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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Sports:, by William Martin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Book of Sports:
+       Containing Out-door Sports, Amusements and Recreations,
+       Including Gymnastics, Gardening & Carpentering
+
+Author: William Martin
+
+Release Date: April 14, 2008 [EBook #25068]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SPORTS: ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Edwards, Chris Logan and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by Florida's Publication of Archival, Library & Museum
+Materials (PALMM))
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+BOOK OF SPORTS:
+
+CONTAINING
+OUT-DOOR SPORTS,
+AMUSEMENTS AND RECREATIONS,
+INCLUDING
+GYMNASTICS, GARDENING & CARPENTERING,
+
+For Boys and Girls.
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM MARTIN,
+AUTHOR OF "FIRESIDE PHILOSOPHY," "THE PARLOUR BOOK,"
+"INTELLECTUAL CALCULATOR," ETC. ETC. ETC.
+
+SECOND EDITION.
+
+LONDON:
+DARTON AND CO., HOLBORN HILL.
+
+M.DCCC.LII.
+
+J. WERTHEIMER AND CO., PRINTERS, FINSBURY CIRCUS.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  PREFACE                                                   vii
+
+
+  I. GAMES WITH MARBLES.
+    Ring Taw                                                  9
+    Lag Out or Knock Out                                     10
+    Three Holes                                              12
+    Arches                                                   13
+    Bonce-Eye                                                13
+    Sun and Planet Taw                                       15
+    Pyramid                                                  19
+
+
+  II. GAMES FOR COLD WEATHER.
+    Prisoners' Base                                          21
+    Stag Out                                                 22
+    Warning                                                  23
+    Mouse in the Corner                                      23
+    King of the Castle                                       24
+    Hippas                                                   24
+    Thread the Needle                                        24
+    Touch                                                    25
+    Bowls                                                    26
+    Quoits                                                   27
+    Why and Because                                          27
+    Bombardment of a Snow Castle                             29
+    Bandy Ball or Golf                                       31
+    Foot Ball                                                32
+    Trussing                                                 32
+    Follow my Leader                                         33
+    Blindman's Buff                                          33
+    Tip-Cat                                                  34
+    Jingling                                                 35
+    French and English                                       36
+
+
+  III. DANGEROUS GAMES.
+    Heap the Bushel                                          37
+    Drawing the Oven                                         37
+    Hop-Scotch                                               38
+    Basting the Bear                                         38
+    Buck, Buck                                               38
+
+
+  IV. GYMNASTICS.                                            39
+    Walking                                                  44
+    Running                                                  45
+    Leaping                                                  46
+    Climbing                                                 49
+    Rope Ladder                                              50
+    Slant Board                                              50
+    Vaulting                                                 50
+    Balancing                                                51
+
+
+  V. CRICKET.                                                55
+    Laws of the Game of Double Wicket                        59
+    The Bowler                                               61
+    The Striker                                              62
+    The Wicket-Keeper                                        64
+    Laws for Single Wicket                                   65
+    Bets                                                     67
+
+
+  VI. SWIMMING.                                              69
+    Preliminary Exercises in Swimming                        78
+    Bernardi's System                                        83
+
+
+  VII. GARDENING.                                            89
+    How to keep a Garden all the year round, with
+      directions for each month                             105
+
+
+  VIII. CARPENTERING.                                       115
+    Uses of the various Tools:--Plane, Chisel Gimlet,
+      Mallet, Hammer, Files and Nails.                      116
+    Stuff and Labour                                        121
+
+
+  IX. KEEPING POULTRY.                                      123
+    Nature and Situation of Fowl-House                      124
+    The Various Breeds of Fowl                              126
+    Choice of Stock                                         128
+    Food and Feeding                                        128
+    Laying                                                  129
+    Preservation of Eggs                                    129
+    Hatching Chickens                                       130
+
+
+  X. BEES.                                                  131
+    Queen Bee.--Drone.--Construction of Nests.--How
+      to get a Stock of Bees.--Hiving                       134
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The prime object of this book is to induce and to teach boys and girls
+to spend their hours out of school in such a manner, as to gain innocent
+enjoyment while they promote their own health and bodily strength. The
+Author has never lost sight of this object, considering it to be what
+properly belongs to a Book of Sports.
+
+He has, however, in many instances, had in view, in a subordinate
+degree, the intellectual improvement of his young readers. He hopes that
+several of the games, now described in print for the first time, will be
+found, if not "royal roads," at least delightful ones, to the knowledge
+of many scientific facts. There seems to be no good reason why the
+_utile_ (considered intellectually as well as bodily) should not find
+its place in the sports of young people, if it be so skilfully combined
+with the _dulce_ as not to convert pleasure into toil.
+
+To those who assent to what has been stated, the introduction of a
+chapter on gardening will need no apology.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+GAMES WITH MARBLES.
+
+
+One of the best games with marbles is
+
+RING TAW.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This is played in the following manner:--A circle should be drawn about
+four feet in diameter, and an inner circle of about six inches being
+also marked out in its centre, into this each boy puts a marble. "Now
+then, boys, knuckle down at the offing, which is in any part of the
+outer circle. Now, whoever shoots a marble out of the ring is entitled
+to go on again: so mind your shots; a good shot may clear the ring.
+After the first shot, the players do not shoot from the offing, but from
+the place where the marble stops after it has been shot from the
+knuckle. Every marble struck out of the ring belongs to the party who
+hits it; but if the taw remains in the inner ring, either after it has
+struck a marble or not, the player is out, and must put in all the
+marbles he has won. If one player strike another player's taw, the
+player to whom the taw belongs is out; and he must give up all the
+marbles he has won to the player whose taw struck his."
+
+
+LAG OUT OR KNOCK OUT.
+
+This game is played by throwing a marble against the wall, which
+rebounds to a distance. Others then follow; and the boy whose marble
+strikes against any of the others is the winner. Some boys play the game
+in a random manner; but the boy who plays with skill judges nicely of
+the law of forces, that is, he calculates exactly the force of the
+rebound, and the direction of it.
+
+The first law of motion is, that everything preserves a state of rest,
+or of uniform rectilineal (that is, straight, motion), unless affected
+by some moving force.
+
+Second law.--Every change of motion is always proportioned to the degree
+of the moving force by which it is produced, and it is made in the line
+of direction in which that force is impressed.
+
+Third law.--Action and reaction are always equal and contrary, or the
+mutual action of two bodies upon each other are always equal and
+directed to contrary parts.
+
+To illustrate the first of these laws,--a marble will never move from
+the ground of itself, and once put in motion, it will preserve that
+motion until some other power operates upon it in a contrary direction.
+
+With regard to playing Lag Out so as to win, you must further understand
+the principle of reflected motion. If you throw your marble in a
+straight line against the wall, you find that it comes back to you
+nearly in a straight line again. If you throw it ever so slightly on one
+side, or obliquely, it will fly off obliquely on the opposite side. If
+you throw the marble from the point C to the point B, it will fly off in
+the direction of the point A, and if a marble lay there it would hit it;
+but if you threw it from the point D, you would stand no chance.
+
+         WALL
+  _________________
+          B
+         /|\
+        / | \
+       /  |  \
+      /   |   \
+     /    |    \
+    /     |     \
+   /      |      \
+  /       |       \
+  C       D        A
+
+In science, the angle C, B, D, is called the angle of incidence, and D,
+B, A, is called the angle of reflection.
+
+
+THREE HOLES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Three Holes is not a bad game. To play it, you must make three small
+holes about four feet apart: then the first shot tries to shoot a marble
+into the first hole. If he gets in, he goes from that to the second, and
+then to the third hole, after which he returns, and having passed up and
+down three times, he thus wins the game. If he cannot get in the first
+hole, the second player tries; and when he stops short at a hole, the
+third, and so on. After any player has shot his marble into a hole, he
+may fire at any adversary's marble to drive him away, and, if he hits
+him, he has a right to shoot again, either for the hole or any other
+player. The game is won by the player who gets first into the last hole
+and works his way back again to the first, when he takes all his
+adversaries' marbles.
+
+
+ARCHES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+To play arches, the players must be provided with a board of the
+following shape, with arches cut therein; each arch being a little more
+than the diameter of a marble, and each space between the arches the
+same.
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------+
+  |                                               |
+  |   8    6    5    3    1    2    4    7    9   |
+  |  +-+  +-+  +-+  +-+  +-+  +-+  +-+  +-+  +-+  |
+  |  | |  | |  | |  | |  | |  | |  | |  | |  | |  |
+  +--+ +--+ +--+ +--+ +--+ +--+ +--+ +--+ +--+ +--+
+
+The boy to whom the bridge belongs receives a marble from each boy who
+shoots, and gives to each the number of marbles over the arches should
+they pass through them.
+
+
+BONCE-EYE.
+
+Bonce-Eye is played by each player putting down a marble within a small
+ring, and dropping from the eye another marble upon them so as to drive
+them out, those driven out being the property of the Boncer.
+
+The law of falling bodies may be well illustrated by this game. It is
+one of the laws of motion, that the velocities of _falling bodies_ are
+in proportion to the space passed over; and the space passed over in
+each instant increases in _arithmetical progression_, or as the numbers
+1, 3, 5, 7, 9.
+
+                  A
+                /|
+               /1|
+              /__|B
+            /|\ 3|
+           /3|3\ |
+          /__|__\|C
+        /|\ 5|\ 5|
+       /5|5\ |5\ |
+      /__|__\|__\|D
+    /|\ 7|\ 7|\ 7|
+   /7|7\ |7\ |7\ |
+  /__|__\|__\|__\|E
+
+By the annexed diagram it will be seen, that if a marble fall from the
+hand at A, when it reaches B it has only the quantity of velocity or
+force expressed in the angle 1; but when it passes to C, it has the
+quantity expressed in the three angles 3; when it passes to D, it has
+the quantity expressed in the angle 5; when it passes to E, it has the
+quantity expressed by the seven angles marked 7. Thus we may understand
+why a tall boy has a better chance at Bonce-Eye than a short one.
+
+It is found by experiment, that a body falling from a height moves at
+the rate of 16-1/12 feet in the first second; and acquires a velocity of
+twice that, or 32-1/6 feet, in a second. At the end of the next second,
+it will have fallen 64-1/3 feet; the space being as the square of the
+time. The square of 2 is 4; and 4 times 16-1/12 is 64-1/3; by the same
+rule, it will be found, that in the third second it will fall 144-3/4
+feet; in the fourth second, 257-1/3; and so on. This is to be
+understood, however, as referring to bodies falling where there is no
+air. The air has a considerable effect in diminishing their velocity of
+descent.
+
+
+SUN AND THE PLANET TAW.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This is an entirely new game, and consists of the Sun in the centre,
+which may be represented by a bullet, because the sun is the most
+ponderous body of the system, and will in this game be required to move
+slowly. The planets moving round him, with their satellites, I represent
+by marbles. Now, each boy must take the place of a planet; and having
+taken it, he is required to put down as many marbles as there are
+satellites belonging to it. The boy who plays Mercury, puts down only
+one for his planet; the boy who plays Venus does the same; he who plays
+the Earth, has to put down one for the Earth, and one for the Moon, its
+satellite; the boy who plays Mars puts down Mars and the four satellites
+that lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter; the boy who plays
+Saturn puts down one for the planet, and draws a ring round it, outside
+of which he puts the seven satellites in any position he chooses; the
+boy who plays the planet Herschel, puts down one for the planet, and six
+for the satellites. Each boy, having taken his place in this manner,
+lays down his taw on any part of the orbit of his planet he pleases,
+being the point from which he must make his first shot.
+
+The rules of the game are very easy; but it is necessary to be perfectly
+acquainted with them, as it saves much trouble, and prevents disputes;
+and no one ought to play till he understands them tolerably well.
+
+1. The players must each put his marble into a hat, and turn down the
+hat over the sun; then, as the marbles fall near or far from the sun,
+the planets are taken.
+
+2. The player who puts in Mercury has the first shot.
+
+3. No planet can be taken till the Sun has been struck beyond the orbit
+of Mercury.
+
+4. The player who strikes the Sun beyond the orbit of Mercury, receives
+from the person who holds the orbit, as many marbles as there are
+planets or satellites in the orbit in which it stops.
+
+5. The orbits are,--for Mercury, all the space between the Sun and him;
+for Venus, the space between Venus and Mercury; for the Earth, the space
+between the Earth and Venus; for Mars, the space between Mars and the
+Earth; for Jupiter, the space between Jupiter and Mars; for Saturn, the
+space between Saturn and Jupiter; for Herschel, the space between
+Herschel and Saturn.
+
+6. If a player succeeds in knocking the Sun on the line of his own
+orbit, he receives one from every shooter so long as it remains there.
+
+7. If the Sun is knocked against a planet, the player doing so has to
+pay two to the owner of the planet.
+
+8. If the Sun be struck within the orbit of a planet, the player
+striking it receives one if for Herschel, two for Saturn, three for
+Jupiter, four for Mars, five for the earth, six for Venus, and seven for
+Mercury.
+
+9. The player who succeeds in knocking the Sun beyond the orbit of
+Herschel, wins the game; that is, he receives one from each player, and
+all the marbles on the stake in the inner circle.
+
+
+MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS AND THEIR SATELLITES.
+
+10. When a planet is knocked out of the outer ring (the orbit of
+Herschel), it belongs to him who strikes it out: the loser must replace
+it by putting a marble down in its _original_ place.
+
+11. When a planet is struck within the orbit of any other planet, the
+player striking it there has to pay him to whom the orbit belongs, as
+many marbles as there are satellites.
+
+12. Should a player's taw, after it has struck another taw, a planet, or
+a satellite, fall into its own orbit, he has to put one in the inner
+ring as stakes for the winner of the game.
+
+13. If a player gets his taw within the inner ring, it must remain there
+for the winner, and he cannot play any more.
+
+14. If a player has all his satellites taken, he then becomes a Comet,
+and can shoot from any part of any of the orbits every time the Sun is
+struck.
+
+15. No player can shoot at his own planet or satellite.
+
+16. Any player who strikes a planet or satellite within Saturn's ring,
+forfeits three to the inner circle. If he strikes the Sun, then he may
+take up Saturn and all his satellites remaining within his orbit.
+
+17. After the first shot, every player must shoot from the place at
+which his taw rests.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such are the laws of Sun and Planet Taw, and it will be found that in
+playing the game, some degree of thought is requisite, and a little
+calculation respecting the moves. It may be judicious for a good shooter
+to keep the Sun within the orbits as long as possible; or till such time
+as the inner ring gets _fat_ with the forfeitures, or he may drive him
+from orbit to orbit where the forfeitures are large. He will endeavour
+to place him on the line of his own orbit. He may also strive to place
+his adversaries' taws within the inner ring, and to be careful in
+striking planets that they fall into the orbits where the forfeitures
+are small. By thus thinking of what he is about and exercising
+forethought and prudence, he will soon become expert, and by paying
+attention to the game he will make it his own.
+
+
+PYRAMID.
+
+To play Pyramid, a small circle of about two feet in diameter should be
+made on the ground, in the centre of which is a pyramid formed by
+several marbles,--nine being placed as the base, then a layer of four,
+and one on the top; and the Pyramid keeper asks his playmates to shoot.
+Each player gives the keeper one for leave to shoot at the Pyramid, and
+all that he can strike out of the circle belong to him.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+GAMES FOR COLD WEATHER.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+One of the best of these is called
+
+"PRISONERS' BASE."
+
+To play this, there must be a number of boys, not less than eight or
+ten, and as many more as can be got together. To commence it, two
+semicircles are drawn against a wall or hedge at the opposite sides of
+the playground. These are called the BOUNDS.
+
+Two other spaces are then marked out a little away from these to the
+right or to the left. These places are called the PRISONS.
+
+The game is commenced by a player from one side running out midway
+between the bounds or prisons, a player from the other side immediately
+following to capture him; one from the other side follows after the
+second to capture him, and so on, both parties sending out as many as
+they think fit. The object of each player is to intercept and touch any
+player of the opposite side _who has left his bounds before him_, but he
+is not at liberty to touch any that have started after him; it being
+their privilege, if they can, to touch _him_ before he gets back to his
+own bounds. A player must touch only one person each time he leaves
+bounds, and cannot be touched by another after he has taken a prisoner.
+Every player who is touched, must go to the prison belonging to his
+adversaries, where he must remain until one of his own side can touch
+him; and prisoners can neither touch nor be touched in their return to
+their own bounds again. The game is won by that side which has taken all
+the other party prisoners.
+
+
+STAG OUT.
+
+In this game, one boy personates the Stag, and with his hands closed
+together, starts from his bounds after the other players. When he
+succeeds in touching one who is called the Ass, the first who gets to
+him rides him back to the bounds. The two then go out in the same
+manner, then three, and so on, till the whole are caught.
+
+
+WARNING.
+
+This game is something similar to another very good game called
+"Warning," which may be played by any number of players. One begins the
+game in the same manner as in "Stag Out," repeating the following
+words,--"Warning once, warning twice, warning thrice--A bushel of wheat,
+and a bushel of rye, when the cock crows, out jump I--Cock a doodle
+doo." He then runs out and touches the first he can overtake, who
+returns to bounds with him. The two then join hands and sally forth, and
+touch a third, who joins hands with the other two: again they sally
+hand-in-hand, the two outside ones touching as many as they can.
+Immediately a player is touched, they must break hands and run back to
+the bounds. If any of the out-players can catch any of those who held
+hands, they may ride them back to their bounds. When three are touched,
+he who first begins the game has the privilege of joining the
+out-players, whose object is always to break the line.
+
+
+MOUSE IN THE CORNER.
+
+In this game, one of the players takes the part of Puss, and places
+himself in the centre, and the others playing take up their positions in
+the four corners of the playground. Each of the players calls out,
+"Puss, puss, puss, pretty puss,--how do you do pussy," and endeavour to
+pass from corner to corner. The players are at liberty to change corners
+in all directions, and if Puss can touch one when he is away from his
+corner, the one so touched, after giving Puss a ride round the ground,
+becomes Puss, or if Puss can take a vacant corner, the player without a
+corner must do the same,--give Puss a ride round and become Puss.
+
+
+KING OF THE CASTLE.
+
+This is not a bad game. One player, called King of the Castle, places
+himself on a little rising mound; the other players endeavour to push or
+pull him from his elevation, and whoever succeeds in this, takes his
+place.
+
+
+HIPPAS.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This game is something like the preceding, only that one boy mounts on
+the back of another, who is called his Horse, another boy does the same,
+and the two mounted boys endeavour to pull each other from the saddle.
+This play is harmless when a soft piece of turf is chosen, but dangerous
+on the stones or hard ground.
+
+
+THREAD THE NEEDLE.
+
+This is a good game,--any number of boys may play it. It is begun by
+joining hands; and the two outside players at each end commence the game
+by the following dialogue:--
+
+    How many miles to Babylon?
+      Three score and ten.
+    Can I get there by candle-light?
+      Yes, and back again.
+    Then open the gates without more ado,
+    And let the king and his men go through.
+
+The player who stands at the opposite end of the line, now elevates his
+hand, joined in that of the player next him, to form the needle's eye,
+and the other outside player approaches running, and the whole line
+follow him through, if possible, without breaking. This is continued,
+each end holding up their hands successively, till the players are tired
+of the sport.
+
+
+TOUCH.
+
+This is a game of speed. One volunteers to be Touch, and he pursues the
+other players till he comes up with one of them and touches him; unless
+the player so touched can say, "I touch iron," or, "I touch wood,"
+before he is touched, he becomes Touch, and must give the player who
+touched him a ride home. A player is liable to be touched only when
+running from one piece of wood or iron to another.
+
+There is another and a better game of Touch, called "Cross Touch," which
+is played thus:--One volunteers to be Touch, and sallies forth from his
+bounds. While he is pursuing one of the players, a third player runs
+between him and the player pursued, and touch must then follow the one
+who crosses till another crosses them, and so on, till at length the
+whole playground will become a scene of activity and sport.
+
+
+BOWLS.
+
+     "I will play at _Bowls_ with the sun and moon."--_Byron._
+
+     "He who plays _Bowls_ must expect rubbers."--_Bowles._
+
+This is one of the best of games for hot or cold weather, for it is
+excellent exercise, and requires skill and judgment. Few requisites are
+required for it, but a level lawn, or tolerably level field, is
+indispensable, as are the bowls, the Jack, and the players.
+
+In playing bowls, partners may be chosen, if there are many players, or
+the game may be played by two persons. When, however, there are three or
+four of a side, there is more interest attached to the game. The best
+player of my time was the good old schoolmaster, Mr. Fenn, from whom I
+obtained all the particulars concerning Bowls.
+
+The bowls used at this game are of wood, loaded with lead, or _biassed_,
+as it is called, namely, there is one side thicker than the other, which
+is marked, and this may be held either near or away from the thumb as it
+may be required to lay the ball. No writer in a book can teach this, as
+it depends upon the nature of the ground, and the situation of the balls
+already bowled.
+
+Before commencing the game, the first player leads out a small white
+ball, called a Jack; he then lays his own balls as near to it as
+possible; the players then follow in succession, but no partners follow
+each other till the whole balls are delivered, and those who obtain the
+nearest points to the Jack score one for each ball.
+
+The number making the game is arbitrary, but eleven is generally fixed
+upon. Of course it would be more were there a great number of bowlers.
+The sport of the game consists in driving your opponent's ball from the
+Jack, and putting your own near it. When one side scores eleven before
+their opponents get five, it is called a _lurch_. The players at Bowls
+change the Jack from one side of the green to the other after the whole
+of each side have bowled once.
+
+
+QUOITS.
+
+     "_Quoit_ me down, Bardolph."--_Shakspeare._
+
+The game of Quoits resembles Bowls. It is played with flat rings of iron
+of various weights. At a certain number of paces apart (to be agreed
+upon), two circular pins of iron are driven into the ground. The players
+beginning the game stand at one of these pins, called the Hob, and pitch
+the quoits to the other, each person having two. When all the quoits are
+cast from one Hob, the players walk to the other and pitch to the first,
+and so on in succession.
+
+Those who get nearest to the Hob, are, of course, nearest to the game,
+and each pair of quoits counts two,--each single quoit, one; but if a
+quoit belonging to A lies nearest to the Hob, and a quoit belonging to B
+the second, A can claim but one towards the game, although all his other
+quoits may be nearer to the Hob than all those of B, as the quoit of B
+is said, technically, to have _cut them out_.
+
+
+WHY AND BECAUSE.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This is also a new game, and one of those that combine amusement and
+instruction. To play it, a king must be chosen, who is called "King of
+the Shy," who sets up a brick on its end and puts a stone upon it, as a
+mark for the players to bowl their stones at, which they do
+successively. When a player has bowled, if he knocks the stone off the
+brick, he may take up his own stone and run back to his bounds, if he
+can do so before the king sets his brick and stone up again; but if the
+King can touch the player after having set his brick up, he is obliged
+to answer a "Why," or be King instead of him. The "Why" must be proposed
+by the King, and it may either be a conundrum, or it may contain the
+reason of any thing, as, "Why does a stone fall to the ground?" "What
+makes the smoke go up the chimney?" If the player cannot answer the
+"Why," he is obliged to mind the shy and let the others bowl. Sometimes
+it will happen, that of all the boys who have bowled at the shy, not one
+has thrown it down; the King then looks sharply at each one who tries to
+take up his stone, to touch him. It generally happens, that whilst the
+King is pursuing one, who has taken up his stone, to touch him, all the
+rest take to their stones, and make off home. But it should have been
+said, that by the place from which they bowl, a string is stretched for
+a leap, over which a player running from the King is obliged to jump
+before he is considered home.
+
+(_Some good Conundrum Questions for this game will be found in the "Book
+of Sports," on In-Door Amusements._)
+
+
+BOMBARDMENT OF A SNOW CASTLE.
+
+There is no game like this for promoting warmth and exercising the
+ingenuity. To play this, a Snow Castle, Tower, and Fort must be
+constructed, and a Bombardment got up.
+
+When the snow is on the ground, let a party go into a meadow and divide
+themselves into two companies, and appoint a general to each. Each
+company then takes up its respective position, and proceeds to build a
+fort and castle, for defence, on each side; the dexterity with which the
+work is performed, and the celerity with which it is accomplished, being
+much in favour of those who play. During the building of the castle,
+some must be employed as sharp-shooters, who must annoy the builders on
+each side with snow balls, and some must be employed in making a store
+of snow balls for the magazine. When the castle is commenced, the first
+thing to be done is, for several of the builders to make a roll of snow
+about eighteen inches in length, and as thick as his arm, and to roll
+this on the snow, which will attach itself to it till it forms a large
+ball as high as the builders's shoulders. This must be turned over on
+its flat side, and as many more as can be arranged in the following
+manner, for a fort (supposing the other side to be erecting a castle).
+The foundation thus being laid, other balls not quite so large must be
+rolled up and laid on the former, so as to make the rampart about four
+feet high. Behind this, a single line of snow balls must be placed,
+about one foot in height, on which the attacking party may mount to
+discharge their balls to the castle opposite. On elevated parts of the
+forts, long sticks with pocket-handkerchiefs, as flags, must be raised,
+and in the centre, a larger flag should be placed, and it must be the
+object of the opposite party to demolish them with their balls. When a
+player wishes to throw a ball, he mounts upon one of the inner partings
+of snow, discharges his shot, and jumps down behind the parapet for more
+shot. The party on the opposite side may build their castle as they
+please; but each party should watch each other's movements, and build
+their different places of defence or annoyance in such a manner as to
+defend themselves and annoy the enemy in the most effective manner. It
+may be observed, that the fort must be so constructed with reference to
+the castle, that it is brought to bear on every point of it. The two
+ends are towers, which should be a foot higher than the ramparts, and
+should be made by three snow balls laid one upon the other,--the last
+one being turreted, with room for one boy to mount to the top, if
+necessary, to discharge his shots. The highest place of all, is the
+keep, and should be at least six feet high, with room and steps behind
+for two boys to mount. Convenient places should be left behind, where
+the ammunition should be piled up.
+
+When the fort or castle is built, each party uses its best efforts for
+the demolition of the other, but no one is allowed to make use of his
+hands in the demolition of either castle or fort; battering-rams may
+alone be employed. In ancient times, battering-rams were large beams,
+hooped and shod with iron; but the moderns do things better, and the way
+in which it may be done is as follows:--A boy who volunteers to be
+battering-ram has his legs tied and then two other boys take him up,
+and, swinging him by the arms and legs, force his feet against the
+walls of the castle or fort to batter it down, the opposite party
+pouring on them, all the while, snow balls heated to a white heat from
+the ramparts above. Parties also may go out from one side to the other,
+as in playing "Hippas," mounted, and may meet in the open space and
+endeavour to pull each other from their horses. If a player on either
+side can break over the fort and capture one of the flags without being
+touched, he may bring it off and place it on his own ramparts as a
+trophy, and the party from whom the flag is captured must not replace
+it; but if in this act he is touched, he becomes a prisoner, and must
+make snow-balls for his adversaries. Every one who is thrown down,
+either from his horse or by any other means, is considered a dead man,
+and can do nothing but make snow-balls for the opposite party. When the
+flags are all struck on either side by being shot away, or when the men
+are all taken prisoners or slain, or when the ramparts are demolished,
+the victors may sing, "Old Rose and burn the Bellows."
+
+
+BANDY BALL OR GOLF.
+
+This game is played with a bat and a small ball; and the game consists
+in driving the ball into certain holes made in the ground. Sometimes
+these holes from first to last, are at the distance of half a mile or
+even more from each other. There are many intervening holes. Those who
+drive the ball into the greatest number of holes, of course win the
+game; but the ball must never be driven beyond a hole without first
+going into it. If the ball passes in the way beyond a hole, the player
+is out.
+
+
+FOOT BALL.
+
+Foot Ball is a very simple game. A large soft ball is procured (which is
+now made of Gutta Percha), and the players having assembled and taken
+sides, a line is drawn across the playground, and the play commences.
+The object of the play is, for each party to kick the ball across the
+goal of the other, and to prevent it from passing their own. The party
+into whose bounds the ball is kicked, loses the game.
+
+
+TRUSSING.
+
+This is an excellent game. In some places it is called "Cock Fighting."
+To play it, two players must be matched against each other, and one is
+sometimes called "Black Cock," and the other "White Cock." They are
+seated on a carpet, or, what is better, the floor of the play-room, and
+undergo the operation of "trussing." This is performed as follows:--The
+hands are first tied with a handkerchief at the wrists. The ancles are
+tied in the same manner. The Cock then has his hands brought to his
+instep, while his knees pass between his arms, and a short stick is
+thrust in under the knees and over the joints of the elbow, and secured
+in this situation. The fight now begins by each Cock advancing towards
+his enemy, and when they come close to each other, each endeavours, by
+inserting his toes under the other's feet, to capsize him and throw him
+over on the side; and whoever does this, is entitled to _crow_, and is
+winner of the game. There is often a good deal of fun in this game, and
+the players can rarely hurt each other.
+
+
+FOLLOW MY LEADER.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Follow my Leader is a very good game; and when the Leader is a droll
+boy, causes much fun and laughter. The leader starts off at a moderate
+pace, and all the other boys, in a line, one after the other, follow
+him. They are not only bound to follow him, but do exactly what he does.
+If he hops on one leg, or crawls on the ground, or coughs, or sneezes,
+or jumps, or rolls, or laughs, all must do the same. If any boy fail to
+follow his Leader, he is called the "Ass," and must be ridden by the boy
+next him. Sometimes the Leader will leap a ditch, climb a tree, or run
+into a river. But boys should be careful of very mad pranks in this
+sport.
+
+
+BLINDMAN'S BUFF.
+
+In this game, a person is blindfolded, and endeavours to catch any one
+of the players, who, if caught, is blindfolded and takes his place.
+
+There is another Game something resembling it, called SHADOW BUFF. A
+piece of white linen is thrown over a line across the room; between this
+screen and close to the wall on one side, a candle is placed, and on the
+other side, Buffy is obliged to stand, while the players moving between
+the candle and linen show their shadows through it, and Buffy has to
+distinguish each person by his shadow. When he does this, the player so
+found out becomes Buffy and takes his place.
+
+
+TIP-CAT.
+
+For this game a piece of wood must be procured about six inches in
+length and two inches thick, of the following shape:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+that is, of a double curve. It will be seen by the shape of this, that
+it will fly up as easily as a ball when it is laid in the trap, for the
+striker has only to tap one end of it, and up it flies, making many a
+summerset as it rises; while it is performing this turn-over motion,
+which philosophers call the rotatory, the striker makes a blow at it and
+sends it whither he pleases.
+
+The proper way to play the game, is as follows:--A large ring is made on
+the ground, in the middle of which the striker takes his station; he
+then tips the Cat and endeavours to strike it out of the ring; if he
+fail in this, he is out, and another player takes his place. If he
+strike the Cat out of the ring, he judges with his eye the distance the
+Cat is driven from the centre of the ring, and calls for a number, at
+pleasure, to be scored towards the game. The place is now measured by
+the stick with which the Cat is struck, and if the number called be
+found to exceed the same number of lengths of the cudgel, he is out, but
+if it does not, he obtains his call. Another method of playing, is to
+make four, six, or eight holes in the ground in a circular direction, at
+equal distances from each other, and at every hole is placed a player
+with his cudgel. One of the party who stands in the field, tosses the
+Cat to the batsman who is nearest to him, and every time the Cat is
+struck, the players must change their situations and run over from one
+hole to another in succession. If the Cat be driven to any great
+distance, they continue to run in the same order, and claim a score
+towards their game every time they quit one hole and run to another. But
+if the Cat be stopped by their opponents, and thrown across between any
+two of the holes before the player who has quitted one of them can reach
+the other, he is out.
+
+
+JINGLING.
+
+This game is common to the West of England, and is called a "Jingling
+Match." It is played by a number of players being blindfolded within a
+ring formed for the game, and one or two others, termed the "Jinglers,"
+not blindfolded, with a bell fastened to their elbow, also enter the
+ring. The blinded players have to catch the Jingler, who moves about
+rapidly from place to place. He who catches the Jingler wins the game;
+but if after a certain time, agreed upon previously by the players, the
+Jingler is not caught, he is declared the victor.
+
+
+FRENCH AND ENGLISH.
+
+French and English is another good game. A rope being provided, two
+players stand out, and after having cleeped for first choice, select the
+partners. After an equal number has been selected for each side, one
+party attaches itself to one end of the rope, and the other party lays
+hold of the other: a line is then made on the ground, and each party
+endeavours to pull the other over this line. The party succeeding in
+this, wins the game.
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+DANGEROUS GAMES.
+
+
+And now that we have given a description of some good games, it may be
+as well to warn our readers of some bad or foolish ones, which are
+either calculated to spoil their clothes, make them very dirty, or are
+dangerous to their limbs.
+
+
+HEAP THE BUSHEL.
+
+This is a very dangerous game, if it can be called a game. Should one
+boy happen to fall, it is the practice of other boys to fall upon him
+and to "Heap the Bushel," as it is called, all the other boys leaping on
+the one already down. It sometimes happens, that those underneath are
+seriously injured; and the sport is seldom engaged in without
+quarrelling among the players, and sometimes it leads to a fight.
+
+
+DRAWING THE OVEN.
+
+This is another dangerous game. It consists of several players being
+seated on the ground in a line, clasped by each other round the waist:
+when all are thus united, two others take the foremost one, and
+endeavour by pulling and tugging to _break him off_ from the rest. Thus
+the united strength of several boys before, and as many behind, is made
+to act upon the one in front, and an arm may be dislocated by a sudden
+jerk, not to say anything about a broken neck.
+
+
+HOP-SCOTCH.
+
+This is a silly game. It is calculated to wear out the shoes.
+
+
+BASTING THE BEAR.
+
+This is another silly game. A boy, who is called the "Bear," kneels down
+on the ground in a ring marked out, to let the other boys beat him with
+their twisted or knotted handkerchiefs. The master of the Bear, who
+holds him by the rope, endeavours to touch one of the assailants; if he
+succeeds in doing this, without pulling the Bear out of his circle, or
+letting go the rope, the player touched becomes Bear in his turn. But it
+is calculated to spoil the clothes of the Bear, and sometimes, should he
+kneel on a sharp stone, may do him much injury.
+
+
+BUCK, BUCK.
+
+"Buck, Buck, how many horns do I hold up?" is also a stupid game. It
+neither requires speed, nor agility, nor wit. The game is played by one
+boy resting his head against a wall and making a back, upon which the
+other jumps, who, when seated, holds up as many of his fingers as he
+pleases, and cries, "Buck, Buck, how many horns do I hold up?" The
+player who is leaped upon, now _makes a guess_; if he guesses correctly,
+it is his turn to leap, if not, the leaper leaps again. But there is
+little good in all this, and it ought not to be encouraged.
+
+
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+GYMNASTICS.
+
+
+All boys, and girls too, ought to train themselves to habits of agility,
+and nothing is more calculated to do this than Gymnastics, which may be
+rendered a source of health and amusement.
+
+In all playgrounds, a piece of ground should be laid out; and there
+should be erected thereon, a couple of posts, about twenty feet apart,
+and sixteen feet high, which should support a plank, about a foot wide,
+and six inches thick; on the underside of this might be affixed a hook,
+from which a triangle might be swung,--this is capable of being used in
+a variety of ways. Two more hooks, about a foot apart, might be used for
+two ropes, so that the more advanced pupils could climb to the top by
+means of grasping a rope in each hand, and without the assistance of the
+feet. A pole may rise from the ground to the cross piece about midway:
+the pupils will be able to climb up this without the assistance of the
+feet. A wood ladder and rope ladder may occasionally be fastened to the
+beam, but may, when necessary, be taken down. A board about a foot broad
+may also be set up against the beam, inclining four feet from the
+perpendicular: the climber will grasp the sides with his hands, and
+placing his feet almost flat against the board, will proceed to the top:
+this is an advanced exercise. Another board may be set up which should
+be three feet broad, at least, and should slant more than the other: the
+pupil will run up this to the top of the beam easily, and down again.
+The middle of this, up to the top, should be perforated with holes about
+four inches apart, in which a peg may be placed: this may be in the
+first hole to begin with. The pupil will run up and bring this down, and
+then run up and put it in the second, and so on, till he has arrived at
+the top: then two or more pegs may be used, and it may be varied in many
+ways. A pole, twenty-five or thirty feet high should be erected, rather
+thin towards the top: at distant intervals of this, three or four pegs,
+as resting places, should be fastened; another pole, thicker, from about
+sixteen to twenty feet high, should be erected; on the top of which
+should be placed four projecting hooks turning on a pivot: to these
+hooks four ropes should be attached, reaching to within two feet from
+the ground. This is called the "Flying Course," from an individual
+taking hold of the peg at the end of each rope.
+
+One person may cross a rope under the one in possession of another, and
+by pulling round hard, make the other fly over his head. Care should be
+taken to make the hooks at the top quite secure, for otherwise many
+dangerous accidents might ensue. A cross pole might also be set up, but
+most of the exercises for which this is used, may be performed by the
+triangle. On the parallel bars, several beneficial exercises may be
+done, and also on the bridge. This is a pole thick at one end, thin at
+the other, and supported at three or four feet from the ground by a post
+at one end and another in the middle, so that the thin end vibrates with
+the least touch. This, it will be evident, is an exercise for the organ
+of equilibrium, and exercises the muscles of the calf, of the neck, and
+anterior part of the neck, and those of the back, very gently. On this
+bridge a sort of combat may be instituted,--two persons meeting each
+other, giving and parrying strokes with the open hands. The string for
+leaping is also another very pleasing exercise. It is supported by a
+couple of pegs on two posts fastened in the ground. The string may be
+heightened and lowered at pleasure,--it may be raised as high as the
+leaper's head when a leaping-pole is used. Besides these arrangements, a
+trench about a foot and a half deep should be dug, and widening
+gradually from one foot to seven, for the purpose of exercising the long
+leap either with or without the aid of the pole. Such are the general
+arrangements of a gymnasium, but before the youth enters upon regular
+exercises, he may commence with a few preliminary ones.
+
+
+FIRST COURSE.
+
+EXERCISE 1. The pupil should hold out his hand at arm's length, until he
+can hold it out no longer, and repeat it until he has power in the
+muscles, to continue it, without fatigue, for a considerable length of
+time.
+
+2. Stand on one foot till he is tired, and repeat this for a similar
+period.
+
+3. Hold out both arms parallel with his chin, letting the thumbs and
+fingers touch each other.
+
+4. Hold the hands behind the back in a similar manner, the arms being
+stretched as far backward as possible, and hold the hands high.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+5. Hold up the right foot by the right hand, extending the leg and arm
+by degrees.
+
+6. Hold up the left foot in the same manner.
+
+7. Stand with the knees bent, and exercise them towards the ground,
+until he can kneel on both knees at once without supporting himself as
+he drops.
+
+8. Raise himself from this position without the aid of his hands, by
+springing back on his toes.
+
+9. Endeavour to touch both his toes, with the back straight, the legs
+close together, and the head down.
+
+10. Take a piece of wood, three inches broad, and twenty long, that will
+not bend, and hold it across the back, the three first fingers touching
+the wood.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+11. Endeavour to sit, but not touch the ground, nor let any part of his
+body touch his heels, with his arms stretched out in a line with his
+chin.
+
+12. Stand with his arms and legs extended, so as to form the letter X.
+
+
+SECOND COURSE.
+
+Let the pupil:--
+
+13. Lie down on his back, and raise his body from an horizontal to a
+vertical position, without any assistance from the hands or elbows.
+
+14. Draw up the legs close to the posterior part of the thighs, and rise
+without other assistance.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+15. Extend himself on his back again, and walk backwards with the palms
+of his hands and his feet.
+
+16. Sustain the weight of the whole body upon the palms and the toes,
+the face being towards the ground.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+17. Lie on his back, and take hold of each foot in his hands, and throw
+himself on his face by rolling over.
+
+18. Lie with the face down, and take hold of his toes while in that
+position.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+19. With his chest downwards, drag his body along by walking only with
+his hands.
+
+20. Place himself on his back, and endeavour to advance by means of the
+propulsion of the feet.
+
+21. Place his body on his hands and feet, with the breast upwards, and
+endeavour to bring the lips to the ground.
+
+22. Lean on the breast and palms of the hands, and throw the legs over
+towards the back of the head.
+
+23. Stretch himself on the back, and extending the hands beyond the
+head, at the utmost stretch, touch the ground, and, if possible, bring
+up a piece of money, previously to be placed there.
+
+24. In the same manner, endeavour to seize a ball by the toes at full
+length.
+
+
+WALKING.
+
+These preliminary exercises having been practised, the young pupil will
+commence a course of more advanced exercises, such as walking, running,
+leaping, balancing, vaulting, and climbing. Walking is common to all,
+but few persons have a good walk, and nothing exhibits the person to so
+much disadvantage as a slovenly bad gait. It is true, that the walk of a
+person will indicate much of his character. Nervous people walk
+hurriedly, sometimes quick, sometimes slow, with a tripping and
+sometimes a running step; phlegmatic people have a heavy, solid, and
+loitering step; the sanguine man walks rapidly, treads somewhat briskly
+and firmly; while the melancholic wanders, and seems almost unconscious
+of touching the ground which he seems to slide over. But the qualities
+of the mind itself manifest themselves in the gait. The man of high
+moral principle and virtuous integrity, walks with a very different step
+to the low sensualist, or the cunning and unprincipled knave; therefore
+the young pupil will be sure that even the art of walking, which seems
+to be an exertion purely physical, will not be acquired properly if his
+mind has taken a vicious and unprincipled bias: it will either indicate
+his pride or his dastardly humility, his haughty self-sufficiency, or
+his mean truckling to the opinion of others, his honest independence, or
+his cringing servility. But he who has been blessed with the full use of
+his muscular powers, in proportion as he is virtuous, will, with a very
+little attention, indicate by his bearing, step, and carriage, the
+nobility of his mind.
+
+In walking, the arms should move freely by the side--they act like the
+fly-wheel of an engine, to equalise the motion of the body, and to
+balance it. One hand in the breeches pocket, or both, indicates the sot,
+and has a very bad appearance. The head should be upright, without,
+however, any particular call being made upon the muscles of the neck to
+support it in that position, so that it may move freely in all
+directions. The body should be upright, and the shoulders thrown
+moderately backwards, displaying a graceful fall. When the foot reaches
+the ground, it should support the body, not on the toe or heel, but on
+the ball of the foot. This manner of walking should be practised daily,
+sometimes in a slow, sometimes in a moderate walk, and sometimes in a
+quick pace, until each is performed with elegance and ease.
+
+
+RUNNING.
+
+In running, as the swiftness of the motion steadies the body in its
+course, without the aid of the oscillations of the arms, they are
+naturally drawn up towards the sides, and, bent at the elbows, form a
+right angle. Their motion is almost suspended in very swift running. In
+moderate running, a gentle oscillation is observed, increasing in
+proportion as the body approaches to the walking pace. The knees are now
+more bent,--the same part of the foot does not touch the ground, the
+body being carried forward more by the toes. The degree of velocity is
+acquired in proportion to the length and quickness of the steps. The
+person should therefore endeavour to ascertain whether long or short
+steps suit his muscular powers best; generally speaking a moderately
+short step, quickly repeated, accelerates motion most. In learning to
+run, the pupil should first endeavour to improve his breath by degrees:
+he must try his speed first in short distances, to be gradually
+increased: the distance will vary according to the age and strength of
+the runner. The first exercises in running should commence at a gentle
+trot over a distance of a hundred and fifty yards, at the rate of about
+six feet to a second: this should be varied up to eight feet in a
+second, for the first three or four days, and the distance increased
+from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty yards. On following
+days, the distance may be increased to five hundred yards, and
+afterwards gradually, until a mile can be performed in ten minutes,
+which is tolerably good running. Afterwards, six miles may be tried in
+an hour, which will be easily accomplished.
+
+As regards rapid running, from one hundred feet to one hundred yards may
+be attempted at full speed, and when the constitution is good, the body
+not too fat, the muscular developments fine, and the lungs sound, a
+quarter of a mile a minute may be accomplished, and a mile in five
+minutes, which is seldom done even in very good running. Ten miles an
+hour, which is the average speed of the mail, may, however, be easily
+performed with judicious and proper training.
+
+
+LEAPING.
+
+In leaping, that with the run, is the most common and the most useful.
+The object of the run is to impart to the nerves of the body a certain
+quantity of motion which may carry it onwards after the propelling power
+has ceased to act when the body leaves the ground. The run need not
+exceed twelve or fifteen paces: in this the steps are small and rapid.
+When the body leaves the ground, the legs are drawn up, one foot
+generally a little more than the other; and a great thing to be avoided,
+is coming to the ground on the heels. When springing, the height of the
+leap must be calculated, the breath held, the body pressed forward, and
+the fall should be upon the toes and the ball of the foot, although in
+an extended leap this is impossible. Leaping must, like running, be
+practised gradually; in the high leap, a person may easily accomplish
+the height of his own body, and should practise with the bar, which may
+be made of two upright posts bored, through which ropes should be placed
+according to the height required for the leap: on these should be hung a
+string with weights attached to each end to keep it straight. Should the
+leaper touch it with his feet as he takes his leap, it will be thrown
+off the pegs, thus showing that he did not make a clean leap.
+
+The deep leap may be acquired from the top of a bank into a hollow, and
+is useful in leaping from the top of a house or wall in a moment of
+danger. It may be practised from a flight of steps, ascending a step at
+a time to increase the height, till the limbs can bear the shocks, to
+break which, the body must be kept in a bent position, so that its
+gravity has to pass through many angles. The leaper should always take
+advantage of any rivulet that has one bank higher than the other, to
+practise himself.
+
+In the long leap, a person ought to be able to clear with a run, three
+times the length of his body.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The high leap, the deep leap, and the long leap, may be all practised
+with the pole. For the high leap, the pole should be taken with the
+right hand, about the height of the head, and with the left hand, about
+the height of the hips; when put to the ground, the leaper should spring
+with the right foot, and pass by the left of the pole, and swing round
+as he alights, so as to face the place he leaped from. In the deep leap,
+the pole being placed the depth you have to leap, the body should be
+lowered forward, and then, the feet being cast off, swing round the pole
+in the descent. The long leap, with the pole, is performed much in the
+same manner.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+CLIMBING.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In climbing the rope, the hands are to be moved one above the other
+alternately; the feet should be crossed, and the rope held firmly by
+their pressure: sometimes the rope may be made to pass along the right
+thigh just above the knee, and wind round the thigh under the knee.
+
+In climbing the upright pole, the feet, legs, knees, and hands touch the
+pole. Taking a high grasp of the pole, the climber raises himself by
+bending his body, drawing up and holding fast by the legs, and so on
+alternately.
+
+
+THE ROPE LADDER.
+
+The climber must keep the body stretched out, and upright, so as to
+prevent the steps, which are loose, from being bent forward.
+
+The oblique rope must be climbed with the back turned towards the
+ground, the legs crossed and thrown over, so that the rope passes under
+the calf, and thus he must work himself up by raising his hands one
+above the other alternately.
+
+The exercises on the ladder are:--1. To ascend and descend rapidly. 2.
+To ascend and descend with one hand. 3. Without using the hand. 4.
+Passing another person on the ladder, or swinging to the back to let
+another pass.
+
+
+THE SLANT BOARD.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This should be seized with both hands, the feet being placed in the
+middle. The board should be considerably aslant when first attempted,
+and gradually brought towards the perpendicular.
+
+
+VAULTING.
+
+This exercise may be practised on that part of the balancing bar between
+the posts. It may be performed with or without running: it should,
+however, be commenced with a short run. The height should be, to
+commence, about the pit of the stomach, which should be increased to the
+height of the individual.
+
+
+BALANCING.
+
+There are two kinds of balancing to which we shall allude; namely, the
+balancing of other bodies, and the balancing of our own.
+
+All feats of balancing depend upon the centre of gravity being uniformly
+preserved in one position. The centre of gravity is that point, about
+which all the other parts exactly balance each other. If a body be
+freely suspended upon this point, it will rest with security, and as
+long as this point is supported, it will never fall, while in every
+other position it will endeavour to descend to the lowest place at which
+it can arrive. If a perpendicular line were drawn from the centre of
+gravity of a body to the centre of the earth, such a line would be
+termed the line of direction, along which every body supported
+endeavours to fall. If this line fall within the base of a body, such a
+body will be sure to stand.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+When the line of direction is thrown beyond its centre, unless the base
+be enlarged to counterbalance it, the person or body will fall. A person
+in stooping to look over a deep hole, will bend his trunk forward; the
+line of direction being altered, he must extend his base to compensate
+for it, which he does by putting his foot a step forward. A porter
+stoops forward to prevent his burthen from throwing the line of
+direction out of the base behind, and a girl does the same thing in
+carrying a pail of water, by stretching out her opposite arm, for the
+weight of the pail throws the centre of gravity on one side, and the
+stretching out of the opposite arm brings it back again, and thus the
+two are balanced. The art of balancing, therefore, simply consists in
+dexterously altering the centre of gravity upon every new position of
+the body, so as constantly to preserve the line of direction within the
+base. Rope-dancers effect this by means of a long pole, held across the
+rope; and when the balancing-rail is mounted, it will be found necessary
+to hold out both the arms for the same purpose; nay, even when we slip
+or stumble with one foot, we in a moment extend the opposite arm, making
+the same use of it as the dancer does of his pole.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A balancer finds that a body to be balanced, is the best for his purpose
+if it have a loaded head, and a slender or pointed base, for although
+the higher the weight is placed above the point of support, the more
+readily will the line of direction be thrown beyond the base, yet he can
+more easily restore it by the motion of his hand,--narrowly watching
+with his eyes its deviations. Now the same watchfulness must be
+displayed by the gymnastic balancer: he first uses the balancing
+pole,--he then mounts the balancing bar without it. On mounting the bar,
+the body should be held erect, and the hands must be extended. He must
+then learn to walk firmly and steadily along the bar, so as to be able
+to turn round, and then he should practise going backwards. Two
+balancers should then endeavour to pass each other on the bar;
+afterwards, to carry each other, and bodies of various weights, in
+various positions.
+
+Walking on stilts is connected with balancing. A person can walk with
+greater security upon high than on low stilts. In some parts of France,
+the peasantry, in looking after their sheep, walk generally on stilts,
+and it only requires practise to make this as easy as common walking.
+Some few years ago, several of these stilt-walkers were to be seen in
+London, and they could run, jump, stoop, and walk with ease and
+security, their legs seeming quite as natural to them as those of the
+Stork.
+
+
+
+
+PART V.
+
+CRICKET.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Cricket is the king of games. Every boy in England should learn it. The
+young prince of Wales is learning it, and will some day be the prince of
+cricket-players, as I trust he will some day, a long while hence,
+however, let us hope, be king of merry England. I shall, therefore, be
+very particular concerning this noble game. It is played by a bat and
+ball, and consists of double and single wicket. The wicket was formerly
+two straight thin batons, called stumps, twenty-two inches high, which
+were fixed in the ground perpendicularly, six inches apart, and over
+the top of both was laid a small round piece of wood, called the bail,
+but so placed as to fall off readily if the stumps were touched by the
+ball. Of late years the wicket consists of three stumps and two bails;
+the middle stump is added to prevent the ball from passing through the
+wicket without beating it down; the external stumps are now seven inches
+apart, and all of them three feet two inches high. Single wicket
+requires five players on each side, and double wicket eleven; but the
+number in both instances may be varied at the pleasure of the two
+parties. At single wicket the striker with his bat is the protector of
+the wicket; the opponent party stands in the field to catch or stop the
+ball; and the bowler, who is one of them, takes his place by the side of
+a small baton or stump, set up for that purpose, twenty-two yards from
+the wicket, and thence delivers the ball with the intention of beating
+it down. It is now usual to set up two stumps with a bail across, which
+the batsman, when he runs, must beat off before he returns home. If the
+bowler prove successful, the batsman retires from the play and another
+of his party succeeds; if, on the contrary, the ball is struck by the
+bat, and driven into the field beyond the reach of those who stand out
+to stop it, the striker runs to the stump at the bowler's station, which
+he touches with his bat, and then returns to his wicket. If this be
+performed before the ball is thrown back, it is called a run, and a
+notch or score is made upon the tally towards the game; if, on the
+contrary, the ball be thrown up and the wicket beaten down by the
+opponent party before the striker is home or can ground his bat within
+three feet ten inches of the wicket (at which distance a mark is made
+in the ground, called the _popping crease_), he is declared to be out,
+and the run is not reckoned. He is also out if he strike the ball into
+the air and it is caught by any of his antagonists before it reaches the
+ground, and retained long enough to be thrown up again. When double
+wicket is played, two batsmen go in at the same time,--one at each
+wicket: there are also two bowlers, who usually bowl four balls in
+succession alternately. The batsmen are said to be in as long as they
+remain at their wickets, and their party is called the _in-party_; on
+the contrary, those who stand in the field with the bowlers, are called
+the _out-party_. Both parties have two innings, and the side that
+obtains the most runs in the double contest, claims the victory. These
+are the general outlines of this noble pastime, but there are many
+particular rules and regulations by which it is governed, and these
+rules are subject to frequent variations.
+
+
+SINGLE WICKET.
+
+Single wicket may be played with any number of players, and is better
+than double wicket for any number of players under seven. At double
+wicket, a small number of players would get so fatigued with running
+after the ball, that when it came to the last player's turn, he would
+find himself too tired, without resting a while. The first innings in
+single wicket must be determined by chance. The bowler should pitch the
+wickets, and the striker measure the distance for the bowling-stump.
+Measure a distance of the length of the bat, and then one of the
+striker's feet, from the middle stump in a direction towards the
+bowling stump: there make a mark, which is the same as the
+popping-crease, and this will show when you are on the ground; place
+your bat upright on the mark at the place where the measure came to, and
+ask the bowler whether your bat is before the middle of your wicket;
+here make a mark on the ground, which is generally called the
+blocking-hole.
+
+The bowler now begins to bowl, and the striker should endeavour to hit
+any ball which comes within his compass, or if the ball given be not
+favourable for that purpose, he may block it; but in blocking he must be
+careful never to let the tip of the bat come before the handle, as the
+ball in such a case will probably rise in the air towards the bowler,
+and he will be caught out. In running, the striker must touch the
+bowling-stump with his bat or person, or it is no run, and he may be put
+out if he do no put his bat or some part of his person on his ground
+before the ball touches his wicket.
+
+With three players, the bowler and striker will be the same as when two
+are at play; the second player will be fieldsman, who, when the ball be
+hit nearer to him than to the bowler, will pick it up, or catch it if he
+can, and return it to the bowler. If the striker should attempt to run,
+the bowler should immediately run to the wicket, and the fieldsman
+should throw the ball to him, so that he may catch it, and touch the
+wicket with it to get the striker out. When the first striker is out,
+the fieldsman will take his place, the striker will bowl, and the bowler
+will take the field. When four players are engaged, the fourth should
+stand behind the wicket; and when five or more play, the additional
+players should take the field. The rule in such a case is simply, that
+as soon as a striker is out he becomes bowler, then he becomes
+wicket-keeper, and then he takes his place in the field on the left of
+the bowler, and afterwards the other places in regular progression,
+until it is his turn to have a new innings.
+
+
+LAWS OF THE GAME OF DOUBLE WICKET.
+
+"Law, is law," said Evergreen; "laws must be rigidly obeyed, and,
+therefore, I will read the articles of war for your edification. The
+first article of war is said to be, 'That it shall be death to stop a
+cannon-ball with your head.'" Cricketers must be cautious also how they
+stop cricket-balls with this part of the body: but
+
+_Imprimis_, the BALL must be in weight between five ounces and a half
+and five ounces and three quarters, and must be between nine inches and
+nine inches and one-eighth in circumference.
+
+2. The BAT must not be more than thirty-eight inches in length, nor
+exceed four inches and a quarter in its widest part.
+
+3. The STUMPS, which are three to each wicket, must be twenty-seven
+inches out of the ground, and placed so closely as not to allow the ball
+to pass through. The bails must be eight inches in length.
+
+4. The BOWLING-CREASE must be in a line with the stumps, and six feet
+eight inches in length, the stumps in the centre, with a return-crease
+at each end towards the bowler at right angles.
+
+5. The POPPING CREASE must be three feet ten inches from the wicket,
+and parallel to it, unlimited in length, but not shorter than the
+bowling-crease.
+
+6. They must be opposite to each other, twenty-two yards apart.
+
+7. It is not lawful for either party, during a match, without the other
+party gives consent, to make any alteration in the ground by rolling,
+watering, covering, mowing, or beating.
+
+This rule is not meant to prevent the striker from beating the ground
+with his bat near to the spot where he stands during the innings, nor to
+prevent the bowler from filling up holes with sawdust, &c., when the
+ground is wet.
+
+8. After rain, the wickets may be changed with the consent of both
+parties.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+THE BOWLER.
+
+9. The bowler must deliver the ball with one foot behind the
+bowling-crease, and bowl four bowls before he changes wickets, which he
+is permitted to do, once only, in the same innings.
+
+10. The ball must be bowled; if it be thrown or jerked, or if the hand
+be above the shoulder in the delivery, the umpire must call "no ball"
+(this being reckoned as one of the four balls).
+
+11. In some matches, the bowler may give six balls where the parties are
+agreed. The bowler may order the striker at the wicket from which he
+bowls, to stand on which side of it he pleases.
+
+12. Should the bowler toss the ball over the striker's head, or bowl it
+so wide that it shall be out of distance to be played at, the umpire,
+although the striker attempt it, shall adjudge one run to the parties
+receiving the innings, either with or without an appeal from them, which
+shall be put down to the score of wide balls, and such balls shall not
+be reckoned as any of the four balls. When the umpire shall have called
+"wide ball," one run only shall be reckoned, and the ball shall be
+considered dead.
+
+13. If "no ball" be called by the umpire, the hitter may strike at it,
+and is allowed all the runs he can make, and is not be considered out
+except by running out. Should no run be obtained by any other means,
+then one run shall be scored.
+
+14. When a fresh bowler takes the ball, only two balls shall be allowed
+for practice; he must, however, continue the next four in the game
+before he can change for another better approved. If six balls are
+agreed to be bowled, then he must continue the six instead of four.
+
+15. No substitute in the field shall be allowed to bowl, keep wicket,
+STAND AT THE POINT or MIDDLE WICKET, except by mutual agreement of the
+parties.
+
+
+THE STRIKER.
+
+Is OUT, if either of the bails be struck off by the ball, or either of
+the stumps struck out of the ground.
+
+He is OUT, if the ball, from a stroke of the bat or hand below the
+wrist, be held by his adversary before it touches the ground, although
+hugged or caught between the arms and breast of the catcher.
+
+He is OUT, if in striking, or at any other time while the ball is in
+play, both his feet be over the popping-crease, and his wicket put down,
+except his bat be grounded within it.
+
+He is OUT, if in striking at the ball, he either with his bat, clothes,
+or person, hits down his wicket.
+
+He is OUT, if under pretence of running a notch, or otherwise, either of
+the strikers prevent a ball from being caught, or if the ball be struck
+up and he wilfully strikes it again.
+
+He is OUT, if in running a notch the wicket be struck down by a throw,
+or with the hand or arm with ball in hand, before his bat is grounded
+over the popping-crease. If the bails should happen to be off, a stump
+must be struck out of the ground.
+
+He is OUT, should he take up or touch the ball while in play, unless at
+the request of the opposite party.
+
+He is OUT, if with a part of his person he stop the ball, which the
+bowler, in the opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket, has pitched
+in a straight line with the wicket.
+
+If the players have _crossed_ each other, he that runs for the wicket
+that is put down, is out; and if they have _not crossed_, he that has
+left the wicket which is put down, is out.
+
+When a ball is caught, no run is to be reckoned.
+
+When a striker is run out, the notch they were running for is not to be
+reckoned.
+
+If "lost ball" shall be called, the striker is allowed the runs; but if
+more than six shall have been run before "lost ball" shall have been
+called, then the striker shall have all that have been run.
+
+When the ball has been lodged in the wicket-keeper's or bowler's hands,
+it is considered _dead_, that is, no longer in play, and the striker
+need not keep within ground, till the umpire has called "play;" but if
+the player goes off his ground, with intent to run, the bowler may put
+him out.
+
+Should the striker be hurt, he may retire from his wicket and return to
+it any time during that innings. Some other person may stand out for
+him, but not go in.
+
+If any person stop the ball with his bat, the ball is to be considered
+as DEAD, and the opposite party to add five notches to their score.
+
+If the ball be struck up, the striker may guard his wicket with his bat
+or any part of his body except his _hand_.
+
+If the striker hit the ball against his partner's wicket when he is off
+his ground, he is out, should it previously have touched the bowler or
+any of the fieldmen's hands, but not otherwise.
+
+
+THE WICKET-KEEPER.
+
+The wicket-keeper should not take the ball for the purpose of stumping,
+until it have passed the wicket. He shall stand at a proper distance
+behind the wicket, and shall not move till the ball be out of the
+bowler's hand. He shall not by any noise, incommode the striker, and if
+any part of his person be over or before the wicket, although the ball
+hit it, he shall not be out.
+
+
+THE UMPIRES.
+
+The umpires are the sole judges of fair and unfair play, and all
+disputes are determined by them, each at his own wicket. They shall not
+stand more than six yards from the wicket. In case of a catch, which the
+umpire at the wicket cannot see sufficiently to decide upon, he may
+apply to the other umpire, whose opinion is conclusive.
+
+The umpires shall pitch fair wickets, and the parties shall toss up for
+the choice of innings.
+
+They shall allow two minutes for the striker to come in, and fifteen
+minutes between each innings. When the umpires shall call "play," the
+party who refuses shall lose the match.
+
+They are not to order a player out unless assented to by the
+adversaries.
+
+If the bowler's foot be not behind the bowling-crease and within the
+return crease when he delivers the ball, they must, unasked, call "no
+ball;" if the striker run a short run, the umpire must call "no run."
+
+If in running either of the strikers shall fail to ground his bat, in
+hand, or some part of his person, over the popping crease, the umpire,
+for every such failure, shall deduct two runs from the number intended
+to have been run, because such striker, not having run in the first
+instance, cannot have started in the second from the proper goal.
+
+No umpire is allowed to bet.
+
+No umpire to be changed during a match, unless with the consent of both
+parties, except in case of a violation of the last law, then either
+party may dismiss the transgressor.
+
+After the delivery of four balls, the umpire should call "over," but not
+until the ball shall be lodged and definitely settled in the
+wicket-keeper's or bowler's hand; the ball shall then be considered
+dead. Nevertheless, if an idea be entertained that either of the
+strikers is out, a question may be put previously to, but not after the
+delivery of the next ball.
+
+The umpire must take especial care to call "no ball" instantly upon
+delivery, and "wide ball," as soon as ever it shall pass the striker.
+
+
+LAWS FOR SINGLE WICKET.
+
+1. When there shall be less than four players on a side, bounds shall be
+placed, twenty-two yards each, in a line from the off and leg stump.
+
+2. The ball must be hit before the bounds to entitle the striker to a
+run, which run cannot be obtained unless he touch the bowling-stump or
+crease, in a line with it, with his bat or person, or go beyond them,
+returning to the popping-crease, as in double wicket, according to the
+law.
+
+3. When the striker shall hit the ball, one of his feet must be on the
+ground behind the popping-crease, otherwise the umpire shall call "no
+hit."
+
+4. When there shall be less than five players of a side, neither byes
+nor overthrows shall be allowed, nor shall the striker be caught out
+behind the wicket, nor stumped out.
+
+5. The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the space
+between the wicket and the bowling stump, or between the bowling stumps
+and the bounds; the striker may run till the ball be so returned.
+
+6. After the striker has made one run, he must touch the bowling stump,
+and run before the ball shall cross the play, to entitle him to another.
+
+7. The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball, and the
+same number for ball stopped with bat.
+
+8. When there shall be more than four players to a side, there shall be
+no bounds; all _hits_, _byes_, and _overthrows_, will then be allowed.
+
+9. The bowler is subject to the same laws as at double wicket.
+
+10. No more than one minute shall be allowed between each ball.
+
+
+BETS.
+
+1. No bet is payable in any match unless it be played out or given up.
+
+2. If the runs of one player be betted against those of another, the bet
+depends on the first innings, unless otherwise specified.
+
+3. If the bet be made upon both innings, and one party beats the other
+in one innings, the runs in the first innings shall determine it.
+
+4. If the other party go in a second time, then the bet must be
+determined by the number in the second.
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS.
+
+Cricket is played by twenty-two persons, eleven on each side, and two
+umpires, with two persons to score and count the innings. Thirteen
+players play at one time, viz., two strikers, one bowler, one
+wicket-keeper, long-stop, short-stop, point, cover, middle-wicket,
+long-field, off-side, on-side, and leg; of these the two strikers are
+the inside, or have their innings. The object of the game is to get the
+greatest number of runs, and this is to be done by the strikers. Each
+side having been in once and out once, the first innings is concluded,
+and, we might say, a complete game has been played, but in most matches
+another innings is played. The scorers keep the account of runs to each
+striker separately for each innings. The side that has obtained the
+greatest number of runs, wins the game. The arrangement of the players
+in the field is as follows:--
+
+  +--------------------------------------+
+  | 6                                    |
+  | *             8                      |
+  |               *                      |
+  |                            9         |
+  |                            *         |
+  |         7                         10 |
+  |    5    *                          * |
+  |    *                                 |
+  | 4  3  1                   1  2       |
+  | *  *  *                   *  *       |
+  |                                      |
+  |                                      |
+  |                                      |
+  |                                      |
+  |     12                    11         |
+  |      *                     *         |
+  +--------------------------------------+
+
+ORDER OF THE PLAYERS.
+
+   1. Striker.
+   2. Bowler.
+   3. Wicket-keeper.
+   4. Long-stop.
+   5. Short-stop.
+   6. Long-slip.
+   7. Point.
+   8. Cover.
+   9. Middle-wicket.
+  10. Long-field, off-side.
+  11. Long-field, on-side.
+  12. Leg.
+
+
+
+
+PART VI.
+
+SWIMMING.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+No boy should be unable to swim, because it is essential to the
+preservation of life; but the attainment of the art has been held to be
+difficult, and the number of good swimmers is very small. The whole
+science of swimming consists in multiplying the surface of the body by
+extensive motions, so as to displace a greater quantity of liquid. As
+the first requisite of oratory was said to be action; the second,
+action; and the third, action; so the first, second, and the third
+requisite in learning to swim, is COURAGE. Now there is a vast
+difference between courage and temerity; courage proceeds from
+confidence, temerity, from carelessness; courage is calm and collected,
+temerity is headstrong and rash; courage ventures into the water
+carefully, and throws himself off with a firm and vigorous lounge
+forward, and a slow and equable stroke; temerity begins to dive before
+he knows whether he can swim or sink, and after floundering about for a
+minute or two, finds that he can swim farthest where it is deepest.
+Therefore, let the young swimmer mark the distinction between courage
+and temerity, and he will speedily become a swimmer.
+
+Before, however, we proceed to offer any remarks on swimming as an art,
+we cannot refrain from calling the attention of our young friends to the
+observations of a celebrated medical doctor who has thought profoundly
+on the subject. "Immersion in cold water," says he, "is a custom which
+lays claim to the most remote antiquity; indeed it must be coeval with
+man himself. The necessity of water for the purpose of cleanliness, and
+the pleasure arising from its application in hot countries, must have
+very early recommended it to the human species; even the example of
+other animals was sufficient to give the hint to man; by instinct many
+of them are led to apply cold water in this manner, and some, when
+deprived of its use, have been known to languish, and even to die."
+
+The cold bath recommends itself in a variety of cases, and is peculiarly
+beneficial to the inhabitants of populous cities who indulge in idleness
+and lead sedentary lives: it accelerates the motion of the blood,
+promotes the different secretions, and gives permanency to the solids.
+But all these important purposes will be more easily answered by the
+application of salt water; this also ought not only to be preferred on
+account of its superior gravity, but also, "for its greater power of
+stimulating the skin, which prevents the patient from catching cold."
+
+It is necessary, however, to observe, that cold bathing is more likely
+to prevent than to remove obstructions of the glandular or lymphatic
+system; indeed, when these have arrived at a certain height, they are
+not to be removed by any means; in this case, the cold bath will only
+aggravate the symptoms, and hurry the unhappy patient into an untimely
+grave. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance, previously to the
+patient entering upon the use of the cold bath, to determine whether or
+not he labours under any obstinate obstruction of the lungs or other
+viscera, and when this is the case, cold bathing ought strictly to be
+prohibited.
+
+In what is called a plethoric state, or too great fulness of the body,
+it is likewise dangerous to use the cold bath without due preparation.
+In this case, there is danger of bursting a blood-vessel, or occasioning
+an inflammation.
+
+The ancient Romans and Greeks, we are told, when covered with sweat and
+dust, used to plunge into rivers without receiving the smallest injury.
+Though they might escape danger from this imprudent conduct, yet it was
+certainly contrary to sound reason; many robust men have thrown away
+their lives by such an attempt. We would not, however, advise patients
+to go in the cold water when the body is chilled; as much exercise at
+least ought to be taken as may excite a gentle glow all over the body,
+but by no means so as to overheat it.
+
+To young people, and particularly to children, cold bathing is of the
+utmost importance; it promotes their growth, increases their strength,
+and prevents a variety of diseases incident to childhood.
+
+It is necessary here to caution young men against too frequent bathing,
+as many fatal consequences have resulted from the daily practice of
+plunging into rivers, and continuing there too long.
+
+The most proper time of the day for using the cold bath is, no doubt,
+the morning, or at least before dinner, and the best mode, that of quick
+immersion. As cold bathing has a tendency to propel the blood to the
+head, it ought always to be a rule to wet that part as soon as possible.
+By due attention to this circumstance, there is reason to believe that
+violent head-aches, and other complaints which frequently proceed from
+cold bathing, might be often prevented.
+
+The cold bath, when too long continued, not only occasions an excessive
+flux towards the head, but chills the blood, cramps the muscles, relaxes
+the nerves, and wholly defeats the intention of bathing; hence expert
+swimmers are often injured, and sometimes lose their lives. All the
+beneficial purposes of cold bathing are answered by one immersion at a
+time, and the patient ought to be rubbed dry the moment he comes out of
+the water, and should continue to take exercise some time after.
+
+Doctor Franklin, who was almost always a practical man, says, "that the
+only obstacle to improvement in this necessary and life-preserving art,
+is fear; and it is only by overcoming this timidity, that you can expect
+to become a master of the following acquirements. It is very common for
+novices in the art of swimming, to make use of corks or bladders to
+assist in keeping the body above the water; some have utterly condemned
+the use of them. However, they may be of service for supporting the body
+while one is learning what is called the stroke, or that manner of
+drawing in and striking out the hands and feet that is necessary to
+produce progressive motion; but you will be no swimmer till you can
+place confidence in the power of the water to support you. I would
+therefore advise the acquiring that confidence in the first place, as I
+have known several who, by a little practice necessary for that purpose,
+have insensibly acquired the stroke, taught as if it were by nature. The
+practice I mean, is this--choosing a place where the water deepens
+gradually, walk coolly in it until it is up to your breast, then turn
+your face towards the shore and throw an egg into the water between you
+and the shore, it will sink to the bottom and will easily be seen there
+if the water is clear; it must lie in the water so deep that you cannot
+reach to take it up without diving for it. To encourage yourself to do
+this, reflect that your progress will be from deep to shallow water, and
+that at any time you may, by bringing your legs under you and standing
+on the bottom, raise your head far above the water; plunge under it with
+your eyes open, which must be kept open before going under, as you
+cannot open your eyelids from the weight of water above you, throw
+yourself towards the egg and endeavour by the action of your feet and
+hands against the water, to get forward till within reach of it. In this
+attempt you will find that the water buoys you up against your
+inclination, and that it is not so easy to sink as you imagine, and
+that you cannot, but by active force, get down to the egg. Thus you feel
+the power of water to support you, and learn to confide in that power,
+while your endeavours to overcome it and to reach the egg, teach you the
+manner of acting on the water with your feet and hands, which action is
+afterwards used in swimming to support your head higher above the water,
+or to go forward through it.
+
+"I would the more earnestly press upon you the trial of this method,
+because, though I think I shall satisfy you that your body is lighter
+than water, and that you might float for a long time with your mouth
+free for breathing, if you would put yourself into a proper posture, and
+would be still and forbear struggling, yet till you have obtained this
+experimental confidence in the water, I cannot depend upon your having
+the necessary presence of mind to recollect the posture and the
+directions I gave you relating to it; the surprise may put all out of
+your mind.
+
+"Though the legs, arms, and head of a human body, being solid parts, are
+specifically somewhat heavier than fresh water, yet the trunk,
+particularly the upper part, from its hollowness, is so much lighter
+than water, as that the whole of the body, taken altogether, is too
+light to sink wholly under water, but that some parts will remain above
+until the lungs become filled with water, which happens from drawing
+water to them instead of air, when a person in the fright attempts
+breathing while the mouth and nostrils are under water.
+
+"The legs and arms are specifically lighter than salt water, and will be
+supported by it, so that a human body cannot sink in salt water, though
+the lungs were filled as above, but for the greater specific gravity of
+the head. Therefore, a person throwing himself on his back in salt
+water, and extending his arms, may easily lie so as to keep his mouth
+and nostrils free for breathing, and by a small motion of the hand may
+prevent turning if he should perceive any tendency to it.
+
+"In fresh water, if a man throw himself on his back near the surface, he
+cannot continue in that situation but by proper action of his hands in
+the water; if he have no such action, the legs and lower part of the
+body will gradually sink till he comes into an upright position, in
+which he will continue suspended, the hollow of his breast keeping the
+head uppermost.
+
+"But if in this erect position, the head be kept upright above the
+shoulders, as when we stand on the ground, the immersion will, by the
+weight of that part of the head that is out of the water, reach above
+the mouth and nostrils, perhaps a little above the eyes, so that a man
+cannot long remain suspended in the water with his head in that
+position.
+
+"The body continuing suspended, as before, and upright, if the head be
+leaned quite back, so that the face look upward, all the back part of
+the head being under water, and its weight consequently being in a great
+measure supported by it, the face will remain above water quite free for
+breathing, will rise an inch higher at every inspiration, and sink as
+much at every expiration, but never so low that the water may come over
+the mouth.
+
+"If, therefore, a person unacquainted with swimming, falling into the
+water, could have presence of mind sufficient to avoid struggling and
+plunging, and to let the body take this natural position, he might
+continue long safe from drowning, till, perhaps, help should come; for
+as to the clothes, their additional weight, when immersed, is very
+inconsiderable, the water supporting them, though when he comes out of
+the water he would find them very heavy indeed.
+
+"But, as I said before, I would not advise you or any one to depend on
+having this presence of mind on such an occasion, but learn fairly to
+swim, as I wish all men were taught to do in their youth: they would on
+many occasions be the safer for having that skill, and on many more, the
+happier, as being free from painful apprehensions of danger, to say
+nothing of the enjoyment in so delightful and wholesome an exercise.
+Soldiers, particularly, should all be taught to swim; it might be of
+particular use either in surprising an enemy or saving themselves, and
+if I had any boys to educate, I would prefer those schools in which an
+opportunity was afforded for acquiring so advantageous an art, which
+when once learned, is never forgotten.
+
+"I know by experience, that it is a great comfort to a swimmer who has a
+great distance to go, to turn himself sometimes on his back, and to vary
+in other respects the means of procuring a progressive motion.
+
+"When he is seized with the cramp in the leg, the method to drive it
+away, is to give the parts affected a sudden, vigorous and violent
+shock, which he may do in the air as he swims on his back.
+
+"During the great heats in summer, there is no danger in bathing,
+however warm he may be, in rivers which have been thoroughly warmed by
+the sun; but to throw one's-self into cold spring water when the body
+has been heated by exercise in the sun, is an imprudence which may
+prove fatal. I once knew an instance of four young men, who, having
+worked at harvest in the heat of the day, with a view of refreshing
+themselves, plunged into a spring of cold water; two died upon the spot,
+a third next morning, and the fourth recovered with great difficulty. A
+copious draught of cold water, in similar circumstances, is frequently
+attended with the same effect in North America.
+
+"When I was a boy, I amused myself one day with flying a paper kite, and
+approaching the bank of a lake which was near a mile broad, I tied the
+string to a stake, and the kite ascended to a very considerable height
+above the pond while I was bathing. In a little while, being desirous of
+amusing myself with my kite and enjoying at the same time the pleasure
+of swimming, I returned, and loosening from the stake the string with
+the little stick which was fastened to it, went again into the water,
+where I found, that by lying on my back and holding the stick in my
+hand, I was drawn along the surface of the water in a very agreeable
+manner. Having thus engaged another boy to carry my clothes round the
+pond to a place which I pointed out to him on the other side, I began to
+cross the pond with my kite, which carried me quite over without the
+least fatigue and with the greatest pleasure imaginable. I was only
+obliged occasionally to halt a little in my course and resist its
+progress, when it appeared that by following too quick I lowered the
+kite too much; by doing thus occasionally, I made it rise again. I have
+never since that time practised this singular mode of swimming, though I
+think it not impossible to cross in this manner from Dover to Calais.
+The packet boat is, however, preferable."
+
+
+PRELIMINARY EXERCISES IN SWIMMING.
+
+We have shown that much of the art of swimming depends upon having
+confidence, and that that confidence is speedily dissipated upon the
+swimmer coming in contact with the water. Besides this, a great deal in
+the art of swimming depends upon the degree of ease with which the
+swimmer can use his hands and feet. Now this sort of exercise may in
+part be acquired on land, and it would be of great usefulness to the
+learner were he to enter upon some preliminary practice which would give
+him the use of his hands and feet, in the manner required in swimming.
+To do this, he should provide himself with two ropes, which should be
+fastened up in the manner of two swings, at about sixteen inches apart
+from each other, and one a little higher than the other; these should be
+joined together with two or three cords passing from the one to the
+other, and on the rack thus made, a pillow or cushion should be placed;
+upon this, the learner will throw himself on his breast, as upon the
+water, and supporting himself in this position, and having his hands and
+feet perfectly at liberty, he will move them to and fro in the same
+manner as in swimming; this he should repeat several times a day, until
+he finds that he has got a complete mastery over the action required.
+The head must be drawn back, the chin raised, the fingers must be kept
+close, and the hands slightly concave on the inside,--they must be
+struck out in a line with the breast; the legs must then be drawn up and
+struck out, not downwards, however, but _behind_, in such a manner,
+that they may have a good hold upon the water. These directions being
+followed for a few days, will give the learner so much assistance, that
+when he enters the water he will find little more requisite than
+calmness and confidence in striking out.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In proceeding to take water, the first thing the youth should do, is to
+make himself thoroughly convinced that the spot is safe, that there are
+no holes in it, that no weeds are at the bottom, that it does not
+contain any stones likely to cut the feet. Ho must also be cautious that
+he does not enter a stream whose eddy sweeps round a projecting point,
+or hollow; the bank should slope off gradually, so that he may proceed
+for ten or twelve yards from the shore, before the water rises to the
+level of his armpits. With regard to the use of bladders and corks,
+although it may perhaps be better to learn to keep ourselves afloat
+without their aid, yet they may be used with advantage, if used
+sparingly. The pupil, in using them, places his breast across the rope
+which unites them, so that when he lays himself over them in the water,
+they float above him, and thus assist in buoying him up; thus sustained,
+he strikes out and propels himself with his hands and feet. In striking
+out when in the water, the fingers are to be perfectly straight, and the
+thumb kept close to the hand; the hands are then to be brought forward,
+palm to palm, and to be thrust out in a direction on a level with the
+chin; when at their fullest reach, they are to be parted and swept
+slowly and regularly with the palms in a horizontal position, the full
+stretch of the arms backwards, they are then brought up from the hips
+and struck out forward, as before. While the hands are near the hips, is
+the time for the legs to perform their part; they are to be drawn up as
+near to the body as possible, and the soles of the feet struck against
+the water with moderate force, immediately the hands are again thrust
+forward. Now all this is very easily performed with a little practice,
+but will be very difficult if the learner have not coolness and
+self-possession. A slow long stroke, the hand thrust forward with
+energy, and the legs brought up and struck out with a regular and even
+stroke, is the whole art of simple swimming. The swimmer must, however,
+be careful to draw his breath at the time when his hands are descending
+towards his hips; if he attempt it when he strikes out his legs, his
+head will partially sink, and his mouth will fill with water. The breath
+should accordingly be expired while the body is sent forward by the
+action of the legs.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The young swimmer will find much use in having a plank, ten feet long,
+two inches thick, and a foot broad, which he may take hold of at one of
+its ends, and his body being thus supported he will perfect himself in
+the action of the legs, and will, by striking them out, drive the plank
+before him: he must, however, take care to hold it fast, for if he
+should let go his hold, he will find himself sinking over head and ears
+in the water. A rope may also be so fixed as to reach over the water, by
+which the swimmer may support himself while learning to strike out with
+his legs; but he should be careful always in performing this exercise,
+to keep his legs near the surface, as, if the legs drop down, he will
+make very little way in the water. One of the best kinds of assistance,
+however, the young swimmer can have, is the hand of some one who is
+willing to teach him, and is superior to any other methods for very
+young swimmers. If a grown person will take the trouble to take the
+little learner out with him till he is breast high in the water, and
+sustain him with one hand under the breast, and occasionally hold him up
+by the chin, at the same time directing and encouraging him, and
+occasionally letting him loose that he may support himself by striking
+out, the little learner will soon reach that triumphant period when he
+floats alone on the water.
+
+After this triumph, however, the young swimmer must be exceedingly
+cautious, though he may feel conscious of his own power, he must venture
+only a few strokes out of his depth: should he be in a broad river, he
+must be careful not to do so where there is a strong curling eddy or
+flood: in a small river, the breadth of which is only a few yards, he
+may venture across with a few bold and regular strokes; but should he
+become flurried and lose his time, he will most assuredly be in danger
+of sinking. Let him then obtain such perfect command over his limbs, and
+also over himself, that when he ventures out of his depth, he may be
+able to keep afloat in the water, pleasantly to himself, and without
+hazard.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A most important branch in art of swimming, is floating, as the swimmer
+may frequently rest himself when fatigued, and otherwise engage himself
+in the water. To do this, he must turn himself as gently as possible on
+the back, put his head back, so that his eyes, mouth, and chin, only,
+are above the water, elevate his breast, and inflate his chest as much
+as possible: the arms may be brought towards the hips, and the hands
+should be paddled in a horizontal kind of sweep, which will sustain the
+body. Should the learner wish to swim, he must strike out with his legs,
+taking care not to lift his legs too high; in this position the arms may
+occasionally be folded across the breast.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+To _tread water_, the legs must be suffered to drop in the water till
+the swimmer finds himself upright, he then treads downwards with his
+feet, occasionally paddling with the palms of his hands. The swimmer,
+when long in the water, will soon find himself tired, changes of action
+are therefore necessary; there are many which are highly advantageous to
+learn, such as swimming like a dog, porpoise, etc. To _swim like a dog_,
+he must strike with each hand and foot alternately, beginning with the
+right hand and foot, he must draw the hand towards the chin, and the
+foot towards the body, at the same time; he then must kick backwards
+with the foot, and strike out in a right line with the hand, and the
+same with the left hand and foot: the palms of the hands must be hollow,
+and the water pulled towards the swimmer. In _swimming like a porpoise_,
+the right arm is lifted entirely out of the water, the shoulder is
+thrust forward, and while the swimmer is striking out with his legs, he
+reaches forward with his hand as far as he can; his hand then falls, a
+little hollowed, in the water, which it grasps or pulls towards him in a
+transverse direction towards the other armpit. While this is going on,
+the legs are drawn up for another effort, and the left arm and shoulder
+are raised and thrust forward, as the right had previously been. When
+the swimmer feels tired, he may change these positions for swimming on
+the side. To do this, he must lower his left side and elevate his right,
+striking forward with his left hand, and sideways with his right, the
+back of the hand being in front instead of upward, the thumb side of the
+hand being downward so as to serve as an oar. Should the swimmer wish to
+turn on his back, he must keep one leg still, and embrace the water
+beside him with the other, and he will turn to that side. To shew the
+feet, he must turn himself on his back, and bend the small of it
+downwards, supporting himself by his hands to and fro immediately above
+his breast, and hold his feet above the water. Swimming under water is
+performed by the usual stroke, the head being kept a little downwards,
+and the feet struck out a little higher than when swimming on the
+surface.
+
+
+BERNARDI'S SYSTEM.
+
+_Upright swimming._--This is a new mode of swimming, introduced by
+Bernardi, a Neapolitan, and consists in adopting the accustomed motion
+of the limbs in walking. It gives great freedom to the hands and arms,
+affords a greater facility of breathing and of sight. It is true, that a
+person swimming in an upright position, advances more slowly, but as the
+method is more natural, the person is able to continue his course
+longer, and can remain with greater safety in the water.
+
+The first object with Bernardi, is to enable the pupil to float in an
+upright position, and in this the head is made the great regulator of
+all the motions. After having been by practice familiarised to keep his
+equilibrium, a variety of motions are gradually practised, until the
+swimmer is enabled at every stroke to urge himself forward a distance
+equal to the length of his body, and to travel, without fatigue, at
+least three miles an hour, and to continue this without great fatigue
+for many hours. Bernardi, speaking of the success of his practice, says,
+"Having been appointed to instruct the youths of the Royal Naval Academy
+at Naples in the art of swimming, a trial of the pupils took place in
+the presence of a number of persons assembled on the shore, and under
+the inspection of authorities appointed to witness and report upon the
+experiment. A twelve-oared boat attended the progress of the pupils,
+from motives of precaution. They swam so far out in the bay, that at
+length the heads of the young men could with difficulty be discerned
+with the naked eye; and the Major-General of Marine, Fortguerri, for
+whose inspection the exhibition was attended, expressed serious
+apprehensions for their safety. Upon their return to the shore, the
+young men, however, assured him that they felt so little exhausted, as
+to be willing immediately to repeat the exertion."
+
+After devoting a month to the investigation of Bernardi's plan, the
+Neapolitan government state in their official report--
+
+"That it has been established by the experience of more than a hundred
+persons of different bodily constitutions, that the human body is
+lighter than water, and, consequently, will float by nature, and that
+the art of swimming must be acquired to render that privilege useful.
+
+"That Bernardi's system is new, in so far as it is founded on the
+principle of husbanding the strength, and rendering the power of
+recruiting it easy."
+
+The speed, according to the new method, is no doubt diminished, but
+security is much more important than speed, and the new plan is not
+exclusive of the old when occasions require great effort.
+
+Little more need be said on the subject of swimming, except giving a few
+directions in diving and plunging, which require to be performed with
+caution and elegance. When the swimmer prepares to dive, he must take a
+full inspiration of air, the eyes must be kept open, the back made
+round, and the head bent forwards on the breast; the legs must be thrown
+out with force, and the arms and hands, instead of being struck forward
+as in swimming, must move backward. When the swimmer would ascend, the
+chin must be held up, the back bent inwards, the hands struck out high
+and brought sharply down, and the body will immediately rise to the
+surface of the water.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Plunging._--There are two different modes of plunging to be acquired,
+namely, the flat plunge, which is necessary in shallow water, and the
+deep plunge, which is used where there is considerable depth of water.
+For the latter, the arms must be outstretched, the knees bent, and the
+body leant forward till the head descends nearly to the feet when the
+spine and knees are extended. In the flat plunge, the swimmer must fling
+himself forward in an inclined direction, according to the depth or
+shallowness of the water; when he touches the bottom, he must rise in
+the same manner as after diving.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+After all these necessary motions and movements have been acquired in
+the water, there is one thing of which the swimmer must beware, and
+against which art and precaution can do but little--this is the CRAMP.
+When this seizes the swimmer, he must endeavour, as much as possible, to
+avoid being alarmed, as he will reflect, that as the body is lighter
+than water, a very little exertion in it will keep his body afloat. Of
+course his first thoughts will be towards the shore, but he must not
+forget, that the cramp being only a muscular contraction, may be thrown
+off by proper muscular exertion. He must strike out the limb violently,
+and bringing the toes towards the shin-bone, thrust his feet out, which
+will probably restore the muscles to their proper exercise; but if the
+cramp still continue, he can easily keep himself afloat with his hands,
+and paddle towards the shore, till some assistance comes to him. If one
+leg is only attacked, he may drive himself forward with the other, and
+for this purpose, in an emergency, the swimmer should frequently try to
+swim with one hand, or one leg and one hand, or by two hands alone,
+which will be easily acquired.
+
+Should a companion be in danger of drowning, it is our duty to use every
+exertion to save his life; and, indeed, not to use the utmost exertion
+is a high degree of moral guilt, but in doing this, we must not rashly
+hazard our own life, nor put ourselves into a position in which the
+swimmer can cling to us or grasp any part of our body, or the loss of
+both will be inevitable. It will be better in all cases where bathing is
+practised, that there should be ropes and planks at hand, and young
+swimmers should never venture far into the water without such means of
+rescue are available. In conclusion, we would caution all who go into
+the water, against remaining in it too long, as nothing can be more
+dangerous; and we would further advise that the practice of bathing and
+swimming be not only common to boyhood, but be continued in after life,
+as few things tend more to the preservation of HEALTH.
+
+
+
+
+PART VII.
+
+GARDENING.
+
+
+We read in the sacred records, that when man was created, he was placed
+in a "Garden,"--the Garden of Eden, to dress it and to keep it; and we
+may infer therefrom, first, that, the occupation of gardening was one
+pre-eminently fitted for the happiness of man, and secondly, that
+industry, and even labour, was also a part of man's duty, even in a
+state of innocence.
+
+There is not a more innocent amusement than gardening. Nothing can be
+more lovely than to be among buds and fruits and flowers; nothing is
+more conducive to health and peace of mind, and few things are better
+calculated to inspire religious feelings than gardening.
+
+Every little boy or girl should have a garden, and should be shown how
+to manage it. There is a great deal in _management_ and in _method_ at
+all times, but especially in gardening. Much _attention_ is also
+necessary,--great _care_ and much _forethought_; all of which qualities
+of the mind it is in the highest degree proper to train and exercise.
+Whoever, therefore, begins gardening, must not look upon it as an idle
+sport, to be taken up and thrown aside with the whim of the moment, but
+as an occupation for leisure hours, that the mind must be brought to
+bear upon, and which must engage him from day to day, from month to
+month, from spring to summer, from autumn to winter, and so through all
+the changes of the varied year.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+LAYING OUT THE GROUND.
+
+                                30 yds.
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                                                                 |
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+  | 2 ft. |   22-1/2 ft. Bed   | 3 ft. |    22-1/2 ft. Bed  | 2 ft. | 40
+  | 6 in. |                    | wide  |                    | 6 in. | yds.
+  | wide  |                    |       |                    | wide  |
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+  |                                                                 |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+To begin gardening, a little boy must have some _ground_, which is quite
+indispensable; and a boy of from ten to fourteen years old ought to
+have, at least, a piece large enough for him to divide and subdivide,
+and arrange with neatness and order. A piece of about forty yards long
+by thirty wide will be large enough to commence with, and this should be
+set out in the subjoined manner. This will allow of a path three feet
+wide in the centre, and of one two feet six inches round the sides,
+leaving the beds twenty-two and a half feet wide. The paths should be
+gravelled with a good red binding gravel, and to look nice, the borders
+should be edged with box or edging tiles. At each corner of the two
+parallelograms, might be planted a tree, say, one apple, one pear, one
+plum, and one cherry, that is, eight in all; and at distances of about a
+yard, might be planted, all round, a foot from the paths, alternately,
+gooseberry-bushes, currant-trees, and raspberry-trees, and between them,
+various kinds of flowers, to come into blossom at different seasons. At
+one end, the south end if possible, should be erected a small arbour,
+with a couple of seats in it, and at the two opposite corners should be
+two small manure pits,--one for the reception of well-rotted manure, to
+be quickly used, and the other for the reception of all weeds, leaves,
+and rubbish, which will make manure, and which should be mixed up from
+time to time with the spade. These pits should be used alternately. As
+soon as one has its contents well rotted, it should be emptied from time
+to time on the land, while the other pit should be used to hold the
+fresh matter newly collected. By the time this is full, the other will
+be empty, and then that may be used as a _collector_ and the other as a
+_decomposer_, and so on, alternately.
+
+
+MANURE.
+
+It is of no use whatever to think of getting things to grow without
+manure. This is the life and soul of all garden operations. Almost
+everything can be converted into manure. The grass from lawns, fallen
+leaves, weeds, and all vegetable matter, afford good light manure.
+Strong manures are prepared from horse, cow, sheep, and goat dung. The
+dung of fowls and rabbits is also most excellent; and where fowls or
+rabbits are kept, their dung should be preserved with great care, and
+put by itself into a rotting-pit, or into a tank, and kept wet. The
+juicy part can then be used as a liquid manure, and will be found of a
+highly fertilizing property, and the more solid may be spread over the
+land. The best time for putting manure on the land is in dry or frosty
+weather, and it should be dug in as soon as spread. It is a very unwise
+plan to spread manure on the land and let it lie, as in such cases, much
+of the strength of the manure is lost. Young gardeners should be very
+careful in preparing and collecting manure, and also when they are
+moving it from the pits to the ground, they should take care and not
+soil their paths.
+
+
+GARDENING TOOLS.
+
+It is quite necessary that a young gardener should have proper tools. He
+should have a small but strong _spade_, a small but strong _rake_, a
+digging _fork_, a _hoe_, a _trowel_, a good _pruning-knife_, a _box_ for
+seeds, a little _wheelbarrow_, a _line_, and above all, a little
+gardener's _apron_, and a _straw hat_ with a _broad brim_. Thus
+equipped, he may commence his gardening operations with great comfort to
+himself and some chance of success.
+
+
+DIGGING.
+
+The young gardener should practise digging, with a view to digging well.
+In beginning to dig a piece of ground, he should first clear it of all
+sticks, stalks, or stones, that might impede his labor. He should then
+commence at one end of the ground, with his back to the sun, if
+possible, and, beginning from the left-hand corner, dig one line all the
+way to the right-hand corner, either one or two spades deep, as may be
+required. The ground should be turned over, evenly laid up at the top,
+nice and level, and the weeds completely buried. The operator should dig
+carefully when near the roots of gooseberry, currant, raspberry, or
+fruit trees, and more carefully still, among flowers. If digging early
+in the season, he must mind he does not dig into his _bulbs_; such as
+lilies, tulips, snow-drops, crocuses, or daffodils, and cut them to
+pieces.
+
+In the latter part of the year, in November and December, it is a good
+plan to dig up any unoccupied ground into ridges, and leave it in that
+state during the winter, that the frost may act upon it. The effect of
+frost upon the ground so prepared is very beneficial, as it breaks the
+clods and pulverizes the more cloggy portions, which fall down in a thaw
+as a fine soft mould. When manure is dug into the ground, it should not
+be dug in too deeply, about four or five inches being quite sufficient
+in most cases.
+
+
+WEEDING.
+
+Gardens will always produce a great deal more than is wished for, in the
+shape of various herbs, shrubs, and plants, called weeds; such as
+dandelions, couch-grass, cow-parsley, chick-weed, and many other plants,
+which go by the general name of _weeds_. These, if left to their own
+natural growth, would soon cover the ground, and take away from the
+garden plants the nutriment in the soil designed for them, besides
+entangling their roots, stems, and leaves; therefore, weeding is as
+indispensable as digging. The young gardener should make up his mind
+before he sets foot in his garden to have _no weeds in it_; for however
+assiduous he may have been in other respects, however he may have
+planted, watered, dug, or attended to his garden, if it show a crop of
+weeds, he is a bad gardener, and will be sure to get laughed at. Weeds
+may either be pulled up by the hand or cut up by the hoe. In both cases,
+the roots must be eradicated. They must not be plucked from the stem, or
+cut from the level ground by the edge of the hoe, but hoed or plucked
+up, root and all; and after they are got up, they are not be left about
+in the ridges to take root and grow again, but must be cleared away and
+safely put into the pit, never again to rise, but in the chemistry of
+good manure.
+
+
+PLANTING AND SOWING.
+
+Everything in a garden must be planted in some way or other, and there
+are many ways of planting and sowing. Sowing relates more particularly
+to seeds, and planting to the setting of plants that have been raised
+from seed in the first instance. The sowing of seeds is a very important
+work, and before seeds can be sown with a prospect of their springing up
+properly, the preparation of the soil, the time of the year, and even
+the time of day, must be taken into consideration. Some seeds perish in
+particular kinds of soil, while others thrive luxuriantly in them.
+Onions like a rich soil, as do cauliflowers and asparagus. Carrots and
+parsnips like a loose or sandy soil, as do sea-kale and many other
+plants. Some plants will only grow in bog earth; and some thrive, such
+as strawberries, best in a clayey loam. Attention to such matters must
+be given by the young gardener, if he wish to have his garden what it
+ought to be.
+
+
+HOT-BEDS AND FRAMES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Before we can sow many kinds of seeds in this country in the open
+ground, it is necessary to raise them first in a hot-bed, and for this
+reason,--many flowers common in our gardens are not natives of our cold
+and variable climate, but of one much warmer; and if we delay to sow the
+seed of such plants and flowers till the warm days of summer are fully
+set in, the plant has scarcely time to grow into perfection before the
+chills of autumn come on, and they perish before their blossoms, fruit,
+or seeds come to perfection. But this may be obviated by means of a
+frame and hot-bed, which every young gardener ought to have, however
+small it may be. One of the simplest is the common garden or cucumber
+frame, which may be bought for a few shillings. This, if about a yard
+square, should be set upon a low framework of bricks, within which a pit
+is dug, and filled with good manure over which some fine mould is
+placed, to the depth of about six inches. Upon this mould the more
+delicate kinds of flower-seeds may be sown at an early period of the
+year,--varieties of all those found in the gardening books under the
+head of tender annuals,--balsams, French marigolds, tobacco, stocks,
+marigolds, gourds, and sun-flowers. The seed must be sown
+carefully,--not too thick, and occasionally looked at. In mild, open
+weather, the glass should be raised a little, but in cold weather kept
+down. The giving of water should be managed with care, and the plants as
+they appear should not be suffered to grow too rapidly, but be kept
+under, or they will not bear to be transplanted when the time comes for
+doing so.
+
+In transplanting, care should always be taken not to transplant too
+early, or in improper weather; for if the weather happens to be cold or
+wet, the tender plants will suffer very much, and probably fail. This
+would be the case, not only with flowers, but with all the tender kinds
+of plants, such as cauliflowers, and, therefore, the young gardener must
+keep his "weather eye" open, as the sailors say, and not be too much in
+a hurry, as young gardeners generally are.
+
+
+OPEN CROPS.
+
+In the sowing of open crops, care should also be taken to sow at the
+proper time. Very early sowing is generally hazardous, but yet, if you
+would have your crops come in soon, a little risk must be run. When seed
+is sown in the open ground, it requires watching, and this particularly
+applies to such crops as early potatoes or beans. Sometimes potatoes are
+sown in February, with the view to an early crop; and in April the young
+tender sprouts appear above the ground. One night's frost, however,
+settles them,--down they go, black and jelly-like to the earth; but if
+the weather be doubtful, the thoughtful young gardener takes care to
+cover up the tender shoots with dry leaves or straw, to break the icy
+tooth of the frost, and save his crop. The same care should be also
+bestowed upon any other vegetable of a tender kind, and without this
+care, gardening would come to nothing.
+
+After seeds are sown, they have many natural enemies. The slug, the
+snail, the wire-worm, the impudent sparrow, and the most impudent and
+insolent chaffinch, who all seem to have an idea that the seed is put
+into the ground entirely for their benefit. As soon as the pea-shoot
+comes above the earth, the slug has a mouthful in its tenderest moments;
+after the shoot has in part recovered from the gentle nibble, Master
+Sparrow swoops down and picks off, as quick as he can, all the delicate
+little sprouts by mouthfuls: to make a fit ending to what is so well
+begun, the chaffinch descends in the most impudent manner, close to your
+face, and pulls up stalk and pea both together, and flies away as
+unconcerned as can be. Now it is of no use to stand with a gun or a pair
+of clappers in your hand all the day after these intruders, and the only
+protection is by a net, or rows of twine strung with feathers, stretched
+over the bed in rows, and a few other pieces of white twine crosswise in
+their immediate vicinity. Birds do not like the look of any threads
+drawn across the ground, and they will rarely fly where there appears
+danger of entanglement; and this method is the best that can be adopted
+for seed-beds. A _Guy_ is also good; and there are few boys who do not
+know how to construct one. A _Guy_ is also particularly appropriate for
+the _early Warwick peas_. As to slugs and caterpillars, they must be
+hunted for and picked off; and if they abound in a garden, the line of
+shooting peas, beans, or other seed, must be dredged with a little
+slacked lime, which is an infalliable mode of protection. But mind the
+lime does not blow into your eyes; for, if it does, you will be worse
+off than the caterpillars.
+
+
+RAKING.
+
+When seeds are sown, the beds should be nicely raked. Some seeds, such
+as carrot and parsnip seeds, should be beaten down with the flat part of
+the spade, and laid very evenly and nicely. The edges of the little
+cross-paths should be sharp and straight, and the whole put into a
+ship-shape order. The stones should be raked off into the cross-paths,
+and may remain there until the land is dug up in the autumn or winter,
+when they may be removed. There is a good deal to be done with the rake
+in many ways, besides the raking of beds. It is a very useful tool to
+job over a bed when some kinds of seeds are sown: it also makes a very
+good drill, and is especially useful in getting leaves from the paths
+and borders; but it should be used with a light hand, and care taken not
+to scratch the ground into holes with it, as many young gardeners do.
+
+
+HOEING.
+
+The hoe is of very great use, both to hoe up weeds and to form drills.
+We have spoken about its former use, and shall now say a word or two
+about the latter. In forming a drill for peas, beans, or other seed, one
+thing is above all things requisite, namely, that it should be
+_straight_. A drill resembling a dog's hinder leg, never looks well in a
+garden, and therefore the little gardener must have recourse to his
+_line_. This ought to be long enough to stretch quite across his ground,
+and when he wants to strike a drill, he should stretch it across from
+path to path, and, taking his hoe in his hand, cut or scrape a little
+furrow, about three or four inches deep, by the side of his line. In
+sowing peas and beans, the drills are generally a yard apart, and
+between them other crops are sometimes sown. Very often a crop of
+spring-spinach or of radishes is sown between lines of peas, and so on
+of other intermediate crops.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The line is very useful in all kinds of planting. In planting
+broad-beans, they are put into the ground by a _dibber_, which is a
+piece of wood with a pointed end and a handle. The holes are to be
+dibbed along the side of the line. The same tool is used in a similar
+way in planting potatoes, strawberries, cabbage-plants, and a variety of
+other roots, which require to be planted in straight and equidistant
+lines.
+
+
+TRANSPLANTING.
+
+There are a great many vegetables which require to be
+transplanted,--some from the hot-bed, and some from the open ground,
+where they have sprung from seeds, to their destination in the garden.
+All transplanting should be done with care. Some plants, such as cabbage
+plants, do not require so much care as others, but every plant to do
+well should be well planted. Young gardeners are liable to many mistakes
+in transplanting; one is, that they often put the root of the plant into
+the ground bundled together; another is, that they make the hole too
+large with the dibber, and are not careful in pressing the mould to the
+root at the bottom of the hole, so that the root of the plant has
+nothing to feed upon. All this the thoughtful little gardener will
+avoid; and when he puts a plant into the ground, he will reflect that if
+it be not well _planted_ it will _not grow_. The young plants of the
+more delicate flowers should be moved with the greatest care into spots
+congenial with their natures. Some plants require a warm, some a cool
+situation, some a moist, some a dry one, and these will be ascertained
+by studying the nature of the plant.
+
+
+WATERING.
+
+Boys generally fancy there is nothing like watering, and they are very
+pleased when they get the watering-pot in their hands. They always like
+to be watering,--no doubt thinking that the more the seeds and plants
+are watered the better they thrive; but this is a mistake, moderation in
+all things should be the motto. When a plant wants watering
+artificially, it in general shows its wants by very unequivocal signs,
+namely, by a drooping of its pretty head and leaves; and then, if too
+much water be given to it, it soon springs up with great luxuriance; and
+the first burning day of sunshine is likely to kill it, or to do it
+great injury. The rule should be, to water as little as possible, and to
+wait as long as possible for nature's heavenly rain, which is better
+than any artificial watering. Plants should never be watered during the
+middle of the day, but early in the morning, or when the sun is
+descending in the evening. Pump-water should never be used if rain or
+pond-water can be obtained. Much good often results to plants and
+seed-beds from the use of _liquid_ manure. This can be easily prepared
+by getting an old beer-cask and knocking out the head. The bottom should
+then be fixed in a hole dug to receive it, and the earth allowed to
+reach to the brim. Some of the best manure to be had should then be put
+into this, with a pound or two of guano, and pour upon it three pails of
+water. It should then be allowed to stand for a week or two, and used as
+required. The effects will soon show themselves in the increased growth
+and vigour of the plants.
+
+
+ON THE PROPAGATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF SHRUBS AND PLANTS.
+
+Besides sowing seed and rearing plants from them by transplanting, there
+are many other ways of propagating plants, namely, by _off-sets_,
+_suckers_, _layers_, _divided-roots_, _cuttings_, and _pipings_. If
+tulips and hyacinths be examined, it will be found, that besides
+shedding seed, the bulb of the plant very often makes a smaller bulb on
+the larger one, and this, if taken off and planted by itself, becomes a
+new plant: many plants may be propagated in this way. The strawberry
+also, will be found to send off a long shoot, and, at about a foot
+distant from the parent root, a little knob appears, having a bud to
+spring into the air and a root to work into the ground: this is called a
+_runner_. These may be cut away from the parent and planted separately,
+and will become a new plant. Many other plants, such as roses,
+raspberries, and lilacs, send from their roots little thin stems: these
+are called _suckers_, and may be removed from the parent shrub and
+planted by themselves, when they will become separate plants. Many
+plants can be propagated by what are termed _layers_. To do this,
+nothing more is necessary than to select a shoot, as near the root as
+possible, and having partially divided it with a knife, make an upward
+slit in it, and then placing a bit of twig between the divided parts,
+press it down to the ground, burying the joint beneath the surface of
+the soil. To plant from _cuttings_, some care is necessary as regards
+green-house plants, but nothing is easier than to rear fresh stocks of
+roses, currants and gooseberries from cuttings, as it is only necessary
+to cut the shoots cleanly off, and, after reducing them to about six
+inches in length, to place them in the ground with the shooting end
+upwards. They should be planted about six inches apart, and after the
+first year be removed to their proper situation; and they will bear
+fruit in the following year. To plant from _pipings_, such as pinks and
+carnations, it is only necessary to pull off one of the tubular stems,
+and dividing it at or near the joint, pull off the surrounding leaves,
+and insert the end or jointed part in some fine sand-mould, placing a
+glass over them till they have "struck," that is, formed roots, when
+they can afterwards be transplanted.
+
+
+PRUNING.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Little gardeners ought to know something of pruning trees. To cut or
+prune gooseberry and currant-trees is very simple. Gooseberry-trees
+should be cut differently from currant-trees. In gooseberry-trees, much
+of the fruit grows on wood of the last year's growth, but on
+currant-trees, the fruit is, for the most part, found near the knob or
+joint between the old wood and the new. To prune gooseberry trees, all
+the old dead wood should be cut out, and every branch that trails on the
+ground should be cut away, all branches in the centre of the tree that
+intersect each other, and all ugly branches, should be removed,--all
+suckers should be taken from the root, and the stem of the tree left
+straight and free to about ten or twelve inches from the ground, and the
+tree trained to throw its branches into the kind of form in the margin.
+The branches should then be cut, i. e., about half of the white or new
+wood should be cut _cleanly_ off with a sharp knife, and the cuttings
+carefully gathered up.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In cutting currant-trees, nearly all the white wood should be cut away,
+leaving only head shoots to some one single or middle shoot of a main
+branch. The under-wood, old wood, and irregular and ugly wood, should
+also be cut away, as recommended at the cutting of gooseberries. In
+pruning or cutting raspberries, the old wood should be cut quite away,
+and the stems of the last year shortened about one third.
+
+
+GRAFTING AND BUDDING.
+
+Grafting is the transferring of a shoot of one tree into the stem of
+another, called the _stock_. Into this a slit is made; and then the
+scion or shoot is cut into the form of a tongue and inserted into it.
+The head of the stock is then cut off in a slanting direction, and the
+two are then tied together, or closely wrapped together, in moss,
+covered with grafting clay. No book can give directions so clear for
+grafting, as to enable the young gardener to perform it successfully. He
+must see it done, try it afterwards, and then ask if he has done it
+correctly; and to learn grafting and budding well, it is only necessary
+to get on the right side of the gardener. The same may be said as
+regards the pruning of vines, fruit and wall trees. Ten minutes'
+experience with the gardener will teach more than twenty volumes on the
+subject.
+
+
+SHIFTING OF CROPS.
+
+Crops must not be grown twice in rotation on the same ground. Peas and
+beans should be the crop after any of the roots, such as potatoes,
+carrots, and parsnips. Cabbages, and plants of that kind, may be sown
+and grown intermediately. The best rotation of crops will be found in
+any gardening book on the subject, and this the young gardener should
+make a subject of some study.
+
+
+HOW TO MANAGE A LITTLE GARDEN ALL THE YEAR ROUND.
+
+JANUARY.
+
+The chief wish of the little gardener this month is to take advantage of
+the hard frosts, and during their prevalence, to wheel upon his ground
+such manure as may be necessary. It should be wheeled in at this time,
+because, while the frost is hard, the wheelbarrow can pass over the
+paths and beds without doing much injury, nor will the dung and rubbish
+in its moving make more dirt than can be easily swept up. The manure
+should be left in heaps, and not spread till the time comes for digging
+it in.
+
+In the middle or latter end of the month, should the weather be fine and
+open, attention should be given to the cutting of the gooseberry,
+currant, and raspberry-trees, and to the planting of off-sets from each,
+or of cuttings, as directed. A crop of peas might be sown, as well as
+mustard and cress, and a few broad-beans for coming in early. The peas
+and beans should be sown in rows, about a yard apart, and a little
+spinach might be sown in a broad drill, made by the hoe between them.
+The gravel-walks should be turned up in the first thaw and left in a
+ridge, ready for turning down and rolling when the weather becomes fine
+and dry.
+
+Radishes may also now be sown in beds prepared by digging and freshly
+turned up. The seed should be thrown in, not too thickly, and raked
+over. Straw should then be placed upon it to keep off the birds, or a
+Guy and feathers. The straw must be kept over the beds in the frosty
+weather and during the night, and taken off in the morning.
+
+Now is the time to plant bulbous roots, such as snow-drops, crocuses,
+tulips, hyacinths, jonquils, daffodils, and flags; and off-sets of
+bulbous roots may be planted in beds. Anemones and ranunculuses may also
+be planted in dry weather, and some of the most hardy of the perennial
+and biennial shrubs, as asters, Canterbury-bells, and campanulas, may be
+planted.
+
+FEBRUARY.
+
+In February, the young gardener will find much to do. In the
+flower-garden, he may finish planting the remainder of the bulbous
+roots, such as the star of Bethlehem, fritillarias, narcissuses, and
+gladioluses, in beds or borders, all for flowering the same year. Some
+may be planted in pots to flower in the house, or they may be placed in
+the hot-bed for early flowering. Some of the hardy annual flower-seeds
+may now be sown.
+
+In the kitchen-garden, if we may so call it, a little crop of turnips
+may be sown to come in early. Cabbage-plants may be set in rows; and a
+little lettuce-seed may be sown under the frame in the hot-bed. This
+frame should be well covered at night, and slightly raised in the day
+time, when the weather is mild, to give the plants within it light and
+air.
+
+MARCH.
+
+In the flower-garden, the gardener may begin to sow in beds, borders and
+pots, larkspurs, candy-tuft, lupines, sweet-peas, Venus's looking-glass,
+pansies, stocks, sweet-scabius, and many others.
+
+In the culinary department, now is the time to sow a little bed of
+onions in a well-manured bed. A bed for carrots may also be prepared,
+and the seed sown and well trodden down. A bed of parsnips should also
+be prepared in the same way; and another crop of peas of the marrow-fat
+kind may be planted in drills in the same manner as the former. And
+now, perhaps, the cabbages will require the earth to be drawn to their
+stems; and, if the little gardener has room, he may plant three or four
+rows of early potatoes. They should be the cuttings of large ones, with
+not more than two eyes in each piece, and should be planted with manure
+in rows, about two feet and a half apart and about a foot distant from
+each other.
+
+APRIL.
+
+Now is the time to begin sowing the more tender annual flower seeds.
+Some should be sown in the hot-bed; such as African and French
+marigolds, Indian pinks, China-asters, yellow-sultanas; and many others
+of the hardy kind, wall-flowers, Canterbury-bells, French honey-suckles,
+mignonette, pinks, and daises may be planted.
+
+In the kitchen department, kidney-beans may be sown, and at the latter
+end of the month scarlet-runners and French-beans may be planted. It is
+not a bad plan to raise a few scarlet-runners in the hot-bed, and to
+plant them out when they have formed roots, and two or three leaves at
+the head. But as these kinds of beans are very tender, they should be
+carefully watched, and covered with straw on the sudden appearance of
+frost, which often takes place in this month.
+
+MAY.
+
+Now may be sown the tenderest of the annuals in the hot-beds, as
+cock's-combs, tricolors, balsams, egg-plants, ice-plants, and others of
+that kind. Dahlias may also be placed in the bed in this or the former
+month, and suffered to sprout, previous to planting in the open ground.
+Bulbous roots of every flower now out of bloom, and the leaves decayed,
+may be taken up and the off-sets separated dry, and housed for future
+planting.
+
+Now is the time to plant melons, gourds, and pumpkins. The seeds of
+these should be sown in April in the hot-bed, and the plants should be
+transplanted into good ground in a warm spot, about the latter end of
+the month. They will grow freely and produce ripe fruit in August.
+Common pumpkins may be sown on one of the dunghills. The gourds, such as
+the orange-gourd, may be planted near an arbour, and be trained up the
+principal parts. French-beans and scarlet-runners may also be planted,
+if not done before; and should the young gardener have raised any
+tomatoes or capsicums in his hot-bed, now is the time to plant them out,
+as well as the slips of geraniums and tobacco-plants.
+
+The young gardener will now find employment in sticking peas and beans,
+weeding and transplanting. And such broad-beans as are now in blossom,
+should have their tops nipped off, to promote the setting of the pods.
+But let him be very careful to look after the weeds, which now grow in
+great abundance; and let him rake nicely all his borders and keep
+everything clean and neat, as this is the most brilliant time of a
+garden's beauty.
+
+JUNE.
+
+Look well to the strawberries, and see that they are well watered, which
+operation should be performed in dry weather every other day. These
+plants will by this time have made their runners, and these should be
+cleared away, except those that may be required for making fresh beds,
+which may now be planted. Trim the roots a little, and cut off the
+strays or runners from each plant.
+
+Look well at this period, morning and evening, for snails and other
+insects, and after showers of rain in particular. If there should be any
+small cherry trees or other fruit trees, they ought be netted or well
+watched, or the birds will eat them.
+
+All sorts of flowers may now be planted out into the borders. Some may
+also be put in pots, such as balsams. Take care, however, that they are
+removed in damp or showery weather. In dry weather, take up tulips,
+crown-imperials, and jonquils, such as are past flowering, and pluck
+away the off-sets: let them be well cleaned and dried in the shade from
+the mid-day sun; then put each sort into separate bags or boxes, and
+keep them in some dry apartment till September, October or November, at
+which time they will have to be planted again. Most other bulbs may also
+be now taken up and put away for future planting. June is also the
+proper time to propagate pinks and carnations by pipings.
+
+JULY.
+
+This is the time to plant out savoys and cabbages for winter use.
+Brocoli may also be planted, and some seed sown for a late spring crop.
+The plants raised from this seed will be ready to put out, finally, in
+the middle and towards the latter end of August and the beginning of
+September, and will produce small heads in April and in the beginning of
+May. Lettuces may be now planted out, and other seed sown for future
+use. Spinach for winter may also be now sown; for this, that part of the
+garden should be chosen that has the most of the winter's sun upon it.
+Now is the very best time in the whole year to sow the large black
+turnip-rooted radish for autumn and winter. The young gardener must at
+this period be on the watch for such seeds, both of flowers and garden
+vegetables, as are ripe. This should always be done in dry
+weather,--cutting or pulling up the stems with the seeds in. They should
+then be spread in an airy place where the sun and wind will dry them
+thoroughly.
+
+The various herbs, such as balm, penny-royal, sweet-marjorum, sage,
+lavender, marigolds, should also be gathered up for winter use. Slips
+may now be planted from any of these. Take the side shoots of the
+branches four or five inches in length, and plant them in a shady
+border, and do not forget to give them water.
+
+The ground should be kept clear at this period from refuse leaves,
+stumps of cabbages, haulm of peas and beans, and from all decaying
+rubbish and litter. Cut box-edgings also; and if the operation of
+budding is to be performed, now is the time to do it.
+
+AUGUST.
+
+Look over the flowers in borders from day to day, to see what they
+require. When the shoots of rambling flowers interpose with each other,
+they should be shortened, so that every plant may stand singly, as they
+always appear to best advantage when they stand clear of each other.
+
+In this month, we must still continue to look out for ripe flower-seeds;
+also, there are several kinds of autumnal flower-bulbs, which may be
+planted, such as the autumnal crocus and Guernsey-lily.
+
+Now weed and water seedlings, and shift such pot-flowers as require it
+into larger pots. In doing this, rub off the moulds and matted fibres
+from the roots, and throw away part of the outward, loose old earth.
+Then, having put a little fresh earth into the old pots, with a piece of
+broken tile over the hole in the bottom, put in your plant, and fill all
+the sides round with nice soft mould.
+
+SEPTEMBER.
+
+In the third or fourth week of this month, it will be proper to begin to
+plant the choice hyacinth and tulip roots for an early spring blossom.
+The bed should be dug at least one full spade deep, breaking the earth
+fine and laying the bed even by raking, and then plant the bulbs about
+six inches apart. Ranunculus beds or borders may be prepared in the same
+way, and the plants planted similarly, about two inches deep. Take care
+of the new carnation and pink pipings or layers, and let them be
+transplanted as soon as convenient. Perennial plants, such as
+carnations, pinks, and sweet-williams, may now be transplanted. Now may
+be sown the seeds of bulbous flower roots, as tulips, crown-imperials,
+hyacinths, and most other bulbs. Evergreens may now be transplanted,
+and much work be done in the preparation of manure, and gathering in
+crops of various kinds.
+
+OCTOBER.
+
+This month again ushers in planting in various ways. In the kitchen
+department, beans may be planted for an early crop in the succeeding
+spring; that is, if the frost does not nip them. A warm border, under a
+south wall is the best place for them. A few peas may be sown also, to
+try the chance of the winter. Sow lettuce and small salad and radishes;
+also transplant lettuces to situations to stand till the spring. A few
+rows of cabbages for the winter and spring should now be planted, and
+winter spinach sown. Now is a good time to begin to dig up parsnips and
+carrots to store away for winter; and now all ground not in use should
+be well dug up and trenched, to lie ready for the winter's frost to act
+upon it. Now gather various fruits as they are fully ripe, and choose
+dry days for so doing.
+
+NOVEMBER.
+
+The season is now closing, yet a good deal is to be done by those who
+love a garden,--a vast deal of planting and transplanting of every
+variety of flowers. Roots of many may be separated, and fresh sorts
+planted. Nearly every kind of bulbous roots, if not previously planted,
+may now be put in the earth. The cuttings of gooseberry and currant
+trees may also be planted, and young trees raised in the spring be
+transplanted to their proper situation. It is also a good time to plant
+filberts, hazel-nuts, and barberries. Strawberry plants should have a
+dressing of good manure.
+
+DECEMBER.
+
+Make neat the borders, dig all loose ground, turn the manure, plant
+suckers from old roots, roll green and gravel walks, gather seeds on
+fine days, cut away old wood, nail fruit trees, prepare hot-beds, get
+matting to put over tender plants during the frost, look over seeds, and
+see that they are dry and properly put away and make all clean, nice,
+and neat for the coming spring.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is an outline of what a boy may be expected to do with his little
+garden. A great deal more is to be learned than can be learned from a
+book; but if the young gardener will keep his eyes open, reflect on the
+reasons for doing things, and pay attention to the voice of experience,
+he will probably reap more real delight from his few yards of ground
+than from all the toys and playthings he ever possessed.
+
+
+
+
+PART VIII.
+
+CARPENTERING.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+There is not a more useful and pleasant amusement than that of
+"Carpentering." Every boy should be able to do little jobs with the
+plane and chisel; for whether he may turn out a gentleman or a poor man,
+it will be of great use to him. If a gentleman, he can amuse himself
+with it, and if a poor man, it will be of essential service to be able
+to put up a row of palings in his garden, to make a gate, to build a
+pig-stye, to make and fix up shelves, build out-houses, and perform
+sundry odd jobs about the house for his comfort and convenience.
+
+Every boy should have a box of tools, and a bench to work at, also a
+little room or loft for a workshop. He ought to obtain good tools, and
+by no means buy the boxes of rubbish sold to boys for their amusement.
+He should go the ironmonger's and purchase the following tools; of
+course, out of his own savings,--his own pocket-money,--and not apply to
+his parents for it.
+
+     Two saws, one small and one hand-saw.
+     Four gimlets of different sizes.
+     One pair of pincers.
+     One pair of plyers.
+     Four chisels of different sizes.
+     One gouge.
+     Two hammers, large and small.
+     One mallet.
+     Two bradawls.
+     Two planes, long and short.
+     Two flies, large and small.
+     One level.
+     One square.
+     One screw-driver.
+     Nails, screws, rings, glue-pot, hone, oil, etc.
+
+He must also manage to obtain a carpenter's-bench, which he cannot very
+well do without, and then he may begin carpentering with expedition.
+
+
+USES OF THE VARIOUS TOOLS.
+
+THE SAW.--Before a saw can be used after it is purchased, it generally
+has to be "set," as it is termed; that is, its teeth are to be sharpened
+and placed a little outwards from the plane of its length. There are
+several kinds of saws, namely, the common hand-saw, the key-hole saw,
+and the small-toothed saw. The first is to cut planks and thick pieces
+of wood; the second is to cut holes in planks or boards; the third is to
+cut small pieces of wood, or those that require to be very nicely
+divided.
+
+THE PLANE.--The plane is used to smooth boards with. There are several
+kinds of planes. The long plane and the short plane are the principal
+ones. Within the plane is the knife, which is fastened in by a knock of
+the hammer on the wedge inside, which is made so as to fix the edged
+knife at any distance from the bottom of the plane, either for thin or
+thick shaving. A very little direction from the carpenter will enable
+the young carpenter to fix his knife properly; and a knock on the end of
+the plane with a hammer will loosen it in a moment. The knife should be
+sharpened from time to time on the stone or hone. This should be done
+with great care, so as to preserve a proper angle at the edge and great
+evenness in every part, otherwise, the planing will be very imperfect.
+
+In planing, the wood to be planed is either laid flat on the bench, with
+its end against the little pin, to prevent its moving, or fixed in the
+screw of the bench, and the plane being brought upon the top or edge of
+the wood, is pushed carefully, but somewhat sharply along. The shaving
+comes through the hole in the plane, and must be cleared away, from time
+to time, out of the way of the knife. Everything planed should be planed
+perfectly level, smooth, and even.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THE CHISEL.--The use of the chisel is to cut square or sharp-cornered
+holes in wood, especially mortices. A _mortice_ is the hole cut in a
+post or other piece of wood, in which another piece of wood cut to fit
+it, called a _tenon_, is put. The tenon and mortice should both be cut
+exactly, and so that they fit at right angles, firmly and securely.
+Tenons and mortices are of perpetual use in carpentering, and the young
+carpenter should learn as quickly as possible to make them.
+
+THE MALLET is to be used instead of the hammer for a variety of
+purposes. In cutting mortices, it is the mallet and not the hammer that
+is used, and in almost all cases where the chisel is employed, the
+mallet should be used. Were we to use a hammer to knock the end of the
+chisel, we should soon split its handle, or so bruise it, as to make it
+unservicable.
+
+THE GIMLET AND BRADAWL.--The gimlet is used to bore awls with, so that
+nails when they are driven in may not split the wood. Bradawls are used
+for the same purpose, before smaller nails, called _brads_, are put in.
+A bradawl is sometimes called a nail-piercer. There is a thread gimlet
+now come into use, but this requires much care in handling: it must be
+very gently put in, and very gently taken out, or it will snap like a
+piece of glass; but it is a very useful tool, and is a great improvement
+upon the old gimlet.
+
+PINCERS AND PLYERS.--Pincers are used to take loose nails out of wood,
+to wrench off staples, or other things that have been attached to wood.
+Plyers are a smaller kind of pincers, and are used for small work in the
+same way. They are very useful tools, and it is impossible to do without
+them.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THE HAMMER.--Almost everybody knows how a hammer is used: it is used to
+drive nails with, and also to take them out. The hammer used to take out
+nails, is called a claw-hammer, from its having a claw at one part. The
+claw is placed under the head of the nail, when the handle of the hammer
+becomes a lever, and the head the fulcrum; and, placed in this position,
+the hand acquires great power,--sometimes amounting to at least a
+hundred-weight. In using a hammer, we should always be careful to use
+the kind of hammer necessary for the work to be done.
+
+FILES.--Files are of various uses, and we cannot do very well without
+them in carpentering. There are several kinds of files: one kind flat on
+one side and rounded at the other; another is flat on both sides, and
+another kind has three edges and three flat sides. The first is used for
+rasping wood or other things down to a level; and the others are used to
+file things into a point, or to cut them in pieces.
+
+THE SCREW-DRIVER is used to drive in and take out screws. It ought to
+have a very hard tough edge and a long handle. When placed in the head
+of the screw, to drive in, it should be turned from left to right, and
+in taking out, from right to left. There is a particular way of getting
+out a screw, which is only to be learned by a little practice. The knack
+consists in combining with nicety the pressure on the screw-head and the
+turning of the driver. The young carpenter will now and then find a very
+stubborn screw and fancy it quite impossible to get it out; but by a
+little perseverance, he soon finds out the knack of doing it; and what
+seemed immoveable yields to his skill and strength. There is one thing
+young carpenters frequently do, and that is, to use their chisels for
+screw-drivers; the consequence of this is, the spoiling of the chisel,
+for the edges are sure to break away.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THE LEVEL.--Every piece of work should be square and level, except when
+it is of a curved form, and then it should be reduced to the principles
+of the circle or ellipse. The level is used in putting up posts,
+palings, or work of any kind in an upright position. It consists of a
+hoard of wood, upon which a string is suspended, having a plummet at the
+end of it, which falls along a straight line at a right angle with the
+bottom of the level. To obtain a perfect perpendicular and perfect
+horizontal, the level is placed on the work till the line falls
+exactly over the nick at the top of the hole. The square is principally
+applied to things made at the bench, and is used to bring everything
+made to a _right angle_, so that a true level and perpendicular is thus
+secured.
+
+
+STUFF.
+
+The young carpenter will find it very difficult to work without stuff.
+He ought, therefore, to purchase a deal sawed into planks or boards,
+consisting of one three quarters of an inch thick, another one inch
+thick, and another half an inch thick. He ought, also, to obtain a slab
+not sawed at all, to cut out as occasion may require. He will then be
+provided with wood. He must also lay in a stock of various kinds of
+nails, screws, rings, hasps, hinges, etc., and, above all, a good
+substantial box to keep his tools and other matters in. This should be
+divided into compartments, and everything should be arranged in it with
+neatness and order.
+
+
+LABOUR.
+
+The young carpenter ought to be fond of work; and to feel a pleasure in
+it. Should this be the case, there is scarcely an end to his labours. He
+may make his hen-houses, his rabbit-hutches, his summer-houses, his
+boxes, seats, rustic-chairs, lattice-work and palings for his garden,
+build out-houses, and make book-shelves; in short, amuse himself with
+the manufacture of a great variety of things, both for use and ornament,
+and of which he may justly be a little proud.
+
+Such an amusement is infinitely superior to feats of conjuring and
+legerdemain, tricks with cards, and impositions of various kinds, which
+are put in some books for the amusement of young people, and which are
+highly pernicious both to their mental and moral progress.
+
+
+
+
+PART IX.
+
+KEEPING POULTRY.
+
+
+Keeping poultry is an innocent amusement both for boys and girls.
+Domesticated animals, unlike the free inhabitants of the country, do not
+suffer from the loss of liberty, and when they are well housed, fed, and
+attended to, they are as happy in their state of domestication as they
+would be in their wild state of liberty; perhaps, more so, and therefore
+it is quite right to keep them.
+
+There is something very pleasant in watching the old hen as she sits so
+patiently on her nest, and to see the little birds issue from the eggs,
+with the proud but careful mother strutting by them, and scratching and
+toiling to obtain them food; and nothing is more touching to a sensitive
+mind than to behold her at the least chill of air, or overcasting of the
+clouds, calling her young brood under her wings for warmth, shelter, and
+security. There are many lessons of good to be learned in fowl-keeping.
+
+In proceeding to keep poultry, the young poultry-keeper should first
+secure a proper place to keep them in. He ought to be able to build, if
+not the whole, a great portion of his poultry-house, which need not be
+on a very extensive plan; but there are a certain number of little
+requisites belonging to it which ought not to be forgotten.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+NATURE AND SITUATION OF FOWL-HOUSE.
+
+[Illustration: SIDE VIEW.]
+
+The situation of a fowl-house should be such as to afford sun and warmth
+in winter and spring, and shade in summer. It should be well covered in
+at the top, free from damp, have good ventilation and light, with
+windows of lattice-work, with boards behind to open and shut. It should
+be placed against a wall with a slanting roof. The side should contain
+one latticed window (A); the front, also, a latticed window (B), with a
+hatch-door, partly latticed and partly boarded at the side. A little
+door for the fowls should communicate with a fowl-yard, as seen below.
+
+[Illustration: FRONT VIEW.]
+
+  +----------+-+-------------------------------------------------+
+  |          |4|                                                 |
+  |          +-+                                           +---+ |
+  |          |                                             |   | |
+  |          |              +-----------+                  |   | |
+  |        +-+   +------+   |           |  +------------+  |   | |
+  |    H   |     |  1   |   |     6     |  |     2      |  | 3 | |
+  |        +-+   +------+   |           |  +------------+  |   | |
+  |          |              +-----------+                  |   | |
+  |          |                                             |   | |
+  |          +-+                                           +---+ |
+  |          |5|                                                 |
+  +----------+-+-------------------------------------------------+
+
+The above is a sketch of the ground-plan of the house and fowl-yard. H
+is the fowl house. No. 1 is a small pit filled with dry sand and ashes,
+in which the fowls may roll to free themselves from vermin. No. 2 is
+another small trench or pit, containing horse-dung and rubbish of
+various kinds, to be frequently renewed, in which they may amuse
+themselves in scraping for corn and worms. No. 3 is a square of turf, on
+which they may pasture and amuse themselves. Two or three trees ought to
+be planted in the middle of the run, and these might be cherry or
+mulberry trees, as they are very fond of the fruit. Nos. 4 & 5 are two
+little stone tanks for water, and No. 6 is a pond for the ducks, in case
+it should be thought advisable to keep such, which I should strongly
+recommend to be done.
+
+Within the fowl-house there must be perches put up for the fowls to
+roost on. These should be placed one above another at the corner, and so
+disposed, that one range of birds does not sit quite under the other,
+for reasons which need not be explained. At the bottom of the
+fowl-house, but not under the perches, should be placed the nest boxes,
+from four to six, as may be required, in which straw should be placed
+for the hens to make their nests with. The fowl-house and everything
+about it should be kept scrupulously clean, and be frequently
+white-washed; and it is good, occasionally, to fumigate the house by
+burning herbs, and juniper and cedar woods.
+
+
+THE VARIOUS BREEDS OF FOWLS.
+
+These are very numerous, and are becoming more so every day. Among them
+are the following:--
+
+THE DORKING BREED.
+
+So named from the town of Dorking in Surrey. It is one of the largest of
+our fowls. It is of an entire white colour, and has five claws upon each
+foot, _generally_, for some have not. They are good layers, and their
+flesh is plump. They make excellent capons.
+
+POLAND BREED.
+
+The Poland fowls are greatly esteemed, but they are seldom to be met
+with pure in this country. They were originally imported from Holland.
+Their colour is shining black, with white tufts on the head of both cock
+and hen, springing from a fleshy protuberance or "King David's crown,"
+the celestial in heraldry. This breed lay a great quantity of eggs, and
+are sometimes called "everlasting layers." They quickly fatten, and are
+good eating.
+
+SPANISH BREED.
+
+The Spanish fowl, with the Hamburg and Chittagong, is a very large fowl,
+laying large eggs, and all seem more or less allied to the Polish
+family. They are well adapted for capons, and produce eggs nearly equal
+in size to those of the Malay hens. This breed is now common,
+particularly in London.
+
+BANTAMS.
+
+This breed is small, but very beautiful. It came originally from India.
+They are frequently feathered to the toes; but booted legs are not
+exclusively peculiar to Bantams, for Bantam fanciers, with Sir John
+Sebright at their head, prefer those which have clean bright legs
+without any feathers. The full-bred Bantam-cock should not weigh more
+than a pound. He should have a rose comb, a well-feathered tail, and a
+proud lively carriage. The Nankeen coloured and the black are the
+greatest favourites. The Nankeen bird should have his feathers edged
+with black, his wings bordered with purple, his tail-feathers black, his
+hackles slightly studded with purple, and his breast black, with white
+edges to the feathers. The hen should be small, clean-legged, and match
+in plumage with the cock. For young persons, Bantams are the best kinds
+of fowls to be kept, as they make but little dirt, and are very gentle
+and pretty.
+
+
+CHOICE OF STOCK.
+
+In commencing fowl-keeping, it is important to choose young and healthy
+sorts. There should be a two year old cock, and pullets in their first
+year. In choosing them, we should note that the comb is red and healthy,
+the eyes bright and dry, and the nostrils free from any moisture. The
+indications of old age or sickness are paleness of the comb and gills,
+dulness of colour, a sort of stiffness in the down and feathers,
+increased length of talons, loose and prominent scales on the legs.
+
+There should be from four to six hens to one cock, the latter being the
+extreme number; and the conduct of the cock towards the hens should be
+watched, for if he should be of a sulky, selfish, persecuting and
+domineering disposition, the hens will be unhappy, and he ought to have
+his neck wrung, as a just reward for selfishness and tyranny.
+
+
+FOOD AND FEEDING.
+
+Fowls must be well fed, but they should not have too much. Over-feeding
+is as bad for fowls as for men. They ought not to be fed with stale or
+bad corn, but of the best, and now and then with a little buck-wheat;
+with cabbage, mangold-wurzel leaves, and parsley, which should be
+chopped fine. Where they are likely to be stinted for insect food, small
+pieces of meat chopped up should occasionally be added to their food.
+
+On the floor of the fowl-house, a little sand should be occasionally
+spread, and sandy gravel should be placed in the corners. The small
+sharp stones found in gravel are absolutely necessary to fowls, as they
+are picked up by the birds and find their way into the gizzard, where
+they perform the part of mill-stones in grinding the corn.
+
+
+LAYING.
+
+The early period of spring, and after a cessation at the end of summer,
+are the two periods at which fowls begin to lay. When the period of
+laying approaches, it is known by the redness of the comb in the hen,
+the brightness of her eyes, and her frequent clucking. She appears
+restless, and scratches and arranges the straw in her laying place, and
+at last begins to lay. She generally prefers to lay in a nest where
+there is one or more eggs; hence it is of use to put a chalk egg into
+the nest you wish her to settle on.
+
+The eggs ought to be taken from the nest every afternoon, when no more
+are expected to be laid, for if left in the nest, the heat of the hens
+when laying each day will tend to corrupt them. Some hens will lay only
+one egg in three days, some every other day, and some every day.
+
+To promote laying, good food in moderate quantities should be given to
+the hens, and also clean water. A hen well fed and attended to, will
+produce upwards of one hundred and fifty eggs in a year, besides two
+broods of chickens. Some half-bred game hens begin to lay as soon as
+their chickens are three weeks old.
+
+
+PRESERVATION OF EGGS.
+
+To preserve eggs fresh for a length of time, it is only necessary to rub
+each egg with a small piece of butter, which need not be larger than a
+pea, or the tip of the finger may be dipped in a saucer of oil and
+passed over the shell in the same way. Eggs may be thus preserved for
+nine months.
+
+
+HATCHING CHICKENS.
+
+The eggs given to the hen to hatch must be perfectly fresh; they should
+be large in size, the produce of the most beautiful birds, well shaped,
+and the number put under the hen should vary according to her size, and
+may be from nine to thirteen eggs; odd numbers, old housewives say, are
+the _luckiest_.
+
+When a hen wants to sit, she makes a particular kind of clucking, and
+goes to her nest. Here she fixes herself for a period of three weeks, at
+the end of which time, the young chickens break the eggs and come out
+perfect beings. They run about as soon almost as they are out of the
+egg, and in twenty-four hours will take food.
+
+On the first day of their birth, chickens require nothing but warmth,
+and they must be kept under the mother in the nest. The next day, they
+may be put under a coop and fed with crumbs of bread soaked in milk, a
+few chicken's groats being added, and the yolks of eggs boiled hard.
+After being kept warm under the coop with the mother for five or six
+days, they may then be turned a little in the sun, towards the middle of
+the day, and fed with boiled barley mixed with curds, and a few
+pot-herbs chopped up. At the end of a fortnight, they may be left
+entirely to the care of the mother, who will be sure to perform her
+duty.
+
+Such are the principal particulars regarding the keeping of fowls. There
+are many books written on the subject: one of the best of them is called
+the "Poultry-yard," which may be consulted for further information.
+
+
+
+
+PART X.
+
+BEES.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Any humane person must be unwilling to keep what may be termed "pets,"
+when, as is very often the case, they are taken from the freedom which
+nature has given them, to be pent up in cages, hutches, and round-about
+boxes. It is not a part of good moral training to encourage children to
+deprive anything of liberty, and the keeping of rabbits, guinea-pigs,
+birds, gold and silver fish, white mice, pigeons and squirrels, is not
+only attended with a vast deal of trouble and expense, but with a great
+many bad smells, filth, and dirt. Such matters, have, therefore, been
+excluded from this volume, as being by no means calculated to improve
+either the minds or morals of young persons, but rather to have a
+contrary tendency.
+
+These objections do not, however, lie against the keeping of _bees_,
+which afford at all times lessons of industry, of order, of contrivance,
+of perseverance, and of many other virtues, which are great ornaments to
+little boys and girls, as well as to grown men and women. We shall,
+therefore, give as copious an account of this interesting insect as we
+can, and, at the same time, show the best methods of managing it with
+advantage to its possessor.
+
+Bee is the English name for an extensive _genera_ of insects,--_apis_ or
+the section _anthophla_ or _mellifera_ of modern classification. The
+common domestic bee, of which it is now our business to treat, is the
+_apis mellifica_ of Linnaeus; and it may be as well to state, for the
+guidance of the young reader, that the Hive-bee is distinguished from
+all other species of bees,--by having the shanks of the hind legs
+furnished with a smooth and concave pollen-plate on the outer surface,
+and destitute of spines at the extremity,--by the basal joint of the
+_torsi_ in the working bees, of an oblong form, with its inner surface
+clothed with fine hairs, disposed in transverse layers,--by the oblong
+shape of its body,--and by the feelers at the sheath of the tongue being
+almost obsolete and formed of a single point.
+
+The Hive-bee may be regarded as one of the most perfectly social species
+of insects, and one whose economy is regulated by the possession of a
+more remarkable degree of instinct than is perhaps possessed by any
+other insect. Another peculiarity regarding bees is, that there are not
+simply males and females among them, but mules or workers, or female
+non-breeders, as they have been termed, which constitute the great mass
+of the population of a hive. They are smaller, as regards size, than the
+males or the female bees, and it is to them that the internal economy of
+the hive is committed, and upon them the whole labour of the community
+devolves. Moreover, it is their duty to guard and protect the hive and
+the queen, to feed the young, and to kill the drones at the appointed
+time.
+
+In a single hive there are sometimes not fewer than thirty thousand of
+these individuals. They are distinguished from the breeding females by
+having a longer lip, the jaws not notched at the tip, and the sting
+straight. The male bees, of which there are several hundreds, sometimes
+even two thousand in a full hive, are idle creatures, doing no work.
+They are generally termed _drones_, and they are of a more bulky size
+than the other bees, and they are not armed with a sting.
+
+Such are the inhabitants of the hive; the chief products of which are
+bees-wax and honey. The former is secreted by the worker-bees, by a
+peculiar apparatus on the under side of the belly, as occasion requires,
+and is employed for constructing the combs in which the family provision
+and the young brood are deposited.
+
+Honey is obtained by bees from the _nectaries_ of flowers, which, it is
+well known, are constantly secreting a sweet thick fluid. This is sucked
+up by the tongue of the insect, and a portion of it is consumed at once
+for its support, but the greater part of the supply, although taken into
+the stomach of the bee, is again brought up (regurgitated, to use a hard
+word), and poured into the cells of the hives for the food of the grubs
+and the use of the community through the winter.
+
+[Illustration: QUEEN BEE.]
+
+[Illustration: DRONE.]
+
+The cells into which the honey is poured for store are placed in the
+most inaccessible parts of the hive, and are fitted with waxen lids, but
+the honey destined for the use of the _nurses_, _workers_, and _drones_,
+is deposited in unclosed cells. In each honey-cell there is a cream-like
+layer or covering of a thicker consistency than the honey itself. This
+layer is perforated by the bee with its fore-legs, and is closed before
+the bee flies away.
+
+Having thus noticed the inhabitants of the hive, we will now turn our
+attention to the hive itself. The most profound philosopher, as well as
+the most incurious observer, is struck with astonishment on inspecting
+the interior of a bee-hive. He beholds a city in miniature. He sees this
+city divided into regular streets; and these streets composed of houses
+constructed on the most exact geometrical principles and the most
+symmetrical plan; some serving as store-houses for food, others for the
+habitations of the citizens, and a few, much more extensive than the
+rest, destined for the palace of their sovereign. He perceives that the
+substance of which the city is built, is one which man with all his
+skill is unable to fabricate, and that the edifices in which it is
+employed are such as the most expert architect would find himself
+incompetent to erect.
+
+The nest, as constructed by the insects, consists of a continued series
+of combs, arranged vertically, each of which consists of a vast number
+of cells, forming two ranges backed against each other, and,
+consequently, placed in a horizontal position. A sufficient space is
+left between each of these double layers of cells to allow a couple of
+bees, engaged upon the opposite cells, to work without incommoding each
+other. In addition to these spaces, the combs are perforated in various
+places, so as to allow the bees a passage from one street to another,
+thus saving them much time. But it is in the construction of the cells
+themselves that the most admirable instinct is displayed. Geometricians
+are aware, that in order to occupy a given space with solid objects of
+equal size and similar form, without any useless interstices, three
+figures only can be adopted, namely, the equilateral triangle
+[Illustration], the square or cube [Illustration], and the regular
+hexagon [Illustration]. Of these three geometrical figures, the hexagon
+most completely unites.
+
+It is a remarkable circumstance, that in a new colony the design of
+every comb is sketched out, and the first rudiments laid, by a single
+bee, which having disengaged itself from the swarm, commences the
+building of cells, which is then taken up by the other wax-makers, and,
+subsequently, by the nurse bees, which give the finishing stroke to the
+cells; and so quick are the bees at their work, that a comb,
+twenty-seven inches long, by seven or eight inches wide, is built in
+four and twenty hours, and in five or six days they will fill the hive.
+The combs are attached to the roof and sides of the dwelling,--the
+hives or boxes to the floors and roofs.
+
+There are three sorts of cells: the first one for the larvae of workers,
+and for containing the honey,--these are of the ordinary form; the
+second are for the grubs of the males or drones, being considerably
+larger and more substantial,--they usually appear near the bottom of the
+combs; the third are the cells for the females, of which there are
+usually three or four, and these are generally attached to the ceiling
+part of the comb, having very little wax in their composition. One of
+these cells considerably exceeds in height the ordinary ones, and they
+are not interwoven with them, but suspended perpendicularly, their sizes
+being nearly parallel to the mouths of the common cells, several of
+which are sacrificed to support them. After the queen bee has quitted
+her cell, it is destroyed by the workers, and its place occupied by a
+range of common cells. The queen bee deposits her eggs separately at the
+bottom of each cell: the egg is of a lengthened oval shape, with a
+slight curve, and of a bluish colour. The worker's eggs, which are the
+only ones laid by the queen during the first eleven months, hatch in a
+few days, and become little white maggots. Each is now fed with bee
+bread by the workers, very assiduously, and, at the expiration of six
+days, having attained its full size, it is roofed in by the workers,
+spins a silken cocoon, which occupies it for thirty-six hours, and then
+becomes a nymph or pupa, and, eleven days after this, quits its case,
+eats through the roof of the cell, and comes forth a perfect working
+bee.
+
+For nearly twelve months, the queen bee deposits only workers' eggs;
+after which period, however, she commences laying those of drones. As
+soon as this change takes place, the workers begin to construct the
+royal cells, in which, without discontinuing to lay male eggs, she
+deposits now and then, about once in three days, an egg destined to
+produce a future queen. The food of the royal grubs has been termed
+"royal jelly." It is a pungent food prepared by the workers for the
+express purpose of feeding the grubs that are to be future queens, and
+is more stimulating than the food given to the common grubs.
+
+Should it happen, as is sometimes the case, that the queen bee be
+killed, or the hive in any manner be deprived during the first eleven
+months of her existence, and before she has deposited any royal eggs,
+the most extraordinary circumstances occur. After a little while, a
+hubbub commences, work is abandoned, the whole hive is in an uproar,
+every bee traverses the hive at random, with the most evident want of
+purpose. This state of confusion sometimes continues for several days,
+then the bees gather in knots and clusters of a dozen or so, as though
+engaged in consultation; shortly after which, a resolution appears to
+have been taken by the whole population. Some of the workers select
+one of the worker-eggs, which had been previously deposited by the lost
+sovereign. Three cells are thrown into one for its reception,--the eggs
+in the two other cells being destroyed. The grub when hatched is fed
+with the royal jelly, and a queen is produced. Even if the grub had been
+hatched and partly fed as a worker, and had only received two or three
+days' allowance of the royal food, the result would be the same,--they
+emerge from the pupa perfect queens whereas, had they remained in the
+cells which they originally inhabited, they would have turned out
+workers.
+
+We now come to that period of the year when the queen insects, having
+undergone the change to the pupa state, are nearly ready to burst into
+life. It is now that the old queen mother, losing all her parental
+feelings, becomes infuriated: she rushes to the cells wherein are
+deposited the future queens, and instantly begins to tear them open. The
+guards which surround the cells make way for her approach, and suffer
+her to act as she pleases, whereupon she slaughters the inmates with her
+sting, without remorse, and, after a short time, a great portion of the
+working bees accompanying her, rushes out of the hive, and seeks another
+dwelling. This is called "swarming."
+
+Something very like concerted action and foresight seems to belong to
+these proceedings. It is always in calm weather, when the sky is serene,
+between nine in the morning and four in the afternoon, when they quit
+their habitation. After flying about for some time in a cluster, by
+degrees they fix themselves on a branch, form a group there by hooking
+themselves one to another with their feet, and remain perfectly
+tranquil. Then it is that the proprietor may secure them, and form a new
+colony.
+
+In this manner several swarmings take place in the course of the summer
+between the months of April and August. A good stock of bees usually
+produces three swarms in a favourable season: each swarm containing not
+only the young bees recently hatched, but also a portion of the old
+inhabitants. The duration of life of the different individuals is
+various: the male bees only live a few months, the workers only one or
+two years, and the queen only four or five. Such is, in brief, the
+birth, parentage, education, life, character, and behaviour of the
+honey-bee, and it will be only necessary now to say a few words
+regarding the management of these insects, with a view to instruction,
+amusement, and profit.
+
+
+HOW TO GET A STOCK OF BEES.
+
+They must be purchased, and the purchaser must take care and procure
+them of some one upon whom he may depend. This will save a great deal of
+trouble. The hive should be weighed before and after a swarm is placed
+in it, and a note kept of its weight, a judgment may then be formed of
+the quantity of honey it contains in the autumn.
+
+The hives should be sheltered by a wall, a hedge, or a tuft of trees, in
+order that the bees may get to the door of the hives with ease. This
+they cannot do if there are gusts of air sweeping round it, in which
+case, numbers of them will fall to the ground about the hive, from
+which, perhaps, they will not be able to rise before the chill and damp
+of the evening comes on and destroys them.
+
+There must be water near the hives, as the working bees drink a great
+deal in the spring, and they are very fond of walking along straws which
+float in the water and sipping as much as they want. The door of the
+hive should look towards the forenoon sun, and the hive should not be
+raised above eighteen inches from the ground.
+
+We will now suppose that your bees have laid up their winter store, and
+that you wish to share it with them. We say share it, because we do not
+suppose you are so cruel and foolish as to wish to kill your bees. You
+might as well kill a cow for the purpose of getting milk. The more bees
+you have, the more honey,--that is certain.
+
+About the latter end of September, the flowering season is over, and few
+flowers remain for the bees to get honey from. This is the best time to
+ascertain what honey they can spare; therefore, weigh every hive, and
+deduct from it the weight of the hive and the bees, as ascertained when
+the swarm entered it at first, as above directed.
+
+To live through the winter, a hive must have at least sixteen pounds of
+honey, and if you wish it to swarm early, it ought to have twenty-five
+or even thirty pounds.
+
+When you determine on taking away the honey from a hive, either for your
+own use or for distributing it to other hives, proceed as follows:--
+
+The first fine calm morning after the honey season is over, go to your
+hive provided with a tobacco-pipe in your mouth, a large dish for the
+honey in one hand, and a long knife with the point bent, and a goose or
+turkey feather in your other. Blow two or three full puffs of smoke in
+at the door, then turn the hive upside down on the ground, so as to
+stand steadily, and immediately give the bees, who will collect on the
+edge of the comb to see what is going on, a little more smoke. This will
+stupify them so completely, that not above one or two will be able to
+fly out, and they will be so sick, that they will not dream of stinging
+you. Begin at one side of the hive, and cut out a comb, having first
+sent down a puff of smoke to make the bees go away to the middle and the
+other side. Proceed thus,--sweeping the bees off every comb back into
+the hive with the feather, till you come to the centre comb. The only
+nicety consists in blowing away the bees to prevent any of them being
+crushed. If the operation be neatly done, scarcely any bees will be
+killed. Take the hive now and replace it on its stand as before.
+
+The next thing to be done is to join the bees, from which the honey has
+been so taken, to another hive in which you wish them to be
+accommodated, which may be done as follows:--In the evening, if you look
+into the hive which has been deprived of its honey, you will find all
+the bees hanging in the centre, just like a new swarm. Bring the hive
+near the one to which they are to be joined,--get about a table spoonful
+of raw honey or syrup, so thin as to pour easily, and have it in a jug
+beside the hive which is to receive the strangers,--blow a few whiffs of
+tobacco smoke in the door of the hive, then turn it up and give them an
+additional puff or two, and pour the honey or syrup from the jug all
+over the bees between the combs, so that they may be quite smeared over.
+Then spread a clean linen cloth on the ground in front of the hive, with
+one edge of it placed on the floor of the hive and secured there by two
+stones, to prevent its falling, and which will also serve to keep the
+hive a little raised from its floor on that side; now replace the hive
+so that the edge of the cloth may be under it while the two stones keep
+it raised about an inch; next take the hive containing the bees, hold it
+steadily over the cloth, and by one sudden blow, knock out all the bees
+upon the cloth in a lump. They will immediately begin to climb up and
+enter the new hive. If they were to be united without previously
+smearing one of them with honey or syrup, the chance is, that half of
+both hives would be killed by fighting.
+
+Hives may be either of straw or wood. Bees thrive equally well in
+either. In winter the hives should be placed in a northern exposure, or,
+at any rate, the sun should not be allowed to shine too much on them, as
+it entices the bees out, who often perish by sudden cold.
+
+You ought to keep at least three hives: Nos. 1, 2 & 3. No. 1 is the
+first or old one, say, of last year; Nos. 2 & 3 of this year's swarming,
+and these must be so managed as to supply you with honey and the bees
+with food. This is well explained in a little book called the "Farmer,"
+which those who wish to keep bees ought to study.
+
+Such are the most important facts regarding the bee and its management.
+There are many little works on the subject to be obtained, but the few
+directions in the work above named will be ample information for the
+young bee-breeder, and ensuring him lots of honey, lots of lessons of
+economy, and lots of amusement.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+J. WERTHEIMER AND CO., CIRCUS PLACE, FINSBURY CIRCUS.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Sports:, by William Martin
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