED DESIGN + FOR ST. PAUL'S. + _From his drawings in All Souls' College, Oxford, as reproduced + in facsimile in Blomfield's "Renaissance Architecture in + England."_] + +We now begin to find him devoting what Sprat most truly called "that +great genius of yours" to architecture. He examined carefully the +leading churches of England and of some parts of the Continent.[56] He +went to Paris the year of the Plague, and it is characteristic of the +taste of his time that no mediaeval cathedral passed on the way is +mentioned. At Paris, under the auspices of Mazarin, many architects +and artists were assembled. "I hope I shall give you a very good +Account of all the best Artists in France," he wrote to a friend. "My +business now is to pry into Trades and Arts. I put myself into all +shapes to humour them; 'tis a comedy to me, and tho' sometimes +expenceful, I am loth yet to leave it." He mentions not only leading +men like Colbert, but more than twenty architects, painters, and +designers he met, and above all Bernini, the architect of the Louvre. +"Bernini's designs of the Louvre I would have given my skin for; but +the old reserved Italian gave me but a five Minutes View; it was five +little designs on Paper, for which he had received as many thousand +Pistoles: I had only time to copy it in my Fancy and Memory." In after +years, when his enthusiasm had been tempered by a more mature +judgment, this eulogium would have been materially qualified. We may +add here that he was in course of time knighted, and became President +of the Royal Society. + + [Illustration: SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN. + _From the engraving in Elmes' Memoirs of Sir C. Wren, after the + portrait by Kneller at the Royal Society's rooms._] + +Such was the man to whom not merely the king and his advisers, but +public opinion, turned to repair the ravages of the Fire, and in +particular to rebuild St. Paul's. It was the Surveyor General, Sir +John Denham, who recommended Wren as his successor, and the death of +Denham in March, 1668, gave this recommendation full effect. One of +Wren's many disappointments was that the opportunity was missed of +laying out afresh the whole City from Temple Bar to Tower Hill, and +from Moorfields to the river. His inventive genius projected broad +streets, generally rectangular, with piazzas, each the meeting-point +of eight thoroughfares, and quays and terraces along the river bank. +He calculated that by obliterating the numerous churchyards and laying +out healthier cemeteries in the suburbs, no owner would lose a square +foot of ground, and that, although they would not find their property +exactly on the same site, every building would be replaced, with the +immense compensation of an excellent situation in the finest and +healthiest city in the whole world. By this plan St. Paul's would have +directly faced a long and broad street running west and passing +through the present Law Courts, with St. Dunstan's Church in the +centre beyond the Fleet, and the narrow Strand joining from the west +at Temple Bar. At Ludgate, three hundred yards west of the cathedral, +this avenue of a width of some thirty yards began to open out until, +opposite the west front, it had increased to a breadth of a hundred +yards, leaving ample room for a piazza. Here an acute bifurcation was +formed, the northern street leading to the Exchange; the southern, a +broader and a nobler Cannon Street, with St. Paul's between. This +scheme, as laid before the King and Parliament, Wren declared to be +thoroughly practicable. Certainly it would have prevented congestion +of traffic unto this day, and given St. Paul's (although somewhat +hemmed in on the east) a position unique amongst churches.[57] "The +only and as it happened unsurmountable Difficulty remaining was the +obstinate Averseness of great Part of the Citizens to alter their old +Properties, and to secede from building their Houses again on the old +Ground and Foundations"; and as rebuilding began almost as soon as the +smoke of the Fire had ceased, and long before anything definite could +be decided upon, a great opportunity was lost. The estimated +three-quarters of a million of souls and the vehicles innumerable now +crossing the boundaries every weekday are compelled, too often, to +traverse choked and narrow streets, and not without danger to life and +limb; while St. Paul's itself, cribbed, cabined, confined, becomes in +each successive generation more hemmed in as the surrounding emporiums +and magazines grow taller and taller. + +At first the idea was entertained of restoring the ruins, but this was +finally abandoned by royal warrant to the Commissioners in 1668, and +clearing and excavations began. The workmen with pickaxes stood on the +top of the walls some eighty feet high, and others below cleared away +the dislodged stones--a dangerous task in which lives were lost. Of +the Central Tower some two hundred feet remained, and a more +expeditious plan was adopted. A deal box, containing eighteen pounds +of gunpowder, was exploded level with the foundations at the centre of +the north-west pillar, and the adjacent arches were lifted some nine +inches, while these ruins "suddenly jumping down, made a great Heap of +Ruin in the Place without scattering." Wren estimated the whole weight +lifted at three thousand tons, and the labour saved equal to that of a +battalion of a thousand men. When the alarmed inhabitants of the +neighbourhood heard and felt the concussion, they naturally took it +for an earthquake. In the surveyor's absence a subordinate used too +much powder in attempting a second mine, and neither burying it low +enough nor building up the mouth, a stone was projected through an +open window into a room where some women were sitting at work. +Although no one was hit, the neighbours took alarm, and successfully +agitated against all further blasting. Delay was caused, and finally a +battering-ram some forty feet in length, worked by thirty men, +completed the demolition. The stones and rubbish were cleared away, +and used in different buildings and in repairing the streets. +Afterwards some houses on the north side which encroached on the +building, and may have been those that assisted the passage of the +Fire, were levelled, and their site included in the churchyard. + +When at length the ruins of Old St. Paul's had come down and the huge +mass of wreckage been cleared away, working from the west the +excavations for the new foundations were begun. The old cathedral had +rested on a layer of loam, or "pot earth" or "brick earth," near the +surface; and wells being sunk at various points to ascertain the depth +of this, it was found that the loam, owing to the ground sloping +towards the south, gradually diminished from a depth of six feet to +four. Sinking further, they found sand so loose as to run through the +fingers; next, freshwater shells and more sand, and continuing through +hard beach or gravel, they reached at last the London clay.[58] At one +point of the north-east corner, where the loam had been dug out, Wren +was compelled to rest the foundations on the clay; and it seems almost +a pity that this was not universally adopted, at whatever additional +cost of time and labour, in preference to the loam. The building had +not long been completed ere the great weight of the dome caused some +of the piers to sink from an inch to more than two inches, and Edward +Strong the younger had to repair cracks and fissures.[59] Dean Milman +tells us that in his time the City authorities once contemplated a +sewer on the south side; but the surveyor, Mr. R. Cockerell, +remembering that the sand and shells underneath the loam would be in +danger of oozing out, went in great haste to him, and on their joint +representation the project was abandoned. + +The old cathedral was not due east and west, neither did it directly +face Ludgate Hill. Owing to the lie of the land cleared away, both of +these peculiarities were increased by the surveyor, and the axis of +the New St. Paul's was swung some seven degrees further north than the +Old. He thereby made the best of his somewhat cramped site, and +avoided the foundations of the old walls. The excavations were not +completed nor the site fully cleared and made ready until 1674. + + [Illustration: RELATIVE POSITION AND AREA OF THE GROUND-PLANS OF + OLD AND NEW ST. PAUL'S. + _Reproduced from Longman's "Three Cathedrals of St. Paul's."_] + +It has been the lament of many that the Pointed arch had by the time +of the Fire died out, and that the Renaissance style, borrowed from +Italy, had taken the place in England of Gothic architecture. "About +two hundred years ago," we are told in the "Parentalia," "when +ingenious Men began to reform the _Roman_ Language to the Purity which +they assigned and fixed to the Time of _Augustus_ and of that Century, +the Architects also, ashamed of the modern Barbarity of Building, +began to examine carefully the Ruins of _Old Rome_ and _Italy_; to +search into the Orders and Proportions, and to establish them by +inviolable Rules: so to their Labour and Industry we owe in a great +Degree the Restoration of Architecture." Here we have the Renaissance +style defined. Wren would naturally have fallen in with the fashion of +his own time; and the faults he found in his elaborate surveys at Old +St. Paul's, Salisbury, and elsewhere confirmed him in his adherence. +He found "a Discernment of no contemptible Art, Ingenuity and +geometrical Skill in the Design and Execution of some few"; but this +was more than counterbalanced by grave faults: "An affectation of +Height and Grandeur, tho' without Regularity and good Proportion, in +most of them." They are loaded with too much carving and tracery, and +in other ways offend his taste, but chiefly in the neglect of a due +regard to stability. "There is scarce any _Gothick_ Cathedral, that I +have seen, at home or abroad, wherein I have not observed the Pillars +to yield and bend inwards from the Weight of the Vault of the Aile.... +For this Reason this Form of Churches has been rejected by modern +Architects abroad who use the better and _Roman_ Art of +Architecture.... Almost all the Cathedrals of the _Gothick_ Form are +weak and defective in the Poise of the Vault of the Aile."[60] On the +other hand, he reckoned the dome "a form of church-building unknown in +England, but of wonderful Grace," and, moreover, the dome wasted a +minimum of space, whilst a mediaeval cathedral could accommodate only a +small auditory in proportion to its large area, so that every one +could both see and hear. Any place of worship was in his eyes badly or +imperfectly constructed in which the preacher's voice could not travel +so as to be distinctly heard. There is much to be said on both sides +in regard to the comparative merits of Gothic and Renaissance; and +instead of echoing complaints, it is surely better to be thankful we +have one cathedral, situated in the greatest centre of population, in +the latter style.[61] + + [Illustration: MODEL OF WREN'S FIRST DESIGN + _Reproduced from Longman's "Three Cathedrals," &c._ + [The western cupola is an addition to the design shown on p. 57]] + +In 1668 a small committee of eight, in addition to the Dean and +Chapter, was appointed, and about the same time Wren set seriously to +work and soon after produced his first design (see p. 57). In addition +to the reasons already mentioned, he had at first to take into +consideration the all-important question of finance, for when he began +there were only voluntary contributions to fall back upon; but in 1670 +a share of the import duties on coal was granted, and soon constituted +the greater part of the rebuilding fund. In 1673 an enlarged +commission of over a hundred members was nominated by royal warrant, +with the Lord Mayor at its head, who took precedence over the Primate +and the Bishop; and Wren laid his first design before them, of which a +model was made. This was a kind of Greek cross; the external order was +the Corinthian, with Attic above. It bore a general resemblance to a +rotunda, and was crowned with a dome taken from the Pantheon at Rome. +This dome was of about the same diameter as the present, but less +lofty, and was likewise supported by eight pillars. West of the +rotunda part was the foot of the cross, and a secondary dome was +afterwards added. When Wren began to design this we have seen that +amongst other considerations was that of finance[62]; but even had the +coal dues been then granted, it is certain that he would have adhered +to it, for it was always a great favourite. In designing it he took +two facts into consideration: (1) that the outdoor sermons, formerly +preached at the Cross, were for the future to be preached inside, and +that a large auditorium would be required for this purpose (2) that +religious processions inside were now discouraged, and that a nave and +aisles were in consequence a useless waste of space and means.[63] +Forgetting these two important items, a vast amount of adverse +criticism has been bestowed upon Wren's favourite. Its main drawback +was the absence of a proper Sacrarium; and yet so obvious were its +advantages, that when a cathedral was lately proposed for Liverpool, +no less an authority on architecture than the late Canon Venables +advocated its adoption. + + [Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE MODEL. + _A sketch by the Rev J.L. Petit._] + +The clergy and others wanted something with more resemblance to the +old cathedrals; and first of all the surveyor tried to humour them by +adding another secondary dome to the west. He next set to work making +a great number of sketches, merely, as his grandson says, for +"Discource sake"; and one of these was so much approved of that a +model was again made. But the demand for a building with choir, nave, +and aisles complete continued, and required to be satisfied; and at +length one design met with the approval of the king; and on the 14th +of May, 1675, Charles issued his warrant to the commissioners +accordingly, stating that he approved of this particular design +because it was "very artificial, proper, and useful," and could be +built by parts, and that his commissioners were to begin at once with +"the East-end or Quire." + +Wren had already become disgusted with the impediments and delays +caused by incompetent judges, and had determined to discontinue making +his drawings and plans public.[64] + +We shall never know all that took place during the building so as to +be able to account for the deviations from this design. The king gave +the surveyor permission to make alterations "rather ornamental than +essential," and left the whole to his management, so that the royal +commission was chiefly employed as treasurers. But even this scarcely +explains the great alterations made. The drum and dome of the design, +of comparatively modest dimensions, are crowned with a minaret-like +spire. The west front has but one order of columns, and the towers are +insignificant to a degree. These are amongst the features which were +altered, and they were "essential" as distinct from "ornamental." We +know that Wren developed as his experience was enlarged; and we know +also that certain alterations were made contrary to his wish. Beyond +this we are lost in conjecture at the poverty of his design. Perhaps, +despising the taste of the commissioners, he never seriously intended +to adhere to it, anticipating he would be his own master. + + [Illustration: THE "WARRANT" DESIGN. + _From a drawing in All Souls' College, Oxford. Reproduced from + Blomfield's "Renaissance Architecture."_] + +Quickly following on the royal warrant, the first stone was laid June +21, 1675, at the south east corner of the choir.[65] By 1685 the walls +of the choir were finished, with the north and south porticoes, and +the dome piers raised to a like height. When fixing the centre of his +dome, Wren directed a labourer to place a stone as a mark. The man +took a broken fragment of an old gravestone on which was inscribed the +word _Resurgam_; and by many this was naturally taken as a favourable +augury. In 1686 the old west end, hitherto left undisturbed in its +ruins, was cleared away, and two years later the choir was ready for +its roof; but shortly after, a fire at the west of the north choir +aisle, in a room allotted to the organ-builder, caused a slight delay. +Not until 1697 was the choir ready for divine service. + +After long years of war, during which the country had suffered from +the heavy burden of taxation, and her commerce had been impaired, the +treaty of Ryswick was at length signed, sealed, and ratified; and +Louis XIV. acknowledged William and Mary as the lawful sovereigns of +these isles. The king returned from the Continent in November, 1697, +and was received with the greatest enthusiasm. Stock almost rose, and +gold almost fell, to par; and every prospect of a returning prosperity +put the public, whatever their politics, in a good humour. A council +at which William presided, resolved that the second day of December +should be kept as a day of Thanksgiving; and the Chapter decided that +the day of Thanksgiving should be the day for the consecration of the +choir. William wished to attend himself; but it was represented that +if he went in procession from Whitehall, the whole population would +turn out, and the parish churches be empty; and he had to rest content +with a service in his palace. At St. Paul's the civic representatives +attended in full state, and Bishop Compton, Dean Sherlock, and the +cathedral staff, occupied the new stalls of Grinling Gibbons. The +temporary organ accompanied the chanting, and a special prayer +incorporated into the Communion office ran: "We offer our devout +praises and thanksgivings to Thee for this Thy mercy, humbly +beseeching Thee to perfect and establish Thy good work. Thou, O Lord, +dwellest not in houses made with hands; heaven and the heaven of +heavens cannot contain Thee; but though Thy throne is in heaven, earth +is Thy footstool; vouchsafe, therefore, we beseech Thee, Thy gracious +presence in this Thy house to hear our prayers, and accept our +sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving." Bishop Compton, who preached, +took for his text, "I was glad when they said unto me, let us go into +the House of the Lord." His sermon has not come down to us, but no +doubt he reminded the clergy and congregation that the day of +Thanksgiving had been selected because it was the dedication of their +metropolitan temple to the public worship of the religion of the +Prince of Peace; that after a lapse of thirty years, and in spite of +the hardship and distress engendered by plague, fire, and war, London +was raising another building on the spot consecrated by centuries of +prayer and praise; and that as the result of the treaty of peace, +their national religion was assured, while the metropolis might +continue to extend her commerce without fear of disaster and +bankruptcy.[66] + + [Illustration: A LATER DESIGN. + _From Sir C. Wren's drawings at All Souls' College._ + [This is approximately the design finally adopted.]] + +Early in 1699, although the nave was not completed, the north-west +chapel was opened for daily morning service, at six in the summer, and +seven in the winter. Queen Anne attended in state for the victories of +Marlborough on land, and of Ormond and Rook at sea (Nov. 12, 1702). +Two years later came Blenheim; and she went again in her state coach +drawn by eight bays. From the west door to the choir, under the +unfinished vaulting and dome, the way was lined by a detachment of +Foot Guards; and as the long procession advanced, the hautboys played +and the drums beat until the Queen and her husband had reached their +throne in the centre of the choir towards the west, when, after a +pause, service began. Dean Sherlock preached from the text, "Doubtless +there is a God that judgeth the earth"; and the service, which began +at one, lasted some three hours. On four other occasions Anne repeated +these visits--thrice for victories, and once for the union of England +and Scotland.[67] + +Although the commissioners decided that the dome was to be covered +with copper, lead was used instead, and the work steadily progressed +until two years after the last royal visit, when the fabric was +completed. Wren was now seventy-eight years of age, and his son +Christopher represented him when, in company with the master-mason, +Edward Strong, and other free and accepted masons, the last stone was +laid on the summit of the lantern, a great crowd looking on from +below. Stephen was able to reflect with satisfaction that the +cathedral had been begun and finished by his grandfather, and +practically during the time of one bishop, for Henchman had died a few +months after the laying of the first stone; and he contrasted this +with St. Peter's at Rome, where, with an unlimited supply of marble +and other costly building materials ready at hand, one hundred and +fifty-three years had been required under nineteen popes from Julius +II. to Innocent X., and under twelve architects from Bramante to +Berninus. Stephen forgot, however, that St. Peter's is more than twice +the size of St. Paul's, and that only the bare fabric of the latter +was ready, and that it still wanted its mosaics and other adornments. + +Under Wren as Surveyor-General we have already mentioned the +master-mason Edward Strong and his son Edward. John Oliver was +Assistant-Surveyor and Purveyor, with a salary of L100; Lawrence +Spencer was Clerk of the Works and Pay-master at a like salary; Thomas +Russell was Clerk of the Cheque at a salary of L50, and called over +the roll of workmen at six in the morning, one in the afternoon, and +six in the evening.[68] It has to be added that Wren and the royal +commissioners did not agree; and that about the time of the +consecration of the choir, an Act was passed with a clause suspending +"_a moiety of the Surveyor's Salary until the said Church should be +finished, thereby the better to encourage him to finish the same with +the utmost Diligence and Expedition_." His salary of L200 was thus +reduced temporarily to L100, and the arrears, in accordance with the +terms of this Act, were not made good until the completion. And worse +than this was the charge brought against him that he deliberately +delayed the building so that his pittance of two hundred a year might +be continued. The commissioners knew nothing of building, and, like +many people of to-day, may have thought that the old cathedrals were +finished in a few years. Fortunately, Wren was an enthusiast in his +great work, and the happy possessor of an equable temperament that +nothing could seriously disturb. Otherwise this disgraceful treatment +of so old a man might well have been fatal. + +It is better to turn away from this as quickly as may be, and +contemplate with a laudable pride the great achievement of our +ancestors. The Plague, and still more the Fire, must have seriously +impoverished the City; and in 1703 the great storm did immense damage. +Of the five-and-thirty years the cathedral was in building, one half +were years of war; and the public confidence and security were further +disturbed by a revolution, by civil war in Ireland, and by plots and +intrigues without number, following in the wake of a disputed +succession. Yet the City raised, and almost without complaint, a sum +enormous in those days, and which would, even in our own time, be +reckoned as serious. + +I have calculated the expense as follows. My figures lay no claim to +infallibility--I doubt whether a chartered accountant could make a +quite accurate balance-sheet--but they may be taken as fairly +approximate:-- + + RECEIPTS. + L s. d. + Coal Dues 810,181 18 2 + Subscriptions and Miscellaneous 68,341 14 1 + --------------- + Total L878,523 12 3 + + + EXPENDITURE. + L s. d. + Preliminary 10,909 7 8 + Purchase of Houses 14,808 3 10 + Cost as in "Parentalia" 736,752 2 3 + Interest on Loans 83,744 18 9 + ---------------- + Total L846,214 12 6 + + BALANCE in 1723 L32,308 19 9 + +My balance does not tally with Mr. Longman's. He tells us that the +coal duty, which was on sea-borne coal, was 1s. 6d. per chaldron, +whereof four-fifths went to St. Paul's. The age of Indulgences was +over, and, unlike the cathedrals of the Middle Ages, the cost of +building St. Paul's was chiefly defrayed by a public impost; and this +cost may be estimated in round numbers at about three-quarters of a +million for the actual building, with an additional hundred thousand +for incidental expenses. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[52] This village, near Salisbury, is called East Knoyle, Knoyle +Magna, and Bishop-Knoyle. The entry of baptism runs: "Christopher (2nd +sic.) sonne of Christopher Wren Doctor in Divinitie and Rector now." +The rector placed this entry, dated only "10th," before March, 1632/31 +in a vacant place. Hence the statement that the surveyor was born in +1631, but both the rector and Christopher himself dated the birth +October 20, 1632. My thanks are due to the Rev. Canon Milford, Rector +of East Knoyle, for the above, and also to his copy of Miss Lucy +Phillimore's "Life." + +[53] "Parentalia," p. 227 and elsewhere, gives details of his +extensive knowledge of anatomy in its various branches. + +[54] His inaugural address at Gresham College, in Latin, when he was +twenty-five (1657) fills eight folios in the "Parentalia," and is +given in facsimile of his handwriting. + +[55] The humorous letter of Sprat to Wren says: "I endeavoured to +persuade him [the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford] that the drawing of Lines +in Sir Harry Savill's School was not altogether of so great a +Concernment for the Benefit of Christendom, as the rebuilding of St. +Paul's or the fortifying of Tangier: (for I understood those were the +great Works in which that extraordinary genius of yours was judg'd +necessary to be employed)" ("Parentalia," p. 260). + +[56] As it seems to have been ignored how carefully Wren studied +cathedrals and other buildings, the following may be of interest: +"These Surveys [of Salisbury with elaborate report for the Bishop, +Seth Ward] and other occasional Inspections of the most noted +cathedral Churches and Chapels in _England_ and foreign Parts" +("Parentalia," p. 306). He never saw, we may assume, his three +favourite buildings at Rome--the Pantheon, the Basilica of Maxentius, +and St. Peter's. + +[57] Ground-plan in "Parentalia," p. 268; and Blomfield's "Renaissance +Architecture in England." + +[58] Milman, p. 407, with geological diagram. The archaeological +remains disinterred have been already mentioned, pp. 3 and 4. + +[59] Mr. Longman seems to think that the cathedral rests on the loam. +The following shows that the strata are irregular, and that in some +places the loam is very thin. Edward Strong the younger "also repaired +all the blemishes and fractures in the several legs and arches of the +dome, occasioned by the great weight of the said dome pressing upon +the foundation; the earth under the same being of an unequal temper +the loamy part thereof gave more way to the great weights than that +which was of gravel; so that the south-west quarter of the dome, and +the six smaller legs of the other quarters of the dome, having less +superficies, sunk into the thinner part of the loamy ground, an inch +in some places, in others two inches, and in other places something +more; and the other quarters of the dome, being on the thicker part of +the loamy ground and gravel, it did not give so much way to the great +weights as the other did, which occasioned the fractures and blemishes +in the several arches and legs of the dome." (Clutterbuck, "History of +Hertfordshire," vol. i., pp. 167-168; quoted in Dugdale, note, p. 173) +Clutterbuck has a great deal to say about the Strongs, father and son, +and their family. + +[60] "Parentalia," pp. 298, 304, _et seq._ Wren did not approve of, +though he used, the term "Gothic." "The Goths were rather destroyers +than builders; I think it [the Gothic] should with more reason be +called the _Saracen_ style" (Ibid., p. 297). "The Saracenick +Architecture refined by the Christians" (Ibid., p. 306). _Cf._ +Freeman, _Fortnightly Review_, October, 1872. + +[61] Wren estimated that a preacher of average voice might be heard +fifty feet in front, twenty behind, and thirty on either side, +provided he did not drop his voice at the end of the sentence. He +contended that the French preachers were heard further than the +English, because they raised their voices at the end of the sentence, +just where the words often required particular emphasis to express the +meaning. The omission of this was a fault even of capable preachers, +was "insufferable," and ought to be corrected at school. After two +centuries his criticism still holds good ("Parentalia," p. 320). His +remarks upon architecture ought to be reprinted from the "Parentalia," +and made compulsory for every student and candidate. + +[62] "Parentalia," pp. 281-282, shows how questions of finance entered +into Wren's conception of his famous First Design. + +[63] "Parentalia," p. 282. + +[64] Wren's numerous designs and drawings are undated, and the +"Parentalia" is anything but clear. In consequence there has been a +certain amount of confusion as to the identity both of the First +Design and of the approved Warrant Design. + +[65] Some say by the Bishop Humphrey Henchman, who died in the October +following; some by the surveyor, and others by the master-mason, +Strong. There seems to have been no religious service or great +ceremony. + +[66] Macaulay, followed by others, speaks merely of the "opening"; the +prayer I have quoted from Dugdale shows that the opening was a +consecration service. I am unaware that the rest of the cathedral has +ever been consecrated; and if not, it resembles Lincoln and many +another mediaeval church (Freeman's "Wells," p. 77). + +[67] June 27, 1706; December 31, 1706; May 1, 1707 (for the Union); +August 19, 1708. + +[68] Harleian MS. 4941, quoted in Dugdale, p. 140, note. This was at +the beginning. + + + + +_NEW ST. PAUL'S._ + + [Illustration: ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, FROM THE WEST.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +NEW ST. PAUL'S. + + +EXTERIOR. + +"It would be difficult to find two works of Art designed more +essentially on the same principle than Milton's 'Paradise Lost' and +Wren's St. Paul's Cathedral. The Bible narrative transposed into the +forms of a Greek epic, required the genius of a Milton to make it +tolerable; but the splendour of even his powers does not make us less +regret that he had not poured forth the poetry with which his heart +was swelling in some form that would have freed him from the trammels +which the pedantry of his age imposed upon him. What the Iliad and the +AEneid were to Milton, the Pantheon and the Temple of Peace were to +Wren. It was necessary he should try to conceal his Christian Church +in the guise of a Roman Temple. Still the idea of the Christian +cathedral is always present, and reappears in every form, but so, too, +does that of the Heathen temple--two conflicting elements in +contact--neither subduing the other, but making their discord so +apparent as to destroy to a very considerable extent the beauty either +would possess if separate."[69] + +I give this quotation at length, not because I by any means agree with +one half of the fault-finding, but because it helps to explain the +architecture. St. Paul's is often called "Classical," or "Roman," or +"Italian"; it is not one of these three: it is English Renaissance. It +was, too, a distinctly happy thought of Fergusson to suggest that the +Cathedral takes a like place in English architecture to that which the +immortal "Paradise Lost" does in English literature. The ground-plan +suggests the Gothic; the pilasters and entablature the Greek and +Roman; the round arch is found in both Roman and Romanesque, and that +commanding feature, the Dome, is the common property of many styles +and many ages. The general plan resembles the long or Latin Cross, +with transepts of greater breadth than length; and the uniformity is +broken by an apse at the east, and the two chapels at the west end. + +The best views are, perhaps, the two oblique ones approaching from +Ludgate Hill and from Cannon Street. The upward view from the +churchyard on the south side by the angle of nave and transept gives +the proportions of the lower stages of the dome effectively; and those +who care to make the weary ascent of one of the Crystal Palace towers, +will be rewarded by the aspect of the dome emerging above the pall of +surrounding smoke, and appearing to preside like a watchful and +protecting deity over the destinies of the city at its feet. + +The dimensions are as follows, in feet:--Length, 513, which may thus +be divided: nave and portico, 223; breadth of transept, 122; length of +choir, 168. Length of transepts, 248 feet. Breadth of nave, 123; of +transept and choir a trifle less; of west front with chapels, 179. +Height, to summit of balustrade, 108; to apex of roof, 120; to stone +gallery, 182; to base of sphere, 220; to upper gallery at the summit +of the dome, 281; to the summit of the cross, 363 feet. + +The material is from the quarries of Portland, chosen because of its +durability in regard to both weather and smoke, the facilities for +transport, and the size of the blocks. Had Roche Abbey stone from +South Yorkshire been more easily obtainable, these quarries might have +been used as well. The size of the blocks contributes an important +feature to the architecture, where so much depends upon the breadth of +four feet; and even the procuring of this, as time went on, and the +stonecutters had to work at a greater distance from the sea, became a +matter of delay and difficulty, and the masons might have to wait +months for their blocks. + +The combination of the stability with such lightness and gracefulness +as were procurable, can in a measure be estimated by the comparative +area taken up by the walls, pillars, and other points of support. This +area amounts to seventeen per cent., and compares favourably with St. +Peter's at Rome, which is more than half as much again, as well as +with St. Sophia and the Duomo at Florence. On the other hand many of +our Gothic cathedrals require only ten per cent.[70] Wren would have +said that they lack stability, and that he had calculated accurately +on the minimum of massiveness requisite for security; and besides +this, they have no heavy dome to be poised. Throughout there are two +stages or stories. The lower has the Corinthian Order, which was +always Wren's favourite, as he held that it was at once more graceful +and bore a greater weight of entablature than the earlier Doric and +Ionic. Wren's first design of a Greek Cross followed St. Peter's in +consisting of one main order plus an attic.[71] While Bramante at St. +Peter's found stones of nine feet in diameter in the quarries of +Tivoli, Wren, after making inquiries all over, could not procure +sufficient stone for his columns and pilasters of a greater diameter +than four feet, and he would not depart, at least to any degree, from +what he held to be the correct Corinthian height of nine diameters. +Had a sufficient quantity of larger blocks been obtainable, we should +have had the Corinthian order plus the attic, instead of the two +regular orders of Corinthian and Composite.[72] And this, it seems, +was his reason for departing in this respect from the First Design; +as also partially from the Approved Design. The pilasters are grouped +in pairs throughout, not only for stability, but also for sufficient +space for the circular-headed windows ornamented with festoons. Above +the entablature rises the second stage or story, or order. Here the +coupled pilasters have that slight difference in base and more +particularly in capital which constitutes the Composite order. The +capitals have the larger scrolls or volutes of the Ionic above the +acanthus leaves of the Corinthian proper. In reality the difference +is, here, but slight; and the best authorities maintain that there is +less difference between the Corinthian and the Composite than between +different examples of the Corinthian itself. The reason for the +dressed niches, with pediments instead of windows, like those in the +lower stage, will come later on. A main architrave and cornice run +round the entire building like an unbroken string course, and above +this, excepting at the different fronts, a balustrade, to which a +history is attached. + +A new commission had been nominated after the death of Queen Anne[73] +(which by the way included Sir Isaac Newton), and this commission +insisted upon a balustrade unless the surveyor "do in writing under +his hand set forth that it is contrary to the principles of +architecture, and give his opinion in a fortnight's time." Wren +answered, "_Persons of little skill did expect, I believe, something +they had been used to in Gothic structures, and ladies think nothing +well without an edging._" He urged that he had already terminated the +building, and that his design of pairs of pedestals in continuation of +the pilasters would better resist the wind. As in other matters, he +had to give way; and the difference in the effect cannot be judged +from mere illustrations.[74] The four angles, where the transepts +join, are filled up with the huge supporting bastion-like piers of the +dome; and internally are left, so to speak, hollow; that at the +south-west being utilised as a staircase, and the others on the ground +floor as vestries. + +No roof is visible from below. The actual roof of oak and lead was so +flattened as to be invisible in accordance with the ideas of the +architect. "_No Roofs almost but Spherick raised to be visible._" +"_The Ancients affected Flatness._" "_No Roofs can have Dignity enough +to appear above a Cornice, but the Circular._"[75] + +We now come to that peculiarity upon which so much adverse criticism +has been bestowed. The usual observer will wonder why there are niches +instead of windows in the upper stage, as light is so much needed. On +entering the interior he will notice that the height of the aisles +does not correspond with the exterior; and on ascending to the Stone +Gallery will ascertain that this upper stage of the exterior is not +part of the actual wall of the church, which stands back some thirty +feet. It is, in fact, a screen or curtain wall; the lower stage alone +is the wall of the aisles, and the disfiguring square openings with +which the pedestals below the niches are pierced, give light to the +passages and galleries between the aisles and the roof. Externally one +is supposed to see the wall of the cathedral; in reality one sees the +lower story forming the wall, and an upper story in continuation made +to look as though the church were immediately behind, but in reality +quite disengaged from it. The following is an able specimen of the +adverse criticisms that have been directed against this curtain: "It +is a mere empty show with nothing behind it, and when once this is +known it is impossible to forget it, or to have the same feeling +towards the building which a spectator might have, despite its defects +of detail, who believed its external mass to represent its interior +arrangements."[76] Yet an attentive study of the "Parentalia" enables +us to plead a great deal in mitigation. The spectator will notice that +there are no substantial buttresses; and the reason is the simple one +that Wren held them to be disfigurements. "_The Romans always +concealed their Butments._"[77] "_Oblique Positions are Discord to the +Eye unless answered in Pairs, as in the Sides of an equicrural +Triangle.... Gothick Buttresses are all ill-favoured, and were avoided +by the Ancients._"[78] Such were the opinions of Wren; but how was he +to procure stability? The answer is, by the curtain wall. By its dead +weight pressing on the walls of the aisles it renders them stable and +immobile, free from all danger of thrust, while it conceals the +buttresses which render secure the clerestory stage of the building +proper. To paraphrase his own words: "_I do not add buttresses, but I +build up the wall so high as by the addition of this extra weight, I +establish it as firmly as if I had added buttresses._"[79] Thus this +wall performs a double function: it is a substitute for buttresses in +respect to the aisle walls, and a screen for the actual buttresses of +the clerestory stage. + +Such is the purpose of the upper story. An ingenious critic who did +not seem to know this vindicates it on the plea that "uninterrupted +altitude of the bulk in the same plane, is absolutely necessary to the +substructure of the mighty dome."[80] No doubt the size of the dome +requires a proportionate rise in the lower elevations; but the fact +remains that the exterior and interior do not correspond. A greater +authority than this critic has thus defined good architecture: "The +essence of good architecture of any kind is that its constructive +system should be put boldly forward, that its decorative system should +be such as in no way conceals or masks the construction, but makes the +constructive features themselves ornamental."[81] And at his uncle's +cathedral of Ely, Wren might have borrowed and worked out an idea +which would have silenced all accusation of fraud and deceit. There, +in the central part of the choir on the south side, the roof was +removed and placed lower down centuries ago, the better to light up +certain shrines below. This roof was never restored to its original +position; and the upper stage of the wall is pierced with empty +windows through which flying-buttresses can now be seen. The effect, +though altogether unusual, is far from displeasing; and the spectator +who remembers that Wren was perfectly familiar with this building, is +led to wonder why he did not by piercing the niches, imitate Ely at +St. Paul's. + +The Windows, round-headed and without tracery, contrast unfavourably +with the Lancet and Decorated. Wren recognised the value of tracery, +as is evident from his remarks on Salisbury Cathedral, although he +objected to the Perpendicular mullions and transoms.[82] Yet it is +difficult to see how he could have devised anything more elaborate or +graceful to harmonise. The carving above and below, in the +conventional festoons of the day, is almost universally voted as +respectable and nothing more. Mr. Ruskin is very severe on these +festoons, on the ground that they are tied heavily into a long bunch +thickest in the middle, and pinned up by both ends against a dead +wall, and contends that the architecture has no business with rich +ornament in any place. Yet he admits that the sculpture is as careful +and rich as may be; and let any one study, for instance, the window +immediately east of the south portico, and particularly below, where +the details can be better observed. In spite of a heavy top-coat of +smoke, the combination of cherubs, birds, grapes, and foliage is as +graceful and artistic as possible; and the work beneath the east end +and north transept windows will also well repay careful study. These +details are apt to be neglected, possibly because they seem dwarfed by +the immense proportions of the building.[83] + +The North and South Chapels, as we hear on probably trustworthy +authority, were added at the instance of James, Duke of York, who +looked forward to the day when the Roman Catholic services would be +substituted for the Anglican. Although Stephen is silent as to his +grandfather's intentions, there is evidence given by Mr. Longman and +Miss Lucy Phillimore to show that Wren tried his best to finish the +building without them. Whether seen from the north-east or south-west +they interfere with the perspective, and the independence of the +lowest stage of the West Towers is completely lost; and curiously +enough in this last respect the South-West or Consistory Chapel does +very much what St. Gregory's did to the Lollards' Tower in Old St. +Paul's. + +We now turn to the different parts and members. + +=North and South Fronts.=--These are similar, each part corresponding +to each, excepting a slight difference in the steps of the porticoes +caused by the ground on the south side sloping towards the Thames; and +this uniformity or symmetry is invariably carried out in the different +parts wherever feasible. Take the three main windows of the choir +aisles on either side, and compare them with the three of the nave +aisles on either side between the transepts and the chapels. The +windows themselves and their pilasters exactly agree, as do their +distances. + +Where the uniformity of the fronts is broken by the projecting +transepts and chapels, it is broken after one manner, so that when you +have seen the north side you have seen the south, excepting for the +above-mentioned difference caused by the slope. + +The North and South Fronts are approached by flights of steps of black +marble. The steps on the north side are twelve in number, and are +reached from the whole semi-circle; on the south side they are +twenty-five in number, and are reached from the ends, the front having +a low wall. Here, the flanking urns on either side afford another +instance of the disregard of Wren's wishes. The difference in the +number of the steps is caused by the slope towards the Thames, and is +interesting as affording an instance of a difference between the two +fronts. The Corinthian pillars, of the full diameter of four feet, +cleverly support the semi-circular entablature above, which is part of +the general entablature continued all round. These porticoes have +semi-dome shaped roofs, and are flanked on either side by the windows +of the transept aisles. The central windows above the porticoes are +slightly larger than the others, and have niches on either side. Above +these are triangular pediments, and above these again, and in +alignment along the balustrade, are statues of ten of the +Apostles--five to each front. The sculpture on the northern pediment +depicts the royal arms, with angels bearing palm branches for +supporters, and on the southern is a Phoenix with the motto +"Resurgam." + + [Illustration: NORTH-EAST VIEW OF ST. PAUL'S.] + +By universal consent these facades are admirable in the justness of +their proportions, and the harmonious way in which they blend both +with the west front and the entire building. Caius Gabriel Cibber +received six pounds for modelling and a hundred pounds for carving the +Phoenix. + +=The East End.=--The Apse was intended for the reception of the altar. +It has three windows in either stage. Underneath the lower central +window is a crown, with cypher of William and Mary, surrounded by the +garter. This device was intended to show in whose reign the choir was +built. It was probably correct when put up; but poor Mary died before +the completion. The apse is of the breadth of the centre, and on +either side are the windows of the aisles, while the central one in +the basement belongs to the Crypt Chapel. There is nothing very +striking or remarkable in this part, the details being similar to the +rest of the church. Very different is the case with our next feature +of interest. + +=The West Front.=--The best view is that from the direct front; but by +looking from the north or south-west the conjunction of the chapels +comes in sight, and the spectator can judge for himself whether or no, +so far as the exterior is concerned, they are any improvement. A few +additional dimensions are necessary. The summits of the towers are 222 +feet high; the statue of St. Paul above the apex of the pediment is +135 feet. I have already given prominence to the cause of the defeat +of Wren's original conception of one main order and an attic, namely, +that he could not get blocks of stone of a sufficient size. The +Approved Design, so far as the colonnade is concerned, seems to have +been borrowed from the portico of Inigo Jones. The dimensions of the +blocks had been discovered, yet there was only one order of columns, +with a second story of three windows, and supported by Inigo Jones' +harp-shaped buttresses; the only buttresses that Wren even wished to +have visible. Now, the old portico was not cleared away until 1686; +and the west front was built after Wren's taste and judgment had been +given time to ripen. In consequence we have a complete revolution, so +far as the Approved Design is concerned, and something infinitely more +noble and dignified; and we may congratulate ourselves that his blocks +of stone were no larger, so that he produced two orders of columns. At +St. Peter's, where marble of 9 feet (8-1/4 only according to more +recent accounts) was used, the pillars have a shaft of 74 feet, not +including capital or base, and the highest statue is 175 feet from the +base, as compared with the 135 feet of St. Paul's.[84] Yet Wren, by +resorting to two orders of columns, has so increased his apparent +height, that those who have compared the two, assert that the west +front of St. Paul's _appears_ to be as high as St. Peter's. + +In the lower order the columns are twelve in number, fluted and in +pairs. Claude Perrault had recently adopted this method of coupling in +the eastern facade of the Louvre, as is duly acknowledged in the +"Parentalia." According to Stephen Wren, it "_is not according to the +usual Mode of the_ Ancients _in their ordinary Temples, which for the +generality were small; but was followed in their Coloss or greater +Works; for instance, in the Portico of the_ Temple of Peace, _the most +magnificent in old_ Rome, _the Columns were very properly and +necessarily doubled to make wider openings._" Italian buildings are +likewise cited. The columns project slightly in advance of the Front; +and as the central part with the great doorway is recessed some twenty +feet, a depth of shadow is produced in the Pronaos. + +As the great doorway for "Solemnities" requires a wider opening in +front than the two side ones in daily use, the two central pairs are +placed _Eustyle_--_i.e._, with a supposed space between of two and a +half diameters--while the rest are placed _Pycnostyle_--one and a half +diameters.[85] In the second story, owing to the towers above, the +outside couples are displaced by pilasters; and the eight remaining +columns support the architrave and cornice, and the great triangular +pediment above of seventy-four feet in breadth and eighteen in height. +On this is represented in bas-relief the Conversion of St. Paul. Saul +of Tarsus still seated on his horse, which is crouching on the ground, +looks up at the rays of light; and the alarmed escort are trying to +control their frightened steeds. In the distance is Damascus. The +sculpture is the work of Francis Bird, and he was paid for it the +handsome sum of L650. The statue on the apex is that of the patronal +saint; the two near him are those of St. Peter and St. James, while +the four more remote are those of the Evangelists, with their emblems +taken from Rev. iv. 7. + +The Towers, with their Italian details, complete the Facade. They +consist of five stages besides the domes, of which the two lower +correspond with the rest of the front. The third is pierced with +circular openings, which in the southern are filled up with the faces +of the clock. The fourth is transitional between the square and the +octagon; from each angle of the square below spring two pairs of +Corinthian columns, half-concealing, half-revealing the supports of +the small domes. The fifth is an octagon, with two orders of open +arches in each face, and an exterior arcading, urn-shaped pedestals +being freely adopted as in the stage below. The domes, the pine of +which was modelled by Francis Bird, is designed with curves of +contrary flexure for the purpose of adding to the height. Mr. Longman +likens these towers to Alpine aiguilles, and points out how +picturesquely they form outposts to the great mass of the dome. + +Both towers are used as campaniles. The north contains the "five +minutes" bell, and the new peal, numbering twelve. The southern +contains the three bells on which the clock is struck; and the largest +of these, weighing 5 tons 4 cwt., is the passing bell on great +occasions. On June 3, 1882, the citizens heard for the first time +their new Great Paul. This monster, weighing nearly seventeen tons, +came from the foundry of Messrs. Taylor, at Loughborough, and its +progress by road was duly chronicled like that of some great +personage. It was placed in the south tower, and is reckoned amongst +the largest bells in the world. Part of the magnificent railings, cast +without the use of coal, at Lamberhurst on the Kent and Sussex border, +have been removed, and, after suffering shipwreck, now enclose a +monument at Toronto. We can but regret that some second home was not +found in London for such a specimen of an extinct industry: but the +throwing open of the area, so that justice might be done to the view +of the cathedral, is in strict accordance with Wren's views. So is the +present arrangement of the steps. In the landing the red marble is +from Laconia, in Southern Greece, the dark grey from Porto Venere, +near La Spezia, in Italy, and the granite from Shap, in Westmoreland. + +Posterity may be thankful that Wren was allowed a free hand in +departing from the Accepted Design, and in carrying out his more fully +developed conceptions. The well worked out designs of the different +parts and details, and the combination of these into one harmonious +whole with the dome for a background, leave nothing to be desired.[86] + +Before leaving, the visitor may stand by Queen Anne's statue and +reflect that near that very spot was erected the scaffold on which +suffered Sir Everard Digby, Robert Wynter, John Grant, and Thomas +Bates, for their share in the Gunpowder Plot. Digby was said to have +been the handsomest man of his day. He died "penitent and sorrowful +for his vile treason," as did all save Grant. + +=The Dome.=--To the end, Wren's wish seems to have been to have made +the external height no greater than was required by the formation of +the internal cupola. "_The old Church having had before a very lofty +Spire of Timber and Lead, the World expected that the new Work should +not in this Respect fall short of the old (tho' that was but a Spit +and this a Mountain). He was therefore obliged to comply with the +Humour of the Age, (though not with ancient Example, as neither did +Bramante) and to raise another Structure over the first Cupola._" +Stephen might have said _two_ other structures. Not only did Wren wish +the interior height to be somewhat less, so as to make it more perfect +for the purpose of an auditorium, but he thought any greater exterior +height unnecessary, and would have finished off the exterior elevation +in some other way. + +As matters eventuated, he raised the internal sphere so that the +disproportion with the external might be reduced. The whole dome has +three shells. (_a_) The majestic exterior visible to the eye, an +outward roof of wood covered with lead and ribbed for the sake of +ornament. (_b_) The intermediate brick cone which supports the lantern +and its accessories of 700 tons weight. This springs from the level of +the stone gallery, and rises in straight lines which converge at the +circular opening beneath the lantern. This, although seen neither from +the outside or from within, constitutes the most solid and substantial +part. Between this and the outside visible shell is an ingenious +network of beams supporting the latter, and at the base of this +network a strengthening of which the account had better be given in +Stephen's own words: "_Altho' the Dome wants not Butment, yet for +greater Caution, it is hooped with Iron in this Manner; a Chanel is +cut in the Bandage of Portland-Stone, in which is laid a double Chain +of Iron strongly linked together at every ten Feet, and the whole +Chanel filled up with Lead._"[87] (_c_) The interior dome, also of +brick. The height of this third and smallest shell reaches only to the +level of the curved lines of the fluted patterns of the exterior +shell, a difference of from fifty to sixty feet. + + [Illustration: SECTION OF THE DOME.] + +Since the outside cupola does not bear the heavy weight of the lantern +it has been denounced as a sham, but this is an exaggeration. It is +evident, as we look at it, that it is incapable of bearing any such +weight. Much more practical is the objection of Gwilt that the +elaborate framework of beams supporting this outside cover is certain +to decay in course of time. A third objection is that of +deception--the exterior and interior are presumed to be one and the +same. This is not correct. Neither roof nor steeple is assumed to have +such correspondence, and Wren might surely be allowed a like liberty +with his dome. As Mr. Wightwick very properly says, it will be time +enough to find fault when the roofs of churches are the same outside +as within. + +The Romans are credited with first applying the Dome to larger +buildings. It travelled eastward to Constantinople, and was in use in +Italy during mediaeval times. The word "Dome" is derived from the +_Duomo_ of Florence, where Brunelleschi covered in the octagon with +his famous cupola in the earlier part of the fifteenth century.[88] +But Wren's particular study was the Pantheon, which we have no +evidence whatever that he saw; and, indeed, he erected his dome +without having ever seen, so far as we know, anything like it. + +A few words will suffice for the main features. The first stage of the +superstructure is the Stylobate, of 25 feet in height and some 140 to +145 feet in diameter. The next, the Peristyle or Colonnade which +lights up the interior. It has thirty-two Composite columns of a +height of 38 feet, including the pedestals. Every fourth +intercolumnation is filled up with an ornamental niche (if the term be +allowable for a recess of the size) to hide the supports behind. This +alternation, while it agreeably affects the play of light and shade, +yet allows a partial glimpse of the supports. Why could not Wren have +done as much with his curtain wall? Above the peristyle comes the +Stone Gallery with its balustrade--a great attraction for +visitors--just about half-way up to the summit of the cross. Here the +diameter decreases by the breadth of the gallery to 108 feet, and the +Tholobate[89] rises. It has pilasters, with lights between, in the +upper parts. Above is the outer dome proper--the spherical part--with +a further contraction to 102 feet. Wren had the advantage of St. +Peter's to profit by, and abstained from inserting the "luthern" +lights of the larger edifice. The absence of these and the ribbing of +the lead coating was, in his opinion, "less Gothic." The lights, +again, could not easily have been reached for repairs; and if left +unrepaired would have been the means of causing injury to the +supporting timbers underneath. The effect, no doubt, is better, and +the lighting above and below sufficient for the stairs leading to the +lantern. + + [Illustration: _Photo. S.B. Bolas & Co._ + THE LANTERN, FROM THE CLOCK TOWER.] + +=The Lantern.=--The Golden Gallery is almost exactly a hundred feet +above the Stone Gallery. The Lantern is an elegant and graceful piece +of design and workmanship, and consists of three square stages, each +of them with lights and with recesses (or chamfered, so to speak) at +the angles. The second has Corinthian columns, which must be fifteen +feet in height, and a plain entablature, and some more urn-shaped +pedestals. The third is completed with a miniature dome, and has upper +and lower lights in each face. Standing immediately underneath, or by +Nelson's tomb in the Crypt, these lights produce a striking and almost +unique effect. The present gilt ball and cross, which crown the +edifice, replaced the originals of Francis Bird, being put up by +Cockerell--the then Clerk to the Works--in 1821. The extreme height is +from 363 to 365 feet, and in 1848 the Ordnance Survey placed a "crow's +nest" against the cross for the purpose of observations from the +highest attainable point. + +Miss Lucy Phillimore has published a paper of Wren's in which the +Surveyor remarks that for the architect it is necessary "_in a +conspicuous Work to preserve His Undertaking from general censure, and +so for him to accommodate his Designs to the Geist of the Age he lives +in, though it appear to him less rational_." As regards the height of +the dome, we are the gainers because he was compelled to do this. It +is not, indeed, the whole of St. Paul's or its only important feature; +for St. Paul's is not a Byzantine church in which the dome is +practically not a part, but the whole. It is the most magnificent +member of a magnificent building, and with its graceful equipoise and +conscious evidence of stability stands alone and in a class by itself +amongst the cathedral superstructures of the land. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[69] Fergusson's "History on the Modern Styles of Architecture," p. +243. The Pantheon at Rome as restored A.D. 202 was, or rather is, a +rotunda with a portico. The rotunda, according to Fergusson +("Handbook," p. 311), is about 125 feet in internal diameter, and an +external elevation of about 150 feet. The Basilica of Maxentius, or +Temple of Peace, may have been finished in the reign of Constantine +(Maxentius, A.D. 311-312; Constantine the Great, 325-337). The ruins +show an oblong of 265 feet by 195 feet in internal measurement, +including aisles. The whole length is divided into only three bays +("Handbook," p. 319). Fergusson should have added St. Peter's at Rome, +which exercised such an influence over Wren. This immense building +has, in the exterior, only one Order and an Attic. All three have the +round arch. + +[70] Fergusson, "Modern Architecture," p. 390. + +[71] An _Attic_ is a small story above the cornice, or principal +elevation of a building. [The same would read better by substituting +"story" for "elevation".] An _Attic order_ is an inferior order of +architecture, used over the principal order of a building. It never +has columns, but, sometimes, small pilasters. (Longman, note, p. 164.) +Very common in Roman and Italian, but unknown in Greek. + +[72] "At St. Paul's the Surveyor was cautious not to exceed Columns of +four Feet, which had been tried by _Inigo Jones_ in his Portico; the +Quarries of the Isle of _Portland_ would just afford for that +proportion, but not readily for the Artificers were forced sometimes to +stay some Months for one necessary Stone to be raised for their +Purpose, and the farther the Quarry-men pierced into the Rock, the +Quarry produced less Stone than near the Sea. All the most eminent +Masons were of Opinion, that Stones of the largest Scantlings were +there to be found, or nowhere. An Enquiry was made after all the good +Stone that England afforded. Next to _Portland_, _Rock-abbey_ Stone, +and some others in Yorkshire seemed the best and most durable; but +large Stone for the _Paul's_ Works was not easily to be had even there. +For these Reasons the _Surveyor_ concluded upon _Portland-stone_, and +also to use two Orders, and by that Means to keep the just Proportions +of his Cornices; otherwise he must have fallen short of the Height of +the Fabrick.... At the _Vatican Church_ [St. Peter's], Bramante was +ambitious to exceed the ancient _Greek_ and _Roman_ Temples ... and +although by Necessity he failed in the due Proportions of the proper +Members of his Cornice, because the _Tivoli_ stone would not hold out +for the Purpose; yet (as far as we can find) he succeeded in the +Diameter of his Columns, viz., nine Feet."--_Parentalia_, p. 288. + +[73] The Royal Commissions expired with the sovereign. + +[74] Mr. Longman gives the two together, p. 143. + +[75] Tracts in "Parentalia," pp. 352-353. Stephen Wren (p. 269) +explains how his grandfather departed from the conventional +arrangement of architrave, frieze, and cornice in his entablatures, +omitting one or other of these whenever he thought good. Here, above +the pilasters and windows of the lower order he seems to have merged +the three, and in the corresponding part of the upper order to have +omitted anything like a frieze. + +[76] _Builder_, January 2, 1892. + +[77] "Parentalia," p. 298. + +[78] Ibid., p. 352. + +[79] Ibid., p. 301, with diagram, showing how a wall does the same as +buttresses. + +[80] Mr. Wightwick, quoted in Longman, p. 188. + +[81] E.A. Freeman, _Fortnightly Review_, October, 1872, p. 380. + +[82] Yet he preferred the Early English windows of Salisbury to any +later. + +[83] "Who among the crowds that gaze upon the building ever pause to +admire the flowerwork of St. Paul's?... It is no part of it. It is an +ugly excrescence. We always conceive the building without it, and +should be happier if our conception were not disturbed by its +presence. It makes the rest of the architecture look poverty-stricken, +instead of sublime; and yet it is never enjoyed itself" ("Seven +Lamps," iv. 13). All I can say is I have enjoyed studying it. Mr. +Edward Bell also sends me the following: "We have a familiar instance +in the flower-work of St. Paul's, which is probably, in the abstract, +as perfect flower sculpture as could be produced at the time; and +which is just as rational an ornament of the building as so many +valuable Van Huysums, framed and glazed, and hung up over each window" +("Stones of Venice," I., xxi. 3). In my humble opinion this criticism +is overdrawn; and, after all, Mr. Ruskin commends the sculpture. + +[84] Dugdale, p. 191; but some authorities give double that of St. +Paul's. + +[85] Fortunately for effect the technical distances are slightly +exceeded. The "Parentalia" says "alternately," but the central is +wider than the remaining four, which are similar. + +[86] The objection that the exterior of the West Front does not +correspond with the interior is not accurate. The west end inside +contains (_a_) the lower stage, with the great arch and doorway, and +(_b_) the upper, with the window. + +[87] "Parentalia," p. 292. + +[88] A curious instance of how words change their meaning, (_a_) A +building--domus; (_b_) the most important building; (_c_) the most +important and striking feature of the building. As everybody now +speaks of the "Dome" of St. Paul's, I have adopted the word instead of +"Cupola." + +[89] "Tholobate" means what its derivation implies, "the base of a +cupola." Why should this part be called the attic? How can an attic, +properly speaking, have a gigantic hemisphere above it? + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +INTERIOR. + + +The measurements show a marked diminution from the exterior--viz., 460 +feet in length, a little under a hundred feet in breadth without +reckoning the recesses underneath the windows, and 240 feet across the +transepts. + +In the Surveyor's favourite the Dome was almost everything; the four +short arms being so constructed as to afford picturesque and varied +vistas. Probably the acoustic properties would have been superior, and +for the ordinary purposes of congregational worship there would have +been less unused space. Hence it need take no one by surprise that +some, although they recognise the superiority of the present exterior, +give the preference to the originally designed interior. The short +arms were expanded into choir, transepts, and nave; the elaborate +vestibule has gone, but the west chapels have appeared. Finally, the +curved lines at the angles of the arms, designed to aid the interior +vistas, have given way to the orthodox right angles. It is impossible +to say how far Wren would have altered his opinions had he ever seen +the present building filled from door to door, as it now occasionally +is.[90] + +Disappointed at the rejection of his pet scheme, Wren turned his +attention to the Basilica of Constantine, with its three aisles of +three arches apiece. "_This Temple of Peace being an Example of a +Three Aisle Fabric is certainly the best and most authentic pattern of +a cathedral Church, which must have three Aisles according to Custom, +and be vaulted._"[91] Piers were used in this building, the columns +being merely ornamental; but the interior of St. Paul's is in many +respects essentially different from its Roman model. In the Temple of +Peace three arches cover the enormous length of over 250 feet, and +seriously diminish the apparent size; in St. Paul's their span is less +than half of this. Indeed, in this respect Wren adopted a _via media_ +between the Roman and the Anglo-Norman and Pointed. Old St. Paul's, +for instance, contained twice as many arches in the same length as its +successor, and Rochester still more. This use of larger arches renders +the perspective less effective, as any one can see by comparing the +views of Old and New St. Paul's. A second alteration from the Temple +of Peace to be mentioned is the massiveness of the piers. Wren's +regard for stability caused him to make his vast square supports of a +solidity exceeding those of Mainz and Speier. From the Romans the +Surveyor adopted the round arch, with its borrowed Grecian +architecture partly cut away; and this, next to the dome, is the most +striking feature of the interior. + +Before proceeding to the different members, the symmetry and +correspondence of parts and details require to be mentioned. They +strike the eye everywhere. Those who claim that in this respect Exeter +is the most perfect cathedral, not only in England but throughout the +world, must limit their comparison to the older buildings. Here, when +we have described the details of the architecture of the nave, we have +little or nothing that requires to be said of the architecture of the +choir and transepts. The dome, of course, has features peculiar to +itself. + + +THE NAVE. + +As we pass under the western portico we notice the bas-reliefs of +Francis Bird above the doors, and on either side of the main door. +They are respectable and nothing more. Over the central door St. Paul +is preaching at Berea. The original pavement of Purbeck, Welsh, and +Torbay marble remains throughout the building, excepting where the new +reredos has necessitated certain alterations. The length to the dome +area is a little over 200 feet, the width as above, and the height of +the central vaulting 89 feet. + +The main west doorway has the round arch resting upon coupled +pilasters, the keystone is adorned with the head and arms of a winged +figure. On either side are likewise coupled pilasters of the largest +size. The doors of the small rooms or closets on either side reveal +the enormous size of the end piers projecting from the west wall. +Above the entablature of the main arch is a gallery, and the window +has lately been filled in with designs in Munich glass in memory of +Mr. Thomas Brown, of the firm of Longmans and Co. The subjects are +appropriately taken from the life of St. Paul--the Conversion, and the +subsequent visit of Ananias at Damascus. The kneeling figures below +are those of Mr. Brown and his wife. + + [Illustration: THE CHOIR AND NAVE, FROM THE EAST END.] + +The general ground-plan is of five compartments. Four are formed by +the arcading, and the fifth by the great transverse archway connecting +the nave and dome. The western bay or severy has a greater extension +east and west than the three to the east, and corresponds to the +adjacent chapels. It is square in the plan, and the others oblong; an +important difference, as we shall see when we come to the Vaulting. + +There are throughout in reality three stages in the elevation--The +Main Arcade, Triforium Belt, or "Attic," and Clerestory. The pedantic +objection to the use of this simple and familiar terminology and +system of classification seems to have arisen from the idea that St. +Paul's must be treated as though it were a purely Classical building. +Upon their fronts the piers have great Corinthian pilasters. These are +continued above the capitals, and the great transverse arches of the +vaulting spring from the continuations on a level with the top of the +triforium. These great pilasters form the divisions east and west into +severies. + + [Illustration: THE ORDER OF THE INTERIOR. + _Drawn by Peter Cazalet._] + +=The Main Arcade.=--The sides of the piers (east and west) have +smaller pilasters, coupled and with narrow panels between, and above +these is a plain entablature from which the broad arches rise. This +method of making the arches spring from an entablature instead of +letting them rest naturally upon the capitals, was an idea borrowed +from the Romans, who in turn borrowed it from the Greeks. With the +Greeks the entablature was useful, as they had no round arch; and the +Romans, just as they borrowed Greek forms and Greek metres for their +native Italian literature, in a like spirit borrowed their +entablature. It is not necessary, and Freeman calls it a mere +_stilt_.[92] The earliest instance we know of its disuse is in the +colonnade of the great hall of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro. The +greater space of the west severy is diminished by the introduction of +detached columns, so that the arches may all be of a like span. These +columns, coupled and placed in front of the lesser pilasters, are of +white veined marble, and exceedingly graceful. As the arches more +immediately rest upon them than upon the pilasters, the Roman use of +the entablature as a stilt can be here more clearly seen. I may add +that in the church of St. Apollinare Nuovo, at Ravenna, the pillars +have only blocks above their capitals, instead of the old entablature +reaching from column to column; and this church, built about 500 +A.D., accordingly represents the Transition stage between the +Roman proper and the Romanesque. + +Turning next from underneath the arches, and taking our stand in the +central aisle, we are in a position to notice the details of the main +entablature above the arches. The keystones are ornamented with heads +and other pieces of sculpture. As Wren employed so few arches they +rise to a great height, and of the different members of the +entablature which rests upon the Corinthian capitals of the greater +pilasters, part had to be cut away. The crowns of the arches take a +great piece out of the architrave, and their keystones reach well +within the plain and narrow frieze. Only the cornice of the first +stage remains intact, and this runs round the four limbs of the church +like a string course in any Romanesque or Gothic building. + +=The Triforium Belt.=--This used to be called the "Attic," in +imitation of the Classical nomenclature; but surely this term is +incorrect, since there is a clerestory above, and the vaulting springs +from it as well. On the other hand, "Triforium" pure and simple +implies arcading, and the above term is adopted from Fergusson as less +open to exception.[93] In continuation of the greater pilasters are +abutment piers, from the summits of which spring the great arches +spanning the nave, the window arches of the clerestory, and the +pendentives which connect these with the vaulting. The blank fronts +between the piers are relieved by panels, but otherwise destitute of +adornment. Openings connect the nave with the galleries behind. + +=The Clerestory.=--This stage again calls for little or no comment. +The windows, hidden from the exterior by the curtain wall, are +slightly rounded. Above and on either side are sections of spheres, +ornamented with festoons. These are the ends of elliptic cylinders in +connection with the vaulting. + +=The Vaulting.=--The great arches overhead divide the vault as the +greater pilasters and their continuations do the walls. Between these +arches are the small saucer-shaped domes, 26 feet in diameter. The +reason for these and their accessories, the pendentives, may best be +understood from Wren's own words. He says that his method of vaulting +is the most geometrical, and "_is composed of Hemispheres, and their +Sections only; and whereas a Sphere may be cut all Manner of Ways, and +that still into Circles ... I have for just Reasons followed this way +in the Vaulting of the Church of St. Paul's.... It is the lightest +Manner, and requires less Butment than the Cross-vaulting, as well +that it is of an agreeable View.... Vaulting by Parts of Hemispheres I +have therefore followed in the Vaultings of St. Paul's, and with good +reason preferred it above any other way used by Architects._"[94] The +saucer-shaped domes are sections of spheres, as are both the +pendentives and the sides of the clerestory windows. He set to work +something in this way. After satisfying himself that he had hit on a +better plan than the plain cylindrical or the cross-vaulting of the +Romans, or the other forms of intersecting vaults, he seems to have +taken a hemisphere as a plan to work upon, and fixed his imaginary +centre about the level of the top of the triforium. In the great +square western severy of the nave this was easier, but the other +severies are oblong. Here he stretched his sections out, so as to +include the clerestory windows and their much-needed light. The usual +way of expressing this is to say that the vault is intersected across +by an elliptic cylinder. The wreaths, garlands, and festoons, and the +various conventional patterns with which the edges and surfaces of the +various parts of the vaulting is adorned cannot be estimated from the +pavement. We may add here that the pendentives were purposely +constructed of "_sound Brick invested with Stucco of Cockle-shell +lime_," and not of Portland stone, for further ornament if +required.[95] So are the circular sections. + +The nave is connected with the dome by the space between the great +piers or walls of more than 30 feet in length. These piers are also +broader at their ends than those which support the arcading, the +latter covering a square of about 10 feet. The greater massiveness is +owing to their assistance being required in supporting the dome. They +have large pilasters at the angles, and their coffered wagon +vaulting, adorned with geometrical patterns, is very striking. + +=The Nave Aisles.=--We will first point out an unnoticed feature in +the great piers at either end. Their inner faces as seen from the +aisles have recesses or niches for the reception of monuments, and +other recesses are generally found in the wall opposite. At the west +of the aisles there are eight of these altogether, just behind the +coupled columns. They are repeated in all the great piers leading to +the dome, but although of sufficient height to permit of the +introduction of life-sized effigies, still remain unoccupied. The +coupled columns are repeated at the entrances to the chapels. At both +ends the perspective is narrowed; at the west by the chapels, at the +east by the breadth of the great piers. The windows stand in recesses +which are segments of circles. Their sides are made to represent piers +with concave surfaces. These latter carry an entablature from which +spring the round window arches. Festoons run below the actual windows, +the concave side piers have panels, and the round arches above +diamond-shaped patterns. There are only three windows on either +side--the chapels taking the place of a fourth--and the depth of their +recesses points out the thickness of the walls. Between each recess +are Composite pilasters in couples, with others opposite against the +piers. These correspond with the lesser pilasters of the arcading, and +from them spring transverse arches, as in the great central aisle. The +vaulting, owing to the severies being nearly square, is regular; in +other respects similar to that already described. The height is much +less than that of the greater aisle, reaching only to the first stage +of the latter. + +=The West Chapels.=--They may best be described as squares of 26 feet, +with apses or tribunes at either end which increase the length to 55 +feet. They suffer sadly from want of light, the one window in each +being altogether insufficient; but Wren had to do what he could. He +panelled them with oak, and made them of the same height as the +aisles, with vaulting of his favourite kind, drawn out to meet the +windows. + +The North Chapel is called the Morning Chapel, from its original use +for morning prayer on weekdays. The mosaic above the altar is in +imitation of a fresco by Raphael. That at the west end, by Salviati, +is in memory of William Hale Hale, a voluminous writer and editor of +the "Domesday of St. Paul's," who was a Residentiary, Archdeacon of +London and Master of the Charterhouse. He died in 1870. The +stained-glass window is in memory of the metaphysician, Henry +Longueville Mansell, Dean of the Cathedral, who died suddenly, after a +rule of three years, in 1871. It is by Hardman, and represents the +Risen Christ and St. Thomas. + + [Illustration: THE GEOMETRICAL STAIRCASE.] + +The South Chapel is called the Consistory Chapel, because the +Consistory Court has been held here excepting during the time that it +sheltered the Wellington monument. The reliefs in white marble at the +ends--the east by Calder Marshall, and the west by Woodington--have to +do with this monument. Certainly the most appropriate of the six +subjects is that on the west wall which illustrates the Baptist +admonishing the soldiers. "Do violence to no man ... and be content +with your wages." Wellington earned his name of the Iron Duke for the +firmness and sternness with which he punished pillaging and +outrage.[96] The stained-glass window by Mr. Kempe has been lately put +in to the memory of James Augustus Hessey, Archdeacon of Middlesex +(1875-93), whose Bampton Lectures, "Sunday," still remain for +theologians the standard treatise upon the Day of Rest. The Font of +veined Carrara marble, another work of Bird, rather resembles the +round basins resting on stands of the ancient Greek baths than any of +our usual models. As St. Paul's is one of those cathedrals with no +parish annexed, only those connected with it have any claim for +baptisms. + +=The Geometrical Staircase.=--This is in the South Tower, and leads +from the Crypt to the Library. It is circular, of a diameter of +twenty-five feet, and so constructed that eighteen steps, each nearly +six feet broad at the outside, lead from the outside entrance to the +interior. The ironwork is worthy of the choir. + +The three remaining limbs differ only on the plan; in the other +features of their architecture they are essentially similar to the +nave. While the Pointed architecture suggests upward lines, and the +Greek entablature horizontal lines, the round arch suggests a neutral +position between the two. The great span of the arches and the general +largeness of the different parts diminish the apparent size. The +uniformity in the details produces that symmetry which is a +peculiarity of the Renaissance. + + +THE DOME. + +The Dome rises from its foundation in the Crypt of a square of 190 +feet, and of this the solid parts are more than equal to the vacant +spaces, and are of a thickness of 20 feet.[97] + +Coming to the level of the church, these solid parts are represented +by twelve supports. The chief of them are the bastion-like piers at +the angles of the transepts. They are hollow at the pavement level; +and the south-west is used as a staircase, the north-west as the +Lord's Mayor's vestry, the north-east the Minor Canons', and the +south-east the Dean's. It gives some idea of their massiveness to +reflect that these rooms inside them are nearly twenty feet across. +The eight other supports are the huge wall-like piers, thirty-five +feet by ten, at the entrances from the four limbs. + +=The Arcading.=--When Wren planned his dome interior he had the +difficulty caused by the four limbs and their side aisles to overcome. +It was easy enough for the architect of such a church as St. Genevieve +(or the Pantheon) at Paris to construct one, as he had neither this +complicated arcading nor so heavy a superincumbent mass to consider. + +Wren's path, then, was beset with difficulties, and he must have +turned to his uncle's cathedral at Ely for enlightenment. In the +earlier years of the fourteenth century the central tower at Ely +collapsed: and the Sacrist, Alan de Walsingham, who acted as +architect, seeing that the breadth of his nave, choir, and transepts +happened to agree, took for his base this common breadth, and cutting +off the angles, obtained a spacious octagon. The four sides +terminating the main aisles are longer than the four alternate sides +at the angles of the side aisles; but at Ely this presents no +difficulty, owing to the use of the pointed arch. As you stand in the +centre of the octagon under the lantern you see eight spacious arches +of two different widths, all springing from the same level and rising +to the same height of eighty-five feet, the terminal arch of the +Norman nave pointed like its opposite neighbour of the choir. Amongst +Gothic churches the interior of Ely reigns unique and supreme, +certainly in England, if not in Europe.[98] Wren was familiar with +this cathedral, and even designed some restorations for it; and he +adopted the eight arches in preference to any possible scheme of four +great arches of sixty feet: but the use of the round arch, as distinct +from the pointed, deprived him of Sacrist Alan's liberty, who without +incongruity made his intermediate arches of the shorter sides, +springing from the same level, rise to the same height as the others. +Wren was compelled to make use of some expedient to reconcile his two +different spaces between piers of forty feet and twenty-six feet, and +accordingly arched these four smaller intermediate spaces as follows. +A smaller arch, rising from the architrave of the great pier, spans +each shorter side of the octagon, and has a ceiling or quarter dome in +the background, coming down to the terminal arches of the side aisles. +A blank wall space above is relieved by a section of an ornamental +arch of larger span, resting on the centre of the cornice; and above +this a third arch, rising from the level of the triforium cornice, +rests more upon the _outer_ side of the great supporting pier, and +thereby obtains the required equal span of forty feet, and equal +height of eighty-nine feet from the ground. This also has a quarter +dome; and the platform beneath on a level with the clerestory is +railed. + +The reduction of the octagon to the circle is facilitated by giving +the spandrels between the arches the necessary concave surface; and +this stage is finished off with a cantilever cornice, the work (at +least in part) of one Jonathan Maine. The eight great keystones of the +arches by Caius Gabriel Cibber are seven feet by five, and eighteen +inches in relief. + +=The Whispering Gallery= is almost exactly a hundred feet from the +pavement, and curiously enough about the same distance across. We are +still, be it understood, below the level of the apex of the exterior +roof, and the Cross is quite two hundred and sixty feet above us. The +gallery projects so that the lectern steps and the pulpit are +underneath. The attendant whispering across the whole area can be +distinctly heard, an acoustic property seemingly caused by the +nearness of the concave hemisphere above. + + [Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE DOME. + _From an engraving by G. Coney in Sir H. Ellis' edition of + Dugdale's St. Paul's._] + +=The Drum.=--The actual bend inwards now begins, but for this part +only in straight lines.[99] First comes the plain band or +PODIUM, panelled and of a height of twenty feet. On this +stand thirty-two composite pilasters, in reality, as well as in +appearance, out of the horizontal. Three out of each four intervening +spaces are pierced with square-headed windows; and from them such +light as the dome possesses, streams down through the windows of the +exterior colonnade. The alternate fourth recesses, apparently nothing +more than ornamental niches, conceal the supports which bear the +weight above. In the recent scheme of decoration they have been filled +with statues of Early Fathers--the four eastern, SS. Chrysostom, +Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, and Athanasius; and the four western, SS. +Ambrose, Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, and Gregory. If the light allows, +the Podium, at present bare, is a suitable place for mosaics. + +=The Cupola.=--So, for want of a better name, we will call the topmost +section or inner roof of brick, two bricks thick. Here the straight +lines bearing inwards give way to the sphere; and here, too, the three +separate coverings, which constitute the dome, begin. The circular +opening below the lantern coincides with the lower edge of the fluting +of the exterior shell, and is about two hundred and fifteen feet from +the pavement.[100] + +These upper regions, hidden in an almost perpetual gloom, were +decorated in monochrome by Sir James Thornhill; but his work has +failed to resist the chemical action of the surcharged atmosphere. Yet +a word or two about it may interest. Concentric circles surround the +opening; and the remaining surface is ingeniously divided into eight +compartments by designs of piers and round arches; the piers +coinciding with the eight recesses below. In these compartments are +scenes from the life of the patronal saint: (1) The Conversion, (2) +Elymas, (3) Cripple at Lystra, (4) Jailer at Philippi, (5) Mars Hill, +(6) Burning Books at Ephesus, (7) Before Agrippa, (8) Shipwreck. We +have all of us heard from the days of our boyhood or girlhood the +story of the painter, on a platform at a great height, who stepped +back to get a better view of his work. As he did so, an assistant, +standing by, brush in hand, observed with alarm that the slightest +further backward step would entail his falling headlong and being +dashed to pieces. He deliberately daubed the painting; and the artist, +stepping instinctively forward to prevent this, saved his life. The +painter is said to be Thornhill: the scene, the giddy height under the +dome. + +The interior height of two diameters will always be a disputed +question. Stephen Wren[101] seemed to think that his grandfather hit +the happy medium of a diameter and a half; but this only reaches to +the windows and Early Fathers. He probably gives us the Surveyor's +_intention_. Afterwards, when Wren was compelled to raise the height +of the exterior, he increased the interior. St. Sophia and the +Invalides are both less than two diameters, and give the idea of +greater area. While it is difficult to see what aesthetic advantage is +gained by a roof and upper regions immersed in perpetual gloom, the +acoustic properties and the light might both have been improved by a +more modest elevation. Yet the advocates of a smaller ratio injure +their case by writing about "a great disproportioned hole in the +'roof.'" + +=The Pulpit= was one of the additions suggested in Dean Milman's time, +when the dome area was used for service. It is a memorial to Captain +Robert Fitzgerald, designed by Mr. Penrose; and the marbles come from +various places. It stands on columns, of which the gray are from +Plymouth, the "dark purplish" from Anglesea, and the red from Cork. In +the panels and elsewhere the green is from Tenos, and the yellow +chiefly from Siena, with a little of the ancient Giallo Antico from +Rome.[102] Alike in the design, and in the combination of these +different marbles, the pulpit is a fitting and judicious adornment. +=The Lectern= takes the familiar form of an eagle, and is of bronze. +This fine piece of work was finished in 1720 by Jacob Sutton, at a +cost of L241 15s. + +=The Mosaics.=--Stephen Wren tells us that his grandfather intended +his great building to be adorned with mosaic work, and that one of his +numerous disappointments was his inability, thanks to the ignorant +opposition of the Commission, to carry out this intention. The +categorical statement of the grandson is corroborated by (_a_) the +text of various Acts of Parliaments, (_b_) other Renaissance Churches +and notably St. Peter's, (_c_) the use of material softer than +Portland stone for various surfaces.[103] Bishop Newton, who was Dean +a hundred and twenty years ago, roundly accused the authorities of +filching the decoration funds for William's wars. Queen Anne's wars +would have sounded more probable. It was not until our own day that in +this respect, as in others, the Surveyor's ideas have been carried +out. + +The eight spandrels of soft and suitable stone have designs of the +four Greater Prophets, and the four Evangelists, executed by Dr. +Salviati of Venice. For the designs of St. Matthew and St. John the +authorities were fortunate enough to secure the services of that +wonderful Academician, Mr. G.F. Watts. He thoroughly understood and +overcame the difficulty of the great distance of the spectator on the +pavement below. These designs are in every way worthy of the painter +of the Rider on the White Horse, and its fellows. The other +Evangelists were designed by Mr. Brittan, and the Prophets by Mr. A. +Stevens. The smoke should never be allowed to mar the colouring, and +so injure the good effect, of this part of the scheme of decoration. + +Subsequently the authorities and their committee turned to Mr. (now +Sir William) Richmond, R.A., whose veneration for St. Paul's dates +from childhood. His interest in mosaic work caused him to study +carefully the principles of design which obtained in Italy, Greece, +and Asia Minor, during the best times of the Byzantine Empire.[104] +Sir William has adopted the old plan of glass tesserae or cubes, and of +four shapes--the cube, double cube, equilateral triangle, and a longer +form with sharp points. They are of eight to ten tones of colour, and +are put into position on the spot, being joined together by a mastic +cement which resembles that used by Andrea Tafi in restoring the +mosaics in the Baptistery at Florence. This cement in time becomes +quite hard. The cubes with their complex facets are not joined close +together, but separated by one-sixteenth to one-fourth of an inch, the +better to reflect the light, so as to give a rich and soft texture. +They are made at Messrs. Powell's workshops. Sir William has done a +great deal more than design. He has, so far as this country is +concerned, caused us to acquire a new art, while he has restored an +old one. The workmen, who are all natives, have been trained by him. +Accustomed only to the smooth, pictorial mosaics of thin plates of +glass put together in the workshop, he had to teach the Messrs. Powell +and their staff both how to make the glass cubes, and how to put each +one separately into its place in the cement on the wall or roof. As +our cathedrals are sermons in stone, so these adornments are intended +to be illustrated sermons in glass. Beginning with the Creation, and +including those, Pagans as well as Israelites, who prepared the way +and led up to the Fulness of the Time, we are here taught the leading +features of that progressive truth which has been revealed. + +The difficulty in dealing with the lofty blank spaces of the dome will +be not to go too high up, and not to come too far down. At the time of +revising these lines (August, 1899) the decoration of this part of the +cathedral has advanced no further than the quarter domes of those +alternate arches which tested so severely the genius of the Surveyor. +In the four, taken as a whole, the general subject illustrated will be +St. Paul's Gospel of the Resurrection from the early verses of 1 +Corinthians, XV. + +_North-East_, the Crucifixion. Christ stands on the Tree of Life, +branches on either side and the cross behind. The water of life issues +from below the tree, making a silver flood; these silver tones, the +result of many experiments, when flashing, expand and give more light +than gold. The holy women are on either side, and Adam and Eve +kneeling in the two corners. The world is represented as a +harvest-field. The inscription below runs, "The Lord hath laid on Him +the iniquity of us all." _South-East_, the Resurrection. The Risen +Christ is standing at the entrance of the open sepulchre, and is +supported on either side by an angel in blue and white. He wears a +long mantle of white, shaded to red, probably to prevent the white +rays spreading too much. On either side in the corners are placed the +sleeping soldiers: and above is a canopy of clouds, lifting on the +horizon. A scroll-work, which looks like pomegranates, takes the place +of the silver flood of the companion across the choir arch. +Inscription, "Behold! I am alive for evermore." _South-West_ the +Entombment. A winged angel, sitting, holds the reclining Body. On the +right, standing figures of women, and on the left two angels. +Continuing round are two other figures on either side; and these, as I +am instructed, are symbolical of our four nationalities. Trees and +foliage are above the figures. This section is still incomplete, and +the text wanting; but the scroll-work looks like leaves and acorns. +Years hence, when the dome as a whole is finished, we shall be in a +position to judge. So far everything is rich and promises well.[105] + + [Illustration: _Photo. S.B. Bolas & Co._ + THE SOUTH CHOIR AISLE, SHOWING THE BACK OF THE STALLS AND THE + IRON GATES.] + + +THE TRANSEPTS. + +These short limbs consist of only one arch beyond the great dome +piers. There is no arch at the ends like that by the west door. +Instead, the wall space shows four single pilasters with their +entablature supporting the gallery. The gilded copy of the well-known +inscription on Wren's tomb is over the north doorway. The great +windows, the gift of the late Duke of Westminster, and designed by Sir +William Richmond, illustrate early Church history. The North +represents twelve primary bishops who introduced, or restored after +lapse, Christianity, after the coming of the English, and include +Augustine, Mellitus, Cedd, Birinus, Theodore of Tarsus (the originator +of the parochial system), and Erkenwald. The South represents twelve +kings who co-operated and supported the prelates, including Ethelbert, +Cynegils, Coinwalch, Sabert, Sigebert, and Sebbe. In the south +transept aisles the Thanksgiving service in 1872 for the recovery of +the Prince of Wales is commemorated by a window, the subject being the +Raising of the Son of the Widow of Nain, and a tablet performs the +like service. + + [Illustration: BISHOP'S THRONE AND STALLS ON THE SOUTH SIDE.] + + +THE CHOIR. + +The plan consists of the great piers and chancel arch, three arches, +other great piers which support the triumphal or reredos arch and are +pierced for doorways, and finally the apse. The side aisles do not +extend beyond the reredos arch. The main aisle, formerly isolated from +the dome by the organ and organ-screen, is now separated only by a low +railing, and the space underneath the chancel arch has been included. +By uniting choir and dome for the purposes of congregational worship +the intention of the architect has been carried into effect. The +ironwork of the gates, both at the west end of the aisles and in the +doorways of the reredos arch, is part of Tijou's work, restored and +replaced as occasion arose. + +=The Stalls.=--They all now face uniformly on opposite sides. They are +the work of Grinling Gibbons, and originally cost over L1,300. The +best plan is to see them both from the choir and the aisles, as their +general conception and details are alike creditable to the +wood-workers of their day. The canopies have galleries above; and +those in the centre on either side, as also over the throne at the end +of the south side, have turrets. But it is not only their artistic +merits. More than anything else they carry us back to the days of Old +St. Paul's, since they reproduce the seats of the dignitaries for ages +past. Numbering thirty-one on either side, the Latin inscriptions over +fifteen on either side call for notice. These are the headings of the +Psalter divided into thirty parts. + +In the days of Bishop Maurice and Dean Ulstan, according to Newcourt, +a division was first made, so that each prebendary should say the +Psalter through in a month, while the whole Psalter should be said +each day. Under Ralph de Baldock, in succession Archdeacon of +Middlesex, Dean, and finally Bishop (1276-1313), the present and more +equal division was made.[106] The Archdeaconries of Essex and +Colchester are now in the Diocese of St. Alban's, and the Archdeaconry +of St. Alban's, consisting of a few parishes in Herts and Bucks, +created after the dissolution of the abbey, though for a time in the +diocese, never had a stall. The stalls and seats have been added to +from the designs of Mr. Penrose. For the sake of convenience I have +numbered the thirty-one stalls on either side: the other numbers, in +brackets, to the right, represent the traditional positions in Old St. +Paul's. Each dignitary's stall has the name inscribed. Neither from +the position of the stalls, nor from the order of the allotment of the +Psalter is it possible to discover any priority. Perhaps both were +arranged according to the then seniority of the canons. + +NORTH SIDE. + +30 and 31. [Not assigned.] +27-29. Minor Canons. +26. Archdeacon of Middlesex (19) +25. Chiswick (18) _Nonne Deo subjecta._ +24. Caddington Major (17) _Omnes gentes plaudite._ +23. Newington (16) _Confitemini Domino quoniam bonus._ +22. Neasden (15) _Domine ne in furore._ +21. Brondesbury (14) _Beatus vir, qui timet Dominum._ +20. (Not assigned.) +19. Lord Mayor, with Mace-Bearer below. +18. (Not assigned.) +17. Consumpta per Mare (13) _Confitemini Domino [107-111]._ +16. Willesden (12) _Noli aemulari._ +15. Islington (11) _In convertendo Dominus._ +14. Ealdland (10) _Deus stetit in synagoga._ +13. Hoxton (9) _Defer in salutare anima._ +12. Wedland (8) _Exandi, Domine, justitiam._ +11. Reculverland (7) _Beati quorum remissio._ +10. St. Pancras (6) _Voce mea._ +9. Caddington Minor (5) _Miserere mei Deus._ +8. Tottenhall (Tottenham) (4) _Beatus vir qui non abiit._ +7. (Not assigned.) +6 and 5. Minor Canons. +4. Chancellor. (3) +3. Precentor. (2) +2. Residentiary. +1. Archdeacon of London. (1) + + +SOUTH SIDE. + +The Bishop's Throne or official _Cathedra_. + +30 and 31. (Not assigned.) +27-29. Minor Canons. +26. Archdeacon of Colchester, +now a Minor Canon (19) +25. Ealdstreet (18) _Dominus regnavit, exultet terra._ +24. Rugmere (17) _Ad Dominum cum tribularer._ +23. Brownswood (16) _Deus judicium tuum._ +22. Wenlocksbarn (15) _Quemadmodum desiderat._ +21. Sneating (14) _Dominus Deus meus, respice._ +20. (Not assigned.) +19. The Bishop. +18. (Not assigned.) +17. Oxgate (13) _Domine exandi [102-106]._ +16. Mapesbury (12) _Memento Domine David._ +15. Twyford (11) _Deus misercatur mei._ +14. Cantlers (Kentish Town) (10) _Dominus illuminatio mea._ +13. Mora (9) _Confitebor tibi in toto corde._ +12. Portpool (8) _Quid gloriaris in malitia._ +11. Harleston in Willesden (7) _Fundamenta ejus, &c._ +10. Holborn (6) _Salvum me fac Domine, &c._ +9. Chamberlainewood (5) _Bonum est confiteri, &c._ +8. Finsbury or Halliwell (4) _Benedictus Dominus Deu, &c._ +7. (Not assigned.) +5 and 6. Minor Canons. +4. Treasurer (3) +3. Residentiary +2. Archdeacon of Essex, now + a Residentiary (2) +1. The Dean (1) + +Dr. Sparrow-Simpson assigned the psalms to Consumpta and Oxgate as I +have put them in brackets.[107] + +=The Organ.=--In Old St. Paul's the organ was considered to have but +two peers, Canterbury and York; and the present instrument is worthy +of its predecessor. Grinling Gibbons executed the older part of the +case, with its foliage, figures, and imitations of the architecture. +Bernard Schmidt, a German, was the builder; and in 1802 "a most +industrious Swede and his partner" took it to pieces, cleaned it, and +improved the tone of many of the notes. When the choir was opened out, +at the suggestion of Dr. Sparrow-Simpson the instrument was enlarged +by Mr. Willis, divided between the two sides, and placed above the +stalls at the west end, the old carved work being chiefly on the north +side. Whether Jeremiah Clark (1695-1707) lived long enough to preside +is uncertain; but if not, Richard Brind (1707-1718) was the first to +play the present instrument. Neither Sir John Stainer nor Sir George +Martin need any mention. The organist is seated on the north side, and +communicates by electricity. + +=The Reredos.=--Advantage has been taken of the space between the +great eastern piers to bring forward the altar and crown it with a +lofty reredos. Would Wren have approved of the breaking of the vista +by shutting out the windows of the apse? As he himself designed an +unexecuted Baldachino "of rich marble columns writhed" somewhat after +the style of his favourite St. Peter's,[108] and as this was not so +high, and was to stand against the east wall, the answer to this +question is doubtful. The impression left is that for the present +altar-piece he would have designed his east front somewhat +differently. Be this as it may, upon this magnificent specimen of +modern art it is waste of time to lavish praise, and the names of the +designers, Messrs. Bodley and Garner, will always be associated with +it. The symbolism is expressed in the frieze above the Crucifixion, +"Sic Deus dilexit mundum" ("God so loved the world"). The lower part +is pierced with doors on either side: and "Via Electionis" ("A chosen +vessel") over the north door refers to St. Paul, and "Pasce oves meos" +("Feed my sheep") over the other to St. Peter; and here the crossed +swords are the arms of the diocese. The section above has the +Entombment in the centre, and the Nativity and Resurrection on either +side. A Crucifixion occupies the central position. The framework is of +Roman design, with pilasters and a round arch; and remembering Wren's +conception, it is interesting that the columns of Brescia marble, +supporting the entablature above, are twisted. This is flanked with a +colonnade; the figure on the north being the Angel Gabriel, and to the +south the Virgin. Above the pediment is a canopy with the Virgin and +Child, and St. Peter and St. Paul to the north and south; and above +all, and nearly seventy feet from the ground, the Risen Christ +completes this most reverent design. + +The altar cross is adorned with precious stones and lapis lazuli; and +the massive copper candlesticks are imitations of those, four in +number, sold during the Protectorate, and now, with the arms of +England, in Ghent Cathedral. + +=The Apse.=--Although the side aisles require no particular mention, +unless it be of certain relics from Jerusalem in the south aisle, the +iron gates leading to the reredos are well worthy of attention. When +the choir was opened out, the ironwork was brought here; but there was +not sufficient. Recourse was had in vain to modern coal-smelted metal: +it split, and proved useless for the finer work. Searching the +records, it was discovered that Tijou used only charcoal-smelted iron; +and a supply was procured from Norway. Comment is needless. The +vaulting comes down to the upper tier of windows. The windows in the +lower tier, by Mr. C.E. Kempe, in harmony with the mosaics, have for +their general subject the Last Judgment. + +Isolated by the great Reredos behind from the rest of the church, the +apse now forms a separate chapel, and is called the Jesus Chapel. Why +borrow the name from the east end of the crypt below? The Liddon +Chapel would be a suitable name. Here, against the south wall is his +monument; and the altar-piece, in its marble framework, forms part of +his memorial. It is a copy of a painting by Giovanni Battista da +Conegliano, otherwise Cima. The original, now in the National Gallery, +was painted for the Fraternity of the Battuti at Portogruaro. The +subject is the incredulity of St. Thomas. + + [Illustration: THE CHOIR, ALTAR AND REREDOS.] + +=The Mosaics.=--Excepting, perhaps, certain minor alterations which +time and experience may suggest, the decoration and adornment of the +Choir may now be reckoned as finished. The scheme was begun from the +east, and continued westward; but there is no good reason for altering +our plan, and we will continue to work from the west eastward. Of the +five divisions of the main aisle, the chancel arch may be dismissed; +the subject being a continuation of the western bay. There remain, +then, the three bays, the reredos arch, and the apse; and we will take +these in their order. The spandrels of the arcading treat of the Fall +and Redemption; the triforium belt has the same subject as the +"inverted saucers" of the vaulting; the clerestory windows on the +north, Creation awaiting, or anticipating, or in any sense preparing +the way for the Kingdom of Christ,--on the south, those who prepared +places of worship; the pendentives, Angels, and inscriptions from the +Psalms and Isaiah; the vaulting, the Story of Creation, continued in +the triforium belt. Thus it will be seen that the arrangement of the +interior, with its three stages, is fully recognised. Underneath the +clerestory windows the inscriptions are from the Advent antiphons to +the _Magnificat_; and these selections have most carefully omitted +anything savouring of the invocation of saints. Below the angels with +their outstretched arms in the pendentives the western sides of the +great transverse arches have inscriptions from the _Benedicite_, and +on their eastern from Romans i. 20. All of these texts or inscriptions +are in Latin. The glass in the clerestory windows has been put in to +give the best effect to the mosaics. A tabular statement will best +present a general idea of Sir William Richmond's system taken as a +whole. + +WESTERN BAY (with Chancel Arch). + + { Creation of Beasts, with the inscription, "Producat + { terra animam viventem" (Gen. i. 24). The four +_Roof_ { heraldic shields on the borders have the arms of the + { four London Companies who are donors to the decorations. + { N.: Merchant Taylors. S.: Mercers. E.: Fishmongers. + { W.: Goldsmiths. Date, 1895. + +_Pendentives_: Angels, with inscriptions above from Psalm civ. + + N. S. + { W.: Job. W.: Jacob's Ladder. + { E.: Abraham at his tent E.: Moses receiving the +_Clerestory_ { door at Mamre. Tables of the Law and the + { The Three Heavenly "Pattern of the + { Visitors and Sarah. Tabernacle" (Exodus + { xxv. 9). + +_Inscription { "O Adonai, qui Moysi "O Adonai, et dux, et +beneath { apparuisti, veni ad dominus Israel, veni ad +window_ { redimendum nos." redimendum nos." + +_Triforium { Adam, with arm round Eve, with tigers, birds +continued in { lion: a lioness licking of paradise, and other +chancel arch_ { his feet. animals. + + { Creation of Firmament. Expulsion from Paradise. + { Two Angels in red, as the Adam and Eve walking + { ministers of Creation. In sorrowfully in the +_Spandrels_ { centre, bright sun with direction of the Dome, + { inscription, "Fiat lux, which represents the + { et facta est lux." outer world. Paradise + { has a rampart. + +CENTRE BAY + + { Creation of Fish. Sea monsters spouting out water, +_Roof_ { fish swimming, and blue water. Inscription, "Creavit + { Deus cete grandia" (Gen. i. 21). + { This is the gift of the Fishmongers' Company. + +_Pendentives_: Angels, with inscriptions from Psalm cxlviii. + + N. S. + { W.: Cyrus (who figures W. } + { in Isaiah xliv. as a } + { predestined Temple-builder) } +_Clerestory_ { points over his shoulder to } Bezaleel and + { returning Jewish captives. } Aholiab, + { } artificers of the + { E.: Alexander (who E. } Tabernacle (Exodus + { indirectly prepared for the } xxxvi. I). + { First Advent by spreading + { the Greek language and + { opening out the Far East) + { leaning on his sword, with + { Greeks bearing olives. + + +_Inscription { "O Rex gentium desideratus "O Emmanuel, Rex et +beneath_ { earum, veni, salva Legifer, veni ad + { hominem." salvandum nos." + +_Triforium_ { Sea Leviathans and Fish. Sea Leviathans and Fish. + + { The Annunciation. The Temptation. Adam, + { W.: Gabriel. with warning angel + { E.: The Virgin at above. The nude +_Spandrels_ { the door of her house. figure of Eve, with + { Nazareth in background. Satan, as a fallen + { The Holy Dove between. angel, pointing to + { the forbidden fruit. + + +EAST BAY. + + { Creation of Birds. First of these circular sections of + { spheres to be taken in hand. Details more minute than +_Roof_ { the two others. Yet the effect, even at so great a + { height, is not wholly lost, as a play of colour and a + { certain sense of mystery, are afforded. It is better + { to overdo than to underdo detail. Many of the birds + { are outlined with silver. The leaves have veins of + { silver, and the edges are touched with gold. As with + { the two others, a successful attempt is made to + { increase the real elevation, which is only three feet + { at the apex. Inscription: "Et volatile sub firmamento" + { (Gen. i. 20). Date, 1892. + +_Pendentives_: Angels, with inscriptions above from Isaiah ix. + + + N. S. + { W., Persian, and E., W.: Solomon as a young + { Delphic Sibyl. A somewhat man. E.: David as an old + { far-fetched design man with an air of + { borrowed from mediaeval melancholy, thinking + { art. Angels from above of the Temple of which +_Clerestory_ { delivering their message. he may only get ready + { Architectural background, the materials and + { Persian and Doric plans. Meditating about + { respectively. his preparations under a + { tree; court of palace + { in the background. + + { "O Sapientia, veniad "O Radix Jesse, veni ad +_Inscription { docendum nos. O, liberandum nos. O Clavis +underneath_ { Oriens Splendor, veni David, veni et educe + { et illumina nos." vinctum." + +_Triforium_ { Peacocks of the bird Peacocks. + { creation. + + N. S. + { Two mail-clad Angels of Two Angels of the + { the Crucifixion, one with Passion, one with the + { the spear and the other pillar at which Christ +_Spandrels_ { with the nails. Blue was scourged; the other + { background in centre, with the cup of + { "Gloria in excelsis." suffering. Much later + { First put into position. than the opposite, and + { Work done on slabs in the cubes put into + { studio, and slabs fixed position one by one. + { with bronze nails in lead + { sockets. + +The great transverse arches are inscribed on their western sides from +the _Benedicite_: "Omnes volucres coeli." "Omnia quae moventur in +aquis." "Omnes bestiae et pecora." "Benedicite, omnia opera Domini, +Domino." Looking from the east, the other faces have the Latin of +Romans i. 20: "Invisibilia ejus a creatura mundi." "Per ea quae facta, +sunt intellecta." "Conspiciuntur." "Sempiterna ejus virtus et +divinitas." + +=The Reredos Arch.=--In the triforium stage over the entrances has +Melchizedek on the north and Noah on the south. The High Priest, in a +long robe, blesses Abraham, in armour and with sword at side. Eight +figures of servants are behind; and so minute is the treatment that +the loaves of bread in the basket are depicted. The original design of +this is at South Kensington. Noah, with a rainbow offering as he came +out of the Ark, faces; and both are suggested by the neighbouring +altar. Above, the subject is the Sea giving up its Dead, and the words +"Alleluia," "Sanctus." + +The work in the =Apse= is difficult to describe. Above all, in the +crown of the vault, is a sun with golden rays. The chief figure is +Christ seated in judgment. The expression is of mingled firmness and +pity; and the crown has thorns bursting into flower. The upper robe, +fastened round the breast by a jewelled buckle, has red lining; and +the long robe beneath is white. To the right are two angels with the +Book of Life; and behind, two more holding crowns and inviting to +come. On the left, two more hold the scroll of the rejected, and the +angel of wrath, supported by weeping figures, holds out both hands to +repudiate. The pilasters by the windows have representations of Hope, +Fortitude, Charity, Truth, Chastity, and Justice. + +But we have already exceeded our limit in describing this effort to +carry out Wren's conception on a large and well-organised scale. +Nothing approaching to it has ever been attempted in this country +before; it is "a new art acquired, a new craft learnt." Had not the +artist been constantly on the spot to see that his own thoughts were +reproduced, the work must have suffered. Sir William Richmond may +safely leave posterity to thank him. We notice with satisfaction that +before his labours on the choir were quite finished, the Royal Academy +co-opted him a full Academician, and the Crown bestowed a Knight +Commandership of the Bath.[109] + + +THE MONUMENTS. + +For the sake of simplicity these are taken together. Not till some +eighty years after the completion of the building was any monument +placed in it: another instance of how the intentions of the architect +were ignored. In 1795, John Bacon, R.A. (1740-1799), finished the +Howard and Johnson statues, and that of Sir William Jones four years +later. The Reynolds statue, by John Flaxman, R.A. (1755-1826), was +added about the same time; and these four memorials occupy what Milman +calls the four posts of honour in front of the great supports. Then +came the wars not only with France, but in all parts of the world; and +while some of these heroes by land and sea to whom monuments were +erected are immortal, others are now so forgotten that even the date +of their birth is difficult to obtain. Yet their general claim is that +they were killed in the service of their country; and no one need +grudge them this honour. I cannot but think that a certain amount of +indiscriminate amateur criticism has been expended on the earlier +works. Johnson is represented partially draped in a toga; and there is +a sequence of nude or semi-nude Victories and Fames with or without +wings. The taste of to-day has changed, and but few people approve of +the typical design of the reign of George III. Yet it is necessary to +state that besides four by Flaxman, six bear the imprints of the +genius of Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A. (1782-1831), not to mention five +by E.H. Bailey, R.A. (1788-1847), and six by Rossi. Not only were +Flaxman and Chantrey artists and not mere masons, but examples of both +Bacon and Bailey are among the very few sculptures in the National +Gallery. The asterisk affixed to the number indicates that the remains +slumber in the Crypt. + + +NORTH AISLE OF NAVE. + +1. Officers and men of the Cavalry and 57th and 77th Foot (now 1st and +2nd battalions of the Middlesex Regiment) who died or were killed in +the Crimea, with old colours of Middlesex Regiment carried in the +Crimea. (Marochetti.) + +*2. =Wellington= (1769-1852). Sarcophagus of white marble with +ornaments in bronze. The recumbent effigy in bronze rests upon this. +The canopy supported by Corinthian columns of white marble, which are +carved with foliated diaper pattern. The bronze groups represent +Valour, with Cowardice at her feet, and Truth plucking out the tongue +of Falsehood. The canopy arch supports a great pediment intended for +an equestrian statue, and the faces have the Duke's arms and the +Garter. The chief battles are inscribed at the base. (Alfred Stevens.) + +3. =Gordon= (Major-Gen. Chas. Geo., C.B., 1833-1885). Admirers of this +Christian hero constantly bring fresh flowers, which the attendants +remove when withered. Gordon's head was exhibited by the Mahdi, and +his trunk thrown into the Nile at Khartoum. A recumbent figure on a +sarcophagus, the features beautifully chiselled. One of two by that +great sculptor, Sir Joshua Edgar Boehm, R.A. (1834-1890). + +4. Mural tablet to the officers and men of the Royal Fusiliers (7th +Foot) who perished in Afghan Campaign, 1879-1880. + +5. =Stewart= (Major-Gen. Sir Herbert, K.C.B., 1844-1885). Killed in +the abortive attempt to relieve Gordon. A mural tablet behind Gordon's +monument. (Boehm.) + +6. =Torrens= (Major-Gen. Sir A. Wellesley). Died in the Crimea. +(Marochetti.) + + [Illustration: THE WELLINGTON MONUMENT.] + +7. Mural tablets in brass on either side of the Melbourne monument to +the crew of H.M.S. _Captain_. Constructed in the early days of +ironclads, this vessel foundered in 1870 through a mistaken +calculation about the metacentre, with the designer, Captain Cooper +Coles, and a son of the First Lord on board. + +8. =Melbourne= (William Lamb, Viscount, 1779-1848), with his brother +Frederick, a diplomatist (d. 1853). Prime Minister at the accession of +Queen Victoria. Black marble representation of "the gate of death," +with angels of white marble. The complete darkness with nothing beyond +is more appropriate to the Premier's religious views as stated in the +_Greville Memoirs_, than to the inscription from the Collect for +Easter Eve. (Marochetti.) + + +SOUTH AISLE OF NAVE. + +9. Officers of Coldstream Guards killed at Inkerman, with old colours +of regiment above. Vesey Dawson, Granville Elliott, Lionel Mackinnon, +Murray Cowell, Henry M. Bouverie, Frederick Ramsden, Edward Disbrowe, +C. Hubert Greville, with inscription, "Brothers in arms, in glory and +in death, they were buried in one grave." (Marochetti.) + +10. =Burgiss= (Captain Richard Rundle, R.N., 1755-1797). Killed at +Camperdown in command of the _Ardent_. Almost undraped, and out of +proportion about the shoulders and bust, as is also the figure of +Victory giving him the sword. Group in lower part of sarcophagus +difficult to interpret. (J. Banks, R.A.) + +11. =Middleton= (T.F., d. 1822). First Bishop of Calcutta. (Lough.) + +12. =Lyons= (Captain, R.N., d. 1855). (Noble.) + +13. =Westcott= (Captain Geo. Blagdon, R.N., 1743-1798). Killed in +command of the _Majestic_ at the Nile. Expression of the face too +young. The bas-relief has the Sphynx, the Nile, and the _Orient_ blown +up. (Banks.) + +14. =Loch= (Captain, R.N., d. 1853). (Marochetti.) + + +NORTH TRANSEPT. + +15. =Faulknor= (Captain Robert, R.N., 1763-1795). He was called the +"Undaunted" by Jervis; killed off Dominica in command of the +_Blanche_, and while lashing his bowsprit to the _Pique_, a French +frigate of superior size. Falling into the arms of Neptune, with +Victory about to crown him. (C. Rossi, R.A.) + +16. =Mackenzie= (Major-Gen. J.R.), =Langwerth= (Brig.-Gen. E.). Both +killed at Talavera, July 28, 1809. Above Faulknor's. Two sons of +England bear trophies. The figure of Victory not remarkable for good +proportions. (C. Manning.) + +*17. =Reynolds= (Sir Joshua, P.R.A., 1723-1792). Draped in the robes +of a Doctor of Laws; in right hand the Discourses to the Royal +Academy; beneath the left hand is a medallion of his master, Michael +Angelo. A pity that Bacon and others did not follow a like natural +style of design. The special preachers are advised to preach at him, +so that their voices may travel across the dome. (Flaxman.) + +*18. =Cockerell= (Chas. Robert, d. 1863). An accomplished successor of +Wren as surveyor. (F.P. Cockerell.) + +19. =Hoghton= (Major-Gen. Dan., d. 1811). Killed at Albuera. A tabular +monument; the embroidery on the uniform, the line of bayonets, and the +colours excellent. (Chantrey.) + +20. =Elphinstone= (Hon. Mountstuart, d. 1859). Lieut. Gov. of Bombay, +and thrice refused the Governor-Generalship. (Noble.) + +21. =Myers= (Lieut.-Col. Sir Wm., 1784-1811). Killed at Albuera. A +bust supported by Hercules for Valour and Minerva for Wisdom. +Inscription, extract from a letter from Wellington. (J. Kendrick.) + +22. =Malcolm= (Admiral Sir Pulteney, d. 1838.) (Bailey.) + +23. =St. Vincent= (Admiral of the Fleet John Jervis, Earl of, +1735-1832). Defeated the Spanish Fleet off Cape St. Vincent, Feb. 14, +1797. A colossal statue, with Victory and the Muse of History. +(Bailey.) + +24. =Rodney= (Admiral Geo. Brydges, Baron, K.B., 1718-1790). Defeated +French Fleet off Martinique under De Grasse, April 12, 1782. +Accidentally disregarding the code of Fighting Instructions, he +adopted the manoeuvre of "breaking the line" instead of the old +"line a-head," and later admirals followed. Marble, in uniform and the +Bath. Fame, a winged female figure with only the lower limbs draped, +instructs the Muse of History. Parliament voted L6,000 for this +monument, which is very good. (Rossi.) + +*25. =Picton= (Sir Thomas, d. 1815). After a chequered career, in +which he figured at the Old Bailey, killed at Waterloo, "gloriously +leading his division," said Wellington, "to a charge of bayonets." (S. +Gahagan.) + +26. =Napier= (Gen. Sir William F.P., 1785-1860). Soldier and man of +letters. Son of Lady Sarah Lennox, whom George III. wished to marry, +and brother to Charles James (No. 29). Commanded 43rd in Peninsula, +and wrote the History of the War, still a standard authority, and +other works. (Bailey.) + +27. =Hay= (Major-Gen. Andrew, d. 1814). Killed at Bayonne. Falling +into the arms of Valour; soldier mourning and a file of troops in the +background, all in correct uniform. (H. Hopper.) + +28. =Gore= and =Skerrett=. Two Major-Generals killed at +Bergen-op-Zoom, March 10, 1814. Chantrey is betrayed into a +pseudo-classical style, most elegant of its kind and beautifully +executed, by the designer Tallemache. Fame, without wings and undraped +to the waist, consoles Britannia, at whose feet reposes the British +Lion. (Designed by Tallemache, executed by Chantrey.) + +29. =Napier= (Gen. Sir Chas. James, 1782-1853). Brother to William +(No. 26) and conqueror of Scinde. (G. Adams.) + +30. =Ponsonby= (Major-Gen. Hon. Sir William, d. 1815). Killed in +command of the Union Brigade of Cavalry (Royals, Scots Greys, +Inniskillings) at Waterloo. There is good reason for Theed +representing him undraped, as his body was stripped by some of those +camp followers mentioned by Victor Hugo in _Les Miserables_. The horse +falling, as represented, was the cause of his death. "I have to add +the expression of my grief," wrote Wellington, "for the fate of an +officer who had already rendered very brilliant and important +services, and was an ornament to his profession." (Designed by William +Theed, R.A., and, after his death, executed by Bailey.) + +31. =Riou= and =Mosse= (Captain Edward Riou, 1762-1801, and Captain +James Robert Mosse, 1746-1801). The "gallant good Riou," of Campbell's +song, fell in command of the _Amazon_, and Mosse of the _Monarch_, at +Copenhagen. Victory and Fame hold medallions. (Rossi.) + +32. =Napier= (Admiral Sir Chas., 1786-1860). Second in command at +bombardment of Acre, and commanded English part of the allied fleet in +the Baltic, 1854. A tablet. (G. Adams.) + +33. =Le Marchant= (Major-Gen. John Gaspard, d. 1812). Killed at +Salamanca. To the left is Spain placing the trophies in the tomb; to +the right Britannia instructing a cadet. (Designed by C.H. Smith and +executed by Rossi.) + +34. =Hallam= (Henry, 1777-1859). Historian, and father of the "Arthur" +of "In Memoriam." (Theed.) + +35. =Johnson= (Samuel, 1709-1784). More fault has been found with this +design than with any other. Instead of partially draping the colossal +statue of the great man of letters in a toga, Bacon might have adopted +the more correct taste of Flaxman with Reynolds (No. 17) and +represented him in his Oxford D.C.L. robes. This criticism does not +apply to the execution. (Bacon.) + +36. =Bowes= (Major-Gen., d. 1812). Indiscriminate fault-finders may +well study this piece of work with fifteen figures. Bowes, storming a +wall at Salamanca, falls back into the arms of his men. (Chantrey.) + +37. =Duncan= (Admiral Adam Viscount Duncan, 1731-1804). Defeated the +Dutch Fleet off Camperdown October 11, 1797. A simple statue, with a +seaman and wife and child on the pedestal. (R. Westmacott.) + +38. =Dundas= (Major-Gen. Thomas, 1750-1794). The inscription sets +forth that Parliament voted this monument with especial reference to +services in the West Indies. Britannia, attended by Sensibility and +the Genius of Britain, crowns the bust with a laurel wreath. (John +Bacon, jun.) + +39. =Crauford= and =Mackinnon=. Above No. 38. Two Major Generals who +fell at Ciudad Rodrigo, 1812. The partially draped figure with musket +and target is that of a Highland soldier, mourning; the other is the +stereotyped Victory placing a wreath. (J. Bacon, jun.) + + +SOUTH TRANSEPT. + +*40. =Nelson= (Vice-Admiral Horatio Viscount Nelson, K.B., and Duke of +Bronte in the Neapolitan peerage, &c., 1758-1805). Completed about +1818, and placed just east of where the dean's stall now is (then +outside the choir rails); placed in present position 1870. The actual +statue in uniform and with left hand resting on anchor and cable is 7 +feet 8 inches in height, and the whole monument about 18 feet. Flaxman +thus described his design:--"Britannia is directing the young seamen's +attention to their great example, Lord Nelson. On the die of the +pedestal which supports the hero's statue are figures in +basso-relievo, representing the Frozen Ocean, the German Ocean, the +Nile, and the Mediterranean. On the cornice and in the frieze of +laurel wreaths are the words, Copenhagen, Nile, Trafalgar. The British +Lion sits on the plinth, guarding the pedestal." The life-like +expression of the face was probably taken from the portrait by +Leonardo Guzzardi, in the possession of the family. The cloak conceals +the empty sleeve, and the right eye is wanting. (Flaxman.) + + [Illustration: NELSON'S MONUMENT.] + +41. =Hardinge= (Captain Geo. N., R.N., 1779-1808). Above Nelson. +Killed in command of the _San Fiorenzo_ when it captured the much +larger _Piemontaise_ after a three days running fight, March 3, 1808, +off Ceylon. The somewhat indifferently modelled male figure represents +an East Indian Chief with the British colours. (C. Manning.) + +42. =Brock= (Major-Gen. Sir Isaac, d. 1812). Killed at Queenstown, +Upper Canada. (Westmacott.) + +43. =Babington= (William, d. 1833). One of the few medical men. +(Behnes.) + +44. =Hoste= (Captain Sir William, R.N., d. 1831). Statue with simple +epitaph. (Campbell.) + +45. =Jones= (Sir William). A great Orientalist. One of the original +Four, and of similar design to the Johnson across the dome. The open +book on the smaller pedestal has a picture of Noah's Ark. On the +larger pedestal, Study and Genius unveil Oriental knowledge. (Bacon.) + +46. =Lyons= (Vice-Admiral Edmund Lord Lyons, 1790-1858). Commanded the +Fleet before Sevastapool; also Minister at Athens. (Noble.) + +47. =Abercromby= (Sir Ralph, 1736-1801). Defeated the French under +Menou at Alexandria, mortally wounded, and died on board ship. He is +falling from his horse, and a Highland soldier supports him. Large +sphinxes on plinth. (Westmacott.) + +48. =Moore= (Sir John, 1761-1809). Killed at Corunna, and Soult +erected a humble monument over his grave. A Spanish soldier (why not +in uniform?) and Victory are laying him in his grave. A child--the +Genius of Spain--holds a trophy, the arms of Spain behind. Gracefully +modelled and well executed. (J. Bacon, jun.) + +48A. Tablet commemorating Queen's visit, 1872, for Prince of Wales' +recovery. + +49. =Cooper= (Sir Astley Paston, 1768-1841). A skilful operator before +the days of chloroform. (Bailey.) + +50. =Gillespie= (Major-General Robert Rollo, d. 1814). Mortally +wounded in attempting to storm the fort of Nalapanee, in Nepaul. + +51. =Pakenham= and =Gibbs=. The former commanded and the latter was a +General under him of the force defeated by Jackson at N. Orleans, +1815. Treaty of peace had been already signed at Ghent. In full +uniform. (Westmacott.) + +*52. =Turner=, Joseph M.W., R.A. (1775-1851). The greatest of English +landscape painters, if not of every school. (Macdowell.) + +*53. =Collingwood= (Vice-Admiral Cuthbert, Lord, 1750-1810). In +command at Trafalgar after Nelson's death. Died in command of the +Mediterranean Fleet, and the corpse is represented arriving home: +supporters Fame and the Thames; alto-relievo on the ship's side +illustrates the progress of navigation. A fine group. (Westmacott.) + +54. =Howe= (Admiral of the Fleet, Richard, Earl Howe, K.G., +1726-1799). Defeated the French off Ushant, June 1, 1794. Colossal +figure in the correct uniform with garter, collar, and ribbon (over +right shoulder, should have been left). Boat cloak over left shoulder, +and telescope in right hand. The female figure with the pen is +History. (Flaxman.) + +55. =Jones= (Major-Gen. Sir John, Bart., K.C.B., R.E., 1797-1843). +(Behnes.) + +56. =Ross= (Major-Gen. Robert, d. 1814). Over entrance to crypt. +Defeated a superior force at Washington, and under orders from home +destroyed the public buildings; defeated and killed at Baltimore. +Undraped male figure is Valour. (J. Kendrick.) + +57. =Howard= (John, 1726-1790). Although a Quaker, the first admitted. +Died at Kherson from the plague he was investigating. In toga, and the +face expressing benevolence. "Plan for improvement of prisons" and +"hospitals" on papers in left hand; "regulations" on another at his +feet. Trampling on chains and fetters, and the bas-relief on the +pedestal represents him relieving prisoners. Inscription by his +neighbour--Samuel Whitehead, of Bedford. Liddon's last sermon from the +adjacent pulpit, April 27, 1890, on the occasion of the Centenary, +referred to him. (Bacon.) + +58. =Cadogan= (Colonel Henry, d. 1813). Historical design. Mortally +wounded at Vittoria, he orders his men to place him where he can see +his regiment engaged in a successful bayonet charge. (Chantrey.) + +59. =Lawrence= (Major-Gen. Sir Henry Montgomery, K.C.B., 1806-1857). +One of two famous brothers. Predicted the Mutiny fourteen years before +it broke out, and died in the defence of Lucknow. (Lough.) + +60. =Heathfield= (Gen. Geo. Eliott, Baron, d. 1790). Defender of +Gibraltar, 1779-1783, against the united fleets and armies of France +and Spain. + +61. =Cornwallis= (Gen. Chas., Marquis, K.G., 1739-1805). American +visitors, associating him only with the surrender of Yorktown, may +wonder at this monument. It is fully merited, not so much for the +defeat of Tippoo Sahib and conquest of Mysore, as for continuing the +policy of Clive and sternly preventing the natives of India from being +ground down by the greed and cruelty of English residents. Twice +Viceroy of India, and died there in harness. Napoleon met him during +the negotiations at Amiens, and styled him "_un bien brave homme_." A +pyramidal group. In Garter mantle with insignia (ribbon again over +wrong shoulder). The male figure represents the river Bagareth (_sic_) +and holds an emblem of the Ganges. The female figure standing by is +our Eastern Empire. Perhaps the best of this sculptor. (Rossi.) + + [Illustration: _Photo S.B. Bolas & Co._ + MONUMENTS OF DR. JOHN DONNE AND BISHOP BLOMFIELD.] + + +CHOIR SOUTH AISLE. + +Four are recumbent figures of bishops and dignitaries, and call for no +comment beyond the success in giving a life-like expression to the +features. + +*62. =Milman= (Henry Hart, 1791-1868). Dean for nineteen years. +Pastor, poet, historian, and divine. (Williamson.) + +*63. =Donne= (John, 1572-1631). A versatile and somewhat eccentric +dean, 1621-1631. The only monument at all intact that escaped the +Fire. Upright in shroud, and on classical urn. In old church in like +position, but on opposite side. Sat for his portrait in his shroud. + +64. =Blomfield= (Chas. Jas., 1786-1857). Bishop, 1828-1856. (Geo. +Richmond.) + +65. =Jackson= (John, 1810-1885). Bishop, 1868-1885. (Thos. Woolner.) + +66. =Heber= (Reginald, 1783-1826). Second Bishop of Calcutta; died at +Trichinopoly. Thackeray's "Good divine, charming poet, beloved parish +priest." Milman's "Early friend, by the foot of whose statue I pass so +often, not without emotion, to our services.... None was ever marked +so strongly for a missionary bishop in the fabled and romantic East." +A kneeling figure, and the best in this aisle. Formerly under the east +window, but now facing the sanctuary. (Chantrey.) + +*67. =Liddon= (Henry Parry, 1829-1890). South side of the Apse. We +fitly close this catalogue with this famous preacher, with the +possible exception of Henry Melvill the greatest connected with the +cathedral in modern time. Residentiary for twenty years, and +Chancellor. (Bodley and Garner.) + + * * * * * + +Amongst the great sculptors, John Gibson is not represented by any +work. Amongst the great men, Wren, his epitaph notwithstanding, might +well have a monument with a list of his buildings on the pedestal. +Marlborough should have one opposite to Wellington; and Colet, surely, +might be again remembered, and with him Dean Church. + + +THE CRYPT. + +The entrance to the staircase is in the ambulatory on the north side +of the south transept. This basement story, for the whole length and +breadth of the building, of which more than one half is taken up by +piers and pillars, dimly lighted in aisles and transepts from above, +though it strikes the spectator most impressively, has an aspect weird +and sombre to a degree. We feel we are in the company of the dead. The +pavement of the dome area is supported by eight larger and four +smaller piers, forming externally a square and internally an octagon; +and within the octagon eight columns describe a circle of sufficient +diameter for Nelson's tomb. The central aisles throughout are likewise +supported by double rows of square pillars. At the west end of the +choir the piers underneath the chancel arch are exceptionally massive, +and east of them the introduction of two extra rows of pillars +together with an irregularity in the vaulting indicates, not only +where choir screen and organ were placed, but also that Wren never +wanted them there to isolate the chancel. + + [Illustration: NELSON'S TOMB.] + +The parish of St. Faith in 1878 consented to the removal of the high +railings which marked off their part, and tiles now record the south +and west boundaries. This reminds us that the crypt has been a burial +place for ages past. Many completely unknown lie around us, and sleep +in the company of more than one great maker of history; but we are +concerned only with the few, and with certain monuments of others +buried elsewhere. At the west is placed Wellington's funeral car, made +of captured guns, and with his chief victories inscribed in gold, and +the candelabra used for the lying in state. Near, and further east, +are buried Cruikshank, Lord Mayor Nottage (who died during his +mayoralty in 1886), Bartle Frere and his wife (Lady Frere died 1899, +and is the last interred at the time of writing this), and Lord Napier +of Magdala. In the very centre the corpse of NELSON, enclosed +in wood from a mast of the _Orient_, reposes within the circle of +columns in a plain tomb, and underneath a magnificent black and white +sarcophagus of the sixteenth century. Let us pause to reflect that +this fine work of art, on which Benedetto da Rovanza and his masons +spent much labour, was intended by Wolsey for his own monument, but +was confiscated with the rest of his goods. To this day no one knows +the exact spot where the Abbot of Leicester and his monks buried the +great Tudor statesman; and nearly three centuries later the marble +covered the coffin of the great admiral. On the top a viscount's +coronet takes the place of the disgraced and broken-hearted cardinal's +hat. Nelson's nephew, Lord Merton of Trafalgar, lies in a vault +underneath, and at the sides are Collingwood and the Earl of Northesk, +two companions in arms. A grating here, underneath the centre of the +dome, allows the light from the lantern to be dimly seen. Further east +and near the south side were placed in April, 1883, the remains of the +ill-fated Professor Palmer and his two companions, Captain Gill and +Lieutenant Charrington, who were killed by Arabs while on a Government +mission in the Desert of Sinai. Underneath the chancel arch is the +sepulchre of Wellington, of Cornish porphyry, plain and unadorned. As +with the monument, so here, no attempt is made to enumerate those +titles, commands, orders and posts and offices of honour, proclaimed +by Garter King at Arms, after Dean Milman had committed his body to +the ground. The simple inscription, "Arthur, Duke of Wellington," upon +the severely simple tomb, depicts, not incorrectly, the life and +character of the Iron Duke. A neighbouring tomb is that of Picton. +Some little distance to the east, and in the end recess of the south +choir aisle is the grave of WREN. The plain black marble +slab, which tells who lies below, is only raised some sixteen inches; +and on the wall of the recess is the original of the famous +inscription, "_Lector, si monumentum requiris, circumspice._" Other +members of the family are close at hand in what we may call Wren's +corner. His daughter Jane, his daughter-in-law Maria with her parents +Philip and Constantia Masard, and tablets commemorate Dame Jane his +wife, a daughter of Sir Thomas Coghill, and her great granddaughter +who, living to the age of ninety-three, well-nigh connects his time +with ours. One of the deans--Newton, Bishop of Bristol, whose monument +was not allowed above, slumbers near the great architect; as in +=Painters' Corner= do Reynolds, West, Lawrence, Leighton (whose fine +gravestone contrasts so oddly with Wren's), and Millais, all +Presidents of the Royal Academy, with James Barry, Opie, Dance, +Fuseli, Turner, Landseer, and Boehm. Near here are Mylne and +Cockerell, successors of Wren: Milman lies directly under the altar, +and Liddon underneath his monument. + + [Illustration: _Photo. S.B. Bolas & Co._ + CHURCH OF ST. FAITH IN THE CRYPT.] + +The monuments include two removed from the choir to make room for the +organ. John Cooke, killed in command of the _Bellerophon_ +(Westmacott), and George Duff, killed in command of the _Mars_ +(Bacon), both at Trafalgar. Tablets, busts, or brasses, are in honour +of Lord Mayo, the Canadian statesman Macdonald, the Australian +statesman Dally, the Press correspondents who fell in the Soudan, the +soldiers who fell in the Transvaal, Goss, the organist and composer, +and Bishop Piers Claughton, a residentiary. At the east end, where +service is held on a weekday morning at eight, are a few fragments of +the old monuments--Nicholas Bacon (in armour and legs missing), +Christopher Hatton, John Wolley, and others. Some slight carvings of +the old buildings are also left. + + +THE GALLERIES AND LIBRARY. + + [Illustration: _Photo. S.B. Bolas & Co._ + THE LIBRARY.] + +Above the aisles are long and spacious galleries, and after mounting +the staircase to the south-west of the dome, we pass through one of +these--that over the south aisle--to the Library over the South-West +Chapel. A gallery is supported by brackets carved by Jonathan Maine, +and the flooring is of 2,300 pieces of oak, inlaid and without pegs or +nails. There is a portrait of Bishop Compton, who may be considered the +founder; and later donations and bequests include those of Bishop +Sumner of Winchester, Archdeacon Hale, and notably Dr. Sparrow-Simpson. +Altogether many thousands of MSS. and books. A beautiful "Avicenna +Canon Medicinae," a psalter supposed to have been used in the old Latin +services, and another bought by Dr. Simpson at a second-hand +book-stall, are of the fourteenth century. A subscription book for the +rebuilding contains the following: "_I will give one thousand pounds a +yeare whitehall 20 March 1677/8 Charles R._" These subscriptions never +found their way into the fund; and forgetful how readily the Merry +Monarch's money might have been intercepted _en route_, it has been +assumed that he never parted with it. In the same book James also +promises "_two hundred pounds a yeare to begin from Midsommer day last +past._" The printed books include Tyndale's Pentateuch and his New +Testament; and the Sumner and Hale bequests include large numbers of +curious tracts and pamphlets. Richard Jennings' model of the centre of +the west front is preserved. In the eighteenth century St. Paul's was a +favourite place for weddings, and the registers, with many interesting +names, are being edited for the Harleian Society. The Trophy Room above +the North-West Chapel contains Wren's model, which was restored when +Sydney Smith was a Canon. + + * * * * * + +We are quite content to follow Fergusson, and let the architectural +value of New St. Paul's stand or fall with the literary value of +"Paradise Lost." Just as Addison says of the latter: "In poetry as in +architecture, not only the whole, but the principal members and every +part of them should be great"; "there is an unquestionable +magnificence in every part"; "a work which does an honour to the +English nation": just as Macaulay corroborates by eulogising it as +"that extraordinary production which the general suffrage of critics +has placed in the highest class of human compositions"--even so we may +end here, and describe this unique and marvellous conception of a man +who was not a trained architect, who was never known to have travelled +further than Paris and who was incessantly hampered and hindered, as a +conception, not indeed architecturally faultless, but for all that and +leaving out the much greater St. Peter's, as the finest church of the +Renaissance style and epoch, more stable and better adapted for public +worship than any earlier cathedral in England. To the Renaissance, the +genius of Milton contributed an epic in blank verse, the genius of +Wren a second in stone. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[90] Ground-plan of Interior of First Design in Fergusson's "Modern +Architecture," p. 260; and in Longman, p. 110, where the scale, though +not given, is 1-1/2 inches to the 100 feet. + +[91] "Parentalia," p. 290. The Temple of Peace is now known as the +Basilica of Constantine or Maxentius. + +[92] _Fortnightly Review_, October, 1872. + +[93] "Handbook," p. 495. + +[94] Tract II. in "Parentalia," p. 357. His mathematical +demonstrations with their diagrams, wherein he works out the centre of +gravity, are too technical for insertion. The Tract is incomplete. + +[95] "Parentalia," p. 291. + +[96] The two others on the west wall represent Melchisedek blessing +Abraham, and David as a man of war praising God. On the eastern wall +the central piece illustrates the texts, "Righteousness and peace have +kissed each other"; "Young men and maidens, old men and children, +praise the name of the Lord." At the sides the words of Job, "Unto me +men gave ear, and waited, and kept silence at my counsel"; and of the +Centurion, "I also am a man set under authority, having under myself +soldiers." + +[97] Gwilt's "Edifices of London," vol. i., p. 33, quoted by Longman, +p. 178. + +[98] Nevertheless it is not correct to say that the massive pillars of +the octagon leave the vista along the side aisles unimpaired. I have +satisfied myself that there is an interruption similar to St. Paul's. + +[99] See the half-section, half elevation, in Fergusson, p. 271, or +section p. 90 above. + +[100] So far as I can calculate. St. Peter's, according to Fergusson, +is 333 feet high internally, and the diameter 130 feet, giving a ratio +of five to two: St. Paul's gives a ratio of two to one. Stephen Wren +gives the ratios differently in the "Parentalia." + +[101] "Parentalia," p. 291. + +[102] "St. Paul's and Old City Life," p. 279. + +[103] I think it needless to repeat the evidence I gave _in extenso_ +in the _Times_, May 22, 1899. But see the "Parentalia," p. 292, note +(_a_), and Mr. William Longman's remarks. + +[104] I presume that this gave rise to the idea that this particular +kind of mosaic is only suited for churches of the Byzantine style of +architecture, like St. Sophia. Yet these old mosaics are found in +churches which are not of this style, although situated at one time in +the Eastern Empire. + +[105] My sister, Mrs. Curry, saw these mosaics on August 30, 1899, and +helped me to bring the account up to date. + +[106] I am indebted to Ralph's successor, Archdeacon Thornton, for +this information. These "Psalmi Ascripti" are found in the +_Consuetudines_ of Ralph de Baldock. I am ignorant of Newcourt's +sources of information. + +[107] _Registrum Statutorum_, Appendix i. + +[108] Longman, p. 112. + +[109] Further information may be found in _The Journal of the Society +of Arts_, June 21, 1895 (Sir W. Richmond); _Magazine of Art_, Nov., +1897 (Alfred Lys Baldry); _Sunday Magazine_, Jan. and Feb., 1898 +(Canon Newbolt, who mentions "A Small Lecture on Mosaic," by Sir W. +Richmond, given at the "Arts and Crafts"). + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +CONCLUSION (1710-1897) + + +Wren's great friend and supporter on the Commission, John Evelyn, was +long since dead; and in 1718, thanks to an intrigue, the Surveyor was +dismissed in favour of an incompetent successor, chiefly famous for +figuring in the Dunciad. Fortunately, says his grandson, "He was +happily endued with such an Evenness of Temper, a steady Tranquillity +of Mind, and Christian Fortitude, that no injurious Incidents or +Inquietudes of human life, could ever ruffle or discompose." He +continued for a time superintending at the Abbey, but soon took a +house from the Crown at Hampton, where he could look upon another of +his innumerable designs, and from time to time came up to see his +cathedral, and, as the story goes, was wont to sit under the dome. +Thanks to the regularity and temperance of his habits, for he profited +by his medical studies, and his happy disposition, he lived five years +longer, occupying his leisure with a variety of mathematical and +scientific studies, and above all "in the Consolation of the Holy +Scriptures: cheerful in Solitude, and as well pleased to die in the +Shade as in the Light." A visit to London brought on a cold he failed +to shake off. He was accustomed to take a nap after dinner; and on +February 25, 1723, his servant, thinking he had slept long enough, +entered the room. The good old man had passed quietly to his +well-earned rest. His wife had long pre-deceased him. Steele declared +that Wren was absolutely incapable of trumpeting his own fame, "which +has as fatal an effect upon men's reputations as poverty; for as it +was said--'the poor man saved the city, and the poor man's labour was +forgot'; so here we find the modest man built the city, and the +modest man's skill was unknown."[110] But Wren did not build only for +the Commission who dismissed him, but for posterity; and posterity +more impartial will yet pronounce that he belongs to the great men of +two centuries ago, and accord him a place beside Marlborough and +Addison and Newton. + +About this time Parliament vested the fabric in three trustees--the +Primate, the Bishop, and the Lord Mayor. With them rests the +appointment of the surveyor, the examination and audit of his +accounts, and in general the charge and maintenance of the +cathedral.[111] This trust is unique, and has its origin in the large +sums provided from taxation, whereas the other cathedrals were raised +by voluntary offerings. The eighteenth century does not call for more +than a passing notice. Wren's intentions continued to be delayed or +frustrated in at least four important respects. The high railings shut +out any complete view of the exterior: the dome area, isolated from +the choir by the organ, was not used for the very purpose it was +designed: the interior lacked mosaics: no monuments to the great dead +filled the recesses ready for them. Reynolds headed a body of artists +anxious to execute a scheme of adornment not in accordance with the +architect's views, and was defeated by Bishop Terrick on grounds other +than aesthetic. George III. gave thanks in 1789 for his recovery, and +again eight years later for naval victories. On this latter occasion +Nelson attended as one of the representatives of the Fleet; and as his +one remaining eye rested on the Howard monument, did he think that the +time was near at hand when he would be brought there, and when another +monument would be erected to himself? For at last the cathedral was +being put to its intended use; and the first memorial was accorded to +a self-sacrificing philanthropist, who was not even a member of the +Anglican communion. Another eight years, and amidst all that was high +and distinguished, under the very centre of the dome, Dean +Pretyman-Tomline, Bishop of Lincoln, committed to the ground the +maimed body of the greatest of our sea captains. "As a youth," says +Dean Milman, "I was present, and remember the solemn effect of the +sinking of the coffin. I heard, or fancied that I heard, the low wail +of the sailors who bore and encircled the remains of their +admiral."[112] During the short peace before the return from Elba +Wellington carried the sword of state before the Regent at the +Thanksgiving service (July 9, 1814), and Dean Milman was called upon +to officiate at the funeral of Wellington (November 18, 1852), which +the Prince Consort attended, when the length of the procession may be +estimated from Henry Greville's statement that it took one and +three-quarter hours to pass Devonshire House. + +The earlier Parliaments returned by the first Reform Bill brought +about sweeping and ill-considered changes, both diocesan and +capitular. Essex and the small archdeaconry of St. Alban's were +separated from the diocese, and instead of being formed into a new +one, were annexed to Rochester.[113] The capitular changes were +chiefly the work of one sweeping Act which applied to the Chapters as +a body (3 and 4 Vict. c. 113). The obligation of residence was removed +from the prebends; four new resident canonries were created, and the +revenues of the prebends alienated. By this scheme the greater part of +the authority was entrusted to the dean and the residentiaries, and +the thirty prebends became almost honorary, excepting that the old +fees had still to be paid on installation. Thirty benefices--sinecures +most of them in the modern sense and of large and increasing +value--had become an anomaly and out of date; but were residents, +officially non-resident for three-fourths of the year, the happiest +method of reform? What Sydney Smith, one of the last of the old +resident prebendaries, thought of these changes may be read in his +life. A more competent authority on matters capitular than Sydney +Smith, and like him in other respects an admirer of the first +Victorian ministry, roundly declared, "The three months system is a +mockery and worse";[114] and as a matter of fact the residentiaries +prefer to discharge their duties by a more regular attendance. The +patronage of three of these coveted stalls was reserved to the Crown; +the fourth was left to the Bishop; but although the Archdeaconry of +London was annexed to this fourth, one-third of the revenue was +deducted for the remaining Archdeaconry of Middlesex. Since then the +income of this fourth stall has been raised to the level of the +others, and the prebendal stall of Cantlers re-endowed, the occupant +being the diocesan inspector in religious knowledge. The one +satisfactory feature in these changes is that the alienated revenues, +estimated at L150,000, have been put to a good and practical use. By +yet another change the mediaeval college of the petty canons has been +dissolved, and the minor canons reduced from twelve to six. + +The best vindication of the new order of things is to look at results. +It was left to Dean Milman and his Chapter, originally at the +suggestion of Bishop Tait, to endeavour to carry out Wren's designs +and Wren's ideas. The high exterior railings are gone: the organ +removed to its proper position and the organ screen taken away, so +that dome and choir are connected for congregational purposes: the +system of decoration by mosaics well advanced. The absolute necessity +of using the dome was emphasised, not only by the Sunday evening +services, but by the appointment of HENRY PARRY LIDDON to a +resident's stall. Competent judges have asserted that Henry Melvill, +though not the greater thinker, was the greater preacher of the two; +but Melvill was almost past his best on his appointment in 1856, and +he is rather associated with the choir than the dome. Be this as it +may, Wren would have been gratified indeed to have seen the favourite +offspring of his genius filled from arch to arch, and to have listened +to the clear and melodious high-pitched voice of the great preacher, +always articulate, and with an articulation after Wren's own heart +that did not drop the last words of the sentences. Wren would have +been further gratified to have seen his dome used, in addition to +weekday services, three times each Sunday, as he would have been to +have worked under those successive Deans--Milman, Mansel, Church, +Gregory--who, in conjunction with their Chapters, have loyally +endeavoured to put the cathedral to the use he wished from the day he +first began to design his short Greek cross; and finally, he would +have been gratified at Gounod's statement that the services are +rendered to the finest music in the world, and to have seen the free +facilities offered to the public for studying his architecture, and +would have contrasted the orderly behaviour of the visitors from every +quarter of the globe with the old-time swashbucklers and rowdies of +Paul's Walk; and any objection to the lengthening westward would have +been removed, had he lived to have seen his great cathedral filled +from door to door with a congregation of from ten to twelve thousand +at the special musical services. + +This all too short summary must close by recording that the Queen +attended the Thanksgiving service in February, 1872 for the recovery +of the Prince of Wales; and on Queen Victoria's Day, Tuesday, June 22, +1897, again proceeded in state from Buckingham Palace to St. Paul's, +where a Thanksgiving service was held at the West Front on occasion of +the Diamond Jubilee, her Majesty returning by way of London and +Westminster Bridges. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[110] _Tatler_, No. 52. + +[111] Milman, p. 449. + +[112] The account in Dugdale (p. 455) from the _London Gazette_ of +January 18, 1806, fills more than eight folio pages of small print. + +[113] A small part of the Surrey side was also in the diocese. + +[114] Freeman's "Wells," p. 95. + + + + +APPENDIX A. + +BISHOPS AND DEANS. + + * _Archbishop of Canterbury._ # _Archbishop of York._ + + +BISHOPS BEFORE THE CONQUEST. + + * * * * +314. Restitutus + * * * * +604. Mellitus* + * * * * +654. Cedd +666. Wine +675. Erkenwald or Ercourvald +693. Waldhere +706. Ingwald +745. Eggwulf +772. Sighaeh +774. Eadbert +789. Eadgar +791. Coenwalh +794. Eadbald +794. Heathobert +802. Osmund +811. Aethilnoth +824. Coelberht +860. Deorwulf +860. Swithwulf +898. Heahstan +898. Wulfsize +926. Theodred +953. Byrrthelm +959. Dunstan* +961. Aelstan +996. Wulfstan +1004. Aelihun +1014. Aelfwig +1035. Aelfward +1044. Robert +1051. William the Norman + + +BISHOPS AND DEANS AFTER THE CONQUEST. + +--------+-----------------------------+----------------------------- + | BISHOPS. | DEANS. +--------+-----------------------------+----------------------------- +1075 | Hugh de Orivalle | +1085 | Maurice | +? | | Ulstan +1108 | Richard de Belmeis Primus | +1111 | | William +1128 | Gilbert the Universal | +1138 | | Ralph de Langford +1141 | Robert de Sigillo | +1152 | Richard de Belmeis Secundus | Hugo de Marny +1163 | Gilbert Foliot | +1181 | | Ralph de Diceto +1189 | Richard de Ely or Fitzneal | +1198 | William de S. Maria | +1210 | | Alardus de Burnham +1216 | | Gervase de Hobrogg +1218 | | Robert de Watford +1221 | Eustace de Fauconberge | +1228 | | Martin de Pateshull +1229 | Roger Niger | +1231 | | Galfry de Lucy +1241 | | William de S. Maria +1242 | Fulk Basset | +1244 | | Henry de Cornhill +1254 | | William de Salerne +1256 | | Richard de Barton +? | | Peter de Newport +? | | Richard Talbot +1259 | Henry de Wingham | +1263 | Henry de Sandwich | Galfry de Feringes +1268 | | John de Chishul +1274 | John de Chishul | Hervey de Borham +1276 | | Thomas de Inglethorp +1280 | Richard de Gravesend | +1283 | | Roger de la Leye +1285 | | William de Montford +1294 | | Ralph de Baldock +1306 | Ralph de Baldock | Raymond de la Goth +1307 | | Arnold de Cantilupe +1313 | Gilbert de Segrave | John de Sandale +1314 | | Richard de Newport +1317 | Richard de Newport | Vitalis Gasco +1319 | Stephen de Gravesend | +1323 | | John de Everden +1336 | | Gilbert de Bruera +1338 | Richard de Bentworth | +1340 | Ralph de Stratford | +1353 | | Richard de Kilmyngton +1354 | Michael de Northburg | +1362 | Simon de Sudbury* | Walter de Alderbury +1363 | | Thomas Trilleck +1364 | | John de Appleby +1375 | William Courtenay* | +1381 | Robert Braybrooke | +1389 | | Thomas de Evere +1400 | | Thomas Stow +1405 | Roger Walden | +1406 | Nicholas Bubbewich | Thomas Moor +1407 | Richard Clifford | +1421 | | Reginald Kentwoode +1422 | John Kempe*# | +1426 | William Grey | +1431 | Robert Fitz-Hugh | +1436 | Robert Gilbert | +1441 | | Thomas Lisieux +1450 | Thomas Kempe | +1456 | | Laurence Booth# +1457 | | William Say +1468 | | Roger Radclyff +1471 | | Thomas Wynterbourne +1479 | | William Worseley +1489 | Richard Hill | +1496 | Thomas Savage# | +1499 | | Robert Sherbon +1501 | William Wareham* | +1504 | William Barnes | +1505 | | John Colet +1506 | Richard Fitz-James | +1505-32 | | Richard Pace +1522 | Cuthbert Tunstall | +1530 | John Stokesley | +1536 | | Richard Sampson +1539 | Edmund Bonner | +1540 | | John Incent +1545 | | William May +1550 | Nicholas Ridley | +1553 | Edmund Bonner | +1554 | | John Howman de Feckenham +1556 | | Henry Cole +1559 | Edmund Grindal*# | William May +1560 | | Alexander Nowell +1570 | Edwin Sandys# | +1577 | John Aylmer | +1595 | Richard Fletcher | +1597 | Richard Bancroft* | +1602 | | John Overall +1604 | Richard Vaughan | +1607 | Thomas Ravis | +1610 | George Abbot* | +1611 | John King | +1614 | | Valentine Carey +1621 | George Monteigne# | John Donne +1628 | William Laud* | +1631-41 | | Thomas Winniff +1633 | William Juxon* | +1660 | Gilbert Sheldon* | Matthew Nicolas +1661 | | John Barwick +1663 | Humfrey Henchman | +1664 | | William Sancroft* +1675 | Henry Compton | +1677 | | Edward Stillingfleet +1689 | | John Tillotson* +1691 | | William Sherlock +1707 | | Henry Godolphin +1714 | John Robinson | +1723 | Edmund Gibson | +1726 | | Francis Hare +1740 | | Joseph Butler +1748 | Thomas Sherlock | +1750 | | Thomas Secker* +1758 | | John Hume +1761 | Thomas Hayter | +1762 | Richard Osbaldeston | +1764 | Richard Terrick | +1766 | | Frederick Cornwallis* +1768 | | Thomas Newton +1777 | Robert Lowth | +1782 | | Thomas Thurlow +1787 | Beilby Porteous | George Pretyman-Tomline +1809 | John Randolph | +1813 | William Howley* | +1820 | | William Van Mildert +1826 | | Charles Richard Sumner +1827 | | Edward Coplestone +1828 | Chas. Jas. Blomfield | +1849 | | Henry Hart Milman +1856 | Archibald Campbell Tait* | +1868 | | Henry Longueville Mansel +1869 | John Jackson | +1871 | | Richard William Church +1885 | Frederick Temple* | +1891 | | ROBERT GREGORY +1896 | MANDELL CREIGHTON | +--------+-----------------------------+----------------------------- + +As regards the earlier periods, some of the dates are only +approximate, and certain names are inserted and others omitted with +hesitation. + + + + +APPENDIX B. + +COMPARATIVE SIZE OF ST. PAUL'S. + + +AREA IN SQUARE FEET OF SOME OF THE LARGEST CHURCHES. + + Square Feet +S. Peter's, Rome 227,000 +Milan 108,277 +Seville 100,000(?) +Florence 84,802 +_St. Paul's_ 84,311 +Cologne 81,464 +York 72,860 +Amiens 71,208 +Antwerp 70,000(?) +St. Isaac's 68,845 +Chartres 68,261 +Rheims 67,475 +Lincoln 66,900 +Winchester 64,200 +Paris, Notre Dame 64,108 +Westminster 61,729 +Canterbury 56,280 + +The Basilica of Constantine was 68,000 square feet. + +St. Paul's is not so long as Winchester, Ely, York, and Canterbury. + +Old St. Paul's was a trifle less in area than its successor, but +counting St. Gregory's and the Chapter House, my estimate from +Dugdale's plan is that it exceeded it. In length it exceeded every +church the dimensions of which I have been able to ascertain, with the +solitary exception of the 680 feet of St. Peter's. + + +DIMENSIONS. + + EXTERIOR. + +LENGTH: + Nave with Portico 223 feet. + Dome area 122 feet. + Choir 168 feet. + --------- + Total length 513 feet. + +Length of Transepts 248 feet. +Breadth of Nave 123 feet. +Breadth of West Front with Chapels 179 feet. + +HEIGHT: + Summit of balustrade 108 feet. + Statue of St. Paul, west front 135 feet. + Base of hemisphere 220 feet. + Golden Gallery 281 feet. + Cross (top) 363 feet. + Western Towers 222 feet. + + + INTERIOR. + +Length, 460 feet, of which the Nave is a little over 200. +Breadth (excluding recesses underneath the windows), about 100 feet. +Length of Transepts, 240 feet. +Height of Central Vaulting, 89 feet. +Height of Whispering Gallery about 100 feet, and same diameter. +Opening at apex of Dome, about 215 feet. +Area, 59,700 square feet. + + + +CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. +TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. + + [Illustration: GROUND PLAN of ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL showing the + position of the Monuments.] + + + + + * * * * * + + + + + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | Typographical error corrected in text: | + | | + | Page 86: colonade replaced with colonnade | + | | + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BELL'S CATHEDRALS: THE CATHEDRAL +CHURCH OF ST. PAUL*** + + +******* This file should be named 25266.txt or 25266.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/5/2/6/25266 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://www.gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: +https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + |