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diff --git a/25068-h/25068-h.htm b/25068-h/25068-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a477857 --- /dev/null +++ b/25068-h/25068-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4311 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Book Of Sports, By William Martin. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + body {margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%;} + + em {font-style: italic;} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h6 {text-align: center; + clear: both;} + + h3 {margin-top: 3em;} /* Game headings */ + h4 {font-variant: small-caps;} /* Subheadings within game */ + h5 {text-align: left; clear: both;} + + p {margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify;} + + ul {list-style-type: none;} + + .blockquot {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .booktitle {font-style: normal; + font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold; + font-size: smaller; + text-transform: uppercase;} + + .cricket_term {font-variant: small-caps; + text-transform: lowercase;} + + .exercise_title {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figinline {margin: 0} + + .figleft {clear: left; + float: left; + margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center;} + + .figright {clear: right; + float: right; + margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center;} + + .figref {font-variant: small-caps; + text-transform: lowercase;} + + .frontpage h3 {text-align: center; margin-top: inherit} + .frontpage h4 {text-align: center; margin-top: inherit} + .frontpage h5 {text-align: center; margin-top: inherit} + + .game {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: 0.7em; + font-style: normal; + text-align: right;} + + .printer {font-size: 0.5em; + font-weight: bold; + text-align: center;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .section_break {width: 65%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + border-top: 2px solid gray;} + + .swim_term {font-variant: small-caps; + text-transform: lowercase;} + .swim_term_normal {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .the_end {font-weight: bold; + text-align: center;} + + .thought_break {width: 45%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + border-top: 2px solid silver;} + + .toc {margin-left: 15%; + width: 60%;} + + .toc_chapter {font-variant: small-caps; + margin-top: 2em;} + + .toc_page {position: absolute; + left: 70%; + text-align: right; + width: 10em; + font-variant: normal;} + + .toc_section {margin-top: 0.1em; + margin-bottom: 0.1em; + margin-left: 5em} + + .tool {font-variant: small-caps;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Sports:, by William Martin + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Book of Sports: + Containing Out-door Sports, Amusements and Recreations, + Including Gymnastics, Gardening & Carpentering + +Author: William Martin + +Release Date: April 14, 2008 [EBook #25068] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SPORTS: *** + + + + +Produced by David Edwards, Chris Logan and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by Florida's Publication of Archival, Library & Museum +Materials (PALMM)) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="frontpage"> +<h1>THE<br /> +BOOK OF SPORTS:</h1> + +<h5>CONTAINING</h5> + +<h2>OUT-DOOR SPORTS,<br /> +AMUSEMENTS AND RECREATIONS,</h2> + +<h5>INCLUDING</h5> + +<h3>GYMNASTICS, GARDENING & CARPENTERING,</h3> + +<h3>For Boys and Girls.</h3> + +<h4>BY</h4> + +<h3>WILLIAM MARTIN,</h3> +<h5>AUTHOR OF "FIRESIDE PHILOSOPHY," "THE PARLOUR BOOK,"<br /> +"INTELLECTUAL CALCULATOR," ETC. ETC. ETC.</h5> + +<h4>SECOND EDITION.</h4> + +<h4>LONDON:<br /> +DARTON AND CO., HOLBORN HILL.</h4> + +<h5>M.DCCC.LII.</h5> +</div> + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<div class="printer">J. WERTHEIMER AND CO., PRINTERS, FINSBURY CIRCUS.</div> + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"> +<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="393" height="600" alt="Frontispiece" title="Frontispiece" /> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class="toc"> + +<p class="toc_chapter">Preface <span class="toc_page"><a href="#PREFACE">vii</a></span></p> + +<p class="toc_chapter">I. Games with Marbles.</p> +<p class="toc_section">Ring Taw <span class="toc_page"><a href="#RING_TAW">9</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Lag Out or Knock Out <span class="toc_page"><a href="#LAG_OUT">10</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Three Holes <span class="toc_page"><a href="#THREE_HOLES">12</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Arches <span class="toc_page"><a href="#ARCHES">13</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Bonce-Eye <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BONCE_EYE">13</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Sun and Planet Taw <span class="toc_page"><a href="#SUN_AND_TAW">15</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Pyramid <span class="toc_page"><a href="#PYRAMID">19</a></span></p> + +<p class="toc_chapter">II. Games for Cold Weather.</p> +<p class="toc_section">Prisoners' Base <span class="toc_page"><a href="#PRISONERS_BASE">21</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Stag Out <span class="toc_page"><a href="#STAG_OUT">22</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Warning <span class="toc_page"><a href="#WARNING">23</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Mouse in the Corner <span class="toc_page"><a href="#MOUSE_IN_CORNER">23</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">King of the Castle <span class="toc_page"><a href="#KING_OF_CASTLE">24</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Hippas <span class="toc_page"><a href="#HIPPAS">24</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Thread the Needle <span class="toc_page"><a href="#THREAD_NEEDLE">24</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Touch <span class="toc_page"><a href="#TOUCH">25</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Bowls <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BOWLS">26</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Quoits <span class="toc_page"><a href="#QUOITS">27</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Why and Because <span class="toc_page"><a href="#WHY_BECAUSE">27</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Bombardment of a Snow Castle <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BOMBARDMENT">29</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Bandy Ball or Golf <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BANDY_BALL">31</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Foot Ball <span class="toc_page"><a href="#FOOT_BALL">32</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Trussing <span class="toc_page"><a href="#TRUSSING">32</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Follow my Leader <span class="toc_page"><a href="#FOLLOW_LEADER">33</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Blindman's Buff <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BLINDMAN">33</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Tip-Cat <span class="toc_page"><a href="#TIP_CAT">34</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Jingling <span class="toc_page"><a href="#JINGLING">35</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">French and English <span class="toc_page"><a href="#FRENCH_ENGLISH">36</a></span></p> + + +<p class="toc_chapter">III. Dangerous Games.</p> +<p class="toc_section">Heap the bushel <span class="toc_page"><a href="#HEAP_BUSHEL">37</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Drawing the Oven <span class="toc_page"><a href="#DRAWING_OVEN">37</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Hop-Scotch <span class="toc_page"><a href="#HOP_SCOTCH">38</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Basting the Bear <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BASTING_BEAR">38</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Buck, Buck <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BUCK_BUCK">38</a></span></p> + + +<p class="toc_chapter">IV. Gymnastics. <span class="toc_page"><a href="#GYMNASTICS">39</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Walking <span class="toc_page"><a href="#WALKING">44</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Running <span class="toc_page"><a href="#RUNNING">45</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Leaping <span class="toc_page"><a href="#LEAPING">46</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Climbing <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CLIMBING">49</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Rope Ladder <span class="toc_page"><a href="#ROPE_LADDER">50</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Slant Board <span class="toc_page"><a href="#SLANT_BOARD">50</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Vaulting <span class="toc_page"><a href="#VAULTING">50</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Balancing <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BALANCING">51</a></span></p> + + +<p class="toc_chapter">V. Cricket. <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CRICKET">55</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Laws of the Game of Double Wicket <span class="toc_page"><a href="#LAWS_OF_THE_GAME_OF_DOUBLE_WICKET">59</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">The Bowler <span class="toc_page"><a href="#The_Bowler">61</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">The Striker <span class="toc_page"><a href="#The_Striker">62</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">The Wicket-Keeper <span class="toc_page"><a href="#The_Wicket-Keeper">64</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Laws for Single Wicket <span class="toc_page"><a href="#LAWS_FOR_SINGLE_WICKET">65</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Bets <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BETS">67</a></span></p> + + +<p class="toc_chapter">VI. Swimming. <span class="toc_page"><a href="#SWIMMING">69</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Preliminary Exercises in Swimming <span class="toc_page"><a href="#PRELIMINARY_EXERCISES_IN_SWIMMING">78</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Bernardi's System <span class="toc_page"><a href="#Bernardis_System">83</a></span></p> + + +<p class="toc_chapter">VII. Gardening. <span class="toc_page"><a href="#GARDENING">89</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">How to keep a Garden all the year round, with directions for each month <span class="toc_page"><a href="#HOW_TO_MANAGE_A_LITTLE_GARDEN">105</a></span></p> + + +<p class="toc_chapter">VIII. Carpentering. <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CARPENTERING">115</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Uses of the various Tools:—Plane, Chisel Gimlet, Mallet, Hammer, Files and Nails. <span class="toc_page"><a href="#USES_OF_THE_VARIOUS_TOOLS">116</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Stuff and Labour <span class="toc_page"><a href="#STUFF">121</a></span></p> + + +<p class="toc_chapter">IX. Keeping Poultry. <span class="toc_page"><a href="#KEEPING_POULTRY">123</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Nature and Situation of Fowl-House <span class="toc_page"><a href="#NATURE_AND_SITUATION_OF_FOWL-HOUSE">124</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">The Various Breeds of Fowl <span class="toc_page"><a href="#THE_VARIOUS_BREEDS_OF_FOWLS">126</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Choice of Stock <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHOICE_OF_STOCK">128</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Food and Feeding <span class="toc_page"><a href="#FOOD_AND_FEEDING">128</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Laying <span class="toc_page"><a href="#LAYING">129</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Preservation of Eggs <span class="toc_page"><a href="#PRESERVATION_OF_EGGS">129</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Hatching Chickens <span class="toc_page"><a href="#HATCHING_CHICKENS">130</a></span></p> + + +<p class="toc_chapter">X. Bees. <span class="toc_page"><a href="#BEES">131</a></span></p> +<p class="toc_section">Queen Bee.—Drone.—Construction of Nests.—How to get a Stock of Bees.—Hiving <span class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></span></p> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>The prime object of this book is to induce and to teach boys and girls +to spend their hours out of school in such a manner, as to gain innocent +enjoyment while they promote their own health and bodily strength. The +Author has never lost sight of this object, considering it to be what +properly belongs to a Book of Sports.</p> + +<p>He has, however, in many instances, had in view, in a subordinate +degree, the intellectual improvement of his young readers. He hopes that +several of the games, now described in print for the first time, will be +found, if not "royal roads," at least delightful ones, to the knowledge +of many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> scientific facts. There seems to be no good reason why the +<em>utile</em> (considered intellectually as well as bodily) should not find +its place in the sports of young people, if it be so skilfully combined +with the <em>dulce</em> as not to convert pleasure into toil.</p> + +<p>To those who assent to what has been stated, the introduction of a +chapter on gardening will need no apology.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<h2>PART I.</h2> + +<h2>GAMES WITH MARBLES.</h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>One of the best games with marbles is</p> + +<h3><a name="RING_TAW" id="RING_TAW"></a>RING TAW.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/ringtaw.png" width="450" height="230" alt="Ring Taw" title="Ring Taw" /> +</div> + +<p>This is played in the following manner:—A circle should be drawn about +four feet in diameter, and an inner circle of about six inches being +also marked out in its centre, into this each boy puts a marble. "Now +then,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> boys, knuckle down at the offing, which is in any part of the +outer circle. Now, whoever shoots a marble out of the ring is entitled +to go on again: so mind your shots; a good shot may clear the ring. +After the first shot, the players do not shoot from the offing, but from +the place where the marble stops after it has been shot from the +knuckle. Every marble struck out of the ring belongs to the party who +hits it; but if the taw remains in the inner ring, either after it has +struck a marble or not, the player is out, and must put in all the +marbles he has won. If one player strike another player's taw, the +player to whom the taw belongs is out; and he must give up all the +marbles he has won to the player whose taw struck his."</p> + + +<h3><a name="LAG_OUT" id="LAG_OUT"></a>LAG OUT OR KNOCK OUT.</h3> + +<p>This game is played by throwing a marble against the wall, which +rebounds to a distance. Others then follow; and the boy whose marble +strikes against any of the others is the winner. Some boys play the game +in a random manner; but the boy who plays with skill judges nicely of +the law of forces, that is, he calculates exactly the force of the +rebound, and the direction of it.</p> + +<p>The first law of motion is, that everything preserves a state of rest, +or of uniform rectilineal (that is, straight, motion), unless affected +by some moving force.</p> + +<p>Second law.—Every change of motion is always proportioned to the degree +of the moving force by which it is produced, and it is made in the line +of direction in which that force is impressed.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>Third law.—Action and reaction are always equal and contrary, or the +mutual action of two bodies upon each other are always equal and +directed to contrary parts.</p> + +<p>To illustrate the first of these laws,—a marble will never move from +the ground of itself, and once put in motion, it will preserve that +motion until some other power operates upon it in a contrary direction.</p> + +<p>With regard to playing Lag Out so as to win, you must further understand +the principle of reflected motion. If you throw your marble in a +straight line against the wall, you find that it comes back to you +nearly in a straight line again. If you throw it ever so slightly on one +side, or obliquely, it will fly off obliquely on the opposite side. If +you throw the marble from the point <span class="figref">C</span> to the point <span class="figref">B</span>, it will fly off in +the direction of the point <span class="figref">A</span>, and if a marble lay there it would hit it; +but if you threw it from the point <span class="figref">D</span>, you would stand no chance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;"> +<img src="images/lagout.png" width="368" height="276" alt="Lag Out" title="Lag Out" /> +</div> + +<p>In science, the angle <span class="figref">C, B, D</span>, is called the angle of incidence, and <span class="figref">D, +B, A</span>, is called the angle of reflection.</p> + + +<h3><a name="THREE_HOLES" id="THREE_HOLES"></a>THREE HOLES.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 534px;"> +<img src="images/threeholes.png" width="534" height="306" alt="Three Holes" title="Three Holes" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>Three Holes is not a bad game. To play it, you must make three small +holes about four feet apart: then the first shot tries to shoot a marble +into the first hole. If he gets in, he goes from that to the second, and +then to the third hole, after which he returns, and having passed up and +down three times, he thus wins the game. If he cannot get in the first +hole, the second player tries; and when he stops short at a hole, the +third, and so on. After any player has shot his marble into a hole, he +may fire at any adversary's marble to drive him away, and, if he hits +him, he has a right to shoot again, either for the hole or any other +player. The game is won by the player who gets first into the last hole +and works his way back again to the first, when he takes all his +adversaries' marbles.</p> + + +<h3><a name="ARCHES" id="ARCHES"></a>ARCHES.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;"> +<img src="images/arches.png" width="315" height="284" alt="Arches" title="Arches" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>To play arches, the players must be provided with a board of the +following shape, with arches cut therein; each arch being a little more +than the diameter of a marble, and each space between the arches the +same.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;"> +<img src="images/archboard.png" width="449" height="120" alt="Arch Board" title="Arch Board" /> +</div> + +<p>The boy to whom the bridge belongs receives a marble from each boy who +shoots, and gives to each the number of marbles over the arches should +they pass through them.</p> + + +<h3><a name="BONCE_EYE" id="BONCE_EYE"></a>BONCE-EYE.</h3> + +<p>Bonce-Eye is played by each player putting down a marble within a small +ring, and dropping from the eye<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> another marble upon them so as to drive +them out, those driven out being the property of the Boncer.</p> + +<p>The law of falling bodies may be well illustrated by this game. It is +one of the laws of motion, that the velocities of <em>falling bodies</em> are +in proportion to the space passed over; and the space passed over in +each instant increases in <em>arithmetical progression</em>, or as the numbers +1, 3, 5, 7, 9.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;"> +<img src="images/bonceeye.png" width="314" height="325" alt="Bonce-Eye" title="Bonce-Eye" /> +</div> + +<p>By the annexed diagram it will be seen, that if a marble fall from the +hand at A, when it reaches B it has only the quantity of velocity or +force expressed in the angle 1; but when it passes to C, it has the +quantity expressed in the three angles 3; when it passes to D, it has +the quantity expressed in the angle 5; when it passes to E, it has the +quantity expressed by the seven angles marked 7. Thus we may understand +why a tall boy has a better chance at Bonce-Eye than a short one.</p> + +<p>It is found by experiment, that a body falling from a height moves at +the rate of 16-1/12 feet in the first second; and acquires a velocity of +twice that, or 32-1/6 feet, in a second. At the end of the next second, +it will have fallen 64-1/3 feet; the space being as the square of the +time. The square of 2 is 4; and 4 times 16-1/12 is 64-1/3;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> by the same +rule, it will be found, that in the third second it will fall 144-3/4; +feet; in the fourth second, 257-1/3; and so on. This is to be +understood, however, as referring to bodies falling where there is no +air. The air has a considerable effect in diminishing their velocity of +descent.</p> + + +<h3><a name="SUN_AND_TAW" id="SUN_AND_TAW"></a>SUN AND THE PLANET TAW.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"> +<img src="images/suntaw.png" width="430" height="454" alt="Sun and Taw" title="Sun and Taw" /> +</div> + +<p>This is an entirely new game, and consists of the Sun in the centre, +which may be represented by a bullet, because the sun is the most +ponderous body of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> system, and will in this game be required to move +slowly. The planets moving round him, with their satellites, I represent +by marbles. Now, each boy must take the place of a planet; and having +taken it, he is required to put down as many marbles as there are +satellites belonging to it. The boy who plays Mercury, puts down only +one for his planet; the boy who plays Venus does the same; he who plays +the Earth, has to put down one for the Earth, and one for the Moon, its +satellite; the boy who plays Mars puts down Mars and the four satellites +that lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter; the boy who plays +Saturn puts down one for the planet, and draws a ring round it, outside +of which he puts the seven satellites in any position he chooses; the +boy who plays the planet Herschel, puts down one for the planet, and six +for the satellites. Each boy, having taken his place in this manner, +lays down his taw on any part of the orbit of his planet he pleases, +being the point from which he must make his first shot.</p> + +<p>The rules of the game are very easy; but it is necessary to be perfectly +acquainted with them, as it saves much trouble, and prevents disputes; +and no one ought to play till he understands them tolerably well.</p> + +<p>1. The players must each put his marble into a hat, and turn down the +hat over the sun; then, as the marbles fall near or far from the sun, +the planets are taken.</p> + +<p>2. The player who puts in Mercury has the first shot.</p> + +<p>3. No planet can be taken till the Sun has been struck beyond the orbit +of Mercury.</p> + +<p>4. The player who strikes the Sun beyond the orbit of Mercury, receives +from the person who holds the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> orbit, as many marbles as there are +planets or satellites in the orbit in which it stops.</p> + +<p>5. The orbits are,—for Mercury, all the space between the Sun and him; +for Venus, the space between Venus and Mercury; for the Earth, the space +between the Earth and Venus; for Mars, the space between Mars and the +Earth; for Jupiter, the space between Jupiter and Mars; for Saturn, the +space between Saturn and Jupiter; for Herschel, the space between +Herschel and Saturn.</p> + +<p>6. If a player succeeds in knocking the Sun on the line of his own +orbit, he receives one from every shooter so long as it remains there.</p> + +<p>7. If the Sun is knocked against a planet, the player doing so has to +pay two to the owner of the planet.</p> + +<p>8. If the Sun be struck within the orbit of a planet, the player +striking it receives one if for Herschel, two for Saturn, three for +Jupiter, four for Mars, five for the earth, six for Venus, and seven for +Mercury.</p> + +<p>9. The player who succeeds in knocking the Sun beyond the orbit of +Herschel, wins the game; that is, he receives one from each player, and +all the marbles on the stake in the inner circle.</p> + + +<h4>MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS AND THEIR SATELLITES.</h4> + +<p>10. When a planet is knocked out of the outer ring (the orbit of +Herschel), it belongs to him who strikes it out: the loser must replace +it by putting a marble down in its <em>original</em> place.</p> + +<p>11. When a planet is struck within the orbit of any other planet, the +player striking it there has to pay him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> to whom the orbit belongs, as +many marbles as there are satellites.</p> + +<p>12. Should a player's taw, after it has struck another taw, a planet, or +a satellite, fall into its own orbit, he has to put one in the inner +ring as stakes for the winner of the game.</p> + +<p>13. If a player gets his taw within the inner ring, it must remain there +for the winner, and he cannot play any more.</p> + +<p>14. If a player has all his satellites taken, he then becomes a Comet, +and can shoot from any part of any of the orbits every time the Sun is +struck.</p> + +<p>15. No player can shoot at his own planet or satellite.</p> + +<p>16. Any player who strikes a planet or satellite within Saturn's ring, +forfeits three to the inner circle. If he strikes the Sun, then he may +take up Saturn and all his satellites remaining within his orbit.</p> + +<p>17. After the first shot, every player must shoot from the place at +which his taw rests.</p> + +<div class="thought_break"></div> + +<p>Such are the laws of Sun and Planet Taw, and it will be found that in +playing the game, some degree of thought is requisite, and a little +calculation respecting the moves. It may be judicious for a good shooter +to keep the Sun within the orbits as long as possible; or till such time +as the inner ring gets <em>fat</em> with the forfeitures, or he may drive him +from orbit to orbit where the forfeitures are large. He will endeavour +to place him on the line of his own orbit. He may also strive to place +his adversaries' taws within the inner ring, and to be careful in +striking planets that they fall into the orbits where the forfeitures +are small. By thus thinking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> of what he is about and exercising +forethought and prudence, he will soon become expert, and by paying +attention to the game he will make it his own.</p> + +<h3><a name="PYRAMID" id="PYRAMID"></a>PYRAMID.</h3> + +<p>To play Pyramid, a small circle of about two feet in diameter should be +made on the ground, in the centre of which is a pyramid formed by +several marbles,—nine being placed as the base, then a layer of four, +and one on the top; and the Pyramid keeper asks his playmates to shoot. +Each player gives the keeper one for leave to shoot at the Pyramid, and +all that he can strike out of the circle belong to him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;"> +<img src="images/tail-i.png" width="280" height="102" alt="Tailpiece" title="Tailpiece" /> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2>PART II.</h2> + +<h2>GAMES FOR COLD WEATHER.</h2> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 578px;"> +<img src="images/prisoner.png" width="578" height="390" alt="Prisoner's Base" title="Prisoner's Base" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>One of the best of these is called</p> + +<h3><a name="PRISONERS_BASE" id="PRISONERS_BASE"></a>"PRISONERS' BASE."</h3> + +<p>To play this, there must be a number of boys, not less than eight or +ten, and as many more as can be got together. To commence it, two +semicircles are drawn against a wall or hedge at the opposite sides of +the playground. These are called the <span class="game">Bounds</span>.</p> + +<p>Two other spaces are then marked out a little away<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> from these to the +right or to the left. These places are called the <span class="game">Prisons</span>.</p> + +<p>The game is commenced by a player from one side running out midway +between the bounds or prisons, a player from the other side immediately +following to capture him; one from the other side follows after the +second to capture him, and so on, both parties sending out as many as +they think fit. The object of each player is to intercept and touch any +player of the opposite side <em>who has left his bounds before him</em>, but he +is not at liberty to touch any that have started after him; it being +their privilege, if they can, to touch <em>him</em> before he gets back to his +own bounds. A player must touch only one person each time he leaves +bounds, and cannot be touched by another after he has taken a prisoner. +Every player who is touched, must go to the prison belonging to his +adversaries, where he must remain until one of his own side can touch +him; and prisoners can neither touch nor be touched in their return to +their own bounds again. The game is won by that side which has taken all +the other party prisoners.</p> + + +<h3><a name="STAG_OUT" id="STAG_OUT"></a>STAG OUT.</h3> + +<p>In this game, one boy personates the Stag, and with his hands closed +together, starts from his bounds after the other players. When he +succeeds in touching one who is called the Ass, the first who gets to +him rides him back to the bounds. The two then go out in the same +manner, then three, and so on, till the whole are caught.</p> + + +<h3><a name="WARNING" id="WARNING"></a>WARNING.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>This game is something similar to another very good game called +"<span class="game">Warning</span>," which may be played by any number of players. One begins the +game in the same manner as in "Stag Out," repeating the following +words,—"Warning once, warning twice, warning thrice—A bushel of wheat, +and a bushel of rye, when the cock crows, out jump I—Cock a doodle +doo." He then runs out and touches the first he can overtake, who +returns to bounds with him. The two then join hands and sally forth, and +touch a third, who joins hands with the other two: again they sally +hand-in-hand, the two outside ones touching as many as they can. +Immediately a player is touched, they must break hands and run back to +the bounds. If any of the out-players can catch any of those who held +hands, they may ride them back to their bounds. When three are touched, +he who first begins the game has the privilege of joining the +out-players, whose object is always to break the line.</p> + + +<h3><a name="MOUSE_IN_CORNER" id="MOUSE_IN_CORNER"></a>MOUSE IN THE CORNER.</h3> + +<p>In this game, one of the players takes the part of Puss, and places +himself in the centre, and the others playing take up their positions in +the four corners of the playground. Each of the players calls out, +"Puss, puss, puss, pretty puss,—how do you do pussy," and endeavour to +pass from corner to corner. The players are at liberty to change corners +in all directions, and if Puss can touch one when he is away from his +corner, the one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> so touched, after giving Puss a ride round the ground, +becomes Puss, or if Puss can take a vacant corner, the player without a +corner must do the same,—give Puss a ride round and become Puss.</p> + + +<h3><a name="KING_OF_CASTLE" id="KING_OF_CASTLE"></a>KING OF THE CASTLE.</h3> + +<p>This is not a bad game. One player, called King of the Castle, places +himself on a little rising mound; the other players endeavour to push or +pull him from his elevation, and whoever succeeds in this, takes his +place.</p> + + +<h3><a name="HIPPAS" id="HIPPAS"></a>HIPPAS.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 121px;"> +<img src="images/hippas.png" width="121" height="200" alt="Hippas" title="Hippas" /> +</div> + +<p>This game is something like the preceding, only that one boy mounts on +the back of another, who is called his Horse, another boy does the same, +and the two mounted boys endeavour to pull each other from the saddle. +This play is harmless when a soft piece of turf is chosen, but dangerous +on the stones or hard ground.</p> + + +<h3><a name="THREAD_NEEDLE" id="THREAD_NEEDLE"></a>THREAD THE NEEDLE.</h3> + +<p>This is a good game,—any number of boys may play it. It is begun by +joining hands; and the two outside players at each end commence the game +by the following dialogue:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +<span class="i0">How many miles to Babylon?<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Three score and ten.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Can I get there by candle-light?<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Yes, and back again.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Then open the gates without more ado,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And let the king and his men go through.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The player who stands at the opposite end of the line, now elevates his +hand, joined in that of the player next him, to form the needle's eye, +and the other outside player approaches running, and the whole line +follow him through, if possible, without breaking. This is continued, +each end holding up their hands successively, till the players are tired +of the sport.</p> + + +<h3><a name="TOUCH" id="TOUCH"></a>TOUCH.</h3> + +<p>This is a game of speed. One volunteers to be Touch, and he pursues the +other players till he comes up with one of them and touches him; unless +the player so touched can say, "I touch iron," or, "I touch wood," +before he is touched, he becomes Touch, and must give the player who +touched him a ride home. A player is liable to be touched only when +running from one piece of wood or iron to another.</p> + +<p>There is another and a better game of Touch, called "Cross Touch," which +is played thus:—One volunteers to be Touch, and sallies forth from his +bounds. While he is pursuing one of the players, a third player runs +between him and the player pursued, and touch must then follow the one +who crosses till another crosses them, and so on, till at length the +whole playground will become a scene of activity and sport.</p> + + +<h3><a name="BOWLS" id="BOWLS"></a>BOWLS.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"I will play at <em>Bowls</em> with the sun and moon."—<em>Byron</em>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>"He who plays <em>Bowls</em> must expect rubbers."—<em>Bowles</em>. </p></div> + +<p>This is one of the best of games for hot or cold weather, for it is +excellent exercise, and requires skill and judgment. Few requisites are +required for it, but a level lawn, or tolerably level field, is +indispensable, as are the bowls, the Jack, and the players.</p> + +<p>In playing bowls, partners may be chosen, if there are many players, or +the game may be played by two persons. When, however, there are three or +four of a side, there is more interest attached to the game. The best +player of my time was the good old schoolmaster, Mr. Fenn, from whom I +obtained all the particulars concerning Bowls.</p> + +<p>The bowls used at this game are of wood, loaded with lead, or <em>biassed</em>, +as it is called, namely, there is one side thicker than the other, which +is marked, and this may be held either near or away from the thumb as it +may be required to lay the ball. No writer in a book can teach this, as +it depends upon the nature of the ground, and the situation of the balls +already bowled.</p> + +<p>Before commencing the game, the first player leads out a small white +ball, called a Jack; he then lays his own balls as near to it as +possible; the players then follow in succession, but no partners follow +each other till the whole balls are delivered, and those who obtain the +nearest points to the Jack score one for each ball.</p> + +<p>The number making the game is arbitrary, but eleven is generally fixed +upon. Of course it would be more were there a great number of bowlers. +The sport of the game consists in driving your opponent's ball from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> the +Jack, and putting your own near it. When one side scores eleven before +their opponents get five, it is called a <em>lurch</em>. The players at Bowls +change the Jack from one side of the green to the other after the whole +of each side have bowled once.</p> + + +<h3><a name="QUOITS" id="QUOITS"></a>QUOITS.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<em>Quoit</em> me down, Bardolph."—<em>Shakspeare.</em> </p></div> + +<p>The game of Quoits resembles Bowls. It is played with flat rings of iron +of various weights. At a certain number of paces apart (to be agreed +upon), two circular pins of iron are driven into the ground. The players +beginning the game stand at one of these pins, called the Hob, and pitch +the quoits to the other, each person having two. When all the quoits are +cast from one Hob, the players walk to the other and pitch to the first, +and so on in succession.</p> + +<p>Those who get nearest to the Hob, are, of course, nearest to the game, +and each pair of quoits counts two,—each single quoit, one; but if a +quoit belonging to A lies nearest to the Hob, and a quoit belonging to B +the second, A can claim but one towards the game, although all his other +quoits may be nearer to the Hob than all those of B, as the quoit of B +is said, technically, to have <em>cut them out</em>.</p> + + +<h3><a name="WHY_BECAUSE" id="WHY_BECAUSE"></a>WHY AND BECAUSE.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 502px;"> +<img src="images/whybecause.png" width="502" height="230" alt="Why and Because" title="Why and Because" /> +</div> + +<p>This is also a new game, and one of those that combine amusement and +instruction. To play it, a king must be chosen, who is called "King of +the Shy," who sets up a brick on its end and puts a stone upon it, as a +mark for the players to bowl their stones at, which they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> do +successively. When a player has bowled, if he knocks the stone off the +brick, he may take up his own stone and run back to his bounds, if he +can do so before the king sets his brick and stone up again; but if the +King can touch the player after having set his brick up, he is obliged +to answer a "Why," or be King instead of him. The "Why" must be proposed +by the King, and it may either be a conundrum, or it may contain the +reason of any thing, as, "Why does a stone fall to the ground?" "What +makes the smoke go up the chimney?" If the player cannot answer the +"Why," he is obliged to mind the shy and let the others bowl. Sometimes +it will happen, that of all the boys who have bowled at the shy, not one +has thrown it down; the King then looks sharply at each one who tries to +take up his stone, to touch him. It generally happens, that whilst the +King is pursuing one, who has taken up his stone, to touch him, all the +rest take to their stones, and make off home. But it should have been +said, that by the place from which they bowl, a string is stretched for +a leap, over which a player running from the King is obliged to jump +before he is considered home.</p> + +<p>(<em>Some good Conundrum Questions for this game will be found in the "<span class="booktitle">Book +of Sports</span>," on In-Door Amusements.</em>)</p> + + +<h3><a name="BOMBARDMENT" id="BOMBARDMENT"></a>BOMBARDMENT OF A SNOW CASTLE.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>There is no game like this for promoting warmth and exercising the +ingenuity. To play this, a Snow Castle, Tower, and Fort must be +constructed, and a Bombardment got up.</p> + +<p>When the snow is on the ground, let a party go into a meadow and divide +themselves into two companies, and appoint a general to each. Each +company then takes up its respective position, and proceeds to build a +fort and castle, for defence, on each side; the dexterity with which the +work is performed, and the celerity with which it is accomplished, being +much in favour of those who play. During the building of the castle, +some must be employed as sharp-shooters, who must annoy the builders on +each side with snow balls, and some must be employed in making a store +of snow balls for the magazine. When the castle is commenced, the first +thing to be done is, for several of the builders to make a roll of snow +about eighteen inches in length, and as thick as his arm, and to roll +this on the snow, which will attach itself to it till it forms a large +ball as high as the builders's shoulders. This must be turned over on +its flat side, and as many more as can be arranged in the following +manner, for a fort (supposing the other side to be erecting a castle). +The foundation thus being laid, other balls not quite so large must be +rolled up and laid on the former, so as to make the rampart about four +feet high. Behind this, a single line of snow balls must be placed, +about one foot in height, on which the attacking party may mount to +discharge their balls to the castle opposite. On elevated parts of the +forts,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> long sticks with pocket-handkerchiefs, as flags, must be raised, +and in the centre, a larger flag should be placed, and it must be the +object of the opposite party to demolish them with their balls. When a +player wishes to throw a ball, he mounts upon one of the inner partings +of snow, discharges his shot, and jumps down behind the parapet for more +shot. The party on the opposite side may build their castle as they +please; but each party should watch each other's movements, and build +their different places of defence or annoyance in such a manner as to +defend themselves and annoy the enemy in the most effective manner. It +may be observed, that the fort must be so constructed with reference to +the castle, that it is brought to bear on every point of it. The two +ends are towers, which should be a foot higher than the ramparts, and +should be made by three snow balls laid one upon the other,—the last +one being turreted, with room for one boy to mount to the top, if +necessary, to discharge his shots. The highest place of all, is the +keep, and should be at least six feet high, with room and steps behind +for two boys to mount. Convenient places should be left behind, where +the ammunition should be piled up.</p> + +<p>When the fort or castle is built, each party uses its best efforts for +the demolition of the other, but no one is allowed to make use of his +hands in the demolition of either castle or fort; battering-rams may +alone be employed. In ancient times, battering-rams were large beams, +hooped and shod with iron; but the moderns do things better, and the way +in which it may be done is as follows:—A boy who volunteers to be +battering-ram has his legs tied and then two other boys take him up, +and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> swinging him by the arms and legs, force his feet against the +walls of the castle or fort to batter it down, the opposite party +pouring on them, all the while, snow balls heated to a white heat from +the ramparts above. Parties also may go out from one side to the other, +as in playing "Hippas," mounted, and may meet in the open space and +endeavour to pull each other from their horses. If a player on either +side can break over the fort and capture one of the flags without being +touched, he may bring it off and place it on his own ramparts as a +trophy, and the party from whom the flag is captured must not replace +it; but if in this act he is touched, he becomes a prisoner, and must +make snow-balls for his adversaries. Every one who is thrown down, +either from his horse or by any other means, is considered a dead man, +and can do nothing but make snow-balls for the opposite party. When the +flags are all struck on either side by being shot away, or when the men +are all taken prisoners or slain, or when the ramparts are demolished, +the victors may sing, "Old Rose and burn the Bellows."</p> + + +<h3><a name="BANDY_BALL" id="BANDY_BALL"></a>BANDY BALL OR GOLF.</h3> + +<p>This game is played with a bat and a small ball; and the game consists +in driving the ball into certain holes made in the ground. Sometimes +these holes from first to last, are at the distance of half a mile or +even more from each other. There are many intervening holes. Those who +drive the ball into the greatest number of holes, of course win the +game; but the ball must never be driven beyond a hole without first +going into it. If the ball passes in the way beyond a hole, the player +is out.</p> + + +<h3><a name="FOOT_BALL" id="FOOT_BALL"></a>FOOT BALL.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>Foot Ball is a very simple game. A large soft ball is procured (which is +now made of Gutta Percha), and the players having assembled and taken +sides, a line is drawn across the playground, and the play commences. +The object of the play is, for each party to kick the ball across the +goal of the other, and to prevent it from passing their own. The party +into whose bounds the ball is kicked, loses the game.</p> + + +<h3><a name="TRUSSING" id="TRUSSING"></a>TRUSSING.</h3> + +<p>This is an excellent game. In some places it is called "Cock Fighting." +To play it, two players must be matched against each other, and one is +sometimes called "Black Cock," and the other "White Cock." They are +seated on a carpet, or, what is better, the floor of the play-room, and +undergo the operation of "trussing." This is performed as follows:—The +hands are first tied with a handkerchief at the wrists. The ancles are +tied in the same manner. The Cock then has his hands brought to his +instep, while his knees pass between his arms, and a short stick is +thrust in under the knees and over the joints of the elbow, and secured +in this situation. The fight now begins by each Cock advancing towards +his enemy, and when they come close to each other, each endeavours, by +inserting his toes under the other's feet, to capsize him and throw him +over on the side; and whoever does this, is entitled to <em>crow</em>, and is +winner of the game. There is often a good deal of fun in this game, and +the players can rarely hurt each other.</p> + + +<h3><a name="FOLLOW_LEADER" id="FOLLOW_LEADER"></a>FOLLOW MY LEADER.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 564px;"> +<img src="images/follow.png" width="564" height="274" alt="Follow My Leader" title="Follow My Leader" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>Follow my Leader is a very good game; and when the Leader is a droll +boy, causes much fun and laughter. The leader starts off at a moderate +pace, and all the other boys, in a line, one after the other, follow +him. They are not only bound to follow him, but do exactly what he does. +If he hops on one leg, or crawls on the ground, or coughs, or sneezes, +or jumps, or rolls, or laughs, all must do the same. If any boy fail to +follow his Leader, he is called the "Ass," and must be ridden by the boy +next him. Sometimes the Leader will leap a ditch, climb a tree, or run +into a river. But boys should be careful of very mad pranks in this +sport.</p> + + +<h3><a name="BLINDMAN" id="BLINDMAN"></a>BLINDMAN'S BUFF.</h3> + +<p>In this game, a person is blindfolded, and endeavours to catch any one +of the players, who, if caught, is blindfolded and takes his place.</p> + +<p>There is another Game something resembling it,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> called <span class="game">Shadow Buff</span>. A +piece of white linen is thrown over a line across the room; between this +screen and close to the wall on one side, a candle is placed, and on the +other side, Buffy is obliged to stand, while the players moving between +the candle and linen show their shadows through it, and Buffy has to +distinguish each person by his shadow. When he does this, the player so +found out becomes Buffy and takes his place.</p> + + +<h3><a name="TIP_CAT" id="TIP_CAT"></a>TIP-CAT.</h3> + +<p>For this game a piece of wood must be procured about six inches in +length and two inches thick, of the following shape:—</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"> +<img src="images/tipcat.png" width="430" height="74" alt="Tip-Cat" title="Tip-Cat" /> +</div> + +<p>that is, of a double curve. It will be seen by the shape of this, that +it will fly up as easily as a ball when it is laid in the trap, for the +striker has only to tap one end of it, and up it flies, making many a +summerset as it rises; while it is performing this turn-over motion, +which philosophers call the rotatory, the striker makes a blow at it and +sends it whither he pleases.</p> + +<p>The proper way to play the game, is as follows:—A large ring is made on +the ground, in the middle of which the striker takes his station; he +then tips the Cat and endeavours to strike it out of the ring; if he +fail in this, he is out, and another player takes his place. If he +strike the Cat out of the ring, he judges with his eye the distance the +Cat is driven from the centre of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> the ring, and calls for a number, at +pleasure, to be scored towards the game. The place is now measured by +the stick with which the Cat is struck, and if the number called be +found to exceed the same number of lengths of the cudgel, he is out, but +if it does not, he obtains his call. Another method of playing, is to +make four, six, or eight holes in the ground in a circular direction, at +equal distances from each other, and at every hole is placed a player +with his cudgel. One of the party who stands in the field, tosses the +Cat to the batsman who is nearest to him, and every time the Cat is +struck, the players must change their situations and run over from one +hole to another in succession. If the Cat be driven to any great +distance, they continue to run in the same order, and claim a score +towards their game every time they quit one hole and run to another. But +if the Cat be stopped by their opponents, and thrown across between any +two of the holes before the player who has quitted one of them can reach +the other, he is out.</p> + + +<h3><a name="JINGLING" id="JINGLING"></a>JINGLING.</h3> + +<p>This game is common to the West of England, and is called a "Jingling +Match." It is played by a number of players being blindfolded within a +ring formed for the game, and one or two others, termed the "Jinglers," +not blindfolded, with a bell fastened to their elbow, also enter the +ring. The blinded players have to catch the Jingler, who moves about +rapidly from place to place. He who catches the Jingler wins the game; +but if after a certain time, agreed upon previously by the players, the +Jingler is not caught, he is declared the victor.</p> + + +<h3><a name="FRENCH_ENGLISH" id="FRENCH_ENGLISH"></a>FRENCH AND ENGLISH.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>French and English is another good game. A rope being provided, two +players stand out, and after having cleeped for first choice, select the +partners. After an equal number has been selected for each side, one +party attaches itself to one end of the rope, and the other party lays +hold of the other: a line is then made on the ground, and each party +endeavours to pull the other over this line. The party succeeding in +this, wins the game.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;"> +<img src="images/tail-ii.png" width="340" height="84" alt="Tailpiece" title="Tailpiece" /> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2>PART III.</h2> + +<h2>DANGEROUS GAMES.</h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>And now that we have given a description of some good games, it may be +as well to warn our readers of some bad or foolish ones, which are +either calculated to spoil their clothes, make them very dirty, or are +dangerous to their limbs.</p> + + +<h3><a name="HEAP_BUSHEL" id="HEAP_BUSHEL"></a>HEAP THE BUSHEL.</h3> + +<p>This is a very dangerous game, if it can be called a game. Should one +boy happen to fall, it is the practice of other boys to fall upon him +and to "Heap the Bushel," as it is called, all the other boys leaping on +the one already down. It sometimes happens, that those underneath are +seriously injured; and the sport is seldom engaged in without +quarrelling among the players, and sometimes it leads to a fight.</p> + + +<h3><a name="DRAWING_OVEN" id="DRAWING_OVEN"></a>DRAWING THE OVEN.</h3> + +<p>This is another dangerous game. It consists of several players being +seated on the ground in a line, clasped by each other round the waist: +when all are thus united, two others take the foremost one, and +endeavour by pulling and tugging to <em>break him off</em> from the rest. Thus +the united strength of several boys before, and as many behind, is made +to act upon the one in front, and an arm may be dislocated by a sudden +jerk, not to say anything about a broken neck.</p> + + +<h3><a name="HOP_SCOTCH" id="HOP_SCOTCH"></a>HOP-SCOTCH.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>This is a silly game. It is calculated to wear out the shoes.</p> + + +<h3><a name="BASTING_BEAR" id="BASTING_BEAR"></a>BASTING THE BEAR.</h3> + +<p>This is another silly game. A boy, who is called the "Bear," kneels down +on the ground in a ring marked out, to let the other boys beat him with +their twisted or knotted handkerchiefs. The master of the Bear, who +holds him by the rope, endeavours to touch one of the assailants; if he +succeeds in doing this, without pulling the Bear out of his circle, or +letting go the rope, the player touched becomes Bear in his turn. But it +is calculated to spoil the clothes of the Bear, and sometimes, should he +kneel on a sharp stone, may do him much injury.</p> + + +<h3><a name="BUCK_BUCK" id="BUCK_BUCK"></a>BUCK, BUCK.</h3> + +<p>"Buck, Buck, how many horns do I hold up?" is also a stupid game. It +neither requires speed, nor agility, nor wit. The game is played by one +boy resting his head against a wall and making a back, upon which the +other jumps, who, when seated, holds up as many of his fingers as he +pleases, and cries, "Buck, Buck, how many horns do I hold up?" The +player who is leaped upon, now <em>makes a guess</em>; if he guesses correctly, +it is his turn to leap, if not, the leaper leaps again. But there is +little good in all this, and it ought not to be encouraged.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="GYMNASTICS" id="GYMNASTICS"></a>PART IV.</h2> + +<h2>GYMNASTICS.</h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>All boys, and girls too, ought to train themselves to habits of agility, +and nothing is more calculated to do this than Gymnastics, which may be +rendered a source of health and amusement.</p> + +<p>In all playgrounds, a piece of ground should be laid out; and there +should be erected thereon, a couple of posts, about twenty feet apart, +and sixteen feet high, which should support a plank, about a foot wide, +and six inches thick; on the underside of this might be affixed a hook, +from which a triangle might be swung,—this is capable of being used in +a variety of ways. Two more hooks, about a foot apart, might be used for +two ropes, so that the more advanced pupils could climb to the top by +means of grasping a rope in each hand, and without the assistance of the +feet. A pole may rise from the ground to the cross piece about midway: +the pupils will be able to climb up this without the assistance of the +feet. A wood ladder and rope ladder may occasionally be fastened to the +beam, but may, when necessary, be taken down. A board about a foot broad +may also be set up against the beam, inclining four feet from the +perpendicular: the climber will grasp the sides with his hands, and +placing his feet almost flat against the board, will proceed to the top: +this is an advanced exercise. Another board may be set up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> which should +be three feet broad, at least, and should slant more than the other: the +pupil will run up this to the top of the beam easily, and down again. +The middle of this, up to the top, should be perforated with holes about +four inches apart, in which a peg may be placed: this may be in the +first hole to begin with. The pupil will run up and bring this down, and +then run up and put it in the second, and so on, till he has arrived at +the top: then two or more pegs may be used, and it may be varied in many +ways. A pole, twenty-five or thirty feet high should be erected, rather +thin towards the top: at distant intervals of this, three or four pegs, +as resting places, should be fastened; another pole, thicker, from about +sixteen to twenty feet high, should be erected; on the top of which +should be placed four projecting hooks turning on a pivot: to these +hooks four ropes should be attached, reaching to within two feet from +the ground. This is called the "Flying Course," from an individual +taking hold of the peg at the end of each rope.</p> + +<p>One person may cross a rope under the one in possession of another, and +by pulling round hard, make the other fly over his head. Care should be +taken to make the hooks at the top quite secure, for otherwise many +dangerous accidents might ensue. A cross pole might also be set up, but +most of the exercises for which this is used, may be performed by the +triangle. On the parallel bars, several beneficial exercises may be +done, and also on the bridge. This is a pole thick at one end, thin at +the other, and supported at three or four feet from the ground by a post +at one end and another in the middle, so that the thin end vibrates with +the least touch. This, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> will be evident, is an exercise for the organ +of equilibrium, and exercises the muscles of the calf, of the neck, and +anterior part of the neck, and those of the back, very gently. On this +bridge a sort of combat may be instituted,—two persons meeting each +other, giving and parrying strokes with the open hands. The string for +leaping is also another very pleasing exercise. It is supported by a +couple of pegs on two posts fastened in the ground. The string may be +heightened and lowered at pleasure,—it may be raised as high as the +leaper's head when a leaping-pole is used. Besides these arrangements, a +trench about a foot and a half deep should be dug, and widening +gradually from one foot to seven, for the purpose of exercising the long +leap either with or without the aid of the pole. Such are the general +arrangements of a gymnasium, but before the youth enters upon regular +exercises, he may commence with a few preliminary ones.</p> + + +<h4>FIRST COURSE.</h4> + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> +<img src="images/gym1.png" width="132" height="200" alt="Step 6" title="Step 6" /> +<span class="caption">Step 6.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 187px;"> +<img src="images/gym2.png" width="187" height="200" alt="Step 12" title="Step 12" /> +<span class="caption">Step 12.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="exercise_title">Exercise 1</span>. The pupil should hold out his hand at arm's length, until he +can hold it out no longer, and repeat it until he has power in the +muscles, to continue it, without fatigue, for a considerable length of +time.</p> + +<p>2. Stand on one foot till he is tired, and repeat this for a similar +period.</p> + +<p>3. Hold out both arms parallel with his chin, letting the thumbs and +fingers touch each other.</p> + +<p>4. Hold the hands behind the back in a similar manner, the arms being +stretched as far backward as possible, and hold the hands high.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>5. Hold up the right foot by the right hand, extending the leg and arm +by degrees.</p> + +<p>6. Hold up the left foot in the same manner.</p> + +<p>7. Stand with the knees bent, and exercise them towards the ground, +until he can kneel on both knees at once without supporting himself as +he drops.</p> + +<p>8. Raise himself from this position without the aid of his hands, by +springing back on his toes.</p> + +<p>9. Endeavour to touch both his toes, with the back straight, the legs +close together, and the head down.</p> + +<p>10. Take a piece of wood, three inches broad, and twenty long, that will +not bend, and hold it across the back, the three first fingers touching +the wood.</p> + +<p>11. Endeavour to sit, but not touch the ground, nor let any part of his +body touch his heels, with his arms stretched out in a line with his +chin.</p> + +<p>12. Stand with his arms and legs extended, so as to form the letter X.</p> + + +<h4>SECOND COURSE.</h4> + +<p>Let the pupil:—</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 286px;"> +<img src="images/gym3.png" width="286" height="138" alt="Step 15" title="Step 15" /> +<span class="caption">Step 15.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 193px;"> +<img src="images/gym4.png" width="193" height="111" alt="Step 17" title="Step 17" /> +<span class="caption">Step 17.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 262px;"> +<img src="images/gym5.png" width="262" height="102" alt="Step 19" title="Step 19" /> +<span class="caption">Step 19.</span> +</div> + +<p>13. Lie down on his back, and raise his body from an horizontal to a +vertical position, without any assistance from the hands or elbows.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>14. Draw up the legs close to the posterior part of the thighs, and rise +without other assistance.</p> + +<p>15. Extend himself on his back again, and walk backwards with the palms +of his hands and his feet.</p> + +<p>16. Sustain the weight of the whole body upon the palms and the toes, +the face being towards the ground.</p> + +<p>17. Lie on his back, and take hold of each foot in his hands, and throw +himself on his face by rolling over.</p> + +<p>18. Lie with the face down, and take hold of his toes while in that +position.</p> + +<p>19. With his chest downwards, drag his body along by walking only with +his hands.</p> + +<p>20. Place himself on his back, and endeavour to advance by means of the +propulsion of the feet.</p> + +<p>21. Place his body on his hands and feet, with the breast upwards, and +endeavour to bring the lips to the ground.</p> + +<p>22. Lean on the breast and palms of the hands, and throw the legs over +towards the back of the head.</p> + +<p>23. Stretch himself on the back, and extending the hands beyond the +head, at the utmost stretch, touch the ground, and, if possible, bring +up a piece of money, previously to be placed there.</p> + +<p>24. In the same manner, endeavour to seize a ball by the toes at full +length.</p> + + +<h3><a name="WALKING" id="WALKING"></a>WALKING.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>These preliminary exercises having been practised, the young pupil will +commence a course of more advanced exercises, such as walking, running, +leaping, balancing, vaulting, and climbing. Walking is common to all, +but few persons have a good walk, and nothing exhibits the person to so +much disadvantage as a slovenly bad gait. It is true, that the walk of a +person will indicate much of his character. Nervous people walk +hurriedly, sometimes quick, sometimes slow, with a tripping and +sometimes a running step; phlegmatic people have a heavy, solid, and +loitering step; the sanguine man walks rapidly, treads somewhat briskly +and firmly; while the melancholic wanders, and seems almost unconscious +of touching the ground which he seems to slide over. But the qualities +of the mind itself manifest themselves in the gait. The man of high +moral principle and virtuous integrity, walks with a very different step +to the low sensualist, or the cunning and unprincipled knave; therefore +the young pupil will be sure that even the art of walking, which seems +to be an exertion purely physical, will not be acquired properly if his +mind has taken a vicious and unprincipled bias: it will either indicate +his pride or his dastardly humility, his haughty self-sufficiency, or +his mean truckling to the opinion of others, his honest independence, or +his cringing servility. But he who has been blessed with the full use of +his muscular powers, in proportion as he is virtuous, will, with a very +little attention, indicate by his bearing, step, and carriage, the +nobility of his mind.</p> + +<p>In walking, the arms should move freely by the side<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>—they act like the +fly-wheel of an engine, to equalise the motion of the body, and to +balance it. One hand in the breeches pocket, or both, indicates the sot, +and has a very bad appearance. The head should be upright, without, +however, any particular call being made upon the muscles of the neck to +support it in that position, so that it may move freely in all +directions. The body should be upright, and the shoulders thrown +moderately backwards, displaying a graceful fall. When the foot reaches +the ground, it should support the body, not on the toe or heel, but on +the ball of the foot. This manner of walking should be practised daily, +sometimes in a slow, sometimes in a moderate walk, and sometimes in a +quick pace, until each is performed with elegance and ease.</p> + + +<h3><a name="RUNNING" id="RUNNING"></a>RUNNING.</h3> + +<p>In running, as the swiftness of the motion steadies the body in its +course, without the aid of the oscillations of the arms, they are +naturally drawn up towards the sides, and, bent at the elbows, form a +right angle. Their motion is almost suspended in very swift running. In +moderate running, a gentle oscillation is observed, increasing in +proportion as the body approaches to the walking pace. The knees are now +more bent,—the same part of the foot does not touch the ground, the +body being carried forward more by the toes. The degree of velocity is +acquired in proportion to the length and quickness of the steps. The +person should therefore endeavour to ascertain whether long or short +steps suit his muscular powers best; generally speaking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> a moderately +short step, quickly repeated, accelerates motion most. In learning to +run, the pupil should first endeavour to improve his breath by degrees: +he must try his speed first in short distances, to be gradually +increased: the distance will vary according to the age and strength of +the runner. The first exercises in running should commence at a gentle +trot over a distance of a hundred and fifty yards, at the rate of about +six feet to a second: this should be varied up to eight feet in a +second, for the first three or four days, and the distance increased +from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty yards. On following +days, the distance may be increased to five hundred yards, and +afterwards gradually, until a mile can be performed in ten minutes, +which is tolerably good running. Afterwards, six miles may be tried in +an hour, which will be easily accomplished.</p> + +<p>As regards rapid running, from one hundred feet to one hundred yards may +be attempted at full speed, and when the constitution is good, the body +not too fat, the muscular developments fine, and the lungs sound, a +quarter of a mile a minute may be accomplished, and a mile in five +minutes, which is seldom done even in very good running. Ten miles an +hour, which is the average speed of the mail, may, however, be easily +performed with judicious and proper training.</p> + + +<h3><a name="LEAPING" id="LEAPING"></a>LEAPING.</h3> + +<p>In leaping, that with the run, is the most common and the most useful. +The object of the run is to impart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> to the nerves of the body a certain +quantity of motion which may carry it onwards after the propelling power +has ceased to act when the body leaves the ground. The run need not +exceed twelve or fifteen paces: in this the steps are small and rapid. +When the body leaves the ground, the legs are drawn up, one foot +generally a little more than the other; and a great thing to be avoided, +is coming to the ground on the heels. When springing, the height of the +leap must be calculated, the breath held, the body pressed forward, and +the fall should be upon the toes and the ball of the foot, although in +an extended leap this is impossible. Leaping must, like running, be +practised gradually; in the high leap, a person may easily accomplish +the height of his own body, and should practise with the bar, which may +be made of two upright posts bored, through which ropes should be placed +according to the height required for the leap: on these should be hung a +string with weights attached to each end to keep it straight. Should the +leaper touch it with his feet as he takes his leap, it will be thrown +off the pegs, thus showing that he did not make a clean leap.</p> + +<p>The deep leap may be acquired from the top of a bank into a hollow, and +is useful in leaping from the top of a house or wall in a moment of +danger. It may be practised from a flight of steps, ascending a step at +a time to increase the height, till the limbs can bear the shocks, to +break which, the body must be kept in a bent position, so that its +gravity has to pass through many angles. The leaper should always take +advantage of any rivulet that has one bank higher than the other, to +practise himself.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>In the long leap, a person ought to be able to clear with a run, three +times the length of his body.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 586px;"> +<img src="images/leaping1.png" width="586" height="422" alt="Leaping" title="Leaping" /> +</div> + +<p>The high leap, the deep leap, and the long leap, may be all practised +with the pole. For the high leap, the pole should be taken with the +right hand, about the height of the head, and with the left hand, about +the height of the hips; when put to the ground, the leaper should spring +with the right foot, and pass by the left of the pole, and swing round +as he alights, so as to face the place he leaped from. In the deep leap, +the pole being placed the depth you have to leap, the body should be +lowered forward, and then, the feet being cast off, swing round the pole +in the descent. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> long leap, with the pole, is performed much in the +same manner.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 598px;"> +<img src="images/leaping2.png" width="598" height="398" alt="Leaping" title="Leaping" /> +</div> + + +<h3><a name="CLIMBING" id="CLIMBING"></a>CLIMBING.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 71px;"> +<img src="images/climbing.png" width="71" height="200" alt="Climbing" title="Climbing" /> +</div> + +<p>In climbing the rope, the hands are to be moved one above the other +alternately; the feet should be crossed, and the rope held firmly by +their pressure: sometimes the rope may be made to pass along the right +thigh just above the knee, and wind round the thigh under the knee.</p> + +<p>In climbing the upright pole, the feet, legs, knees, and hands touch the +pole. Taking a high grasp of the pole, the climber raises himself by +bending his body, drawing up and holding fast by the legs, and so on +alternately.</p> + + +<h3><a name="ROPE_LADDER" id="ROPE_LADDER"></a>THE ROPE LADDER.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>The climber must keep the body stretched out, and upright, so as to +prevent the steps, which are loose, from being bent forward.</p> + +<p>The oblique rope must be climbed with the back turned towards the +ground, the legs crossed and thrown over, so that the rope passes under +the calf, and thus he must work himself up by raising his hands one +above the other alternately.</p> + +<p>The exercises on the ladder are:—1. To ascend and descend rapidly. 2. +To ascend and descend with one hand. 3. Without using the hand. 4. +Passing another person on the ladder, or swinging to the back to let +another pass.</p> + + +<h3><a name="SLANT_BOARD" id="SLANT_BOARD"></a>THE SLANT BOARD.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 132px;"> +<img src="images/slantboard.png" width="132" height="200" alt="Slant Board" title="Slant Board" /> +</div> + +<p>This should be seized with both hands, the feet being placed in the +middle. The board should be considerably aslant when first attempted, +and gradually brought towards the perpendicular.</p> + + +<h3><a name="VAULTING" id="VAULTING"></a>VAULTING.</h3> + +<p>This exercise may be practised on that part of the balancing bar between +the posts. It may be performed with or without running: it should, +however, be commenced with a short run. The height should be, to +commence, about the pit of the stomach, which should be increased to the +height of the individual.</p> + + +<h3><a name="BALANCING" id="BALANCING"></a>BALANCING.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>There are two kinds of balancing to which we shall allude; namely, the +balancing of other bodies, and the balancing of our own.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/balance1.png" width="185" height="200" alt="Balancing" title="Balancing" /> +</div> + +<p>All feats of balancing depend upon the centre of gravity being uniformly +preserved in one position. The centre of gravity is that point, about +which all the other parts exactly balance each other. If a body be +freely suspended upon this point, it will rest with security, and as +long as this point is supported, it will never fall, while in every +other position it will endeavour to descend to the lowest place at which +it can arrive. If a perpendicular line were drawn from the centre of +gravity of a body to the centre of the earth, such a line would be +termed the line of direction, along which every body supported +endeavours to fall. If this line fall within the base of a body, such a +body will be sure to stand.</p> + +<p>When the line of direction is thrown beyond its centre, unless the base +be enlarged to counterbalance it, the person or body will fall. A person +in stooping to look over a deep hole, will bend his trunk forward; the +line of direction being altered, he must extend his base to compensate +for it, which he does by putting his foot a step forward. A porter +stoops forward to prevent his burthen from throwing the line of +direction out of the base behind, and a girl does the same thing in +carrying a pail of water, by stretching out her opposite arm, for the +weight of the pail throws the centre of gravity on one side, and the +stretching out of the opposite arm brings it back again, and thus the +two are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> balanced. The art of balancing, therefore, simply consists in +dexterously altering the centre of gravity upon every new position of +the body, so as constantly to preserve the line of direction within the +base. Rope-dancers effect this by means of a long pole, held across the +rope; and when the balancing-rail is mounted, it will be found necessary +to hold out both the arms for the same purpose; nay, even when we slip +or stumble with one foot, we in a moment extend the opposite arm, making +the same use of it as the dancer does of his pole.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 412px;"> +<img src="images/balance2.png" width="412" height="302" alt="Balancing" title="Balancing" /> +</div> + +<p>A balancer finds that a body to be balanced, is the best for his purpose +if it have a loaded head, and a slender or pointed base, for although +the higher the weight is placed above the point of support, the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +readily will the line of direction be thrown beyond the base, yet he can +more easily restore it by the motion of his hand,—narrowly watching +with his eyes its deviations. Now the same watchfulness must be +displayed by the gymnastic balancer: he first uses the balancing +pole,—he then mounts the balancing bar without it. On mounting the bar, +the body should be held erect, and the hands must be extended. He must +then learn to walk firmly and steadily along the bar, so as to be able +to turn round, and then he should practise going backwards. Two +balancers should then endeavour to pass each other on the bar; +afterwards, to carry each other, and bodies of various weights, in +various positions.</p> + +<p>Walking on stilts is connected with balancing. A person can walk with +greater security upon high than on low stilts. In some parts of France, +the peasantry, in looking after their sheep, walk generally on stilts, +and it only requires practise to make this as easy as common walking. +Some few years ago, several of these stilt-walkers were to be seen in +London, and they could run, jump, stoop, and walk with ease and +security, their legs seeming quite as natural to them as those of the +Stork.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"> +<img src="images/tail-iv.png" width="320" height="64" alt="Tailpiece" title="Tailpiece" /> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CRICKET" id="CRICKET"></a>PART V.</h2> + +<h2>CRICKET.</h2> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 592px;"> +<img src="images/cricket1.png" width="592" height="390" alt="Cricket" title="Cricket" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>Cricket is the king of games. Every boy in England should learn it. The +young prince of Wales is learning it, and will some day be the prince of +cricket-players, as I trust he will some day, a long while hence, +however, let us hope, be king of merry England. I shall, therefore, be +very particular concerning this noble game. It is played by a bat and +ball, and consists of double and single wicket. The wicket was formerly +two straight thin batons, called stumps, twenty-two inches high, which +were fixed in the ground perpendicularly, six<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> inches apart, and over +the top of both was laid a small round piece of wood, called the bail, +but so placed as to fall off readily if the stumps were touched by the +ball. Of late years the wicket consists of three stumps and two bails; +the middle stump is added to prevent the ball from passing through the +wicket without beating it down; the external stumps are now seven inches +apart, and all of them three feet two inches high. Single wicket +requires five players on each side, and double wicket eleven; but the +number in both instances may be varied at the pleasure of the two +parties. At single wicket the striker with his bat is the protector of +the wicket; the opponent party stands in the field to catch or stop the +ball; and the bowler, who is one of them, takes his place by the side of +a small baton or stump, set up for that purpose, twenty-two yards from +the wicket, and thence delivers the ball with the intention of beating +it down. It is now usual to set up two stumps with a bail across, which +the batsman, when he runs, must beat off before he returns home. If the +bowler prove successful, the batsman retires from the play and another +of his party succeeds; if, on the contrary, the ball is struck by the +bat, and driven into the field beyond the reach of those who stand out +to stop it, the striker runs to the stump at the bowler's station, which +he touches with his bat, and then returns to his wicket. If this be +performed before the ball is thrown back, it is called a run, and a +notch or score is made upon the tally towards the game; if, on the +contrary, the ball be thrown up and the wicket beaten down by the +opponent party before the striker is home or can ground his bat within +three feet ten inches of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> wicket (at which distance a mark is made +in the ground, called the <em>popping crease</em>), he is declared to be out, +and the run is not reckoned. He is also out if he strike the ball into +the air and it is caught by any of his antagonists before it reaches the +ground, and retained long enough to be thrown up again. When double +wicket is played, two batsmen go in at the same time,—one at each +wicket: there are also two bowlers, who usually bowl four balls in +succession alternately. The batsmen are said to be in as long as they +remain at their wickets, and their party is called the <em>in-party</em>; on +the contrary, those who stand in the field with the bowlers, are called +the <em>out-party</em>. Both parties have two innings, and the side that +obtains the most runs in the double contest, claims the victory. These +are the general outlines of this noble pastime, but there are many +particular rules and regulations by which it is governed, and these +rules are subject to frequent variations.</p> + + +<h3>SINGLE WICKET.</h3> + +<p>Single wicket may be played with any number of players, and is better +than double wicket for any number of players under seven. At double +wicket, a small number of players would get so fatigued with running +after the ball, that when it came to the last player's turn, he would +find himself too tired, without resting a while. The first innings in +single wicket must be determined by chance. The bowler should pitch the +wickets, and the striker measure the distance for the bowling-stump. +Measure a distance of the length of the bat, and then one of the +striker's feet, from the middle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> stump in a direction towards the +bowling stump: there make a mark, which is the same as the +popping-crease, and this will show when you are on the ground; place +your bat upright on the mark at the place where the measure came to, and +ask the bowler whether your bat is before the middle of your wicket; +here make a mark on the ground, which is generally called the +blocking-hole.</p> + +<p>The bowler now begins to bowl, and the striker should endeavour to hit +any ball which comes within his compass, or if the ball given be not +favourable for that purpose, he may block it; but in blocking he must be +careful never to let the tip of the bat come before the handle, as the +ball in such a case will probably rise in the air towards the bowler, +and he will be caught out. In running, the striker must touch the +bowling-stump with his bat or person, or it is no run, and he may be put +out if he do no put his bat or some part of his person on his ground +before the ball touches his wicket.</p> + +<p>With three players, the bowler and striker will be the same as when two +are at play; the second player will be fieldsman, who, when the ball be +hit nearer to him than to the bowler, will pick it up, or catch it if he +can, and return it to the bowler. If the striker should attempt to run, +the bowler should immediately run to the wicket, and the fieldsman +should throw the ball to him, so that he may catch it, and touch the +wicket with it to get the striker out. When the first striker is out, +the fieldsman will take his place, the striker will bowl, and the bowler +will take the field. When four players are engaged, the fourth should +stand behind the wicket; and when five or more play, the additional +players<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> should take the field. The rule in such a case is simply, that +as soon as a striker is out he becomes bowler, then he becomes +wicket-keeper, and then he takes his place in the field on the left of +the bowler, and afterwards the other places in regular progression, +until it is his turn to have a new innings.</p> + + +<h3><a name="LAWS_OF_THE_GAME_OF_DOUBLE_WICKET" id="LAWS_OF_THE_GAME_OF_DOUBLE_WICKET"></a>LAWS OF THE GAME OF DOUBLE WICKET.</h3> + +<p>"Law, is law," said Evergreen; "laws must be rigidly obeyed, and, +therefore, I will read the articles of war for your edification. The +first article of war is said to be, 'That it shall be death to stop a +cannon-ball with your head.'" Cricketers must be cautious also how they +stop cricket-balls with this part of the body: but</p> + +<p><em>Imprimis</em>, the <span class="cricket_term">BALL</span> must be in weight between five ounces and a half +and five ounces and three quarters, and must be between nine inches and +nine inches and one-eighth in circumference.</p> + +<p>2. The <span class="cricket_term">BAT</span> must not be more than thirty-eight inches in length, nor +exceed four inches and a quarter in its widest part.</p> + +<p>3. The <span class="cricket_term">STUMPS</span>, which are three to each wicket, must be twenty-seven +inches out of the ground, and placed so closely as not to allow the ball +to pass through. The bails must be eight inches in length.</p> + +<p>4. The <span class="cricket_term">BOWLING-CREASE</span> must be in a line with the stumps, and six feet +eight inches in length, the stumps in the centre, with a return-crease +at each end towards the bowler at right angles.</p> + +<p>5. The <span class="cricket_term">POPPING CREASE</span> must be three feet ten inches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> from the wicket, +and parallel to it, unlimited in length, but not shorter than the +bowling-crease.</p> + +<p>6. They must be opposite to each other, twenty-two yards apart.</p> + +<p>7. It is not lawful for either party, during a match, without the other +party gives consent, to make any alteration in the ground by rolling, +watering, covering, mowing, or beating.</p> + +<p>This rule is not meant to prevent the striker from beating the ground +with his bat near to the spot where he stands during the innings, nor to +prevent the bowler from filling up holes with sawdust, &c., when the +ground is wet.</p> + +<p>8. After rain, the wickets may be changed with the consent of both +parties.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 549px;"> +<img src="images/cricket2.png" width="549" height="411" alt="Cricket" title="Cricket" /> +</div> + + +<h4><a name="The_Bowler" id="The_Bowler"></a>The Bowler.</h4> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>9. The bowler must deliver the ball with one foot behind the +bowling-crease, and bowl four bowls before he changes wickets, which he +is permitted to do, once only, in the same innings.</p> + +<p>10. The ball must be bowled; if it be thrown or jerked, or if the hand +be above the shoulder in the delivery, the umpire must call "no ball" +(this being reckoned as one of the four balls).</p> + +<p>11. In some matches, the bowler may give six balls where the parties are +agreed. The bowler may order the striker at the wicket from which he +bowls, to stand on which side of it he pleases.</p> + +<p>12. Should the bowler toss the ball over the striker's head, or bowl it +so wide that it shall be out of distance to be played at, the umpire, +although the striker attempt it, shall adjudge one run to the parties +receiving the innings, either with or without an appeal from them, which +shall be put down to the score of wide balls, and such balls shall not +be reckoned as any of the four balls. When the umpire shall have called +"wide ball," one run only shall be reckoned, and the ball shall be +considered dead.</p> + +<p>13. If "no ball" be called by the umpire, the hitter may strike at it, +and is allowed all the runs he can make, and is not be considered out +except by running out. Should no run be obtained by any other means, +then one run shall be scored.</p> + +<p>14. When a fresh bowler takes the ball, only two balls shall be allowed +for practice; he must, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> continue the next four in the game +before he can change for another better approved. If six balls are +agreed to be bowled, then he must continue the six instead of four.</p> + +<p>15. No substitute in the field shall be allowed to bowl, keep wicket, +<span class="cricket_term">STAND AT THE POINT</span> or <span class="cricket_term">MIDDLE WICKET</span>, except by mutual agreement of the +parties.</p> + + +<h4><a name="The_Striker" id="The_Striker"></a>The Striker.</h4> + +<p>Is <span class="cricket_term">OUT</span>, if either of the bails be struck off by the ball, or either of +the stumps struck out of the ground.</p> + +<p>He is <span class="cricket_term">OUT</span>, if the ball, from a stroke of the bat or hand below the +wrist, be held by his adversary before it touches the ground, although +hugged or caught between the arms and breast of the catcher.</p> + +<p>He is <span class="cricket_term">OUT</span>, if in striking, or at any other time while the ball is in +play, both his feet be over the popping-crease, and his wicket put down, +except his bat be grounded within it.</p> + +<p>He is <span class="cricket_term">OUT</span>, if in striking at the ball, he either with his bat, clothes, +or person, hits down his wicket.</p> + +<p>He is <span class="cricket_term">OUT</span>, if under pretence of running a notch, or otherwise, either of +the strikers prevent a ball from being caught, or if the ball be struck +up and he wilfully strikes it again.</p> + +<p>He is <span class="cricket_term">OUT</span>, if in running a notch the wicket be struck down by a throw, +or with the hand or arm with ball in hand, before his bat is grounded +over the popping-crease. If the bails should happen to be off, a stump +must be struck out of the ground.</p> + +<p>He is <span class="cricket_term">OUT</span>, should he take up or touch the ball while in play, unless at +the request of the opposite party.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>He is <span class="cricket_term">OUT</span>, if with a part of his person he stop the ball, which the +bowler, in the opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket, has pitched +in a straight line with the wicket.</p> + +<p>If the players have <em>crossed</em> each other, he that runs for the wicket +that is put down, is out; and if they have <em>not crossed</em>, he that has +left the wicket which is put down, is out.</p> + +<p>When a ball is caught, no run is to be reckoned.</p> + +<p>When a striker is run out, the notch they were running for is not to be +reckoned.</p> + +<p>If "lost ball" shall be called, the striker is allowed the runs; but if +more than six shall have been run before "lost ball" shall have been +called, then the striker shall have all that have been run.</p> + +<p>When the ball has been lodged in the wicket-keeper's or bowler's hands, +it is considered <em>dead</em>, that is, no longer in play, and the striker +need not keep within ground, till the umpire has called "play;" but if +the player goes off his ground, with intent to run, the bowler may put +him out.</p> + +<p>Should the striker be hurt, he may retire from his wicket and return to +it any time during that innings. Some other person may stand out for +him, but not go in.</p> + +<p>If any person stop the ball with his bat, the ball is to be considered +as <span class="cricket_term">DEAD</span>, and the opposite party to add five notches to their score.</p> + +<p>If the ball be struck up, the striker may guard his wicket with his bat +or any part of his body except his <em>hand</em>.</p> + +<p>If the striker hit the ball against his partner's wicket when he is off +his ground, he is out, should it previously<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> have touched the bowler or +any of the fieldmen's hands, but not otherwise.</p> + + +<h4><a name="The_Wicket-Keeper" id="The_Wicket-Keeper"></a>The Wicket-Keeper.</h4> + +<p>The wicket-keeper should not take the ball for the purpose of stumping, +until it have passed the wicket. He shall stand at a proper distance +behind the wicket, and shall not move till the ball be out of the +bowler's hand. He shall not by any noise, incommode the striker, and if +any part of his person be over or before the wicket, although the ball +hit it, he shall not be out.</p> + + +<h4>The Umpires.</h4> + +<p>The umpires are the sole judges of fair and unfair play, and all +disputes are determined by them, each at his own wicket. They shall not +stand more than six yards from the wicket. In case of a catch, which the +umpire at the wicket cannot see sufficiently to decide upon, he may +apply to the other umpire, whose opinion is conclusive.</p> + +<p>The umpires shall pitch fair wickets, and the parties shall toss up for +the choice of innings.</p> + +<p>They shall allow two minutes for the striker to come in, and fifteen +minutes between each innings. When the umpires shall call "play," the +party who refuses shall lose the match.</p> + +<p>They are not to order a player out unless assented to by the +adversaries.</p> + +<p>If the bowler's foot be not behind the bowling-crease and within the +return crease when he delivers the ball,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> they must, unasked, call "no +ball;" if the striker run a short run, the umpire must call "no run."</p> + +<p>If in running either of the strikers shall fail to ground his bat, in +hand, or some part of his person, over the popping crease, the umpire, +for every such failure, shall deduct two runs from the number intended +to have been run, because such striker, not having run in the first +instance, cannot have started in the second from the proper goal.</p> + +<p>No umpire is allowed to bet.</p> + +<p>No umpire to be changed during a match, unless with the consent of both +parties, except in case of a violation of the last law, then either +party may dismiss the transgressor.</p> + +<p>After the delivery of four balls, the umpire should call "over," but not +until the ball shall be lodged and definitely settled in the +wicket-keeper's or bowler's hand; the ball shall then be considered +dead. Nevertheless, if an idea be entertained that either of the +strikers is out, a question may be put previously to, but not after the +delivery of the next ball.</p> + +<p>The umpire must take especial care to call "no ball" instantly upon +delivery, and "wide ball," as soon as ever it shall pass the striker.</p> + + +<h3><a name="LAWS_FOR_SINGLE_WICKET" id="LAWS_FOR_SINGLE_WICKET"></a>LAWS FOR SINGLE WICKET.</h3> + +<p>1. When there shall be less than four players on a side, bounds shall be +placed, twenty-two yards each, in a line from the off and leg stump.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>2. The ball must be hit before the bounds to entitle the striker to a +run, which run cannot be obtained unless he touch the bowling-stump or +crease, in a line with it, with his bat or person, or go beyond them, +returning to the popping-crease, as in double wicket, according to the +law.</p> + +<p>3. When the striker shall hit the ball, one of his feet must be on the +ground behind the popping-crease, otherwise the umpire shall call "no +hit."</p> + +<p>4. When there shall be less than five players of a side, neither byes +nor overthrows shall be allowed, nor shall the striker be caught out +behind the wicket, nor stumped out.</p> + +<p>5. The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the space +between the wicket and the bowling stump, or between the bowling stumps +and the bounds; the striker may run till the ball be so returned.</p> + +<p>6. After the striker has made one run, he must touch the bowling stump, +and run before the ball shall cross the play, to entitle him to another.</p> + +<p>7. The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball, and the +same number for ball stopped with bat.</p> + +<p>8. When there shall be more than four players to a side, there shall be +no bounds; all <em>hits</em>, <em>byes</em>, and <em>overthrows</em>, will then be allowed.</p> + +<p>9. The bowler is subject to the same laws as at double wicket.</p> + +<p>10. No more than one minute shall be allowed between each ball.</p> + + +<h3><a name="BETS" id="BETS"></a>BETS.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>1. No bet is payable in any match unless it be played out or given up.</p> + +<p>2. If the runs of one player be betted against those of another, the bet +depends on the first innings, unless otherwise specified.</p> + +<p>3. If the bet be made upon both innings, and one party beats the other +in one innings, the runs in the first innings shall determine it.</p> + +<p>4. If the other party go in a second time, then the bet must be +determined by the number in the second.</p> + + +<h3>OBSERVATIONS.</h3> + +<p>Cricket is played by twenty-two persons, eleven on each side, and two +umpires, with two persons to score and count the innings. Thirteen +players play at one time, viz., two strikers, one bowler, one +wicket-keeper, long-stop, short-stop, point, cover, middle-wicket, +long-field, off-side, on-side, and leg; of these the two strikers are +the inside, or have their innings. The object of the game is to get the +greatest number of runs, and this is to be done by the strikers. Each +side having been in once and out once, the first innings is concluded, +and, we might say, a complete game has been played, but in most matches +another innings is played. The scorers keep the account of runs to each +striker separately for each innings. The side that has obtained the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +greatest number of runs, wins the game. The arrangement of the players +in the field is as follows:—</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;"> +<img src="images/cricketplayers.png" width="458" height="406" alt="Order Of The Players" title="Order Of The Players" /> +</div> + +<h5>ORDER OF THE PLAYERS.</h5> + +<ol> +<li>Striker.</li> +<li>Bowler.</li> +<li>Wicket-keeper.</li> +<li>Long-stop.</li> +<li>Short-stop.</li> +<li>Long-slip.</li> +<li>Point.</li> +<li>Cover.</li> +<li>Middle-wicket.</li> +<li>Long-field, off-side.</li> +<li>Long-field, on-side.</li> +<li>Leg.</li> +</ol> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="SWIMMING" id="SWIMMING"></a>PART VI.</h2> + +<h2>SWIMMING.</h2> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 558px;"> +<img src="images/swim1.png" width="558" height="388" alt="Swimming" title="Swimming" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>No boy should be unable to swim, because it is essential to the +preservation of life; but the attainment of the art has been held to be +difficult, and the number of good swimmers is very small. The whole +science of swimming consists in multiplying the surface of the body by +extensive motions, so as to displace a greater quantity of liquid. As +the first requisite of oratory was said to be action; the second, +action; and the third, action; so the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> first, second, and the third +requisite in learning to swim, is <span class="swim_term">COURAGE</span>. Now there is a vast +difference between courage and temerity; courage proceeds from +confidence, temerity, from carelessness; courage is calm and collected, +temerity is headstrong and rash; courage ventures into the water +carefully, and throws himself off with a firm and vigorous lounge +forward, and a slow and equable stroke; temerity begins to dive before +he knows whether he can swim or sink, and after floundering about for a +minute or two, finds that he can swim farthest where it is deepest. +Therefore, let the young swimmer mark the distinction between courage +and temerity, and he will speedily become a swimmer.</p> + +<p>Before, however, we proceed to offer any remarks on swimming as an art, +we cannot refrain from calling the attention of our young friends to the +observations of a celebrated medical doctor who has thought profoundly +on the subject. "Immersion in cold water," says he, "is a custom which +lays claim to the most remote antiquity; indeed it must be coeval with +man himself. The necessity of water for the purpose of cleanliness, and +the pleasure arising from its application in hot countries, must have +very early recommended it to the human species; even the example of +other animals was sufficient to give the hint to man; by instinct many +of them are led to apply cold water in this manner, and some, when +deprived of its use, have been known to languish, and even to die."</p> + +<p>The cold bath recommends itself in a variety of cases, and is peculiarly +beneficial to the inhabitants of populous cities who indulge in idleness +and lead sedentary lives: it accelerates the motion of the blood, +promotes the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> different secretions, and gives permanency to the solids. +But all these important purposes will be more easily answered by the +application of salt water; this also ought not only to be preferred on +account of its superior gravity, but also, "for its greater power of +stimulating the skin, which prevents the patient from catching cold."</p> + +<p>It is necessary, however, to observe, that cold bathing is more likely +to prevent than to remove obstructions of the glandular or lymphatic +system; indeed, when these have arrived at a certain height, they are +not to be removed by any means; in this case, the cold bath will only +aggravate the symptoms, and hurry the unhappy patient into an untimely +grave. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance, previously to the +patient entering upon the use of the cold bath, to determine whether or +not he labours under any obstinate obstruction of the lungs or other +viscera, and when this is the case, cold bathing ought strictly to be +prohibited.</p> + +<p>In what is called a plethoric state, or too great fulness of the body, +it is likewise dangerous to use the cold bath without due preparation. +In this case, there is danger of bursting a blood-vessel, or occasioning +an inflammation.</p> + +<p>The ancient Romans and Greeks, we are told, when covered with sweat and +dust, used to plunge into rivers without receiving the smallest injury. +Though they might escape danger from this imprudent conduct, yet it was +certainly contrary to sound reason; many robust men have thrown away +their lives by such an attempt. We would not, however, advise patients +to go in the cold water when the body is chilled; as much exercise at +least ought to be taken as may excite a gentle glow all over the body, +but by no means so as to overheat it.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>To young people, and particularly to children, cold bathing is of the +utmost importance; it promotes their growth, increases their strength, +and prevents a variety of diseases incident to childhood.</p> + +<p>It is necessary here to caution young men against too frequent bathing, +as many fatal consequences have resulted from the daily practice of +plunging into rivers, and continuing there too long.</p> + +<p>The most proper time of the day for using the cold bath is, no doubt, +the morning, or at least before dinner, and the best mode, that of quick +immersion. As cold bathing has a tendency to propel the blood to the +head, it ought always to be a rule to wet that part as soon as possible. +By due attention to this circumstance, there is reason to believe that +violent head-aches, and other complaints which frequently proceed from +cold bathing, might be often prevented.</p> + +<p>The cold bath, when too long continued, not only occasions an excessive +flux towards the head, but chills the blood, cramps the muscles, relaxes +the nerves, and wholly defeats the intention of bathing; hence expert +swimmers are often injured, and sometimes lose their lives. All the +beneficial purposes of cold bathing are answered by one immersion at a +time, and the patient ought to be rubbed dry the moment he comes out of +the water, and should continue to take exercise some time after.</p> + +<p>Doctor Franklin, who was almost always a practical man, says, "that the +only obstacle to improvement in this necessary and life-preserving art, +is fear; and it is only by overcoming this timidity, that you can expect +to become a master of the following acquirements. It is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> very common for +novices in the art of swimming, to make use of corks or bladders to +assist in keeping the body above the water; some have utterly condemned +the use of them. However, they may be of service for supporting the body +while one is learning what is called the stroke, or that manner of +drawing in and striking out the hands and feet that is necessary to +produce progressive motion; but you will be no swimmer till you can +place confidence in the power of the water to support you. I would +therefore advise the acquiring that confidence in the first place, as I +have known several who, by a little practice necessary for that purpose, +have insensibly acquired the stroke, taught as if it were by nature. The +practice I mean, is this—choosing a place where the water deepens +gradually, walk coolly in it until it is up to your breast, then turn +your face towards the shore and throw an egg into the water between you +and the shore, it will sink to the bottom and will easily be seen there +if the water is clear; it must lie in the water so deep that you cannot +reach to take it up without diving for it. To encourage yourself to do +this, reflect that your progress will be from deep to shallow water, and +that at any time you may, by bringing your legs under you and standing +on the bottom, raise your head far above the water; plunge under it with +your eyes open, which must be kept open before going under, as you +cannot open your eyelids from the weight of water above you, throw +yourself towards the egg and endeavour by the action of your feet and +hands against the water, to get forward till within reach of it. In this +attempt you will find that the water buoys you up against your +inclination, and that it is not so easy to sink as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> you imagine, and +that you cannot, but by active force, get down to the egg. Thus you feel +the power of water to support you, and learn to confide in that power, +while your endeavours to overcome it and to reach the egg, teach you the +manner of acting on the water with your feet and hands, which action is +afterwards used in swimming to support your head higher above the water, +or to go forward through it.</p> + +<p>"I would the more earnestly press upon you the trial of this method, +because, though I think I shall satisfy you that your body is lighter +than water, and that you might float for a long time with your mouth +free for breathing, if you would put yourself into a proper posture, and +would be still and forbear struggling, yet till you have obtained this +experimental confidence in the water, I cannot depend upon your having +the necessary presence of mind to recollect the posture and the +directions I gave you relating to it; the surprise may put all out of +your mind.</p> + +<p>"Though the legs, arms, and head of a human body, being solid parts, are +specifically somewhat heavier than fresh water, yet the trunk, +particularly the upper part, from its hollowness, is so much lighter +than water, as that the whole of the body, taken altogether, is too +light to sink wholly under water, but that some parts will remain above +until the lungs become filled with water, which happens from drawing +water to them instead of air, when a person in the fright attempts +breathing while the mouth and nostrils are under water.</p> + +<p>"The legs and arms are specifically lighter than salt water, and will be +supported by it, so that a human body cannot sink in salt water, though +the lungs were filled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> as above, but for the greater specific gravity of +the head. Therefore, a person throwing himself on his back in salt +water, and extending his arms, may easily lie so as to keep his mouth +and nostrils free for breathing, and by a small motion of the hand may +prevent turning if he should perceive any tendency to it.</p> + +<p>"In fresh water, if a man throw himself on his back near the surface, he +cannot continue in that situation but by proper action of his hands in +the water; if he have no such action, the legs and lower part of the +body will gradually sink till he comes into an upright position, in +which he will continue suspended, the hollow of his breast keeping the +head uppermost.</p> + +<p>"But if in this erect position, the head be kept upright above the +shoulders, as when we stand on the ground, the immersion will, by the +weight of that part of the head that is out of the water, reach above +the mouth and nostrils, perhaps a little above the eyes, so that a man +cannot long remain suspended in the water with his head in that +position.</p> + +<p>"The body continuing suspended, as before, and upright, if the head be +leaned quite back, so that the face look upward, all the back part of +the head being under water, and its weight consequently being in a great +measure supported by it, the face will remain above water quite free for +breathing, will rise an inch higher at every inspiration, and sink as +much at every expiration, but never so low that the water may come over +the mouth.</p> + +<p>"If, therefore, a person unacquainted with swimming, falling into the +water, could have presence of mind sufficient to avoid struggling and +plunging, and to let the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> body take this natural position, he might +continue long safe from drowning, till, perhaps, help should come; for +as to the clothes, their additional weight, when immersed, is very +inconsiderable, the water supporting them, though when he comes out of +the water he would find them very heavy indeed.</p> + +<p>"But, as I said before, I would not advise you or any one to depend on +having this presence of mind on such an occasion, but learn fairly to +swim, as I wish all men were taught to do in their youth: they would on +many occasions be the safer for having that skill, and on many more, the +happier, as being free from painful apprehensions of danger, to say +nothing of the enjoyment in so delightful and wholesome an exercise. +Soldiers, particularly, should all be taught to swim; it might be of +particular use either in surprising an enemy or saving themselves, and +if I had any boys to educate, I would prefer those schools in which an +opportunity was afforded for acquiring so advantageous an art, which +when once learned, is never forgotten.</p> + +<p>"I know by experience, that it is a great comfort to a swimmer who has a +great distance to go, to turn himself sometimes on his back, and to vary +in other respects the means of procuring a progressive motion.</p> + +<p>"When he is seized with the cramp in the leg, the method to drive it +away, is to give the parts affected a sudden, vigorous and violent +shock, which he may do in the air as he swims on his back.</p> + +<p>"During the great heats in summer, there is no danger in bathing, +however warm he may be, in rivers which have been thoroughly warmed by +the sun; but to throw one's-self into cold spring water when the body +has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> heated by exercise in the sun, is an imprudence which may +prove fatal. I once knew an instance of four young men, who, having +worked at harvest in the heat of the day, with a view of refreshing +themselves, plunged into a spring of cold water; two died upon the spot, +a third next morning, and the fourth recovered with great difficulty. A +copious draught of cold water, in similar circumstances, is frequently +attended with the same effect in North America.</p> + +<p>"When I was a boy, I amused myself one day with flying a paper kite, and +approaching the bank of a lake which was near a mile broad, I tied the +string to a stake, and the kite ascended to a very considerable height +above the pond while I was bathing. In a little while, being desirous of +amusing myself with my kite and enjoying at the same time the pleasure +of swimming, I returned, and loosening from the stake the string with +the little stick which was fastened to it, went again into the water, +where I found, that by lying on my back and holding the stick in my +hand, I was drawn along the surface of the water in a very agreeable +manner. Having thus engaged another boy to carry my clothes round the +pond to a place which I pointed out to him on the other side, I began to +cross the pond with my kite, which carried me quite over without the +least fatigue and with the greatest pleasure imaginable. I was only +obliged occasionally to halt a little in my course and resist its +progress, when it appeared that by following too quick I lowered the +kite too much; by doing thus occasionally, I made it rise again. I have +never since that time practised this singular mode of swimming, though I +think it not impossible to cross in this manner<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> from Dover to Calais. +The packet boat is, however, preferable."</p> + + +<h3><a name="PRELIMINARY_EXERCISES_IN_SWIMMING" id="PRELIMINARY_EXERCISES_IN_SWIMMING"></a>PRELIMINARY EXERCISES IN SWIMMING.</h3> + +<p>We have shown that much of the art of swimming depends upon having +confidence, and that that confidence is speedily dissipated upon the +swimmer coming in contact with the water. Besides this, a great deal in +the art of swimming depends upon the degree of ease with which the +swimmer can use his hands and feet. Now this sort of exercise may in +part be acquired on land, and it would be of great usefulness to the +learner were he to enter upon some preliminary practice which would give +him the use of his hands and feet, in the manner required in swimming. +To do this, he should provide himself with two ropes, which should be +fastened up in the manner of two swings, at about sixteen inches apart +from each other, and one a little higher than the other; these should be +joined together with two or three cords passing from the one to the +other, and on the rack thus made, a pillow or cushion should be placed; +upon this, the learner will throw himself on his breast, as upon the +water, and supporting himself in this position, and having his hands and +feet perfectly at liberty, he will move them to and fro in the same +manner as in swimming; this he should repeat several times a day, until +he finds that he has got a complete mastery over the action required. +The head must be drawn back, the chin raised, the fingers must be kept +close, and the hands slightly concave on the inside,—they must be +struck out in a line with the breast; the legs must then be drawn up and +struck<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> out, not downwards, however, but <em>behind</em>, in such a manner, +that they may have a good hold upon the water. These directions being +followed for a few days, will give the learner so much assistance, that +when he enters the water he will find little more requisite than +calmness and confidence in striking out.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/swim2.png" width="200" height="164" alt="Using Bladders And Corks" title="Using Bladders And Corks" /> +</div> + +<p>In proceeding to take water, the first thing the youth should do, is to +make himself thoroughly convinced that the spot is safe, that there are +no holes in it, that no weeds are at the bottom, that it does not +contain any stones likely to cut the feet. Ho must also be cautious that +he does not enter a stream whose eddy sweeps round a projecting point, +or hollow; the bank should slope off gradually, so that he may proceed +for ten or twelve yards from the shore, before the water rises to the +level of his armpits. With regard to the use of bladders and corks, +although it may perhaps be better to learn to keep ourselves afloat +without their aid, yet they may be used with advantage, if used +sparingly. The pupil, in using them, places his breast across the rope +which unites them, so that when he lays himself over them in the water, +they float above him, and thus assist in buoying him up; thus sustained, +he strikes out and propels himself with his hands and feet. In striking +out when in the water, the fingers are to be perfectly straight, and the +thumb kept close to the hand; the hands are then to be brought forward, +palm to palm, and to be thrust out in a direction on a level with the +chin; when at their fullest reach, they are to be parted and swept +slowly and regularly with the palms in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> horizontal position, the full +stretch of the arms backwards, they are then brought up from the hips +and struck out forward, as before. While the hands are near the hips, is +the time for the legs to perform their part; they are to be drawn up as +near to the body as possible, and the soles of the feet struck against +the water with moderate force, immediately the hands are again thrust +forward. Now all this is very easily performed with a little practice, +but will be very difficult if the learner have not coolness and +self-possession. A slow long stroke, the hand thrust forward with +energy, and the legs brought up and struck out with a regular and even +stroke, is the whole art of simple swimming. The swimmer must, however, +be careful to draw his breath at the time when his hands are descending +towards his hips; if he attempt it when he strikes out his legs, his +head will partially sink, and his mouth will fill with water. The breath +should accordingly be expired while the body is sent forward by the +action of the legs.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/swim3.png" width="200" height="159" alt="Using A Plank" title="Using A Plank" /> +</div> + +<p>The young swimmer will find much use in having a plank, ten feet long, +two inches thick, and a foot broad, which he may take hold of at one of +its ends, and his body being thus supported he will perfect himself in +the action of the legs, and will, by striking them out, drive the plank +before him: he must, however, take care to hold it fast, for if he +should let go his hold, he will find himself sinking over head and ears +in the water. A rope may also be so fixed as to reach over the water, by +which the swimmer may support himself while learning to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> strike out with +his legs; but he should be careful always in performing this exercise, +to keep his legs near the surface, as, if the legs drop down, he will +make very little way in the water. One of the best kinds of assistance, +however, the young swimmer can have, is the hand of some one who is +willing to teach him, and is superior to any other methods for very +young swimmers. If a grown person will take the trouble to take the +little learner out with him till he is breast high in the water, and +sustain him with one hand under the breast, and occasionally hold him up +by the chin, at the same time directing and encouraging him, and +occasionally letting him loose that he may support himself by striking +out, the little learner will soon reach that triumphant period when he +floats alone on the water.</p> + +<p>After this triumph, however, the young swimmer must be exceedingly +cautious, though he may feel conscious of his own power, he must venture +only a few strokes out of his depth: should he be in a broad river, he +must be careful not to do so where there is a strong curling eddy or +flood: in a small river, the breadth of which is only a few yards, he +may venture across with a few bold and regular strokes; but should he +become flurried and lose his time, he will most assuredly be in danger +of sinking. Let him then obtain such perfect command over his limbs, and +also over himself, that when he ventures out of his depth, he may be +able to keep afloat in the water, pleasantly to himself, and without +hazard.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/swim4.png" width="200" height="92" alt="Floating" title="Floating" /> +</div> + +<p>A most important branch in art of swimming, is floating, as the swimmer +may frequently rest himself when fatigued, and otherwise engage himself +in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> water. To do this, he must turn himself as gently as possible on +the back, put his head back, so that his eyes, mouth, and chin, only, +are above the water, elevate his breast, and inflate his chest as much +as possible: the arms may be brought towards the hips, and the hands +should be paddled in a horizontal kind of sweep, which will sustain the +body. Should the learner wish to swim, he must strike out with his legs, +taking care not to lift his legs too high; in this position the arms may +occasionally be folded across the breast.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<img src="images/swim5.png" width="144" height="200" alt="Treading Water" title="Treading Water" /> +</div> + +<p>To <em>tread water</em>, the legs must be suffered to drop in the water till +the swimmer finds himself upright, he then treads downwards with his +feet, occasionally paddling with the palms of his hands. The swimmer, +when long in the water, will soon find himself tired, changes of action +are therefore necessary; there are many which are highly advantageous to +learn, such as swimming like a dog, porpoise, etc. To <em>swim like a dog</em>, +he must strike with each hand and foot alternately, beginning with the +right hand and foot, he must draw the hand towards the chin, and the +foot towards the body, at the same time; he then must kick backwards +with the foot, and strike out in a right line with the hand, and the +same with the left hand and foot: the palms of the hands must be hollow, +and the water pulled towards the swimmer. In <em>swimming like a porpoise</em>, +the right arm is lifted entirely out of the water, the shoulder is +thrust forward, and while the swimmer is striking out with his legs, he +reaches forward with his hand as far as he can; his hand then falls,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> a +little hollowed, in the water, which it grasps or pulls towards him in a +transverse direction towards the other armpit. While this is going on, +the legs are drawn up for another effort, and the left arm and shoulder +are raised and thrust forward, as the right had previously been. When +the swimmer feels tired, he may change these positions for swimming on +the side. To do this, he must lower his left side and elevate his right, +striking forward with his left hand, and sideways with his right, the +back of the hand being in front instead of upward, the thumb side of the +hand being downward so as to serve as an oar. Should the swimmer wish to +turn on his back, he must keep one leg still, and embrace the water +beside him with the other, and he will turn to that side. To shew the +feet, he must turn himself on his back, and bend the small of it +downwards, supporting himself by his hands to and fro immediately above +his breast, and hold his feet above the water. Swimming under water is +performed by the usual stroke, the head being kept a little downwards, +and the feet struck out a little higher than when swimming on the +surface.</p> + + +<h4><a name="Bernardis_System" id="Bernardis_System"></a>BERNARDI'S SYSTEM.</h4> + +<p><em>Upright swimming.</em>—This is a new mode of swimming, introduced by +Bernardi, a Neapolitan, and consists in adopting the accustomed motion +of the limbs in walking. It gives great freedom to the hands and arms, +affords a greater facility of breathing and of sight. It is true, that a +person swimming in an upright position, advances more slowly, but as the +method is more natural, the person is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> able to continue his course +longer, and can remain with greater safety in the water.</p> + +<p>The first object with Bernardi, is to enable the pupil to float in an +upright position, and in this the head is made the great regulator of +all the motions. After having been by practice familiarised to keep his +equilibrium, a variety of motions are gradually practised, until the +swimmer is enabled at every stroke to urge himself forward a distance +equal to the length of his body, and to travel, without fatigue, at +least three miles an hour, and to continue this without great fatigue +for many hours. Bernardi, speaking of the success of his practice, says, +"Having been appointed to instruct the youths of the Royal Naval Academy +at Naples in the art of swimming, a trial of the pupils took place in +the presence of a number of persons assembled on the shore, and under +the inspection of authorities appointed to witness and report upon the +experiment. A twelve-oared boat attended the progress of the pupils, +from motives of precaution. They swam so far out in the bay, that at +length the heads of the young men could with difficulty be discerned +with the naked eye; and the Major-General of Marine, Fortguerri, for +whose inspection the exhibition was attended, expressed serious +apprehensions for their safety. Upon their return to the shore, the +young men, however, assured him that they felt so little exhausted, as +to be willing immediately to repeat the exertion."</p> + +<p>After devoting a month to the investigation of Bernardi's plan, the +Neapolitan government state in their official report—</p> + +<p>"That it has been established by the experience of more than a hundred +persons of different bodily consti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>tutions, that the human body is +lighter than water, and, consequently, will float by nature, and that +the art of swimming must be acquired to render that privilege useful.</p> + +<p>"That Bernardi's system is new, in so far as it is founded on the +principle of husbanding the strength, and rendering the power of +recruiting it easy."</p> + +<p>The speed, according to the new method, is no doubt diminished, but +security is much more important than speed, and the new plan is not +exclusive of the old when occasions require great effort.</p> + +<p>Little more need be said on the subject of swimming, except giving a few +directions in diving and plunging, which require to be performed with +caution and elegance. When the swimmer prepares to dive, he must take a +full inspiration of air, the eyes must be kept open, the back made +round, and the head bent forwards on the breast; the legs must be thrown +out with force, and the arms and hands, instead of being struck forward +as in swimming, must move backward. When the swimmer would ascend, the +chin must be held up, the back bent inwards, the hands struck out high +and brought sharply down, and the body will immediately rise to the +surface of the water.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/swim6.png" width="136" height="200" alt="Deep Plunge" title="Deep Plunge" /> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/swim7.png" width="200" height="106" alt="Flat Plunge" title="Flat Plunge" /> +</div> + +<p><em>Plunging.</em>—There are two different modes of plunging to be acquired, +namely, the flat plunge, which is necessary in shallow water, and the +deep plunge, which is used where there is considerable depth of water. +For the latter, the arms must be outstretched, the knees bent, and the +body leant forward till the head descends<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> nearly to the feet when the +spine and knees are extended. In the flat plunge, the swimmer must fling +himself forward in an inclined direction, according to the depth or +shallowness of the water; when he touches the bottom, he must rise in +the same manner as after diving.</p> + +<p>After all these necessary motions and movements have been acquired in +the water, there is one thing of which the swimmer must beware, and +against which art and precaution can do but little—this is the <span class="swim_term_normal">Cramp</span>. +When this seizes the swimmer, he must endeavour, as much as possible, to +avoid being alarmed, as he will reflect, that as the body is lighter +than water, a very little exertion in it will keep his body afloat. Of +course his first thoughts will be towards the shore, but he must not +forget, that the cramp being only a muscular contraction, may be thrown +off by proper muscular exertion. He must strike out the limb violently, +and bringing the toes towards the shin-bone, thrust his feet out, which +will probably restore the muscles to their proper exercise; but if the +cramp still continue, he can easily keep himself afloat with his hands, +and paddle towards the shore, till some assistance comes to him. If one +leg is only attacked, he may drive himself forward with the other, and +for this purpose, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> an emergency, the swimmer should frequently try to +swim with one hand, or one leg and one hand, or by two hands alone, +which will be easily acquired.</p> + +<p>Should a companion be in danger of drowning, it is our duty to use every +exertion to save his life; and, indeed, not to use the utmost exertion +is a high degree of moral guilt, but in doing this, we must not rashly +hazard our own life, nor put ourselves into a position in which the +swimmer can cling to us or grasp any part of our body, or the loss of +both will be inevitable. It will be better in all cases where bathing is +practised, that there should be ropes and planks at hand, and young +swimmers should never venture far into the water without such means of +rescue are available. In conclusion, we would caution all who go into +the water, against remaining in it too long, as nothing can be more +dangerous; and we would further advise that the practice of bathing and +swimming be not only common to boyhood, but be continued in after life, +as few things tend more to the preservation of HEALTH.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> +<img src="images/tail-vi.png" width="333" height="68" alt="Tailpiece" title="Tailpiece" /> +</div> + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="GARDENING" id="GARDENING"></a>PART VII.</h2> + +<h2>GARDENING.</h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>We read in the sacred records, that when man was created, he was placed +in a "Garden,"—the Garden of Eden, to dress it and to keep it; and we +may infer therefrom, first, that, the occupation of gardening was one +pre-eminently fitted for the happiness of man, and secondly, that +industry, and even labour, was also a part of man's duty, even in a +state of innocence.</p> + +<p>There is not a more innocent amusement than gardening. Nothing can be +more lovely than to be among buds and fruits and flowers; nothing is +more conducive to health and peace of mind, and few things are better +calculated to inspire religious feelings than gardening.</p> + +<p>Every little boy or girl should have a garden, and should be shown how +to manage it. There is a great deal in <em>management</em> and in <em>method</em> at +all times, but especially in gardening. Much <em>attention</em> is also +necessary,—great <em>care</em> and much <em>forethought</em>; all of which qualities +of the mind it is in the highest degree proper to train and exercise. +Whoever, therefore, begins gardening, must not look upon it as an idle +sport, to be taken up and thrown aside with the whim of the moment, but +as an occupation for leisure hours, that the mind must be brought to +bear upon, and which must engage him from day to day, from month to +month, from spring to summer, from autumn to winter, and so through all +the changes of the varied year.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 346px;"> +<img src="images/gardening.png" width="346" height="310" alt="Gardening" title="Gardening" /> +</div> + + +<h3>LAYING OUT THE GROUND.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 358px;"> +<img src="images/gardenlayout.png" width="358" height="416" alt="Garden Layout" title="Garden Layout" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>To begin gardening, a little boy must have some <em>ground</em>, which is quite +indispensable; and a boy of from ten to fourteen years old ought to +have, at least, a piece large enough for him to divide and subdivide, +and arrange with neatness and order. A piece of about forty yards long +by thirty wide will be large enough to commence with, and this should be +set out in the subjoined manner. This will allow of a path three feet +wide in the centre, and of one two feet six inches round the sides, +leaving the beds twenty-two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> and a half feet wide. The paths should be +gravelled with a good red binding gravel, and to look nice, the borders +should be edged with box or edging tiles. At each corner of the two +parallelograms, might be planted a tree, say, one apple, one pear, one +plum, and one cherry, that is, eight in all; and at distances of about a +yard, might be planted, all round, a foot from the paths, alternately, +gooseberry-bushes, currant-trees, and raspberry-trees, and between them, +various kinds of flowers, to come into blossom at different seasons. At +one end, the south end if possible, should be erected a small arbour, +with a couple of seats in it, and at the two opposite corners should be +two small manure pits,—one for the reception of well-rotted manure, to +be quickly used, and the other for the reception of all weeds, leaves, +and rubbish, which will make manure, and which should be mixed up from +time to time with the spade. These pits should be used alternately. As +soon as one has its contents well rotted, it should be emptied from time +to time on the land, while the other pit should be used to hold the +fresh matter newly collected. By the time this is full, the other will +be empty, and then that may be used as a <em>collector</em> and the other as a +<em>decomposer</em>, and so on, alternately.</p> + + +<h3>MANURE.</h3> + +<p>It is of no use whatever to think of getting things to grow without +manure. This is the life and soul of all garden operations. Almost +everything can be converted into manure. The grass from lawns, fallen +leaves, weeds, and all vegetable matter, afford good light<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> manure. +Strong manures are prepared from horse, cow, sheep, and goat dung. The +dung of fowls and rabbits is also most excellent; and where fowls or +rabbits are kept, their dung should be preserved with great care, and +put by itself into a rotting-pit, or into a tank, and kept wet. The +juicy part can then be used as a liquid manure, and will be found of a +highly fertilizing property, and the more solid may be spread over the +land. The best time for putting manure on the land is in dry or frosty +weather, and it should be dug in as soon as spread. It is a very unwise +plan to spread manure on the land and let it lie, as in such cases, much +of the strength of the manure is lost. Young gardeners should be very +careful in preparing and collecting manure, and also when they are +moving it from the pits to the ground, they should take care and not +soil their paths.</p> + + +<h3>GARDENING TOOLS.</h3> + +<p>It is quite necessary that a young gardener should have proper tools. He +should have a small but strong <em>spade</em>, a small but strong <em>rake</em>, a +digging <em>fork</em>, a <em>hoe</em>, a <em>trowel</em>, a good <em>pruning-knife</em>, a <em>box</em> for +seeds, a little <em>wheelbarrow</em>, a <em>line</em>, and above all, a little +gardener's <em>apron</em>, and a <em>straw hat</em> with a <em>broad brim</em>. Thus +equipped, he may commence his gardening operations with great comfort to +himself and some chance of success.</p> + + +<h3>DIGGING.</h3> + +<p>The young gardener should practise digging, with a view to digging well. +In beginning to dig a piece of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> ground, he should first clear it of all +sticks, stalks, or stones, that might impede his labor. He should then +commence at one end of the ground, with his back to the sun, if +possible, and, beginning from the left-hand corner, dig one line all the +way to the right-hand corner, either one or two spades deep, as may be +required. The ground should be turned over, evenly laid up at the top, +nice and level, and the weeds completely buried. The operator should dig +carefully when near the roots of gooseberry, currant, raspberry, or +fruit trees, and more carefully still, among flowers. If digging early +in the season, he must mind he does not dig into his <em>bulbs</em>; such as +lilies, tulips, snow-drops, crocuses, or daffodils, and cut them to +pieces.</p> + +<p>In the latter part of the year, in November and December, it is a good +plan to dig up any unoccupied ground into ridges, and leave it in that +state during the winter, that the frost may act upon it. The effect of +frost upon the ground so prepared is very beneficial, as it breaks the +clods and pulverizes the more cloggy portions, which fall down in a thaw +as a fine soft mould. When manure is dug into the ground, it should not +be dug in too deeply, about four or five inches being quite sufficient +in most cases.</p> + + +<h3>WEEDING.</h3> + +<p>Gardens will always produce a great deal more than is wished for, in the +shape of various herbs, shrubs, and plants, called weeds; such as +dandelions, couch-grass, cow-parsley, chick-weed, and many other plants, +which go by the general name of <em>weeds</em>. These, if left to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> their own +natural growth, would soon cover the ground, and take away from the +garden plants the nutriment in the soil designed for them, besides +entangling their roots, stems, and leaves; therefore, weeding is as +indispensable as digging. The young gardener should make up his mind +before he sets foot in his garden to have <em>no weeds in it</em>; for however +assiduous he may have been in other respects, however he may have +planted, watered, dug, or attended to his garden, if it show a crop of +weeds, he is a bad gardener, and will be sure to get laughed at. Weeds +may either be pulled up by the hand or cut up by the hoe. In both cases, +the roots must be eradicated. They must not be plucked from the stem, or +cut from the level ground by the edge of the hoe, but hoed or plucked +up, root and all; and after they are got up, they are not be left about +in the ridges to take root and grow again, but must be cleared away and +safely put into the pit, never again to rise, but in the chemistry of +good manure.</p> + + +<h3>PLANTING AND SOWING.</h3> + +<p>Everything in a garden must be planted in some way or other, and there +are many ways of planting and sowing. Sowing relates more particularly +to seeds, and planting to the setting of plants that have been raised +from seed in the first instance. The sowing of seeds is a very important +work, and before seeds can be sown with a prospect of their springing up +properly, the preparation of the soil, the time of the year, and even +the time of day, must be taken into consideration. Some seeds perish in +particular kinds of soil, while others thrive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> luxuriantly in them. +Onions like a rich soil, as do cauliflowers and asparagus. Carrots and +parsnips like a loose or sandy soil, as do sea-kale and many other +plants. Some plants will only grow in bog earth; and some thrive, such +as strawberries, best in a clayey loam. Attention to such matters must +be given by the young gardener, if he wish to have his garden what it +ought to be.</p> + + +<h3>HOT-BEDS AND FRAMES.</h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/frame.png" width="200" height="147" alt="Frame" title="Frame" /> +</div> + +<p>Before we can sow many kinds of seeds in this country in the open +ground, it is necessary to raise them first in a hot-bed, and for this +reason,—many flowers common in our gardens are not natives of our cold +and variable climate, but of one much warmer; and if we delay to sow the +seed of such plants and flowers till the warm days of summer are fully +set in, the plant has scarcely time to grow into perfection before the +chills of autumn come on, and they perish before their blossoms, fruit, +or seeds come to perfection. But this may be obviated by means of a +frame and hot-bed, which every young gardener ought to have, however +small it may be. One of the simplest is the common garden or cucumber +frame, which may be bought for a few shillings. This, if about a yard +square, should be set upon a low framework of bricks, within which a pit +is dug, and filled with good manure over which some fine mould is +placed, to the depth of about six inches. Upon this mould the more +delicate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> kinds of flower-seeds may be sown at an early period of the +year,—varieties of all those found in the gardening books under the +head of tender annuals,—balsams, French marigolds, tobacco, stocks, +marigolds, gourds, and sun-flowers. The seed must be sown +carefully,—not too thick, and occasionally looked at. In mild, open +weather, the glass should be raised a little, but in cold weather kept +down. The giving of water should be managed with care, and the plants as +they appear should not be suffered to grow too rapidly, but be kept +under, or they will not bear to be transplanted when the time comes for +doing so.</p> + +<p>In transplanting, care should always be taken not to transplant too +early, or in improper weather; for if the weather happens to be cold or +wet, the tender plants will suffer very much, and probably fail. This +would be the case, not only with flowers, but with all the tender kinds +of plants, such as cauliflowers, and, therefore, the young gardener must +keep his "weather eye" open, as the sailors say, and not be too much in +a hurry, as young gardeners generally are.</p> + + +<h3>OPEN CROPS.</h3> + +<p>In the sowing of open crops, care should also be taken to sow at the +proper time. Very early sowing is generally hazardous, but yet, if you +would have your crops come in soon, a little risk must be run. When seed +is sown in the open ground, it requires watching, and this particularly +applies to such crops as early potatoes or beans. Sometimes potatoes are +sown in February, with the view to an early crop; and in April the young +tender<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> sprouts appear above the ground. One night's frost, however, +settles them,—down they go, black and jelly-like to the earth; but if +the weather be doubtful, the thoughtful young gardener takes care to +cover up the tender shoots with dry leaves or straw, to break the icy +tooth of the frost, and save his crop. The same care should be also +bestowed upon any other vegetable of a tender kind, and without this +care, gardening would come to nothing.</p> + +<p>After seeds are sown, they have many natural enemies. The slug, the +snail, the wire-worm, the impudent sparrow, and the most impudent and +insolent chaffinch, who all seem to have an idea that the seed is put +into the ground entirely for their benefit. As soon as the pea-shoot +comes above the earth, the slug has a mouthful in its tenderest moments; +after the shoot has in part recovered from the gentle nibble, Master +Sparrow swoops down and picks off, as quick as he can, all the delicate +little sprouts by mouthfuls: to make a fit ending to what is so well +begun, the chaffinch descends in the most impudent manner, close to your +face, and pulls up stalk and pea both together, and flies away as +unconcerned as can be. Now it is of no use to stand with a gun or a pair +of clappers in your hand all the day after these intruders, and the only +protection is by a net, or rows of twine strung with feathers, stretched +over the bed in rows, and a few other pieces of white twine crosswise in +their immediate vicinity. Birds do not like the look of any threads +drawn across the ground, and they will rarely fly where there appears +danger of entanglement; and this method is the best that can be adopted +for seed-beds. A <em>Guy</em> is also good; and there are few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> boys who do not +know how to construct one. A <em>Guy</em> is also particularly appropriate for +the <em>early Warwick peas</em>. As to slugs and caterpillars, they must be +hunted for and picked off; and if they abound in a garden, the line of +shooting peas, beans, or other seed, must be dredged with a little +slacked lime, which is an infalliable mode of protection. But mind the +lime does not blow into your eyes; for, if it does, you will be worse +off than the caterpillars.</p> + + +<h3>RAKING.</h3> + +<p>When seeds are sown, the beds should be nicely raked. Some seeds, such +as carrot and parsnip seeds, should be beaten down with the flat part of +the spade, and laid very evenly and nicely. The edges of the little +cross-paths should be sharp and straight, and the whole put into a +ship-shape order. The stones should be raked off into the cross-paths, +and may remain there until the land is dug up in the autumn or winter, +when they may be removed. There is a good deal to be done with the rake +in many ways, besides the raking of beds. It is a very useful tool to +job over a bed when some kinds of seeds are sown: it also makes a very +good drill, and is especially useful in getting leaves from the paths +and borders; but it should be used with a light hand, and care taken not +to scratch the ground into holes with it, as many young gardeners do.</p> + + +<h3>HOEING.</h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 81px;"> +<img src="images/dibber.png" width="81" height="180" alt="Dibber" title="Dibber" /> +<span class="caption">Dibber.</span> +</div> + +<p>The hoe is of very great use, both to hoe up weeds and to form drills. +We have spoken about its former use,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> and shall now say a word or two +about the latter. In forming a drill for peas, beans, or other seed, one +thing is above all things requisite, namely, that it should be +<em>straight</em>. A drill resembling a dog's hinder leg, never looks well in a +garden, and therefore the little gardener must have recourse to his +<em>line</em>. This ought to be long enough to stretch quite across his ground, +and when he wants to strike a drill, he should stretch it across from +path to path, and, taking his hoe in his hand, cut or scrape a little +furrow, about three or four inches deep, by the side of his line. In +sowing peas and beans, the drills are generally a yard apart, and +between them other crops are sometimes sown. Very often a crop of +spring-spinach or of radishes is sown between lines of peas, and so on +of other intermediate crops.</p> + +<p>The line is very useful in all kinds of planting. In planting +broad-beans, they are put into the ground by a <em>dibber</em>, which is a +piece of wood with a pointed end and a handle. The holes are to be +dibbed along the side of the line. The same tool is used in a similar +way in planting potatoes, strawberries, cabbage-plants, and a variety of +other roots, which require to be planted in straight and equidistant +lines.</p> + + +<h3>TRANSPLANTING.</h3> + +<p>There are a great many vegetables which require to be +transplanted,—some from the hot-bed, and some from the open ground, +where they have sprung from seeds, to their destination in the garden. +All transplanting should be done with care. Some plants, such as cabbage +plants, do not require so much care as others, but every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> plant to do +well should be well planted. Young gardeners are liable to many mistakes +in transplanting; one is, that they often put the root of the plant into +the ground bundled together; another is, that they make the hole too +large with the dibber, and are not careful in pressing the mould to the +root at the bottom of the hole, so that the root of the plant has +nothing to feed upon. All this the thoughtful little gardener will +avoid; and when he puts a plant into the ground, he will reflect that if +it be not well <em>planted</em> it will <em>not grow</em>. The young plants of the +more delicate flowers should be moved with the greatest care into spots +congenial with their natures. Some plants require a warm, some a cool +situation, some a moist, some a dry one, and these will be ascertained +by studying the nature of the plant.</p> + + +<h3>WATERING.</h3> + +<p>Boys generally fancy there is nothing like watering, and they are very +pleased when they get the watering-pot in their hands. They always like +to be watering,—no doubt thinking that the more the seeds and plants +are watered the better they thrive; but this is a mistake, moderation in +all things should be the motto. When a plant wants watering +artificially, it in general shows its wants by very unequivocal signs, +namely, by a drooping of its pretty head and leaves; and then, if too +much water be given to it, it soon springs up with great luxuriance; and +the first burning day of sunshine is likely to kill it, or to do it +great injury. The rule should be, to water as little as possible, and to +wait as long as possible for nature's heavenly rain, which is better +than any artificial watering. Plants should never be watered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> during the +middle of the day, but early in the morning, or when the sun is +descending in the evening. Pump-water should never be used if rain or +pond-water can be obtained. Much good often results to plants and +seed-beds from the use of <em>liquid</em> manure. This can be easily prepared +by getting an old beer-cask and knocking out the head. The bottom should +then be fixed in a hole dug to receive it, and the earth allowed to +reach to the brim. Some of the best manure to be had should then be put +into this, with a pound or two of guano, and pour upon it three pails of +water. It should then be allowed to stand for a week or two, and used as +required. The effects will soon show themselves in the increased growth +and vigour of the plants.</p> + + +<h3>ON THE PROPAGATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF SHRUBS AND PLANTS.</h3> + +<p>Besides sowing seed and rearing plants from them by transplanting, there +are many other ways of propagating plants, namely, by <em>off-sets</em>, +<em>suckers</em>, <em>layers</em>, <em>divided-roots</em>, <em>cuttings</em>, and <em>pipings</em>. If +tulips and hyacinths be examined, it will be found, that besides +shedding seed, the bulb of the plant very often makes a smaller bulb on +the larger one, and this, if taken off and planted by itself, becomes a +new plant: many plants may be propagated in this way. The strawberry +also, will be found to send off a long shoot, and, at about a foot +distant from the parent root, a little knob appears, having a bud to +spring into the air and a root to work into the ground: this is called a +<em>runner</em>. These may be cut away from the parent and planted separately, +and will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> become a new plant. Many other plants, such as roses, +raspberries, and lilacs, send from their roots little thin stems: these +are called <em>suckers</em>, and may be removed from the parent shrub and +planted by themselves, when they will become separate plants. Many +plants can be propagated by what are termed <em>layers</em>. To do this, +nothing more is necessary than to select a shoot, as near the root as +possible, and having partially divided it with a knife, make an upward +slit in it, and then placing a bit of twig between the divided parts, +press it down to the ground, burying the joint beneath the surface of +the soil. To plant from <em>cuttings</em>, some care is necessary as regards +green-house plants, but nothing is easier than to rear fresh stocks of +roses, currants and gooseberries from cuttings, as it is only necessary +to cut the shoots cleanly off, and, after reducing them to about six +inches in length, to place them in the ground with the shooting end +upwards. They should be planted about six inches apart, and after the +first year be removed to their proper situation; and they will bear +fruit in the following year. To plant from <em>pipings</em>, such as pinks and +carnations, it is only necessary to pull off one of the tubular stems, +and dividing it at or near the joint, pull off the surrounding leaves, +and insert the end or jointed part in some fine sand-mould, placing a +glass over them till they have "struck," that is, formed roots, when +they can afterwards be transplanted.</p> + + +<h3>PRUNING.</h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;"> +<img src="images/gooseberrytree.png" width="148" height="200" alt="Gooseberry Tree" title="Gooseberry Tree" /> +<span class="caption">Gooseberry Tree.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> +<img src="images/curranttree.png" width="129" height="200" alt="Currant Tree" title="Currant Tree" /> +<span class="caption">Currant Tree.</span> +</div> + +<p>Little gardeners ought to know something of pruning trees. To cut or +prune gooseberry and currant-trees is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> very simple. Gooseberry-trees +should be cut differently from currant-trees. In gooseberry-trees, much +of the fruit grows on wood of the last year's growth, but on +currant-trees, the fruit is, for the most part, found near the knob or +joint between the old wood and the new. To prune gooseberry trees, all +the old dead wood should be cut out, and every branch that trails on the +ground should be cut away, all branches in the centre of the tree that +intersect each other, and all ugly branches, should be removed,—all +suckers should be taken from the root, and the stem of the tree left +straight and free to about ten or twelve inches from the ground, and the +tree trained to throw its branches into the kind of form in the margin. +The branches should then be cut, i. e., about half of the white or new +wood should be cut <em>cleanly</em> off with a sharp knife, and the cuttings +carefully gathered up.</p> + +<p>In cutting currant-trees, nearly all the white wood should be cut away, +leaving only head shoots to some one single or middle shoot of a main +branch. The under-wood, old wood, and irregular and ugly wood, should +also be cut away, as recommended at the cutting of gooseberries. In +pruning or cutting raspberries, the old wood should be cut quite away, +and the stems of the last year shortened about one third.</p> + + +<h3>GRAFTING AND BUDDING.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>Grafting is the transferring of a shoot of one tree into the stem of +another, called the <em>stock</em>. Into this a slit is made; and then the +scion or shoot is cut into the form of a tongue and inserted into it. +The head of the stock is then cut off in a slanting direction, and the +two are then tied together, or closely wrapped together, in moss, +covered with grafting clay. No book can give directions so clear for +grafting, as to enable the young gardener to perform it successfully. He +must see it done, try it afterwards, and then ask if he has done it +correctly; and to learn grafting and budding well, it is only necessary +to get on the right side of the gardener. The same may be said as +regards the pruning of vines, fruit and wall trees. Ten minutes' +experience with the gardener will teach more than twenty volumes on the +subject.</p> + + +<h3>SHIFTING OF CROPS.</h3> + +<p>Crops must not be grown twice in rotation on the same ground. Peas and +beans should be the crop after any of the roots, such as potatoes, +carrots, and parsnips. Cabbages, and plants of that kind, may be sown +and grown intermediately. The best rotation of crops will be found in +any gardening book on the subject, and this the young gardener should +make a subject of some study.</p> + + +<h3><a name="HOW_TO_MANAGE_A_LITTLE_GARDEN" id="HOW_TO_MANAGE_A_LITTLE_GARDEN"></a>HOW TO MANAGE A LITTLE GARDEN ALL THE YEAR ROUND.</h3> + +<h4>January.</h4> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>The chief wish of the little gardener this month is to take advantage of +the hard frosts, and during their prevalence, to wheel upon his ground +such manure as may be necessary. It should be wheeled in at this time, +because, while the frost is hard, the wheelbarrow can pass over the +paths and beds without doing much injury, nor will the dung and rubbish +in its moving make more dirt than can be easily swept up. The manure +should be left in heaps, and not spread till the time comes for digging +it in.</p> + +<p>In the middle or latter end of the month, should the weather be fine and +open, attention should be given to the cutting of the gooseberry, +currant, and raspberry-trees, and to the planting of off-sets from each, +or of cuttings, as directed. A crop of peas might be sown, as well as +mustard and cress, and a few broad-beans for coming in early. The peas +and beans should be sown in rows, about a yard apart, and a little +spinach might be sown in a broad drill, made by the hoe between them. +The gravel-walks should be turned up in the first thaw and left in a +ridge, ready for turning down and rolling when the weather becomes fine +and dry.</p> + +<p>Radishes may also now be sown in beds prepared by digging and freshly +turned up. The seed should be thrown in, not too thickly, and raked +over. Straw should then be placed upon it to keep off the birds, or a +Guy and feathers. The straw must be kept over the beds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> in the frosty +weather and during the night, and taken off in the morning.</p> + +<p>Now is the time to plant bulbous roots, such as snow-drops, crocuses, +tulips, hyacinths, jonquils, daffodils, and flags; and off-sets of +bulbous roots may be planted in beds. Anemones and ranunculuses may also +be planted in dry weather, and some of the most hardy of the perennial +and biennial shrubs, as asters, Canterbury-bells, and campanulas, may be +planted.</p> + +<h4>February.</h4> + +<p>In February, the young gardener will find much to do. In the +flower-garden, he may finish planting the remainder of the bulbous +roots, such as the star of Bethlehem, fritillarias, narcissuses, and +gladioluses, in beds or borders, all for flowering the same year. Some +may be planted in pots to flower in the house, or they may be placed in +the hot-bed for early flowering. Some of the hardy annual flower-seeds +may now be sown.</p> + +<p>In the kitchen-garden, if we may so call it, a little crop of turnips +may be sown to come in early. Cabbage-plants may be set in rows; and a +little lettuce-seed may be sown under the frame in the hot-bed. This +frame should be well covered at night, and slightly raised in the day +time, when the weather is mild, to give the plants within it light and +air.</p> + +<h4>March.</h4> + +<p>In the flower-garden, the gardener may begin to sow in beds, borders and +pots, larkspurs, candy-tuft, lupines, sweet-peas, Venus's looking-glass, +pansies, stocks, sweet-scabius, and many others.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>In the culinary department, now is the time to sow a little bed of +onions in a well-manured bed. A bed for carrots may also be prepared, +and the seed sown and well trodden down. A bed of parsnips should also +be prepared in the same way; and another crop of peas of the marrow-fat +kind may be planted in drills in the same manner as the former. And +now, perhaps, the cabbages will require the earth to be drawn to their +stems; and, if the little gardener has room, he may plant three or four +rows of early potatoes. They should be the cuttings of large ones, with +not more than two eyes in each piece, and should be planted with manure +in rows, about two feet and a half apart and about a foot distant from +each other.</p> + +<h4>April.</h4> + +<p>Now is the time to begin sowing the more tender annual flower seeds. +Some should be sown in the hot-bed; such as African and French +marigolds, Indian pinks, China-asters, yellow-sultanas; and many others +of the hardy kind, wall-flowers, Canterbury-bells, French honey-suckles, +mignonette, pinks, and daises may be planted.</p> + +<p>In the kitchen department, kidney-beans may be sown, and at the latter +end of the month scarlet-runners and French-beans may be planted. It is +not a bad plan to raise a few scarlet-runners in the hot-bed, and to +plant them out when they have formed roots, and two or three leaves at +the head. But as these kinds of beans are very tender, they should be +carefully watched, and covered with straw on the sudden appearance of +frost, which often takes place in this month.</p> + +<h4>May.</h4> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>Now may be sown the tenderest of the annuals in the hot-beds, as +cock's-combs, tricolors, balsams, egg-plants, ice-plants, and others of +that kind. Dahlias may also be placed in the bed in this or the former +month, and suffered to sprout, previous to planting in the open ground. +Bulbous roots of every flower now out of bloom, and the leaves decayed, +may be taken up and the off-sets separated dry, and housed for future +planting.</p> + +<p>Now is the time to plant melons, gourds, and pumpkins. The seeds of +these should be sown in April in the hot-bed, and the plants should be +transplanted into good ground in a warm spot, about the latter end of +the month. They will grow freely and produce ripe fruit in August. +Common pumpkins may be sown on one of the dunghills. The gourds, such as +the orange-gourd, may be planted near an arbour, and be trained up the +principal parts. French-beans and scarlet-runners may also be planted, +if not done before; and should the young gardener have raised any +tomatoes or capsicums in his hot-bed, now is the time to plant them out, +as well as the slips of geraniums and tobacco-plants.</p> + +<p>The young gardener will now find employment in sticking peas and beans, +weeding and transplanting. And such broad-beans as are now in blossom, +should have their tops nipped off, to promote the setting of the pods. +But let him be very careful to look after the weeds, which now grow in +great abundance; and let him rake nicely all his borders and keep +everything clean and neat, as this is the most brilliant time of a +garden's beauty.</p> + +<h4>June.</h4> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>Look well to the strawberries, and see that they are well watered, which +operation should be performed in dry weather every other day. These +plants will by this time have made their runners, and these should be +cleared away, except those that may be required for making fresh beds, +which may now be planted. Trim the roots a little, and cut off the +strays or runners from each plant.</p> + +<p>Look well at this period, morning and evening, for snails and other +insects, and after showers of rain in particular. If there should be any +small cherry trees or other fruit trees, they ought be netted or well +watched, or the birds will eat them.</p> + +<p>All sorts of flowers may now be planted out into the borders. Some may +also be put in pots, such as balsams. Take care, however, that they are +removed in damp or showery weather. In dry weather, take up tulips, +crown-imperials, and jonquils, such as are past flowering, and pluck +away the off-sets: let them be well cleaned and dried in the shade from +the mid-day sun; then put each sort into separate bags or boxes, and +keep them in some dry apartment till September, October or November, at +which time they will have to be planted again. Most other bulbs may also +be now taken up and put away for future planting. June is also the +proper time to propagate pinks and carnations by pipings.</p> + +<h4>July.</h4> + +<p>This is the time to plant out savoys and cabbages for winter use. +Brocoli may also be planted, and some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> seed sown for a late spring crop. +The plants raised from this seed will be ready to put out, finally, in +the middle and towards the latter end of August and the beginning of +September, and will produce small heads in April and in the beginning of +May. Lettuces may be now planted out, and other seed sown for future +use. Spinach for winter may also be now sown; for this, that part of the +garden should be chosen that has the most of the winter's sun upon it. +Now is the very best time in the whole year to sow the large black +turnip-rooted radish for autumn and winter. The young gardener must at +this period be on the watch for such seeds, both of flowers and garden +vegetables, as are ripe. This should always be done in dry +weather,—cutting or pulling up the stems with the seeds in. They should +then be spread in an airy place where the sun and wind will dry them +thoroughly.</p> + +<p>The various herbs, such as balm, penny-royal, sweet-marjorum, sage, +lavender, marigolds, should also be gathered up for winter use. Slips +may now be planted from any of these. Take the side shoots of the +branches four or five inches in length, and plant them in a shady +border, and do not forget to give them water.</p> + +<p>The ground should be kept clear at this period from refuse leaves, +stumps of cabbages, haulm of peas and beans, and from all decaying +rubbish and litter. Cut box-edgings also; and if the operation of +budding is to be performed, now is the time to do it.</p> + +<h4>August.</h4> + +<p>Look over the flowers in borders from day to day, to see what they +require. When the shoots of rambling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> flowers interpose with each other, +they should be shortened, so that every plant may stand singly, as they +always appear to best advantage when they stand clear of each other.</p> + +<p>In this month, we must still continue to look out for ripe flower-seeds; +also, there are several kinds of autumnal flower-bulbs, which may be +planted, such as the autumnal crocus and Guernsey-lily.</p> + +<p>Now weed and water seedlings, and shift such pot-flowers as require it +into larger pots. In doing this, rub off the moulds and matted fibres +from the roots, and throw away part of the outward, loose old earth. +Then, having put a little fresh earth into the old pots, with a piece of +broken tile over the hole in the bottom, put in your plant, and fill all +the sides round with nice soft mould.</p> + +<h4>September.</h4> + +<p>In the third or fourth week of this month, it will be proper to begin to +plant the choice hyacinth and tulip roots for an early spring blossom. +The bed should be dug at least one full spade deep, breaking the earth +fine and laying the bed even by raking, and then plant the bulbs about +six inches apart. Ranunculus beds or borders may be prepared in the same +way, and the plants planted similarly, about two inches deep. Take care +of the new carnation and pink pipings or layers, and let them be +transplanted as soon as convenient. Perennial plants, such as +carnations, pinks, and sweet-williams, may now be transplanted. Now may +be sown the seeds of bulbous flower roots, as tulips, crown-imperials, +hyacinths, and most other bulbs. Evergreens may now be transplanted,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +and much work be done in the preparation of manure, and gathering in +crops of various kinds.</p> + +<h4>October.</h4> + +<p>This month again ushers in planting in various ways. In the kitchen +department, beans may be planted for an early crop in the succeeding +spring; that is, if the frost does not nip them. A warm border, under a +south wall is the best place for them. A few peas may be sown also, to +try the chance of the winter. Sow lettuce and small salad and radishes; +also transplant lettuces to situations to stand till the spring. A few +rows of cabbages for the winter and spring should now be planted, and +winter spinach sown. Now is a good time to begin to dig up parsnips and +carrots to store away for winter; and now all ground not in use should +be well dug up and trenched, to lie ready for the winter's frost to act +upon it. Now gather various fruits as they are fully ripe, and choose +dry days for so doing.</p> + +<h4>November.</h4> + +<p>The season is now closing, yet a good deal is to be done by those who +love a garden,—a vast deal of planting and transplanting of every +variety of flowers. Roots of many may be separated, and fresh sorts +planted. Nearly every kind of bulbous roots, if not previously planted, +may now be put in the earth. The cuttings of gooseberry and currant +trees may also be planted, and young trees raised in the spring be +transplanted to their proper situation. It is also a good time to plant +filberts, hazel-nuts, and barberries. Strawberry plants should have a +dressing of good manure.</p> + +<h4>December.</h4> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>Make neat the borders, dig all loose ground, turn the manure, plant +suckers from old roots, roll green and gravel walks, gather seeds on +fine days, cut away old wood, nail fruit trees, prepare hot-beds, get +matting to put over tender plants during the frost, look over seeds, and +see that they are dry and properly put away and make all clean, nice, +and neat for the coming spring.</p> + +<div class="thought_break"></div> + +<p>Such is an outline of what a boy may be expected to do with his little +garden. A great deal more is to be learned than can be learned from a +book; but if the young gardener will keep his eyes open, reflect on the +reasons for doing things, and pay attention to the voice of experience, +he will probably reap more real delight from his few yards of ground +than from all the toys and playthings he ever possessed.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CARPENTERING" id="CARPENTERING"></a>PART VIII.</h2> + +<h2>CARPENTERING.</h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;"> +<img src="images/carpentering.png" width="357" height="296" alt="Carpentering" title="Carpentering" /> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>There is not a more useful and pleasant amusement than that of +"Carpentering." Every boy should be able to do little jobs with the +plane and chisel; for whether he may turn out a gentleman or a poor man, +it will be of great use to him. If a gentleman, he can amuse himself +with it, and if a poor man, it will be of essential service to be able +to put up a row of palings in his garden, to make a gate, to build a +pig-stye, to make and fix up shelves, build out-houses, and perform +sundry odd jobs about the house for his comfort and convenience.</p> + +<p>Every boy should have a box of tools, and a bench to work at, also a +little room or loft for a workshop. He ought to obtain good tools, and +by no means buy the boxes of rubbish sold to boys for their amusement.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +He should go the ironmonger's and purchase the following tools; of +course, out of his own savings,—his own pocket-money,—and not apply to +his parents for it.</p> + +<ul> +<li>Two saws, one small and one hand-saw.</li> +<li>Four gimlets of different sizes.</li> +<li>One pair of pincers.</li> +<li>One pair of plyers.</li> +<li>Four chisels of different sizes.</li> +<li>One gouge.</li> +<li>Two hammers, large and small.</li> +<li>One mallet.</li> +<li>Two bradawls.</li> +<li>Two planes, long and short.</li> +<li>Two flies, large and small.</li> +<li>One level.</li> +<li>One square.</li> +<li>One screw-driver.</li> +<li>Nails, screws, rings, glue-pot, hone, oil, etc.</li> +</ul> + +<p>He must also manage to obtain a carpenter's-bench, which he cannot very +well do without, and then he may begin carpentering with expedition.</p> + + +<h3><a name="USES_OF_THE_VARIOUS_TOOLS" id="USES_OF_THE_VARIOUS_TOOLS"></a>USES OF THE VARIOUS TOOLS.</h3> + +<p><span class="tool">The Saw</span>.—Before a saw can be used after it is purchased, it generally +has to be "set," as it is termed; that is, its teeth are to be sharpened +and placed a little outwards from the plane of its length. There are +several kinds of saws, namely, the common hand-saw, the key-hole saw, +and the small-toothed saw. The first is to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> cut planks and thick pieces +of wood; the second is to cut holes in planks or boards; the third is to +cut small pieces of wood, or those that require to be very nicely +divided.</p> + +<p><span class="tool">The Plane.</span>—The plane is used to smooth boards with. There are several +kinds of planes. The long plane and the short plane are the principal +ones. Within the plane is the knife, which is fastened in by a knock of +the hammer on the wedge inside, which is made so as to fix the edged +knife at any distance from the bottom of the plane, either for thin or +thick shaving. A very little direction from the carpenter will enable +the young carpenter to fix his knife properly; and a knock on the end of +the plane with a hammer will loosen it in a moment. The knife should be +sharpened from time to time on the stone or hone. This should be done +with great care, so as to preserve a proper angle at the edge and great +evenness in every part, otherwise, the planing will be very imperfect.</p> + +<p>In planing, the wood to be planed is either laid flat on the bench, with +its end against the little pin, to prevent its moving, or fixed in the +screw of the bench, and the plane being brought upon the top or edge of +the wood, is pushed carefully, but somewhat sharply along. The shaving +comes through the hole in the plane, and must be cleared away, from time +to time, out of the way of the knife. Everything planed should be planed +perfectly level, smooth, and even.</p> + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/mortice.png" width="200" height="84" alt="Mortice And Tenon" title="Mortice And Tenon" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="tool">The Chisel.</span>—The use of the chisel is to cut square or sharp-cornered +holes in wood, especially mortices.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> A <em>mortice</em> is the hole cut in a +post or other piece of wood, in which another piece of wood cut to fit +it, called a <em>tenon</em>, is put. The tenon and mortice should both be cut +exactly, and so that they fit at right angles, firmly and securely. +Tenons and mortices are of perpetual use in carpentering, and the young +carpenter should learn as quickly as possible to make them.</p> + +<p><span class="tool">The Mallet</span> is to be used instead of the hammer for a variety of +purposes. In cutting mortices, it is the mallet and not the hammer that +is used, and in almost all cases where the chisel is employed, the +mallet should be used. Were we to use a hammer to knock the end of the +chisel, we should soon split its handle, or so bruise it, as to make it +unservicable.</p> + +<p><span class="tool">The Gimlet and Bradawl.</span>—The gimlet is used to bore awls with, so that +nails when they are driven in may not split the wood. Bradawls are used +for the same purpose, before smaller nails, called <em>brads</em>, are put in. +A bradawl is sometimes called a nail-piercer. There is a thread gimlet +now come into use, but this requires much care in handling: it must be +very gently put in, and very gently taken out, or it will snap like a +piece of glass; but it is a very useful tool, and is a great improvement +upon the old gimlet.</p> + +<p><span class="tool">Pincers and Plyers.</span>—Pincers are used to take loose nails out of wood, +to wrench off staples, or other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> things that have been attached to wood. +Plyers are a smaller kind of pincers, and are used for small work in the +same way. They are very useful tools, and it is impossible to do without +them.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/hammer.png" width="200" height="68" alt="Hammer" title="Hammer" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="tool">The Hammer.</span>—Almost everybody knows how a hammer is used: it is used to +drive nails with, and also to take them out. The hammer used to take out +nails, is called a claw-hammer, from its having a claw at one part. The +claw is placed under the head of the nail, when the handle of the hammer +becomes a lever, and the head the fulcrum; and, placed in this position, +the hand acquires great power,—sometimes amounting to at least a +hundred-weight. In using a hammer, we should always be careful to use +the kind of hammer necessary for the work to be done.</p> + +<p><span class="tool">Files.</span>—Files are of various uses, and we cannot do very well without +them in carpentering. There are several kinds of files: one kind flat on +one side and rounded at the other; another is flat on both sides, and +another kind has three edges and three flat sides. The first is used for +rasping wood or other things down to a level; and the others are used to +file things into a point, or to cut them in pieces.</p> + +<p><span class="tool">The Screw-driver</span> is used to drive in and take out screws. It ought to +have a very hard tough edge and a long handle. When placed in the head +of the screw, to drive in, it should be turned from left to right, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +in taking out, from right to left. There is a particular way of getting +out a screw, which is only to be learned by a little practice. The knack +consists in combining with nicety the pressure on the screw-head and the +turning of the driver. The young carpenter will now and then find a very +stubborn screw and fancy it quite impossible to get it out; but by a +little perseverance, he soon finds out the knack of doing it; and what +seemed immoveable yields to his skill and strength. There is one thing +young carpenters frequently do, and that is, to use their chisels for +screw-drivers; the consequence of this is, the spoiling of the chisel, +for the edges are sure to break away.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/level.png" width="200" height="174" alt="Level" title="Level" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="tool">The Level.</span>—Every piece of work should be square and level, except when +it is of a curved form, and then it should be reduced to the principles +of the circle or ellipse. The level is used in putting up posts, +palings, or work of any kind in an upright position. It consists of a +hoard of wood, upon which a string is suspended, having a plummet at the +end of it, which falls along a straight line at a right angle with the +bottom of the level. To obtain a perfect perpendicular and perfect +horizontal, the level is placed on the work till the line falls +exactly over the nick at the top of the hole. The square is principally +applied to things made at the bench, and is used to bring everything +made to a <em>right angle</em>, so that a true level and perpendicular is thus +secured.</p> + + +<h3><a name="STUFF" id="STUFF"></a>STUFF.</h3> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>The young carpenter will find it very difficult to work without stuff. +He ought, therefore, to purchase a deal sawed into planks or boards, +consisting of one three quarters of an inch thick, another one inch +thick, and another half an inch thick. He ought, also, to obtain a slab +not sawed at all, to cut out as occasion may require. He will then be +provided with wood. He must also lay in a stock of various kinds of +nails, screws, rings, hasps, hinges, etc., and, above all, a good +substantial box to keep his tools and other matters in. This should be +divided into compartments, and everything should be arranged in it with +neatness and order.</p> + + +<h3>LABOUR.</h3> + +<p>The young carpenter ought to be fond of work; and to feel a pleasure in +it. Should this be the case, there is scarcely an end to his labours. He +may make his hen-houses, his rabbit-hutches, his summer-houses, his +boxes, seats, rustic-chairs, lattice-work and palings for his garden, +build out-houses, and make book-shelves; in short, amuse himself with +the manufacture of a great variety of things, both for use and ornament, +and of which he may justly be a little proud.</p> + +<p>Such an amusement is infinitely superior to feats of conjuring and +legerdemain, tricks with cards, and impositions of various kinds, which +are put in some books for the amusement of young people, and which are +highly pernicious both to their mental and moral progress.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="KEEPING_POULTRY" id="KEEPING_POULTRY"></a>PART IX.</h2> + +<h2>KEEPING POULTRY.</h2> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>Keeping poultry is an innocent amusement both for boys and girls. +Domesticated animals, unlike the free inhabitants of the country, do not +suffer from the loss of liberty, and when they are well housed, fed, and +attended to, they are as happy in their state of domestication as they +would be in their wild state of liberty; perhaps, more so, and therefore +it is quite right to keep them.</p> + +<p>There is something very pleasant in watching the old hen as she sits so +patiently on her nest, and to see the little birds issue from the eggs, +with the proud but careful mother strutting by them, and scratching and +toiling to obtain them food; and nothing is more touching to a sensitive +mind than to behold her at the least chill of air, or overcasting of the +clouds, calling her young brood under her wings for warmth, shelter, and +security. There are many lessons of good to be learned in fowl-keeping.</p> + +<p>In proceeding to keep poultry, the young poultry-keeper should first +secure a proper place to keep them in. He ought to be able to build, if +not the whole, a great portion of his poultry-house, which need not be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +on a very extensive plan; but there are a certain number of little +requisites belonging to it which ought not to be forgotten.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 389px;"> +<img src="images/poultry.png" width="389" height="306" alt="Keeping Poultry" title="Keeping Poultry" /> +</div> + + +<h3><a name="NATURE_AND_SITUATION_OF_FOWL-HOUSE" id="NATURE_AND_SITUATION_OF_FOWL-HOUSE"></a>NATURE AND SITUATION OF FOWL-HOUSE.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;"> +<img src="images/fowlside.png" width="251" height="256" alt="Side View" title="Side View" /> +<span class="caption">Side View.</span> +</div> + +<p>The situation of a fowl-house should be such as to afford sun and warmth +in winter and spring, and shade in summer. It should be well covered in +at the top, free from damp, have good ventilation and light, with +windows of lattice-work, with boards behind to open and shut. It should +be placed against a wall with a slanting roof. The side should contain +one latticed window (<span class="figref">A</span>); the front, also, a latticed window (<span class="figref">B</span>), with a +hatch-door,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> partly latticed and partly boarded at the side. A little +door for the fowls should communicate with a fowl-yard, as seen below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;"> +<img src="images/fowlfront.png" width="376" height="263" alt="Front View" title="Front View" /> +<span class="caption">Front View.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 497px;"> +<img src="images/fowlyard.png" width="497" height="146" alt="Fowl Yard" title="Fowl Yard" /> +</div> + +<p>The above is a sketch of the ground-plan of the house and fowl-yard. H +is the fowl house. No. 1 is a small pit filled with dry sand and ashes, +in which the fowls may roll to free themselves from vermin. No. 2 is +another small trench or pit, containing horse-dung and rubbish of +various kinds, to be frequently renewed, in which they may amuse +themselves in scraping for corn and worms. No. 3 is a square of turf, on +which they may pasture and amuse themselves. Two or three trees ought to +be planted in the middle of the run, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> these might be cherry or +mulberry trees, as they are very fond of the fruit. Nos. 4 & 5 are two +little stone tanks for water, and No. 6 is a pond for the ducks, in case +it should be thought advisable to keep such, which I should strongly +recommend to be done.</p> + +<p>Within the fowl-house there must be perches put up for the fowls to +roost on. These should be placed one above another at the corner, and so +disposed, that one range of birds does not sit quite under the other, +for reasons which need not be explained. At the bottom of the +fowl-house, but not under the perches, should be placed the nest boxes, +from four to six, as may be required, in which straw should be placed +for the hens to make their nests with. The fowl-house and everything +about it should be kept scrupulously clean, and be frequently +white-washed; and it is good, occasionally, to fumigate the house by +burning herbs, and juniper and cedar woods.</p> + + +<h3><a name="THE_VARIOUS_BREEDS_OF_FOWLS" id="THE_VARIOUS_BREEDS_OF_FOWLS"></a>THE VARIOUS BREEDS OF FOWLS.</h3> + +<p>These are very numerous, and are becoming more so every day. Among them +are the following:—</p> + +<h4>The Dorking Breed.</h4> + +<p>So named from the town of Dorking in Surrey. It is one of the largest of +our fowls. It is of an entire white colour, and has five claws upon each +foot, <em>generally</em>, for some have not. They are good layers, and their +flesh is plump. They make excellent capons.</p> + +<h4>Poland Breed.</h4> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>The Poland fowls are greatly esteemed, but they are seldom to be met +with pure in this country. They were originally imported from Holland. +Their colour is shining black, with white tufts on the head of both cock +and hen, springing from a fleshy protuberance or "King David's crown," +the celestial in heraldry. This breed lay a great quantity of eggs, and +are sometimes called "everlasting layers." They quickly fatten, and are +good eating.</p> + +<h4>Spanish Breed.</h4> + +<p>The Spanish fowl, with the Hamburg and Chittagong, is a very large fowl, +laying large eggs, and all seem more or less allied to the Polish +family. They are well adapted for capons, and produce eggs nearly equal +in size to those of the Malay hens. This breed is now common, +particularly in London.</p> + +<h4>Bantams.</h4> + +<p>This breed is small, but very beautiful. It came originally from India. +They are frequently feathered to the toes; but booted legs are not +exclusively peculiar to Bantams, for Bantam fanciers, with Sir John +Sebright at their head, prefer those which have clean bright legs +without any feathers. The full-bred Bantam-cock should not weigh more +than a pound. He should have a rose comb, a well-feathered tail, and a +proud lively carriage. The Nankeen coloured and the black are the +greatest favourites. The Nankeen bird should have his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> feathers edged +with black, his wings bordered with purple, his tail-feathers black, his +hackles slightly studded with purple, and his breast black, with white +edges to the feathers. The hen should be small, clean-legged, and match +in plumage with the cock. For young persons, Bantams are the best kinds +of fowls to be kept, as they make but little dirt, and are very gentle +and pretty.</p> + + +<h3><a name="CHOICE_OF_STOCK" id="CHOICE_OF_STOCK"></a>CHOICE OF STOCK.</h3> + +<p>In commencing fowl-keeping, it is important to choose young and healthy +sorts. There should be a two year old cock, and pullets in their first +year. In choosing them, we should note that the comb is red and healthy, +the eyes bright and dry, and the nostrils free from any moisture. The +indications of old age or sickness are paleness of the comb and gills, +dulness of colour, a sort of stiffness in the down and feathers, +increased length of talons, loose and prominent scales on the legs.</p> + +<p>There should be from four to six hens to one cock, the latter being the +extreme number; and the conduct of the cock towards the hens should be +watched, for if he should be of a sulky, selfish, persecuting and +domineering disposition, the hens will be unhappy, and he ought to have +his neck wrung, as a just reward for selfishness and tyranny.</p> + + +<h3><a name="FOOD_AND_FEEDING" id="FOOD_AND_FEEDING"></a>FOOD AND FEEDING.</h3> + +<p>Fowls must be well fed, but they should not have too much. Over-feeding +is as bad for fowls as for men.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> They ought not to be fed with stale or +bad corn, but of the best, and now and then with a little buck-wheat; +with cabbage, mangold-wurzel leaves, and parsley, which should be +chopped fine. Where they are likely to be stinted for insect food, small +pieces of meat chopped up should occasionally be added to their food.</p> + +<p>On the floor of the fowl-house, a little sand should be occasionally +spread, and sandy gravel should be placed in the corners. The small +sharp stones found in gravel are absolutely necessary to fowls, as they +are picked up by the birds and find their way into the gizzard, where +they perform the part of mill-stones in grinding the corn.</p> + + +<h3><a name="LAYING" id="LAYING"></a>LAYING.</h3> + +<p>The early period of spring, and after a cessation at the end of summer, +are the two periods at which fowls begin to lay. When the period of +laying approaches, it is known by the redness of the comb in the hen, +the brightness of her eyes, and her frequent clucking. She appears +restless, and scratches and arranges the straw in her laying place, and +at last begins to lay. She generally prefers to lay in a nest where +there is one or more eggs; hence it is of use to put a chalk egg into +the nest you wish her to settle on.</p> + +<p>The eggs ought to be taken from the nest every afternoon, when no more +are expected to be laid, for if left in the nest, the heat of the hens +when laying each day will tend to corrupt them. Some hens will lay only +one egg in three days, some every other day, and some every day.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>To promote laying, good food in moderate quantities should be given to +the hens, and also clean water. A hen well fed and attended to, will +produce upwards of one hundred and fifty eggs in a year, besides two +broods of chickens. Some half-bred game hens begin to lay as soon as +their chickens are three weeks old.</p> + + +<h3><a name="PRESERVATION_OF_EGGS" id="PRESERVATION_OF_EGGS"></a>PRESERVATION OF EGGS.</h3> + +<p>To preserve eggs fresh for a length of time, it is only necessary to rub +each egg with a small piece of butter, which need not be larger than a +pea, or the tip of the finger may be dipped in a saucer of oil and +passed over the shell in the same way. Eggs may be thus preserved for +nine months.</p> + + +<h3><a name="HATCHING_CHICKENS" id="HATCHING_CHICKENS"></a>HATCHING CHICKENS.</h3> + +<p>The eggs given to the hen to hatch must be perfectly fresh; they should +be large in size, the produce of the most beautiful birds, well shaped, +and the number put under the hen should vary according to her size, and +may be from nine to thirteen eggs; odd numbers, old housewives say, are +the <em>luckiest</em>.</p> + +<p>When a hen wants to sit, she makes a particular kind of clucking, and +goes to her nest. Here she fixes herself for a period of three weeks, at +the end of which time, the young chickens break the eggs and come out +perfect beings. They run about as soon almost as they are out of the +egg, and in twenty-four hours will take food.</p> + +<p>On the first day of their birth, chickens require nothing but warmth, +and they must be kept under the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> mother in the nest. The next day, they +may be put under a coop and fed with crumbs of bread soaked in milk, a +few chicken's groats being added, and the yolks of eggs boiled hard. +After being kept warm under the coop with the mother for five or six +days, they may then be turned a little in the sun, towards the middle of +the day, and fed with boiled barley mixed with curds, and a few +pot-herbs chopped up. At the end of a fortnight, they may be left +entirely to the care of the mother, who will be sure to perform her +duty.</p> + +<p>Such are the principal particulars regarding the keeping of fowls. There +are many books written on the subject: one of the best of them is called +the "Poultry-yard," which may be consulted for further information.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;"> +<img src="images/tail-ix.png" width="277" height="101" alt="Tailpiece" title="Tailpiece" /> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="BEES" id="BEES"></a>PART X.</h2> + +<h2>BEES.</h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 413px;"> +<img src="images/bees.png" width="413" height="372" alt="Bees" title="Bees" /> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>Any humane person must be unwilling to keep what may be termed "pets," +when, as is very often the case, they are taken from the freedom which +nature has given them, to be pent up in cages, hutches, and round-about +boxes. It is not a part of good moral training to encourage children to +deprive anything of liberty, and the keeping of rabbits, guinea-pigs, +birds, gold and silver fish, white mice, pigeons and squirrels, is not +only attended with a vast deal of trouble and expense, but with a great +many bad smells, filth, and dirt. Such matters, have, therefore, been +excluded from this volume, as being by no means calculated to improve +either the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> minds or morals of young persons, but rather to have a +contrary tendency.</p> + +<p>These objections do not, however, lie against the keeping of <em>bees</em>, +which afford at all times lessons of industry, of order, of contrivance, +of perseverance, and of many other virtues, which are great ornaments to +little boys and girls, as well as to grown men and women. We shall, +therefore, give as copious an account of this interesting insect as we +can, and, at the same time, show the best methods of managing it with +advantage to its possessor.</p> + +<p>Bee is the English name for an extensive <em>genera</em> of insects,—<em>apis</em> or +the section <em>anthophla</em> or <em>mellifera</em> of modern classification. The +common domestic bee, of which it is now our business to treat, is the +<em>apis mellifica</em> of Linnæus; and it may be as well to state, for the +guidance of the young reader, that the Hive-bee is distinguished from +all other species of bees,—by having the shanks of the hind legs +furnished with a smooth and concave pollen-plate on the outer surface, +and destitute of spines at the extremity,—by the basal joint of the +<em>torsi</em> in the working bees, of an oblong form, with its inner surface +clothed with fine hairs, disposed in transverse layers,—by the oblong +shape of its body,—and by the feelers at the sheath of the tongue being +almost obsolete and formed of a single point.</p> + +<p>The Hive-bee may be regarded as one of the most perfectly social species +of insects, and one whose economy is regulated by the possession of a +more remarkable degree of instinct than is perhaps possessed by any +other insect. Another peculiarity regarding bees is, that there are not +simply males and females among them, but mules or workers, or female +non-breeders, as they have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> been termed, which constitute the great mass +of the population of a hive. They are smaller, as regards size, than the +males or the female bees, and it is to them that the internal economy of +the hive is committed, and upon them the whole labour of the community +devolves. Moreover, it is their duty to guard and protect the hive and +the queen, to feed the young, and to kill the drones at the appointed +time.</p> + +<p>In a single hive there are sometimes not fewer than thirty thousand of +these individuals. They are distinguished from the breeding females by +having a longer lip, the jaws not notched at the tip, and the sting +straight. The male bees, of which there are several hundreds, sometimes +even two thousand in a full hive, are idle creatures, doing no work. +They are generally termed <em>drones</em>, and they are of a more bulky size +than the other bees, and they are not armed with a sting.</p> + +<p>Such are the inhabitants of the hive; the chief products of which are +bees-wax and honey. The former is secreted by the worker-bees, by a +peculiar apparatus on the under side of the belly, as occasion requires, +and is employed for constructing the combs in which the family provision +and the young brood are deposited.</p> + +<p>Honey is obtained by bees from the <em>nectaries</em> of flowers, which, it is +well known, are constantly secreting a sweet thick fluid. This is sucked +up by the tongue of the insect, and a portion of it is consumed at once +for its support, but the greater part of the supply, although taken into +the stomach of the bee, is again brought up (regurgitated, to use a hard +word), and poured into the cells of the hives for the food of the grubs +and the use of the community through the winter.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/queen.png" width="200" height="184" alt="Queen Bee" title="Queen Bee" /> +<span class="caption">Queen Bee.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/drone.png" width="200" height="149" alt="Drone" title="Drone" /> +<span class="caption">Drone.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>The cells into which the honey is poured for store are placed in the +most inaccessible parts of the hive, and are fitted with waxen lids, but +the honey destined for the use of the <em>nurses</em>, <em>workers</em>, and <em>drones</em>, +is deposited in unclosed cells. In each honey-cell there is a cream-like +layer or covering of a thicker consistency than the honey itself. This +layer is perforated by the bee with its fore-legs, and is closed before +the bee flies away.</p> + +<p>Having thus noticed the inhabitants of the hive, we will now turn our +attention to the hive itself. The most profound philosopher, as well as +the most incurious observer, is struck with astonishment on inspecting +the interior of a bee-hive. He beholds a city in miniature. He sees this +city divided into regular streets; and these streets composed of houses +constructed on the most exact geometrical principles and the most +symmetrical plan; some serving as store-houses for food, others for the +habitations of the citizens, and a few, much more extensive than the +rest, destined for the palace of their sovereign. He perceives that the +substance of which the city is built, is one which man with all his +skill is unable to fabricate, and that the edifices in which it is +employed are such as the most expert architect would find himself +incompetent to erect.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>The nest, as constructed by the insects, consists of a continued series +of combs, arranged vertically, each of which consists of a vast number +of cells, forming two ranges backed against each other, and, +consequently, placed in a horizontal position. A sufficient space is +left between each of these double layers of cells to allow a couple of +bees, engaged upon the opposite cells, to work without incommoding each +other. In addition to these spaces, the combs are perforated in various +places, so as to allow the bees a passage from one street to another, +thus saving them much time. But it is in the construction of the cells +themselves that the most admirable instinct is displayed. Geometricians +are aware, that in order to occupy a given space with solid objects of +equal size and similar form, without any useless interstices, three +figures only can be adopted, namely, the equilateral triangle + +<span class="figinline" style="width: 24px;"> +<img src="images/triangle.png" width="24" height="20" alt="Triangle" title="Triangle" /> +</span> + +, the square or cube + +<span class="figinline" style="width: 19px;"> +<img src="images/square.png" width="19" height="20" alt="Square" title="Square" /> +</span> + +, and the regular hexagon + +<span class="figinline" style="width: 25px;"> +<img src="images/hexagon.png" width="25" height="20" alt="Hexagon" title="Hexagon" /> +</span> + +. Of these three geometrical figures, the hexagon +most completely unites.</p> + +<p>It is a remarkable circumstance, that in a new colony the design of +every comb is sketched out, and the first rudiments laid, by a single +bee, which having disengaged itself from the swarm, commences the +building of cells, which is then taken up by the other wax-makers, and, +subsequently, by the nurse bees, which give the finishing stroke to the +cells; and so quick are the bees at their work, that a comb, +twenty-seven inches long, by seven or eight inches wide, is built in +four and twenty hours, and in five or six days they will fill the hive. +The combs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> are attached to the roof and sides of the dwelling,—the +hives or boxes to the floors and roofs.</p> + +<p>There are three sorts of cells: the first one for the larvæ of workers, +and for containing the honey,—these are of the ordinary form; the +second are for the grubs of the males or drones, being considerably +larger and more substantial,—they usually appear near the bottom of the +combs; the third are the cells for the females, of which there are +usually three or four, and these are generally attached to the ceiling +part of the comb, having very little wax in their composition. One of +these cells considerably exceeds in height the ordinary ones, and they +are not interwoven with them, but suspended perpendicularly, their sizes +being nearly parallel to the mouths of the common cells, several of +which are sacrificed to support them. After the queen bee has quitted +her cell, it is destroyed by the workers, and its place occupied by a +range of common cells. The queen bee deposits her eggs separately at the +bottom of each cell: the egg is of a lengthened oval shape, with a +slight curve, and of a bluish colour. The worker's eggs, which are the +only ones laid by the queen during the first eleven months, hatch in a +few days, and become little white maggots. Each is now fed with bee +bread by the workers, very assiduously, and, at the expiration of six +days, having attained its full size, it is roofed in by the workers, +spins a silken cocoon, which occupies it for thirty-six hours, and then +becomes a nymph or pupa, and, eleven days after this, quits its case, +eats through the roof of the cell, and comes forth a perfect working +bee.</p> + +<p>For nearly twelve months, the queen bee deposits only workers' eggs; +after which period, however, she<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> commences laying those of drones. As +soon as this change takes place, the workers begin to construct the +royal cells, in which, without discontinuing to lay male eggs, she +deposits now and then, about once in three days, an egg destined to +produce a future queen. The food of the royal grubs has been termed +"royal jelly." It is a pungent food prepared by the workers for the +express purpose of feeding the grubs that are to be future queens, and +is more stimulating than the food given to the common grubs.</p> + +<p>Should it happen, as is sometimes the case, that the queen bee be +killed, or the hive in any manner be deprived during the first eleven +months of her existence, and before she has deposited any royal eggs, +the most extraordinary circumstances occur. After a little while, a +hubbub commences, work is abandoned, the whole hive is in an uproar, +every bee traverses the hive at random, with the most evident want of +purpose. This state of confusion sometimes continues for several days, +then the bees gather in knots and clusters of a dozen or so, as though +engaged in consultation; shortly after which, a resolution appears to +have been taken by the whole population. Some of the workers select +one of the worker-eggs, which had been previously deposited by the lost +sovereign. Three cells are thrown into one for its reception,—the eggs +in the two other cells being destroyed. The grub when hatched is fed +with the royal jelly, and a queen is produced. Even if the grub had been +hatched and partly fed as a worker, and had only received two or three +days' allowance of the royal food, the result would be the same,—they +emerge from the pupa perfect queens whereas, had they remained in the +cells which they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> originally inhabited, they would have turned out +workers.</p> + +<p>We now come to that period of the year when the queen insects, having +undergone the change to the pupa state, are nearly ready to burst into +life. It is now that the old queen mother, losing all her parental +feelings, becomes infuriated: she rushes to the cells wherein are +deposited the future queens, and instantly begins to tear them open. The +guards which surround the cells make way for her approach, and suffer +her to act as she pleases, whereupon she slaughters the inmates with her +sting, without remorse, and, after a short time, a great portion of the +working bees accompanying her, rushes out of the hive, and seeks another +dwelling. This is called "swarming."</p> + +<p>Something very like concerted action and foresight seems to belong to +these proceedings. It is always in calm weather, when the sky is serene, +between nine in the morning and four in the afternoon, when they quit +their habitation. After flying about for some time in a cluster, by +degrees they fix themselves on a branch, form a group there by hooking +themselves one to another with their feet, and remain perfectly +tranquil. Then it is that the proprietor may secure them, and form a new +colony.</p> + +<p>In this manner several swarmings take place in the course of the summer +between the months of April and August. A good stock of bees usually +produces three swarms in a favourable season: each swarm containing not +only the young bees recently hatched, but also a portion of the old +inhabitants. The duration of life of the different individuals is +various: the male bees only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> live a few months, the workers only one or +two years, and the queen only four or five. Such is, in brief, the +birth, parentage, education, life, character, and behaviour of the +honey-bee, and it will be only necessary now to say a few words +regarding the management of these insects, with a view to instruction, +amusement, and profit.</p> + + +<h3>HOW TO GET A STOCK OF BEES.</h3> + +<p>They must be purchased, and the purchaser must take care and procure +them of some one upon whom he may depend. This will save a great deal of +trouble. The hive should be weighed before and after a swarm is placed +in it, and a note kept of its weight, a judgment may then be formed of +the quantity of honey it contains in the autumn.</p> + +<p>The hives should be sheltered by a wall, a hedge, or a tuft of trees, in +order that the bees may get to the door of the hives with ease. This +they cannot do if there are gusts of air sweeping round it, in which +case, numbers of them will fall to the ground about the hive, from +which, perhaps, they will not be able to rise before the chill and damp +of the evening comes on and destroys them.</p> + +<p>There must be water near the hives, as the working bees drink a great +deal in the spring, and they are very fond of walking along straws which +float in the water and sipping as much as they want. The door of the +hive should look towards the forenoon sun, and the hive should not be +raised above eighteen inches from the ground.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>We will now suppose that your bees have laid up their winter store, and +that you wish to share it with them. We say share it, because we do not +suppose you are so cruel and foolish as to wish to kill your bees. You +might as well kill a cow for the purpose of getting milk. The more bees +you have, the more honey,—that is certain.</p> + +<p>About the latter end of September, the flowering season is over, and few +flowers remain for the bees to get honey from. This is the best time to +ascertain what honey they can spare; therefore, weigh every hive, and +deduct from it the weight of the hive and the bees, as ascertained when +the swarm entered it at first, as above directed.</p> + +<p>To live through the winter, a hive must have at least sixteen pounds of +honey, and if you wish it to swarm early, it ought to have twenty-five +or even thirty pounds.</p> + +<p>When you determine on taking away the honey from a hive, either for your +own use or for distributing it to other hives, proceed as follows:—</p> + +<p>The first fine calm morning after the honey season is over, go to your +hive provided with a tobacco-pipe in your mouth, a large dish for the +honey in one hand, and a long knife with the point bent, and a goose or +turkey feather in your other. Blow two or three full puffs of smoke in +at the door, then turn the hive upside down on the ground, so as to +stand steadily, and immediately give the bees, who will collect on the +edge of the comb to see what is going on, a little more smoke. This will +stupify them so completely, that not above one or two will be able to +fly out, and they will be so sick, that they will not dream of stinging +you. Begin at one side<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> of the hive, and cut out a comb, having first +sent down a puff of smoke to make the bees go away to the middle and the +other side. Proceed thus,—sweeping the bees off every comb back into +the hive with the feather, till you come to the centre comb. The only +nicety consists in blowing away the bees to prevent any of them being +crushed. If the operation be neatly done, scarcely any bees will be +killed. Take the hive now and replace it on its stand as before.</p> + +<p>The next thing to be done is to join the bees, from which the honey has +been so taken, to another hive in which you wish them to be +accommodated, which may be done as follows:—In the evening, if you look +into the hive which has been deprived of its honey, you will find all +the bees hanging in the centre, just like a new swarm. Bring the hive +near the one to which they are to be joined,—get about a table spoonful +of raw honey or syrup, so thin as to pour easily, and have it in a jug +beside the hive which is to receive the strangers,—blow a few whiffs of +tobacco smoke in the door of the hive, then turn it up and give them an +additional puff or two, and pour the honey or syrup from the jug all +over the bees between the combs, so that they may be quite smeared over. +Then spread a clean linen cloth on the ground in front of the hive, with +one edge of it placed on the floor of the hive and secured there by two +stones, to prevent its falling, and which will also serve to keep the +hive a little raised from its floor on that side; now replace the hive +so that the edge of the cloth may be under it while the two stones keep +it raised about an inch; next take the hive containing the bees, hold it +steadily over the cloth, and by one sudden blow, knock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> out all the bees +upon the cloth in a lump. They will immediately begin to climb up and +enter the new hive. If they were to be united without previously +smearing one of them with honey or syrup, the chance is, that half of +both hives would be killed by fighting.</p> + +<p>Hives may be either of straw or wood. Bees thrive equally well in +either. In winter the hives should be placed in a northern exposure, or, +at any rate, the sun should not be allowed to shine too much on them, as +it entices the bees out, who often perish by sudden cold.</p> + +<p>You ought to keep at least three hives: Nos. 1, 2 & 3. No. 1 is the +first or old one, say, of last year; Nos. 2 & 3 of this year's swarming, +and these must be so managed as to supply you with honey and the bees +with food. This is well explained in a little book called the "Farmer," +which those who wish to keep bees ought to study.</p> + +<p>Such are the most important facts regarding the bee and its management. +There are many little works on the subject to be obtained, but the few +directions in the work above named will be ample information for the +young bee-breeder, and ensuring him lots of honey, lots of lessons of +economy, and lots of amusement.</p> + + +<div class="the_end">THE END.</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div class="printer">J. WERTHEIMER AND CO., CIRCUS PLACE, FINSBURY CIRCUS.</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Sports:, by William Martin + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SPORTS: *** + +***** This file should be named 25068-h.htm or 25068-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/0/6/25068/ + +Produced by David Edwards, Chris Logan and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by Florida's Publication of Archival, Library & Museum +Materials (PALMM)) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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