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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Rollo's Experiments, by Jacob Abbott
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Rollo's Experiments
+
+Author: Jacob Abbott
+
+Release Date: April 5, 2008 [EBook #24993]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROLLO'S EXPERIMENTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by D Alexander, Andrew Wainwright and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                               ROLLO'S
+
+                             EXPERIMENTS.
+
+                                BY THE
+
+                 AUTHOR OF ROLLO LEARNING TO TALK, TO
+                  READ, AT WORK, AT PLAY, AT SCHOOL,
+                           AT VACATION, &c.
+
+                               BOSTON:
+                      WEEKS, JORDAN, AND COMPANY
+
+
+       Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1839,
+
+                           By T. H. CARTER,
+
+    In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.
+
+                          STEREOTYPED AT THE
+                 BOSTON TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY.
+
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                               Page.
+
+                 JONAS AN ASTRONOMER              11
+
+                 PRUNING                          23
+
+                 THE GREAT BEETLE AND WEDGE       35
+
+                 THE LITTLE BEETLE AND WEDGE      46
+
+                 SPLITTING                        59
+
+                 HOROLOGY                         80
+
+                 JONAS'S DIAL                     94
+
+                 THE BEE-HIVE                    112
+
+                 JONAS'S MAGNET                  124
+
+                 MAGNETISM                       139
+
+                 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY         157
+
+                 OSCILLATIONS                    165
+
+
+
+
+                         ROLLO'S EXPERIMENTS.
+
+
+
+
+JONAS AN ASTRONOMER.
+
+
+One day, when Rollo was about seven years old, he was sitting upon the
+steps of the door, and he heard a noise in the street, as of some sort
+of carriage approaching. A moment afterwards, a carryall came in sight.
+It drove up to the front gate, and stopped. Rollo's father and mother
+and his little brother Nathan got out. His father fastened the horse to
+the post, and came in.
+
+When Rollo first heard the noise of the carryall, he was sitting still
+upon the steps of the door, thinking. He was thinking of something that
+Jonas, his father's hired boy, had told him about the sun's shining in
+at the barn door. There was a very large double door to Rollo's father's
+barn, and as this door opened towards the south, the sun used to shine
+in very warm, upon the barn floor, in the middle of the day.
+
+Rollo and Jonas had been sitting there husking some corn,--for it was in
+the fall of the year;--and as it was rather a cool autumnal day, Rollo
+said it was lucky that the sun shone in, for it kept them warm.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas; "and what is remarkable, it always shines in farther
+in the winter than it does in the summer."
+
+"Does it?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas.
+
+"And what is the reason?" asked Rollo.
+
+"I don't know," said Jonas, "unless it is because we want it in the barn
+more in the winter than we do in the summer."
+
+"Ho!" said Rollo; "I don't believe that is the reason."
+
+"Why not?" said Jonas.
+
+"O, I don't believe the sun moves about in the heavens, to different
+places, only just to shine into barn doors."
+
+"Why, it keeps a great many farmers' boys more comfortable," said Jonas.
+
+"Is it so in all barns?" asked Rollo.
+
+"I suppose so," said Jonas.
+
+After some further conversation on the subject, the boys determined to
+watch the reflection of the sun's beams upon the barn floor for a good
+many days, and to mark the place that it came in to, at noon every day,
+with a piece of chalk. It was only a few minutes before the carryall
+came up, that they had determined upon this, and had marked the place
+for that day; and then Rollo had come out of the barn, and was sitting
+upon the door step, thinking of the subject, when his reflections were
+interrupted in the manner already described.
+
+So, when Rollo saw his father getting out of the carryall, he ran to
+meet him, and called out to him, talking very loud and rapidly,
+
+"Father, Jonas says that the sun shines farther in, upon the barn floor,
+in winter than in summer;--does it, do you think?"
+
+But this was not a proper time for Rollo to bring up his philosophical
+question. His father had a carpet bag and several packages in his hands,
+and he was also conducting Rollo's mother in, and thinking about the
+horse and carryall. So he told Rollo that he must not speak to him then,
+for he could not attend to him.
+
+Rollo then walked along back into the yard, and began to think of the
+subject of the sun's shining in at the south door. He looked up towards
+the sun, and began to consider what sort of a change in its place, at
+noon, on different days, would be necessary in order to account for its
+shining in more at south doors and windows, on some days, than on
+others. He reflected that if the sun were exactly overhead, at noon, it
+could not shine in at any doors at all; for the rays would then strike
+perpendicularly down the sides of the houses. While he was standing
+thus, lost in thought, looking up to the sun, with his arm across his
+forehead, to shelter his eyes a little from the dazzling rays, he
+suddenly felt the pressure of two soft hands upon his ears, as of
+somebody who had come up behind him. He turned round, and found his
+cousin Lucy standing there.
+
+Lucy asked him what he was thinking of, and he told her. He then took
+Lucy into the barn, and showed her the chalk mark upon the floor. She
+looked on with a good deal of interest, and said she thought it was an
+excellent plan; and she wished there was a great barn with a south
+floor at _their_ house. Lucy knew more about the subject than Rollo did,
+and she gave him some explanations about it. "You see," said she, "that
+the sun rises in the east every morning, and comes up higher and higher,
+every hour, till noon; and then it begins to go down again, and at last
+it sets in the west. But, at some times in the year, it comes up higher
+at noon than it does at other times, and so it does not shine so much
+into the door."
+
+"It shines _more_, you mean," said Rollo.
+
+"No," said Lucy; "not so much. In the winter the sun moves around by the
+south, and keeps pretty low all day, and of course shines farther into
+doors and windows."
+
+Then, after a moment's pause, she added,
+
+"If we should mark the place on the floor all the year round, we should
+find what time the sun is farthest to the south."
+
+"So we should," said Rollo.
+
+"It would be in the winter," said Lucy.
+
+"Yes," said Rollo; "in the middle of the winter exactly."
+
+"Yes," said Lucy; "and in the middle of the summer it would be nearest
+overhead."
+
+"Jonas and I will try it," said Rollo.
+
+"I can try it in the house," said Lucy, "where the sun shines in at my
+chamber window."
+
+"O no," said Rollo; "that won't do."
+
+"Why not?" said Lucy.
+
+"Because the window does not come down to the floor, and so does not let
+the sun in enough."
+
+"O, that makes no difference," said Lucy; "we have nothing to do with
+the bottom of the door; you only mark where it shines in the farthest,
+and that place is made by the top of the door, for it shines in farthest
+by the top of the door."
+
+"Well," said Rollo, "I don't know but that the house will do; but then
+you can't chalk on the carpet."
+
+"Chalk on the carpet?" said Lucy.
+
+"Yes, to mark the place."
+
+"No," said Lucy, thinking; "but I can mark it some other way."
+
+"How?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Why, I can put a pin in," said Lucy.
+
+"O dear," said Rollo, with a laugh, "put a pin in! That's no way to mark
+a shadow."
+
+"It isn't a shadow," said Lucy.
+
+"Yes, it is," said Rollo.
+
+"No," said Lucy; "a shadow is dark, and this is bright."
+
+"Yes," said Rollo, "this is a bright shadow; some shadows are bright,
+and some are dark."
+
+"O Rollo!" said Lucy; and she turned away from him, a little out of
+humor.
+
+The truth was, that Rollo and Lucy were getting decidedly into a
+dispute. From the sublime heights of practical astronomy, they had
+fallen, by a sad and very rapid descent, to a childish altercation.
+Rollo had a very high idea of the superior facilities afforded by
+Jonas's barn floor for observing the daily changes in the sun's meridian
+altitude, and he did not like the idea of Lucy's finding that she had
+equally good opportunities for observation at her home. Lucy was a
+little fretted at Rollo's captious spirit; but then her mind soon became
+unruffled again, and she turned back towards Rollo, and said, as they
+walked along the yard,
+
+"I don't think the sunshine on the floor is a shadow, Rollo; but then I
+don't see why a shadow would not do, just as well."
+
+"How?" said Rollo.
+
+"Why, look there at the shadow of that post,--that would do."
+
+She pointed to a post with a rounded top upon it, which stood by the
+side of the garden gate. The shadow, clear, distinct, and well defined,
+was projected upon the walk; and Lucy told Rollo that they might mark
+the place where the top of that shadow came every day, and that that
+would do just as well.
+
+"But how could we mark it?" said Rollo.
+
+"Why, we could drive a little stake unto the ground."
+
+"O, that would not do," said Rollo. "People would trip over them, and
+break them down. They would be exactly in the walk."
+
+Lucy saw that this would be a difficulty, and, for a moment, seemed to
+be at a loss. At length, she said,
+
+"We might go somewhere else, then, where the people would not come."
+
+"But what should we do for a post?" said Rollo.
+
+"Could not we get Jonas to drive a tall stake down?" said Lucy.
+
+"Yes," said Rollo; "I suppose so."
+
+The children went out into the garden to find a good smooth place, and
+while they were walking about there, Rollo's mother came out, and they
+told her the whole story. She seemed quite interested in the plan, and
+told them of a better way than any that they had thought of.
+
+"You see," said she, "that the _height_ of the stake or pole that makes
+the shadow is not material; for the shadow of a small one will vary just
+as much, in proportion to its length, as that of a long one will. So,
+instead of taking a wooden stake, out of doors, you might take a large
+pin, and drive it down a little way into the window sill, in the house.
+Then you can mark the shadow with a pen, very exactly."
+
+"So we can," said Lucy, clapping her hands.
+
+"And you might put a piece of white paper, or a card down first,"
+continued Rollo's mother, "and drive the pin through that, and then mark
+the places where the end of the shadow comes every day, directly on the
+card, with a fine pen. Thus you could be a great deal more exact than
+you can in chalking upon a barn floor."
+
+Rollo asked his mother if she would not be kind enough to help them fix
+their apparatus; but she said she would give them particular directions,
+though she should prefer letting them do the whole themselves, and then,
+if they met with any difficulties, they might come and report them to
+her, and she would tell them how to surmount them. So she recommended to
+them to go and find a blank card, or piece of white pasteboard, or of
+stiff white paper, as big as a common card. "Then," said she, "choose
+some window where the sun shines in at noon, and put the card down upon
+the sill, and drive the pin down through it. But you must not drive the
+pin through the middle of the card, for the shadow will always be off to
+the north of the pin, and therefore the pin may be pretty near the south
+end of the card. Then the shadow will be more likely to come wholly upon
+the card, even when it is longest. You had better place the card in such
+a position, too, that its sides shall lie in the direction of north and
+south. Then the shadow at noon will lie along exactly in the middle of
+it. You must get a large and stout pin, too; and drive it in firmly, a
+little way, with a small hammer. It will be well, too, to drive another
+smaller pin into the other end of the card, so as to keep it fixed in
+its north and south position."
+
+"How can we know when it is north and south, exactly?" said Lucy.
+
+"You cannot do it exactly," said Rollo's mother; "but you can get it
+pretty near. One way is to borrow father's little compass, and adjust it
+by that. Another way is to see when it is exactly twelve o'clock by the
+clock, and then the shadow of the pin will of itself be about north.
+
+"Then you might move the north end of the card until the shadow is
+brought exactly into the middle of the card, and then put the other pin
+in, and fix it in that place. Then if you make a mark along where the
+shadow comes, that mark will be a north and south line, and you can mark
+the place where the shadow of the pin's head crosses that line, when it
+crosses it every day at noon."
+
+The children said that they believed they understood the directions, and
+they determined to try the plan. They thought they would fix two cards,
+one at Rollo's house, and one at Lucy's; and they immediately went off
+in pursuit of blank cards and big pins.
+
+
+
+
+PRUNING.
+
+
+One afternoon, Rollo saw his father coming out into the garden, with a
+little saw and a knife, and a small pot of paint in his hands.
+
+"Father," said he, "are you going to prune your trees now?"
+
+"Yes," said his father.
+
+"Then, shall I go and get my wheelbarrow?"
+
+"Yes," replied his father, again.
+
+So Rollo ran off after his wheelbarrow. It had been arranged, between
+him and his father that morning, that they should work in the garden an
+hour or two in the afternoon, and that Rollo should pick up all the
+cuttings from the trees, and wheel them away, and then, when they were
+dry, make a bonfire with them.
+
+Rollo found his wheelbarrow in its proper place, and trundled it along
+into the garden.
+
+"Father," said he, "what trees are you going to prune first?"
+
+"O, I am going to begin at the back side of the garden, and prune them
+all, advancing regularly to the front."
+
+"What is the saw for?" said Rollo.
+
+"To saw off the large branches, that I can't cut off easily with a
+knife."
+
+"But I should not think you would want to saw off any large branches,
+for so you will lose all the apples that would grow on them next year."
+
+"Why, sometimes, the branches are dead, and then they would do no good,
+but only be in the way."
+
+"But do they do any hurt?" said Rollo.
+
+"Why, they look badly."
+
+"But, I mean, would they do any actual hurt to the tree?"
+
+"Why, I don't know," said his father; "perhaps they would not. At any
+rate, if I cut them off pretty close to the living part of the tree, the
+bark will then gradually extend out over the little stump that I leave,
+and finally cover it over, and take it all in, as it were."
+
+By this time, Rollo and his father had reached the back side of the
+garden, and his father showed him the place where he had cut off a limb
+the year before, and he saw how the fresh young bark had protruded
+itself all around it, and was spreading in towards the centre so as to
+cover it over. Rollo then saw that it was better that all old dead limbs
+should be cut off.
+
+"That's curious," said Rollo.
+
+"Yes, very curious," said his father. "A tree will take in, and cover
+up, almost any thing that is fastened to the wood, in the same manner."
+
+"Will it?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said his father. "If you drive a nail into a tree, the bark will,
+after a time, cover it over entirely. Sometimes people find things in
+old trees, which were put upon them when they were young."
+
+"How big things?" said Rollo.
+
+"O, I don't know exactly how big. The tree will make an effort to
+enclose any thing small or large. Only, if it is very large, it will
+take a great while to enclose it, and it might be so large that it never
+could enclose it."
+
+"Well, father, how large must it be so that the tree never could enclose
+it?"
+
+"O, I don't know, exactly. Once I saw a tree that was growing very near
+a rock. After a time it came in contact with it, and it grew and pressed
+against it, until the rock crowded into the wood. Then the bark began to
+protrude in every direction along the rock, as if it was making an
+effort to spread out and take the rock all in. But I don't think it will
+ever succeed; for the rock was part of a ledge in a pretty large hill."
+
+"What a silly tree!" said Rollo.
+
+"Father, I believe I will try the experiment some time," continued
+Rollo, after a pause.
+
+"Very well," said his father.
+
+"What shall I put into the tree?" asked Rollo.
+
+"You might put in a cent," said his father, "and then, if it should get
+fairly enclosed, I presume the tree will keep it safe for you a good
+many years."
+
+Rollo determined to do it. "Then," said he, "I shall never be out of
+money, and that will be excellent." His father told him that he must
+make a small cleft in the bark and wood, with a chisel and mallet, and
+then drive the cent in, edgewise, a little way.
+
+So Rollo got his chisel and mallet, and inserted the cent according to
+his father's directions, and by that time there were a good many
+branches and twigs on the ground, which his father had taken off from
+the trees, and so he began to pick them up, and put them into his
+wheelbarrow.
+
+They went on working together for some time, and talking while they
+worked. Rollo was continually asking his father questions, and his
+father sometimes answered them, and sometimes did not, but was silent
+and thoughtful, as if he was thinking of something else. But whether he
+got answers or not, Rollo went on talking.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+"Father," said Rollo, at length, after a short pause, during which he
+had been busily at work putting twigs into his wheelbarrow, "Henry has
+got a very interesting book."
+
+His father did not answer.
+
+"_I_ think it is a very interesting book indeed. Should not you like to
+read it, father?"
+
+His father was just then reaching up very high to saw off a pretty large
+limb, and he paid no attention to what Rollo was saying. So Rollo went
+on talking half to himself--
+
+"One story is about Aladdin and his lamp. If he rubbed his lamp, he
+could have whatever he wished; something would come, I have forgotten
+what its name was, and bring him whatever he asked for."
+
+Just then, down came the great branch which his father had been sawing
+off, falling from its place on the tree to the ground.
+
+Rollo looked at it a moment, and then, when his father began sawing
+again, he said,
+
+"Should not you like such a lamp, father?"
+
+"Such a lamp as what, my son?" said his father.
+
+"Why, such a one as Aladdin's."
+
+"Aladdin's! why, what do you know of Aladdin's lamp?"
+
+"Why, I read about it in Henry's story book," said Rollo. "I just told
+you, father."
+
+"Did you?" said his father. "Won't you just hand me up the paint brush?"
+
+"Well, father," said Rollo, as he handed him the brush, "don't you
+wish you had an Aladdin's lamp?"
+
+"No, not particularly," said his father.
+
+"O father!" exclaimed Rollo, with surprise, "I am sure _I_ do. Don't you
+wish _I_ had such a lamp, father?"
+
+"No," said his father.
+
+"Why, father, I really think I could do some good with it. For instance,
+I could just rub my lamp, and then have all your trees pruned for you,
+at once, without any further trouble."
+
+"But that would not be worth while; for you might have a much larger and
+better garden than this made at once, with thousands of trees, bearing
+delicious fruit; and ponds, and waterfalls, and beautiful groves."
+
+"O, so I could," said Rollo.
+
+"And, then, how soon do you think you should get tired of it, and want
+another?"
+
+"O, perhaps, I should want another pretty soon; but then I could have
+another, you know."
+
+"Yes, and how long do you think you could find happiness, in calling
+beautiful gardens into existence, one after another?"
+
+"O, I don't know;--a good while."
+
+"A day?"
+
+"O, yes, father."
+
+"A week?"
+
+"Why, perhaps, I should be tired in a week."
+
+"Then all your power of receiving enjoyment from gardens would be run
+out and exhausted in a week; whereas mine, without any Aladdin's lamp,
+lasts me year after year, pleasantly increasing all the time without
+ever reaching satiety."
+
+"What is satiety, father?"
+
+"The feeling we experience when we have had so much of a good thing that
+we are completely tired and sick of it. If I should give a little child
+as much honey as he could eat, or let him play all the time, or buy him
+a vast collection of pictures, he would soon get tired of these things."
+
+"O father, I never should get tired of looking at pictures."
+
+"I think you would," said his father.
+
+Here the conversation stopped a few minutes, while Rollo went to wheel
+away a load of his sticks. Before he returned, he had prepared himself
+to renew his argument. He said,
+
+"Father, even if I did get tired of making beautiful gardens, I could
+then do something else with the lamp, and that would give me new
+pleasure."
+
+"Yes, but the new pleasure would be run out and exhausted just as soon
+as the pleasure of having a garden would have been; so that you would,
+in a short time, be satiated with every thing, and become completely
+wretched and miserable."
+
+"But, father," said Rollo, after being silent a little while, "I don't
+think I should get tired of my beautiful gardens very soon: I don't
+think I should get tired even of looking at pictures of them."
+
+"Should you like to try the experiment?"
+
+"Yes, sir," said Rollo, very eagerly.
+
+Rollo's father had a great many books of pictures and engravings of
+various kinds in his library; and sometimes he used to allow the
+children to see them, but only a very few at a time. They had not yet
+seen them all. He only allowed them to see them as fast as they had time
+to examine them thoroughly, and read about them and understand them.
+But now he said to Rollo,
+
+"I could let you have all the books of prints and engravings I have got,
+and see them all at one time, and that would be giving you Aladdin's
+lamp, exactly, so far as my pictures are concerned."
+
+"Well," said Rollo, clapping his hands.
+
+"But then, in a short time, you would get tired of looking at them; you
+would become satiated, and would in fact spoil the whole pleasure by
+attempting to enjoy it too fast. But then I think it would perhaps do
+you good."
+
+"How, father?"
+
+"Why, by teaching you the value of moderation, and the uselessness of
+Aladdin's lamps in all human enjoyments. It would be a very valuable
+experiment in intellectual philosophy, which I think it very probable
+might be of use to you. So, if you please, you may try it."
+
+"Well, father, I am sure I should like to see the pictures."
+
+"That is all settled then," said his father; "some day you shall."
+
+
+
+
+THE GREAT BEETLE AND WEDGE.
+
+
+Rollo was coming home one morning after having been away on an errand,
+and he saw a large wood pile near Farmer Cropwell's door. Now it
+happened that Rollo had once been on a journey pretty far back into the
+country; it was at the time when Jonas told him and Lucy the stories
+related in the book called "Jonas's Stories." On that journey, Jonas had
+one day told him that the sap of the maple-tree was sweet, and had let
+him taste of some, where it oozed out at the end of the log. Seeing
+Farmer Cropwell's wood pile reminded Rollo of this; and he thought he
+would look at the ends of all the logs, and see if he could not find
+some drops of sweet sap there.
+
+But he could not, for two reasons: none of those trees were maple-trees,
+and then, besides, they were all dry. There was no sap in them of any
+kind; at least, not enough to ooze out. While Rollo was looking there,
+one of Farmer Cropwell's large boys came out with an axe in his hand. He
+rolled out a pretty large log of wood, though it was not very long, and
+struck his axe into the end of it, as if he was going to split it.
+
+"I don't believe you can split that great log," said Rollo.
+
+"I don't expect to do it with the axe," said the boy, as he left the axe
+sticking in the log.
+
+"How then?" said Rollo.
+
+"I have got beetle and wedges here, round behind the wood pile."
+
+So the boy went to another side of the wood pile, and brought a large
+beetle and an iron wedge. When he got back to his log, he started out
+the axe which he had left sticking into it. Then Rollo saw that the axe
+had made a little indentation, or cleft, in the wood. He put the point
+of the wedge into this cleft, and drove it in a very little, with a few
+light blows with the axe. Then he took the great heavy beetle, and began
+driving the wedge in, with very heavy blows.
+
+Presently, Rollo saw a little crack beginning to extend out each side
+from the wedge. The crack ran along across the end of the log, and
+thence down the side, and grew wider and wider every moment. At last,
+the wedge was driven in as far as it would go, and still the log was not
+split open.
+
+"Now stop," said Rollo; "I will put a stick in, and keep the crack open,
+while you drive the wedge in, in another place."
+
+"O, that won't do," said the boy; "a stick would not keep it open."
+
+"Why not?" said Rollo.
+
+"Because it is not solid enough; the sides of the cleft draw together
+very hard. They would crush the stick."
+
+Here Rollo put his hand into his pocket, and drew out a walnut, and he
+asked the boy if it would crack a walnut.
+
+"Try it," said the boy.
+
+So Rollo put the walnut into the crack. He slipped it along until he got
+it to a place where the crack was just wide enough to receive it, and
+hold it steady. He left it there, and then the boy began to knock out
+the wedge.
+
+He struck it first upon one side, and then upon the other, and thus
+gradually worked it out. The walnut was crushed all to pieces. The boy
+then drove in the wedge again, so as to open the log as it was before.
+He then went to the place where he had got the beetle and wedge at
+first, and brought a large wooden wedge which he had made before, and
+began to put that into the crack, not very far from the iron wedge.
+
+"This will keep it open," said he.
+
+"Yes, I think it will," said Rollo. "But put it up close to the iron
+wedge."
+
+"No," said the boy; "for then I can't knock the iron wedge out."
+
+So the boy put the large wooden wedge in, at a little distance from the
+iron one, and drove it in rather gently with the beetle. This opened the
+cleft a little more, so that the iron wedge came out pretty easily.
+
+"I don't see what makes the sides of the logs draw together so hard,"
+said Rollo.
+
+"O, they can't help it," said the boy.
+
+"That is no reason," rejoined Rollo. "I should think that, after the log
+is once split open, it would stay so. If I split a piece of wood in two
+with my knife, the pieces don't try to come together again."
+
+So Rollo began to examine the log, and to look into the cracks, to see
+if he could find out what it was that made the parts draw together so
+hard as to crush the walnut. Presently, he observed that the log was not
+split open from end to end. The crack commenced at one end, and extended
+nearly towards the other, but not quite; so that at this other end the
+log was solid and whole, just as it always had been. So Rollo perceived
+that the two halves being joined and held together firmly here, they
+could only be separated at the other end by the wedge springing them
+open, and, of course, by their elasticity they tended to spring together
+again. Then besides, he saw, by looking into the crack, a great number
+of splinters, large and small, which extended obliquely from one side to
+the other, and bound the two sides strongly towards each other.
+
+By this time the boy had got the wedge knocked out.
+
+"It is strange," said Rollo, "that such a small wedge will split such a
+tough and solid log."
+
+"O, not very strange," said the boy. "You see," he continued, taking up
+the wedge, and pointing to the several parts as he explained them, "you
+see here at this part, where it enters the wood it is sharp, and the
+sides spread out each way, so that, when I drive it in, they force the
+wood apart."
+
+"Why don't they have the back of the wedge wider still? and then it
+would force the wood open farther; and then you would not have to put in
+a wooden wedge afterwards,--so," he added, making a sign with his
+fingers. He put the tips of his fingers together, and then separated his
+hands, so as to represent a very blunt-shaped wedge.
+
+"Then it would not drive in so easily," answered the boy. "Perhaps I
+could not drive it in at all, if it was so blunt."
+
+"They might have the wedge longer then," said Rollo, "and then it would
+be just as tapering, and yet it would be a great deal broader at the
+back, because the back would be farther off."
+
+"That would make the wedge a great deal too heavy. It would not drive."
+
+"Why, yes, it would," said Rollo.
+
+"No, it would not," said the boy. "It would be just like a shoemaker's
+lap-stone; pounding it would hardly move it."
+
+Rollo did not understand what the boy meant by what he said about the
+shoemaker's lap-stone; so he paused a moment, and presently he said,
+
+"I don't think it would make any difference, if it was heavy. And,
+besides, it might be made of wood, and that wouldn't be heavy."
+
+"O, wood wouldn't do," said the boy.
+
+Now it happened that while they had been talking, the boy had gone on
+driving in his wooden wedge into the cleft that the iron one had made,
+and it had been gradually splitting the log open more and more. So that
+just as the boy was saying that "a wooden wedge wouldn't do," Rollo was
+actually seeing with his own eyes that it _would_ do; for at that moment
+the boy gave the last blow, and the halves of the log came apart and
+fell over, one to one side, and the other to the other.
+
+"Why, there," said Rollo, "you have split the log open with a wooden
+wedge."
+
+"O, that is because I had an iron one in first," said the boy.
+
+"What difference does that make?" said Rollo.
+
+"A great deal of difference," said the boy.
+
+"But _what_ difference?" persisted Rollo.
+
+"I don't know exactly what difference," said the boy; "only I know you
+can't do any thing with a wooden wedge until you have first opened a
+seam with an iron one."
+
+Rollo was confident that it could not possibly make any difference
+whether a wooden wedge was used first or last. The boy was sure that it
+did, though he could not tell why. Finally, they determined to try it;
+so the boy struck his axe into the end of the next log, and then
+attempted to drive in his wooden wedge. But he did not succeed at all.
+The wedge would not stay. Rollo told him that he did not strike hard
+enough. Then he struck harder, but it did no good. The wedge dropped out
+the moment he let go of it, and on taking it up, they found that the
+edge of it was bruised and battered; so that even Rollo gave up all
+hopes of making it enter.
+
+"Ah!" said the boy, taking up the wedge, and looking at it, "now I know
+what the reason is. It is the edge."
+
+"Where?" said Rollo. "Let me see."
+
+"Why, when there is no crack," said the boy, "you see the edge of the
+wedge comes against the solid wood, and when I drive, it only bruises
+and batters it; but the iron is hard, and goes in. But then, when a
+crack is made, the wedge can go in easily; for the edge does not touch;
+then only the sides rub against the wood."
+
+"How?" said Rollo. "I don't understand."
+
+"I'll show you in a minute," said the boy. So he took the iron wedge,
+and went to work driving it into the log. It soon began to make a crack,
+which ran along the log, and opened wider and wider. When, at length, it
+was pretty wide, he put the wooden wedge in, and he showed Rollo that
+the edge of the wedge did not now have to force its way, but went easily
+into the crack, and only the sides came in contact with the two parts of
+the log which it was separating.
+
+"That's curious," said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said the boy.
+
+"I wish I had a little beetle and wedge," said Rollo. "I have got a
+hammer. That would do for a beetle, if I only had a wedge."
+
+"O, a hammer won't do," said the boy.
+
+"Why not? Would not an axe do as well as a beetle?"
+
+"No," said the boy, "it would spoil the axe and the wedge too."
+
+"How?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Why, it would bruise it all up,--hard iron knocking against the hard
+iron."
+
+"Would it?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," replied the farmer's boy; "it would spoil the head of the axe,
+and the head of the wedge too."
+
+"Is that the reason why they make a wooden beetle?"
+
+"Yes," said the boy; "and they put iron rings around the ends to keep
+the wood from being bruised and battered."
+
+"O, I wish I had a little beetle and wedge!" said Rollo.
+
+"Perhaps you might make one."
+
+"O, I could not make an iron wedge--nor the beetle rings."
+
+"No, but you might make wedges of wood,--pretty hard wood; that would do
+to split up pieces of pine boards, and then you would not need any rings
+to your beetle."
+
+"Jonas can help me," said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said the boy; "Jonas will know all about it."
+
+So Rollo set out to go home, full of the idea of making a wooden beetle
+and wedge, so as to split up pieces of boards. He determined, in case he
+should succeed, to make a smaller one still for Thanny.
+
+
+
+
+THE LITTLE BEETLE AND WEDGE.
+
+
+When Rollo got home, he looked about for Jonas every where, but could
+not find him. He went around the house and yard, calling "Jonas! Jonas!"
+very loud. Presently Nathan came out to the door, and told him that his
+mother wanted to see him. So Rollo went in to his mother.
+
+"You ought not to make such a noise," said she, "calling Jonas. You
+disturb us all."
+
+"But, mother," said he, "I want to find him very much."
+
+"No doubt," said his mother; "but you must find him with your eyes, not
+with your tongue."
+
+"Why, mother," said Rollo, laughing, "what do you mean by that?"
+
+"Boys very generally have a habit of trying to find people with their
+tongues, that is, by calling them; but it is a very bad habit. You see,"
+she continued, "there are five or six persons now in and about the
+house, and if you go around calling out for Jonas, you disturb us all;
+but if you go about quietly, and _look_ for him, you do not disturb any
+body."
+
+"But then it is not so easy to find him by looking for him," said Rollo.
+
+"Why not?" asked his mother.
+
+"Because," said Rollo, "I can call out for him, in a moment, in the
+yard, and then if he is any where within hearing, he answers; and so I
+know where he is. But it would take me some time to go to all the places
+that are within hearing."
+
+"True," said his mother, "I see it is more trouble to find any body with
+your eyes, than with your voice; but then it is so much pleasanter for
+all the rest of us, that you must submit to it."
+
+So Rollo went away again to look for Jonas. He inquired of Dorothy in
+the kitchen, and she told him that she saw Jonas going out towards the
+barn a few minutes before. So Rollo went off in pursuit of him.
+
+He found him at work in a little back room in the barn, looking over
+some harnesses.
+
+"What are you doing, Jonas?" said Rollo.
+
+"I am overhauling these harnesses, to get them all ready for winter."
+
+"For winter?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," replied Jonas; "they are sleigh-harnesses."
+
+"Well, Jonas," said Rollo, "I wanted to see you about a beetle and
+wedge. Do you think you could help me about making a little beetle and
+wedge?"
+
+"I can help you by my _advice_," said Jonas.
+
+"O, but I want you to help me _make_ them."
+
+Then Jonas asked Rollo what made him think of a beetle and wedge; and
+Rollo told him of the conversation he had held with the farmer's boy.
+Then Jonas talked a long time about it, giving him particular advice and
+direction about the plan, though he said he could not himself go and
+help him then, for he could not leave his harnesses.
+
+The advice which Jonas gave him was, substantially, this:--
+
+"The boy was right in what he said about the necessity of having iron
+wedges, to split up large logs of hard wood; but you had better have
+short pieces of pine boards for your logs, and then wedges of hard wood
+will do instead of iron; for hard wood is so much more solid than pine,
+that I think wedges of it will answer very well. There are some pieces
+of walnut under the bench, which will do finely, and I will give you one
+of them."
+
+"I'll go, now, and get it," said Rollo.
+
+"No," said Jonas, "not yet; let me tell you about making the beetle."
+
+So Rollo stood in the door way, waiting to hear what Jonas had to say
+about the beetle, but evidently quite impatient to go.
+
+"If you make your wedges of hard wood, it will not be necessary to have
+iron rings to your beetle, because it will not get battered much, in
+driving wooden wedges. Now you must go to the wood pile, and look out a
+piece of round wood, about as large round as my arm, and bore a hole in
+it."
+
+"A hole in it!" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes, a small auger hole, to put the handle into. Then you must put the
+wood into the saw-horse, and saw off the ends, at a little distance
+from the hole, so that, when the handle is put in, it will be like a
+mallet."
+
+"A mallet!" said Rollo. "But I wanted a beetle."
+
+"Well, a mallet is a small beetle, without rings."
+
+"Is it?" said Rollo, thoughtfully.
+
+"Yes," replied Jonas; "and if you work slowly and carefully, I think you
+can make a pretty good one yourself."
+
+Rollo thought so too, and away he ran to make the experiment. Under the
+great work bench, he found, among a quantity of boards and bits of wood,
+a number of long bars of walnut, which Jonas had split out from the wood
+pile to keep for handles. He took one of these, and carried it off to
+the shed, to look for the saw and the hatchet.
+
+The first thing was, as he supposed, to saw off a piece of the wood just
+long enough for a wedge. But in this he was mistaken. In doing any piece
+of work of this kind, it is always very important to consider which part
+it is best to do first. Rollo did not think of this, and so he marked
+off a piece of the walnut wood about long enough for a wedge, and then
+sawed it off.
+
+"Now," said he, "I must make the sides smooth, and sharpen it."
+
+So he took the piece of wood in his hand, and put one end of it down
+upon a large log of wood, and then attempted to smooth and sharpen it,
+as he had seen Jonas sharpen a stake. But he could not succeed very
+well. The wood was very hard, and he could not cut it. Then it was so
+short that it was almost impossible to hold it. At almost every blow of
+the hatchet it slipped out of his hand; and then, besides, he was very
+much afraid of cutting his fingers; so that, after working laboriously
+for some time, he came back to Jonas in despair, holding his wedge in
+his hands, which, however, instead of being properly sharpened, was only
+rounded off a little at the corners.
+
+"O dear me!" said he to Jonas, as he came up to him with the intended
+wedge in his hands, "I can't make a wedge at all. It's no use to try."
+Then he explained to Jonas the difficulties that he had met with.
+
+"True," said Jonas; "I see. I advise you to give it up."
+
+"Yes," said Rollo, "the wood is so hard."
+
+"O, no," said Jonas; "_that_ is no great trouble--you could easily
+manage that."
+
+"But then I can't hold it."
+
+"That is of no consequence either. I could tell you a way to hold it
+well enough."
+
+"What is the reason, then, why you think I had better give up?"
+
+"Because you have not patience enough."
+
+Rollo stood silent and thoughtful as Jonas said this, with his piece of
+wood in one hand, and his hatchet in the other.
+
+"It takes a great deal of patience to make a thing which we never made
+before."
+
+"Why?" said Rollo.
+
+"O, because there are always unforeseen difficulties. We don't know
+exactly how to do it, and are apt to make mistakes; and so we spoil some
+of our work, and this makes us impatient and fretful."
+
+"But I could not help coming to you," said Rollo, "when I found I could
+not sharpen my wedge."
+
+"I did not blame you for coming to me," said Jonas.
+
+"But you said I was impatient."
+
+"Yes, but not for coming to me--I judged by your looks and tone of
+voice. Now if you can keep good-natured and pleasant, so as to go on
+steadily and patiently, difficulties or no difficulties, I will help you
+by my advice; otherwise, I think you had better give up the plan."
+
+Rollo stood a few minutes leaning on the door, and swinging it back and
+forth a little. He seemed to be in doubt whether to be good-natured or
+not. At length, the better feelings triumphed, and he said,
+
+"Well, Jonas I will try. How can I hold my wedge while I sharpen it?"
+
+"You must not saw it off until it is all sharpened and smoothed. By that
+means, you see, the long end of the stick, that you make it from, will
+serve for a handle."
+
+"So it will," said Rollo; "I never thought of that."
+
+So Rollo went off in pursuit of the stick from which he had sawed off
+his first wedge, intending to make another upon the end of it, and then
+saw it off when it was all ready.
+
+He found that now he could hold his wood very easily, and there was no
+danger of cutting his fingers. So he could strike much heavier blows. He
+soon sharpened his wedge, and then carried it to Jonas to ask him if he
+thought it would do.
+
+"No," said Jonas, "I don't think it will do, very well."
+
+"Won't it?" asked Rollo, looking somewhat disappointed.
+
+"Why, you see the sides are not smooth; and then you have not sharpened
+it uniformly. You have cut away more at the corners than you have in the
+middle, so that it is thicker in the middle. That is the way that boys
+always sharpen wedges."
+
+"Why do they?" asked Rollo.
+
+"I suppose it is because it is easier to cut away at the edges, and so
+they get more off there. Now you had better get your wedge as true, and
+perfect, and smooth as you can, before you saw it off. It will be a
+great deal pleasanter to work with a good wedge than with a poor one,
+and so you had better take pains with it, and make as perfect a one as
+you can, if you make any."
+
+"But, Jonas," said Rollo, "I can smooth it and finish it, after I get it
+sawed off."
+
+"Not half as easily as you can now," said Jonas.
+
+During all this time Jonas kept on with his own work; and now he said
+no more, and seemed disposed to leave Rollo to his own decision.
+
+Rollo walked slowly back to the shed. He longed to have his wedge done;
+but then Jonas had often told him before, that if he was attempting to
+make any thing, it was best to take pains with it, and make it as
+complete and perfect as possible, and then he would prize it more, and
+take more pleasure in it, when it was done. Rollo knew that this was
+good advice, though, like almost all other boys, he was always in such a
+hurry to finish any thing that he undertook, and to have it ready for
+use, that he did not like to take the necessary pains.
+
+On reflection, however, he concluded to take Jonas's advice; and he
+accordingly began to smooth the sides of his wedge again with the
+hatchet. He did it slowly and carefully; and after some time he found
+that he had got the wedge into a much more perfect shape than before. He
+then carried it to Jonas again.
+
+Now Jonas approved it very much, but told him that he had better smooth
+it a little more with his knife before sawing it off. Rollo did so; and
+then he carried it back to the horse, and sawed it off at the right
+distance, and it made an excellent wedge. The edges, at the head of the
+wedge, were left somewhat rough by the saw. These, however, he trimmed
+off with his knife, and then carried the wedge to Jonas.
+
+"Very well," said Jonas; "now you want one more."
+
+"One more?" said Rollo. "No, I want my beetle next."
+
+"No," said Jonas, "one more wedge. Make all your wedges first."
+
+"Why, Jonas, you see, if I make my beetle next, I can try it with this
+wedge, and then I can make another, if I want it, afterwards."
+
+"No," replied Jonas, "that is not a good way. You ought to finish up
+your apparatus all complete, before you try it at all. Then you will
+take a great deal more pleasure in trying it. Besides, if you get to
+work splitting up your wood, you will not want to leave it, and go to
+making a new wedge then. Now is the time to do it."
+
+Rollo felt very desirous to make his beetle first, so as "just to try it
+a little," as he said. Still, he had so often found, when he had not
+followed Jonas's advice, that he was sorry for it afterwards, that he
+concluded to make another wedge now. He accordingly went to work again,
+and having learned how to do it by his practice upon the first one, he
+succeeded very easily, and finished it much quicker than he did before.
+
+Then he went to work upon his beetle. He selected a round stick of wood,
+of about the right size, and then examined it carefully to find the part
+which was most uniform and regular in its shape; and he bored a hole for
+the handle in the middle of this part. He made his handle of pine wood,
+for this was much easier to cut, and Jonas told him he thought it would
+do nearly as well. When the handle was finished, he drove it into the
+hole, and then he sawed off the ends of the stick of wood at the right
+distances from the hole. He first took pains to measure on each side, so
+as to have the distances exactly the same.
+
+When this was done, he had quite a pretty little mallet. That is, it was
+made very much like a carpenter's mallet; still, as a mallet is made
+chiefly for the purpose of driving a chisel, and this was, on the other
+hand, only intended to be used for splitting wood with a wedge, Jonas
+told him he thought it would be strictly proper to call it a _little
+beetle_. He worked so slowly and carefully, however, in doing all this,
+that the afternoon had entirely passed away when he got the beetle and
+the wedges done; and just when he was thinking that he was ready to try
+them, he saw Dorothy at the kitchen door, ringing the bell to call him
+in to tea.
+
+
+
+
+SPLITTING.
+
+
+When play time came the next day, Rollo ran after Nathan to show him his
+beetle and wedges, and to get him to go out and see him 'split' with
+them. Nathan trotted along after him, very much pleased.
+
+Rollo had his beetle in one hand, and his two wedges in the other, and,
+as he walked along, he looked over his shoulder towards Nathan, who was
+following him, and talked to him by the way, explaining to him something
+about his beetle and wedges.
+
+"You see I am going to split, Thanny. I am going to split some kindling
+wood for Dorothy. I shall put my wedges into the wood, and then drive
+them in with my beetle, and that will make the wood split open more and
+more; and perhaps I will let you split a little, Thanny."
+
+By this time Rollo had got out to the shed, and he put his beetle and
+wedges down upon the floor, while he went away to get some boards to
+split. There were some old boards behind the barn, which Jonas told him
+were to be split up to burn, and from these he chose one, which was not
+very long, and dragged it to the shed. He placed this upon the
+saw-horse, and then sawed off a piece from one end, about as long as he
+thought it would be well to have the sticks of kindling wood. After he
+had sawed off one piece, he was going to split it up, but then he
+reflected that it would be more systematic and workmanlike to finish his
+sawing first. So he sawed off another, and another piece, until the
+board was all sawed up into short pieces. He placed these together
+neatly in a pile, and then taking one of them, he sat down upon the
+floor, with Thanny, and prepared to try his beetle and wedges.
+
+"Now," said Rollo, "I think I must have a knife,--some old knife or
+other,--to make a little place to drive my wedge in. Thanny, why can't
+you go and ask Dorothy to let me have a knife? Come, that's a good boy."
+
+So Nathan got up off of the floor, where he had been sitting by Rollo's
+side, and went in for a knife. In a few minutes he came out, and
+asked Rollo if a broken one would do. He had brought out a broken knife.
+The handle was whole and strong, but the blade was broken in two, about
+in the middle.
+
+"Why, yes," said Rollo, taking the knife and looking at it, "I believe
+that will do.
+
+"Yes," he continued, "I shall like this better, for I can keep this all
+the time, with my wedges. And besides, I believe that I can drive it
+better."
+
+So Rollo held the edge of the knife to the end of the board, and then
+drove it in a little way, with his little beetle. This made a small
+opening or cleft in the angle or edge of the board at one end. Then he
+began to drive in his wooden wedge, telling Nathan to look carefully and
+see when it began to split. Nathan stood near him, stooping down, with
+his hands upon his knees, and looking on with great attention.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Rollo drove in his wedge, and it proceeded admirably. The wood soon
+began to crack, and the crack gradually extended almost to the end of
+the board. When he had driven it in pretty far, he told Nathan to see
+how he was going to manage with his second wedge. He was now very glad
+that he had followed Jonas's advice, and made the second wedge before
+trying the first. He inserted the second wedge in the crack, and drove
+it in. This forced the wood open more, and loosened the first wedge, so
+that he could easily get it out again, and very soon the board was split
+entirely in two. Nathan was very much delighted with the whole
+operation.
+
+In the same manner, Rollo split two or three other pieces off from his
+board, and then Nathan wanted him to let _him_ split one. Rollo was at
+first somewhat unwilling to let his little beetle go out of his hand at
+all, he was so interested in using it; but considering that it would
+give Nathan a good deal of pleasure, he concluded to let him try it
+once.
+
+"I will start it for you, Thanny," said he. And he accordingly made a
+small cleft by driving in his knife; and then he inserted the wedge, and
+drove that in too, just far enough to start the crack, and enable the
+wood to retain the wedge. Nathan then took the beetle, and pounded away.
+
+He found that he could not strike such heavy blows as Rollo could, and
+yet the wedge gradually penetrated farther and farther, and the crack
+opened wider and wider, to Nathan's great delight. Rollo was himself
+gratified to see how much his little brother was pleased with his beetle
+and wedges. When the first wedge was driven fully in, he handed him the
+other, and showed him how to insert that into the crack made by the
+first wedge, at a little distance from it. Nathan then drove in the
+second wedge, and this soon finished the work, for it split the piece
+off entirely, and Nathan took it up, and looked at it, very much pleased
+at what he had done.
+
+"Now," said Rollo, "give me the beetle again."
+
+"No," said Nathan, "I want to split some more."
+
+"O, no," said Rollo, in a tone of good-humored expostulation; "no; it is
+_my_ beetle and wedge. I let you have it to split one stick off; but now
+you ought to let me have it again, immediately."
+
+"No," said Nathan, "I want to split some more."
+
+Rollo took up the two wedges, and would not let Nathan have them, and
+Nathan held the beetle away behind him so that Rollo should not have
+that. Thus they seemed to be in inextricable difficulty. Rollo did not
+know what to do.
+
+"Nathan," said he, at length, after a pause, "give me my beetle."
+
+"No," said Nathan, "_I_ want to split."
+
+"O, dear me!" said Rollo, with a sigh.
+
+At first, he thought that he would take the beetle away from Nathan by
+force; but he reflected in a moment that this would be wrong, and so
+finally he concluded to go and state the case to his mother.
+
+So he rose, and began to walk away, saying,
+
+"Well, Nathan, I mean to go and tell mother, that you won't let me have
+my beetle."
+
+Then Nathan, whose conscience secretly reproved him for what he was
+doing, pulled the beetle round from behind him, and threw it down upon
+the floor, where Rollo had been sitting. This was wrong. It was a very
+ill-natured way of giving it up. If he was satisfied that he was wrong,
+he ought to have handed it to Rollo pleasantly. Instead of that, he
+threw it down, with a sullen look, and sat still.
+
+Then Rollo, thinking that it was now no longer necessary to go and
+trouble his mother with the difficulty, began to return. As he came
+back, he said, in a kind and soothing tone,
+
+"Now, you are a good boy, Nathan. That is right--to give me back my
+beetle. Now I will let you split again, some time."
+
+But Rollo was mistaken in supposing that Nathan was a good boy. Boys are
+not good until their _hearts_ are right. When a child has something
+which he ought not to have, it is not enough for him to throw it down
+upon the floor, sullenly, because he is afraid to have his father or
+mother told that he has got it. He ought to give it up pleasantly, and
+feel that it is right that he should do so. If Nathan had said to
+himself, "I ought not to keep this beetle, for it is not mine--it is
+Rollo's; he made it, and he has been kind enough to lend it to me, and
+now I ought to be willing to give it back to him pleasantly again;" and
+then had given it to him with a pleasant countenance,--that would have
+been really being a good boy. But to throw it down in a pet, because he
+was afraid to have Rollo complain to his mother, was very far from being
+like a good boy.
+
+However, it was very kind in Rollo to speak soothingly and pleasantly to
+Nathan; though, if he had reflected how much goodness depends upon the
+state of the heart, he would not have supposed that Nathan was yet a
+good boy. In fact, when he saw that Rollo was coming back again, and was
+not going to his mother, after standing still, looking quite sullen for
+a moment, he suddenly stooped down, seized Rollo's knife, and ran off
+with it out into the yard.
+
+Rollo instantly pursued him, calling out, "Nathan! bring back my knife;
+Nathan! Nathan! give me my knife."
+
+Nathan, however, ran on, though Rollo ran the fastest, and was rapidly
+overtaking him; and just at the instant before he reached him, Nathan's
+foot tripped; he fell, and as he threw forward his hands to try to save
+himself, they came down upon the ground, and his forehead struck the
+corner of the knife blade. He immediately screamed out with pain and
+terror. Dorothy, alarmed by his cries, came out, took him up in her
+arms, and carried him into the house.
+
+She took him to the table, and began to bathe the wounded forehead in
+cold water. This was what she always did when the children got cut or
+scratched, or hurt in any such way. It prevents inflammation. She saw
+that Nathan was not hurt much, though he continued to cry very loud. His
+crying was, however, partly from pain, and partly from vexation.
+
+In a few minutes, Rollo's mother came down stairs to see what was the
+matter. Rollo thought that his mother might suppose that he had hurt
+Nathan, and so he began to explain at once how it happened. But his
+mother held up her hand to him, as a signal for him to be silent. She
+knew that it was then no time to ascertain the facts.
+
+She came up and looked at Nathan's forehead a moment, and she saw that
+it was not much hurt. Besides, she knew, by the sound of Nathan's cries,
+that they did not proceed from much pain. She therefore said to him,
+gently,
+
+"Stop crying, Nathan!"
+
+Now Nathan knew that his mother did not tell him not to cry, except when
+she was sure that he could control himself if he chose to do so; and he
+also knew that she punished him if he did not obey. So he began
+immediately to repress his sobs and cries, and very soon became still.
+She then put a small plaster, of some sort, upon his forehead, and then
+carried him up stairs and laid him on the bed.
+
+"There," said she, "Thanny, lie still there a little while, till your
+forehead has done aching, and you get pleasant again; then you may get
+up, and come to me."
+
+Then she went to her work again, and Rollo came and stood by her side,
+and told her the whole story.
+
+"Nathan did wrong," said she; "but it would have been better for you not
+to have run after him."
+
+"Why, mother," said Rollo, "he was running away with my knife; and I
+can't split at all without my knife. One thing I know,--I shall not let
+him split any more with my beetle and wedges."
+
+"That would be one way to treat him," said his mother; "but there is
+another thing you might do, if you chose."
+
+"What, mother?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Why, make him a beetle and wedge, for his own."
+
+"Why, mother!" said Rollo, with surprise.
+
+"Yes," said she. "You might make him one. Think how pleased he would be
+with it. Then he could sit down with you, and you could both be
+splitting together."
+
+"But, seems to me, mother, that that would be rewarding him for being a
+naughty boy."
+
+"It would be so, if you were to make him a beetle and wedge, _because he
+was a bad boy_; but I proposed that you should make it for another
+reason, that is, to _please_ him."
+
+"But perhaps he would _think_ I did it because he ran away with my
+knife," said Rollo.
+
+"I don't think there is any danger that he would imagine that you did it
+as a reward for that," replied his mother.
+
+Here Rollo paused a moment. He did not feel quite ready to undertake to
+make Nathan a beetle and wedges; but he did not know exactly how to
+reply to his mother's reasoning. At length he said, in a timid and
+hesitating voice,
+
+"But, mother, it seems to me that it would be better to punish Nathan,
+rather than reward him, or do any thing which would seem like rewarding
+him for acting so."
+
+"That may be true," said his mother. "And it is true, also, that if you
+should refuse to let him split wood any more with your wedges, it would
+be punishing him; while, on the other hand, if you should make him a
+little beetle and wedge of his own, it would be forgiving him. Now I do
+not say that he ought not to be punished; but which do you think is
+_your_ duty towards him,--you, yourself, being only another child, a few
+years older than he,--to punish or to forgive?"
+
+"Why,--to forgive,--I suppose," said Rollo, rather doubtfully.
+
+"I am rather inclined to that opinion, myself," said his mother: "but
+you can do just as you please."
+
+Rollo remained some minutes about his mother's chair, not knowing
+exactly what to do or say next. He sat down upon the floor, and began to
+play with some shreds of cloth which were lying there. Presently, he
+looked up and said,
+
+"Mother, what was the reason why you would not let me tell you what was
+the matter with Nathan in the kitchen?"
+
+"Because," said she, "he was crying then, and it is no time to learn how
+an injury happened, during the excitement of the moment. If you find
+Nathan crying out in the yard, for instance, and try to get him to tell
+you how he got hurt, you only make him cry the more. Get him quiet
+first, and then learn the story afterwards.
+
+"Then, besides the difficulty of his speaking intelligibly," she
+continued, "at such a time, boys are very strongly tempted to misrepresent
+the facts, during the excitement of the first moments. They are very
+likely to be a little vexed or angry, and, under the influence of those
+feelings, not to give a correct and honest account. So that it is always
+best to put off inquiries till the trouble is all over."
+
+Here Nathan came into the room. His forehead had ceased to give him
+pain, and so he had clambered down from the bed where his mother had
+placed him, and now came into the room, looking quiet and calm, though
+still not very happy.
+
+Rollo went to him, and said, "Come, Nathan, now we will go down stairs
+to play again." And he began to lead him down stairs. As they walked
+along, Rollo said,
+
+"I am going to make you a beetle and wedge for your own, Nathan, and
+then you and I can split together: only, it is not a _reward_, you must
+understand. It was wrong for you to keep my beetle, and run away with my
+knife, and you are sorry you did so, an't you, Nathan?"
+
+"Yes," said Nathan.
+
+"And you won't do so any more, will you, Nathan?"
+
+"No," said Nathan, "I won't do so any more."
+
+Whether Nathan was really sorry for what he had done, or whether he only
+said so because Rollo was going to make him a beetle, is very doubtful;
+though it is not impossible that he was a little sorry.
+
+Rollo went down into the shed again with Nathan; and while he was at
+work making the new beetle and wedge, he let Nathan use his. The first
+piece of board had been split up; so he laid another one before Nathan,
+and gave him his beetle and wedges and knife, and then went away out to
+the barn to get some more wood for wedges, and an auger.
+
+When he came back, he found Nathan standing at the shed door, with the
+little beetle in his hand, waiting for him. As Nathan saw Rollo coming,
+he called to him, saying,
+
+"Come, Rollo, come and help me; the board won't split."
+
+"What is the matter with it?" said Rollo.
+
+"I don't know," said Nathan, "only it won't split."
+
+So Rollo went in to see. He found that Nathan had gone to work wrong.
+Instead of trying to drive the wedge into the _end_ of the board, so as
+to split it _along_ the grain, he had made the cleft with the knife in
+the side of the board, and was attempting to drive it in there, as if
+he supposed he could split the board _across_ the grain.
+
+"Why, Nathan," said Rollo, "that isn't right. You can't split it
+across."
+
+Then he put the wedge into the end, where it ought to be put, and set
+Nathan to driving it. _Now_ it began to split at once; though Nathan
+could not see why the board should not split one way as well as the
+other.
+
+Rollo himself did not understand it very well. Nathan asked him why it
+would not split the other way, and he said that that was _across_ the
+grain. But when Nathan asked him what he meant by _grain_, he could not
+tell.
+
+He took up the wood and examined it, and observed little lines and
+ridges, running along in the direction in which it would split; but at
+the ends of the board, where it had been sawed across the grain, it was
+rough. He determined to ask Jonas about it, or his father.
+
+He then went to work, and made the wedges and a little beetle for
+Nathan. He made Nathan's beetle smaller than his own, because Nathan
+was not strong enough to strike hard with such a heavy beetle. He did
+not get it done in season to use that day; but, the next day, he and
+Nathan sat down upon the shed floor, and spent an hour in splitting up
+the boards. They split them all up into good, fine kindling wood. Then
+they piled the pieces up in a neat pile, and then brought Dorothy out to
+see them.
+
+Dorothy seemed very much pleased, and promised the boys that, the next
+time she baked pies, she would kindle the fire in the oven with their
+kindling wood, and then she would bake them each a little apple
+turnover.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+That evening, just before Rollo went to bed, he asked Jonas if he could
+tell him why boards would only split _along_ the grain.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas, "I think I can tell you. But do you know what the
+grain is?"
+
+"No," said Rollo, "I don't know any thing about it."
+
+"You know that boards are made from the stems of tall trees."
+
+"Yes," said Rollo.
+
+"Well, now when trees are growing, there are little channels running up
+and down from the roots to the branches."
+
+"What are they for?" said Rollo.
+
+"They are for the sap. The sap flows up and down in them. But then there
+are no channels across from one side of the tree to the other, because
+there is no sap to go across. The sap all has to go up from the roots to
+the branches; and so the channels must all be up and down the tree.
+
+"Now," continued Jonas, "when they cut down the tree, the trunk will
+split easily, up and down, the way the channels and fibres all go; but
+it won't split easily across. And just so, when they saw it up into
+boards, the boards will all split lengthwise, from end to end, for this
+is the way the channels and fibres all lie; but it won't split across,
+for that would be across all the fibres, and the wood is made very
+strong in that direction, and it is well it is so."
+
+"Why?" said Rollo.
+
+"Because, if trees would split across, as easily as they do up and down,
+the first good wind would blow down all the forests in the world."
+
+"O, Jonas!" exclaimed Rollo, "all the forests in the world?"
+
+"Yes," replied Jonas, "if the wind blew all over the world."
+
+
+
+
+HOROLOGY.
+
+
+One day, at eleven o'clock, Rollo, after having put away his books
+carefully into his desk, went out to play. It was a calm and pleasant
+autumnal day. Brown and yellow leaves were falling from the trees, and
+lying about the yard. Rollo found Nathan sitting upon the steps of the
+door which looked toward the garden yard. He felt satisfied and happy,
+for he had studied his lessons diligently, and, when he saw Nathan, he
+concluded to have a little play with him.
+
+"Now, Nathan," said Rollo, "I will lie down upon the steps, and make
+believe I am a bear gone to sleep, and you come and poke me with your
+stick, and then I will growl at you."
+
+"Well," said Nathan, "I will."
+
+So Rollo laid down upon the steps, putting his arms upon the threshold
+of the door for a pillow, and his head upon his arms, and pretended to
+be asleep; but he did not look much as if he was asleep, after all, for
+he could not look quite sober. He tried to look sober; but there was a
+lurking smile upon his face, which made his countenance look quite
+different from that of a bear. Nathan came creeping along softly, and
+when he got near enough, he began to poke him with the end of his little
+whip-handle; then Rollo would start up and begin to growl, when Nathan
+would scamper away, shouting with laughter, Rollo after him, upon
+all-fours.
+
+This play lasted several minutes, until at length Nathan spoiled it by
+punching Rollo too hard with his whip-handle. A great many plays are
+spoiled by roughness on the part of some who are engaged. Rollo, being
+hurt a little, got out of patience. He ought to have asked Nathan,
+pleasantly, not to punch him so hard. Instead of that, however, he
+declared that he would not play any more, and got up and went away.
+Nathan followed him, lashing the ground and the leaves with his whip.
+
+They both went into a corner of the yard, where Rollo used to have his
+sand-garden. This sand-garden was made of clean sand, which Rollo and
+his cousin James once wheeled up from the brook; and then, after they
+had smoothed it out, and raked it over, they used to get plants and
+flowers, without any roots, and stick down, and then call it their
+garden. They used to water the plants, and so they could keep them green
+and bright for several days, which was long enough for them; for, after
+that, they generally preferred putting down fresh ones. But, now, the
+sand-garden had been for a long time neglected. The remains of some of
+the old plants were there, withered and dried, and the leaves of autumn
+were scattered over its surface.
+
+Rollo began to rake off the leaves with his fingers, and then sat down,
+and went to digging a hole in the sand. It was very dry upon the top,
+but on digging down a little way, he found it damp, and so it would hold
+together pretty well, and he could pat it into any shape. A load of
+clean sand makes a very good place for children to play in, in a corner
+of a yard.
+
+Rollo sat down on one side of the sand-garden, and Nathan on the other,
+and both busied themselves in digging and building little houses. They
+both became very much interested, and sat some time very still, until,
+at length, Rollo looked around to see what Nathan might be doing.
+
+"What are you doing, Thanny?" said he.
+
+"O, I'm making the sand run down through."
+
+Rollo observed that Nathan had an old tin dipper, which he was holding
+up in one hand, and putting some dry sand into it with the other. There
+was a very small hole in the bottom of the dipper, for it was an old one
+which had been worn out and thrown away; and the sand ran out of this
+little hole in a fine stream, and it was this which interested Nathan so
+much.
+
+"O, Nathan," said Rollo, "let me have the dipper."
+
+"No," said Nathan, "I want it myself."
+
+Rollo would not take it away from Nathan, though he wanted it very much
+indeed.
+
+"Yes, Nathan," said he, "let me have the dipper, and I will make you an
+hour-glass out of it."
+
+But Nathan said, "No, no," and moved away a little farther.
+
+Rollo then remembered that such a little boy was generally not
+interested in any one thing very long, and that, if he should let Nathan
+alone, he would soon put the dipper down, and then he could have it
+without any difficulty. So he went on making houses in the sand, and in
+a few minutes Nathan put the dipper down. Then, soon after, Rollo took
+it up and put some dry sand into it, and he found that the sand would
+run very smoothly, in a fine stream, through a small hole there was in
+the bottom of it.
+
+He determined to make an hour-glass of it. He had seen an hour-glass at
+his uncle George's. It was made of glass, big at the bottom and at the
+top, and narrow in the middle between the two. Through the narrow part
+in the middle, there was a very small hole, to let the sand run down
+through; and there was just sand enough put in to run through in an
+hour. So that, if a person should set the sand to running, he would know
+when an hour had expired, by observing when the sand had all run
+through.
+
+Rollo thought that he could make an hour-glass; and he thought it would
+be a great convenience to him to have an hour-glass in the yard;
+because it often happened, when he came out to play, that his mother
+would tell him that he might stay out an hour; and then he had to go in
+very often to look at the clock, in order to know exactly when the hour
+had expired.
+
+There were, however, so many little sticks and old leaves in the sand,
+that it kept getting continually clogged up, and at last Rollo began to
+get discouraged. He tried to pick out the little sticks; but he found he
+could not do that, and at last it occurred to him that probably Dorothy
+had some sand in the house that was cleaner.
+
+He accordingly went in and asked her. She told him that he must wash his
+own sand, and that would make it clean.
+
+"But haven't you got some that is clean already?" said he.
+
+"Yes," said Dorothy; "but you will like your hour-glass better if you
+make it all yourself."
+
+So Dorothy told him how to wash sand, for Rollo said that he did not
+know. She said he must put a little in a basin, and then pump water into
+it. "When the basin is nearly full of water, you must stir it round,
+and then pour off the water, and pump in more;--do this until the water
+comes off clear."
+
+So Rollo took the basin which Dorothy gave him, and went out to his
+sand-garden, and put in a little sand. Then he went to the pump, and
+pumped water into it. Then he stirred it about with his hand. The water
+immediately became very turbid, and a great many little sticks and
+leaves came floating up to the surface. Rollo was surprised to find how
+rapidly the water separated the light things which would float upon the
+top, from the heavy sand which would sink to the bottom. He kept pouring
+off the water, and pumping in more, until at length no more sticks and
+leaves came off, and the water appeared pretty clear. Then he carried
+the sand away, and spread it out upon a clean board in the sun to dry.
+
+While he was thus at work preparing the sand for his hour-glass, Jonas
+happened to come by, and asked Rollo what he was doing. Rollo told him
+that he was making an hour-glass. Jonas looked on for a few minutes, and
+then he told Rollo that he thought that was a pretty good plan. "And
+_I_ am going to have a time-keeper, too," said he.
+
+"Are you?" said Rollo. "What?"
+
+"I am going to make a dial," said he.
+
+"A dial!" said Rollo; "what, a real dial?"
+
+Rollo had an idea that a dial was exceedingly complicated and difficult
+to make, or to understand; and, in fact, it is difficult to make one
+that shall be exact in its indications. He did not think it possible
+that Jonas could make one.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas, "a real dial; and I have got a noon mark already."
+
+"A noon mark!" said Rollo; "what is a noon mark?"
+
+"It is a mark to show when it is exactly twelve o'clock."
+
+"Let me go and see it," said Rollo, "while my sand is drying."
+
+Rollo followed Jonas off into the barn, and when there, Jonas pointed to
+a small line which he had cut with his penknife upon the barn floor. It
+began at the foot of one of the posts, by the side of the door, and
+extended back into the barn exactly straight.
+
+"Is that the noon mark?" said Rollo. He was surprised to see that a
+noon mark was nothing but a cut with a penknife upon a barn floor.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas; "that is a meridian."
+
+"A meridian!" said Rollo, looking upon it with an air of great curiosity
+and respect.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas; "a line drawn exactly north and south, is called a
+meridian line; and that is exactly north and south."
+
+"What do you call it a noon mark for?" said Rollo.
+
+"Because," said Jonas, "the shadow of the edge of the door post will
+always be exactly upon it at noon. So that I can always tell now when it
+is noon, by the shadow of the post upon my noon mark, if the sun
+shines."
+
+All this was very new and very curious to Rollo. He had never seen or
+heard of a noon mark before; and it seemed to him a very simple and
+beautiful way of knowing when it was noon. He asked Jonas how he found
+out about it, and Jonas told him that he had been reading about it in a
+book on astronomy.
+
+"Your father let me have the book," said he; "and see my chalk marks for
+the sun's shadow."
+
+Rollo looked, and found that Jonas had put down quite a number of chalk
+marks along in a line, where they had first began to mark the place
+where the shadow of the door reached into. Rollo and Lucy had forgotten
+all about their plan of making such a series of observations; but Jonas
+had gone on regularly, making a mark every Monday, at noon, precisely.
+As the sun, at that season of the year, was going round farther and
+farther to the south every week, it shone in farther and farther upon
+the floor, so that each chalk mark was farther in than the one made the
+week before.
+
+In order to make his marks at the right time, Jonas wanted to know,
+every Monday, when it was precisely twelve o'clock, and this led him to
+make his noon mark, having seen the account of it in the book which
+Rollo's father had lent him. He learned there that the shadows of all
+upright objects are cast exactly north at twelve o'clock, or rather very
+nearly north; near enough for his purposes. Now, as the post of the barn
+door was upright, he knew that the shadow of it would be in the north
+and south line at noon. Of course, if he had a north and south line, or
+a meridian line, as it was called in the book, drawn upon the floor, he
+knew that he could tell when it was noon, by the shadow of the post
+coming then exactly upon that line. He explained this all to Rollo, and
+Rollo was very much pleased with it indeed. He determined to have a noon
+line somewhere in the house.
+
+Rollo asked Jonas what was the way to draw a noon line. Jonas told him
+that there were several ways. One way, he said, was to observe some day,
+by the clock, when it was exactly noon, and then to mark, upon the barn
+floor, the line where the shadow of the edge of the post fell precisely
+at that moment. Another way was to get a compass needle, and put it down
+upon the floor, and then draw a north and south line precisely in the
+direction that the needle indicated. That would, of course, be a north
+and south line, because the compass needle always pointed north and
+south. He said that he adopted both these methods to make his noon line.
+First, he got a compass needle, which Rollo's father had lent him, and
+put that down upon the barn floor just at the foot of the door post, and
+observed the direction; and he also noticed when it was twelve, by the
+clock in the house, and he found that, when it was twelve by the clock,
+the shadow of the post came exactly to the line indicated by the
+direction of the compass needle; and so he knew that that was a correct
+meridian line.
+
+
+
+
+JONAS'S DIAL.
+
+
+That evening, Rollo told his father about his hour-glass, and also about
+Jonas's noon line. His father said it was very difficult to draw a
+meridian line.
+
+"O no, father," said Rollo; "Jonas has drawn one, and he told me how,
+and it was a very easy way."
+
+"Yes," said his father, "it is easy to draw something which you can call
+a noon mark; but it is a very difficult and delicate operation to do it
+with any considerable degree of exactness."
+
+"I think that Jonas's is exact," said Rollo.
+
+"It probably may be as exact as he could make it with his means and
+instruments; but there are a great many sources of error which he could
+not possibly have avoided."
+
+"What?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Why, in the first place, the clock is not exact. It is near enough to
+answer all the purposes of a family; but it may often be a minute or
+more out of the way. Then besides, while Jonas is going from the clock
+out to the barn, the shadow is slowly moving on, all the time; so that
+he cannot tell exactly where the shadow was, when it was precisely
+twelve by the clock.
+
+"Then again, it is not always exactly noon when the shadow comes to the
+north and south line. It varies a little at different seasons of the
+year, though it is so near that we say, in general terms, that at noon
+all shadows of upright objects point to the north. Still, it is not
+_precisely_ true, except on a very few days in the year. Then, again,
+the post of the barn door is not exactly upright."
+
+"I thought they always made door posts exactly upright," said Rollo.
+
+"They do make them as nearly upright as they can, with the common
+carpenters' instruments; but they are not _exact_. To set a post of any
+kind, with great precision, perpendicular to the horizon, would require
+very expensive mathematical instruments, and very laborious and nice
+observations. Then, again, if the clock had been exact, and the post
+perfectly upright, Jonas could not have marked the place of the shadow
+exactly. The shadow has not an exact and well-defined edge; and then,
+even while he was marking at one end, the shadow would be moving along
+at the other end, and so his noon mark would not be exactly straight."
+
+"Why, father, he could make the mark right along quick."
+
+"No matter how quick he might make it. It would take some time, wouldn't
+it?"
+
+"Only a _very little_," said Rollo.
+
+"And do you suppose the sun would stand still, even during that little
+time, so as to let the shadow remain stationary?
+
+"However," continued his father, "I don't say this to disparage Jonas's
+noon mark. I dare say, it is accurate enough for his purposes. He only
+wants to know from it when it is time for him to come in to dinner, or
+something like that. I only want you to understand what exactness is,
+and to see, a little, how difficult it is to attain to any considerable
+degree of it, in such cases. So thus, it seems, that Jonas has got a
+sort of a dial?"
+
+"Why, it only tells him what o'clock it is at one hour in the day,"
+said Rollo. "But I think he might make it do for all the afternoon and
+forenoon."
+
+"How?" inquired his father.
+
+"Why, all he has got to do is to watch some day when it is nine o'clock,
+and ten o'clock, and so on, every hour; and then make a line where the
+shadow comes every hour, just as he did for twelve o'clock. Then he will
+have marks for every hour in the day, and when the shadow comes along to
+these marks, one after another, he will know what time it is."
+
+"O, but the difficulty is," said his father, "that the shadow will not
+come to the same places, at the same hours, on different days. It will
+come to the _meridian line_, at twelve, always,--that is, nearly to it;
+but it will not come to any other lines regularly,--that is, if the
+object, which casts the shadow, is upright."
+
+"Will any other kind of object carry the shadow regularly?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said his father, "an object that leans over to the north, so as
+to point to the North Star. If you and Jonas could put a post into the
+ground so as to have it point to the North Star, then you could mark,
+all around it, the places to which the shadow would come for every hour
+in the day, and afterwards it would come to the same places regularly,
+or nearly so. It would be near enough for your purposes; and I don't
+know but that it would be quite a respectable dial for you."
+
+Rollo then asked his father why it was that a post, which pointed to the
+North Star, would bring a shadow any more regularly to the hour marks,
+than an upright one would; but he said that Rollo did not know enough,
+yet, to understand the explanation, even if he were to try to explain
+it. "Therefore," said he, "you must wait until you study astronomy
+before you can expect to understand it; but you can now, in the mean
+time, make such a dial, if you wish to do it."
+
+Rollo did wish to do it very much. He accordingly told Jonas all that
+his father had said. It seemed very strange to Jonas, that a post,
+pointing to the North Star, should have its shadows move round any more
+regularly than a post in any other position. He could not imagine what
+the North Star could have to do with the shadows. Still, he determined
+to try the experiment.
+
+A few days after this, Jonas did try the experiment. He got two narrow
+boards, which were once pickets belonging to a picket fence, one end of
+each was sharp, so that it could be driven down into the ground. Then he
+selected a certain part of the yard, in a corner, where the dial would
+be out of the way, and yet the path to the barn led along pretty near
+it. The reason why Jonas got two boards was this: he knew that, if he
+drove only one stake into the ground, and inclined it towards the North
+Star, it would be very likely to get started out of its proper position;
+but if he had two, he could drive the second one down perpendicularly
+from the end of the first, and then nail the two ends together; and that
+would keep all steady.
+
+After having got every thing ready, the boys waited till the evening
+before fixing up the dial, because they could not see the North Star in
+the day time. But when the evening came, they went out, and began their
+preparations. It was a clear and pretty cold evening, and the stars were
+out in thousands.
+
+"Which is the North Star?" asked Rollo.
+
+Jonas looked about a minute or two, saying, "Let me see--where's the
+Dipper? O, I see a part of it; the rest is down behind the barn. It was
+up high the last time I saw it."
+
+"Where is the Dipper?" said Rollo, looking eagerly in the direction to
+which Jonas was turned.
+
+"Come this way," said Jonas, "so as to be out of the way of the barn,
+and you can see it better."
+
+So Jonas pointed out the Dipper to Rollo, with its square body, and
+long, bent handle. It was at first quite difficult for Rollo to see any
+thing that looked at all like a dipper; as it consisted only of stars,
+which it required some imagination to make look like one.
+
+"The handle reaches almost down to the ground," said Rollo.
+
+"Down to the horizon, you mean," said Jonas.
+
+"Is that the horizon?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas, "where the earth and sky meet. Not long ago the
+Dipper handle was away up there," he continued, pointing up very high.
+
+"Does the Dipper move?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes, it goes round and round the North Star, all the time. All the
+stars that are near the North Star keep going round and round it, once
+every day."
+
+"And the rest of the stars," said Rollo, "do they go round too?"
+
+"Yes," said Jonas; "only they are so far from the North Star, that they
+go in larger circles, and so go down below the horizon, and are out of
+sight sometimes. They come up in the east, like the sun, and go over and
+down in the west. But they don't go over straight," he added. "They
+don't come right up straight; and so go directly over. They slant away,
+off to the south, so as to keep always just so far from the North Star."
+
+"That's curious," said Rollo.
+
+"I think it is," said Jonas. "And they all go together; they don't move
+about among themselves, at all."
+
+"Don't they?" said Rollo.
+
+"No," said Jonas; "only there are a few wandering stars, that keep
+wandering about among the others. But the rest all keep exactly in
+their places, and all go round together; so they are called _fixed_
+stars."
+
+"Show me one of the wandering stars," said Rollo.
+
+"I don't know which they are," said Jonas, "only they are pretty bright
+ones."
+
+"I guess that's one," said Rollo, pointing to a pretty bright star in
+the east.
+
+"Perhaps it is," said Jonas.
+
+"I wish I knew," said Rollo.
+
+"I'll tell you how you can find out," said Jonas.
+
+"How?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Why, when you go into the house, take a piece of paper, and go to the
+window, and make some dots upon it, for all the stars around that one.
+Make the dots just in the places that the stars seem to be in. Then let
+them all go. They will rise more and more, and go overhead, and down in
+the west, and to-morrow night they will come up in the east again; and
+then you can look at them again, and see if the bright star has changed
+its place at all."
+
+Rollo said that he meant to do that; and then he said that he began to
+feel cold, and wanted to go in. But Jonas told him that he ought to
+wait and help finish the dial.
+
+So they went to the place which Jonas had selected, and Jonas, looking
+up first at the North Star, made a hole in the ground, with an iron bar,
+in an oblique direction, so that the bar should point pretty nearly to
+the North Star. Then he drove in one of his stakes in the same way. He
+then made a hole, perpendicularly, directly under the end of this
+inclined stake, and drove the other stake down into that. The two upper
+ends of the stakes were now together.
+
+Then Jonas stooped down, so as to bring his eye near the edge of the
+inclined stake, at the lower end, so that he could "_sight_" along the
+edge of it, towards the star. He had previously cut a notch in it, so
+that he could get his eye down far enough to look directly along the
+edge. At the same time, Rollo took hold of the upper end, and stood
+ready to move it either way, as Jonas might direct, until it should
+point exactly towards the North Star.
+
+"Down," said Jonas.
+
+Then Rollo moved it a little down.
+
+"Down more."
+
+Rollo moved it farther.
+
+"Up--up a little," added Jonas. "There--that will do. Now hold the two
+stakes firmly together, exactly so."
+
+Then Jonas took some nails, which he had before provided, and nailed the
+tops of the stakes together, Rollo holding the axe up against them, on
+the opposite side. This supported the end of the inclined stake firmly,
+so that it could not move up or down. This was all that the boys wanted
+to do in the evening, and so they both went in.
+
+The next day, Jonas sawed off the ends of both stakes where they
+projected beyond the junction; and then Rollo said he would watch the
+clock all day, and mark the place where the shadow came each hour, and
+drive a little stake down. "Then," said he, "our dial will be done."
+
+"But what do you suppose is the reason," said Rollo, "that we must make
+it point to the North Star more than to any other?"
+
+"I don't know," said Jonas, "unless it is because the North Star is the
+only one that keeps always in the same place. The rest move round and
+round every day. Those that are far enough from the North Star to go
+down below the horizon, rise and set; and those that are not far
+enough, go round and round in circles, in the open sky. But the North
+Star keeps still."
+
+"Does it?" said Rollo, turning around, and looking up to the part of the
+heavens where he had seen the star the evening before.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas; "and the reason why we cannot see it now, is the
+bright daylight. It is up there now, just where it was last night."
+
+"And the Dipper, too?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes, and the Dipper, too; only that has moved half round, I suppose,
+and is now away up above the North Star."
+
+"I wish I could see it," said Rollo. And he looked as steadily and
+intently into the clear blue sky, as he could; but he could not possibly
+see the least sign of a star.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+However, the sun shone bright, and it cast a strong shadow from the
+stakes which they had driven into the ground. Jonas soon went away to
+his work, and left Rollo to mark the hours by means of the clock.
+
+So Rollo had to go into the house very often to see what time it was;
+and at last his father, who was sitting there at his writing, asked him
+what made him want to see the clock so much. Rollo told him the reason.
+So his father put down his pen, and came out to see the dial.
+
+When he saw the two stakes, with their lower ends driven into the
+ground, and the upper ends nailed firmly together, he looked at them
+with a smile, but did not say any thing.
+
+"Will that do?" said Rollo, looking up very eagerly into his father's
+face.
+
+His father did not answer, but continued to examine the work on all
+sides, with a countenance expressive of curiosity and pleasure.
+
+"It points to the North Star, exactly," added Rollo. "Jonas _sighted_
+it."
+
+"Yes," said his father; "I think that will do; you have got quite a
+respectable _gnomon_."
+
+"Gnomon?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said his father; "we call such a thing a gnomon. In common dials,
+they are made of brass; but I don't see why this won't do very well. It
+is rather a _large_ gnomon."
+
+"Is it?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said his father, "I think it is the biggest gnomon I ever saw.
+
+"But how are you going to mark the hour lines, Rollo?" asked his father.
+
+"Why, we are going to drive little stakes down into the ground."
+
+"'Seems to me that you can contrive some better plan than that," said
+his father.
+
+"Why?" said Rollo. "Is not that a good plan?"
+
+"Not very good," he replied; "because you cannot be exact in driving
+down stakes. The beauty of a dial is its exactness. I should think that
+you would do better to put a board down upon the ground, and mark your
+lines upon that."
+
+"O, the board would get knocked about," said Rollo.
+
+"I dare say that Jonas would contrive some way to keep it steady."
+
+"But he says he can't do any thing more about the dial to-day, for he
+must attend to his work."
+
+"Let me see--he is putting the harnesses in order, I believe."
+
+"Yes, sir," said Rollo.
+
+"Well, you may tell him that after he has done the harness that he is at
+work upon now, he may finish his dial."
+
+Then Rollo's father went into the house, and away went Rollo in pursuit
+of Jonas.
+
+Jonas liked the plan of putting a board down very much, and in a short
+time he went to work to do it. He planed out a board of the right
+length, and then put it down upon the ground, under and between the two
+stakes, but nearest to the upright one. They placed it across at right
+angles to the line between the stakes, and of course, as the stakes were
+in a north and south line, the board was in an east and west line, and
+so the shadows were cast exactly across it.
+
+The board being planed smooth, the edge of the shadow could be seen much
+more distinctly upon it, than upon the ground; so Jonas was satisfied
+that it would be a great deal better to draw the hour lines upon the
+board. After having determined upon the place where it was to go, he
+took it up again, and then drove down two strong but short stakes, sawed
+off square at the top, into the ground, one on each side; so that they
+should come under the two ends of the board. Then he laid the board
+down again upon the stakes, and nailed the ends of the board to them.
+The stakes had been driven in until they were just level with the
+surface of the ground, and so the board seemed to be lying along upon
+the ground too, though it was, in fact, fastened securely to the short
+stakes. Then the boys marked the hour lines upon the board with some
+black paint; and thus they had a very respectable dial. When the sun
+shone, Rollo could tell what o'clock it was near enough for all his
+purposes.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE BEE-HIVE.
+
+
+One of the drollest of all of Rollo's experiments was his plan for
+getting a bee-hive.
+
+One day, he was in the garden with a playmate of his, named Henry, who
+lived not very far from his father's house.
+
+In the back part of the garden were some tall hollyhocks growing. They
+were in full flower. Hollyhocks are very tall. They grow up in a
+straight stem, as high as a man's head, with leaves and flowers from top
+to bottom.
+
+The flowers are large, and shaped somewhat like a cup, or rather a
+wine-glass, and bees often go into them to get honey.
+
+Now it happened that as Rollo and Henry were sauntering about, near
+these hollyhocks, Rollo happened to see a bee in one of the flowers,
+loading himself up with wax or honey. The flower, that the bee was in,
+was just about as high as Rollo's head.
+
+"O, there's a bee!" said Rollo; "let's catch him."
+
+"Catch him!" said Henry. "If you do, you'll catch a sting, I rather
+think."
+
+"No," said Rollo, "I can catch him without getting stung."
+
+"How?" said Henry.
+
+"I will show you," said Rollo.
+
+So saying, Rollo approached the hollyhocks, and put both his hands up
+slowly to the flower which the bee was in. He then very carefully
+gathered together the edges of the flower, so as to enclose and imprison
+the bee. He then gently broke off the stem of the flower, and held it up
+to Henry's ear, to let him hear the bee buzz within.
+
+"Now," said Rollo, "I wish I had a little bee-hive. I would put him in,
+and perhaps he would make some honey in there."
+
+"Do you think he would?" said Henry.
+
+"Yes," replied Rollo, "I have no doubt he would; bees always make honey
+in bee-hives."
+
+"Haven't you got some box that will do?" said Henry.
+
+"I don't know," said Rollo; "let us go along towards the barn, and see
+if we can't find one. I suppose it is no matter what the shape of it
+is," he added, "if it is only a box, with a small hole for the bees to
+go in and out."
+
+"But you haven't got but one bee," said Henry, as they walked along
+towards the barn.
+
+Rollo held the flower, with the bee imprisoned in it, safely in his
+fingers.
+
+"O, I can catch plenty more. I could catch a whole hive of them, in
+time."
+
+"But I don't believe they will stay and work in your hive," said Henry.
+"They will all fly off and go home to where they belong."
+
+"No," said Rollo, "I will plug up the hole, and keep them shut in until
+they get used to it. When they get wonted to the new hive, they will
+stay there, after that, I know. That's the way they do with doves."
+
+"But you won't have any queen bee," said Henry. "Bees won't work without
+a queen bee. I read it in a book."
+
+"Well, perhaps I can catch a queen bee, some day," said Rollo, rather
+doubtfully.
+
+Rollo was so much interested in his plan, that he was determined not to
+see any difficulties in the way of it; and yet he could not help feeling
+that there was some uncertainty about his succeeding in entrapping a
+queen bee.
+
+However, just at this point in the conversation, he suddenly stopped,
+and pointed down to a flower-pot, which stood bottom upwards, upon a
+seat, near where they were walking.
+
+"There," said he, "that will do for a bee-hive."
+
+"Ho!" said Henry, "that is not a box."
+
+"No matter," said Rollo; "it is just as good, and there is a little hole
+for the bees to go out and in at."
+
+There is always a little hole in the bottom of a flower-pot.
+
+"So there is," said Henry; "but do you think that the bees will make
+honey in an earthen pot?"
+
+"O, yes," said Rollo, "just as well as in any thing. The bees don't care
+what they make the honey in. Sometimes they make it in old logs."
+
+"Well," said Henry, "and we'll call it a honey-pot. And where shall we
+put it?"
+
+"We can keep it on this seat: it is as good a place as any; the bees
+will be right in the garden as soon as they come out of their hive."
+
+So saying, Rollo asked Henry to hold his bee a minute, while he got the
+honey-pot ready. Henry took the flower very carefully, so as not to let
+the bee escape, and then Rollo lifted up the flower-pot, and looked
+inside. It was pretty clean; but as Rollo knew that bees were very nice
+in their habits, he thought he would just take it to the pump, and wash
+it out a little.
+
+In a few minutes, he brought it back, and replaced it, bottom upwards,
+upon the seat, and then prepared to put the bee in. He took the flower
+again from Henry's hand, and then very carefully inserted the edges of
+it, which had been gathered together with his fingers, into the hole. He
+then began to knock and push the bottom of the flower, to make the bee
+go in. The bee, not knowing what to make of this treatment, kept up a
+great buzzing, but soon went in.
+
+"There," said Rollo. "Now, Henry, you be ready to clap your thumb over
+the hole, as soon as I take the flower away, or else he'll come out."
+
+"O, no," said Henry; "he'll fly up and sting me."
+
+"No, he won't," said Rollo. "I only want you to keep him in a minute,
+while I go and get a plug."
+
+Henry then, with much hesitation and fear, put his thumb over the hole,
+as Rollo withdrew the flower. He stood there while Rollo went for a
+plug; but he seemed to feel very uneasy, and continually called Rollo to
+be quick.
+
+Rollo could not find a plug, but he picked up a small, flat stone, and
+concluded that that would do just as well. So he released Henry from his
+dangerous position, and put the stone over the hole.
+
+"There," said Rollo, with a tone of great satisfaction, when he had done
+this, "now he is safe. We'll let him stay, while we go and catch another
+bee."
+
+So they went back to the hollyhocks, and there, quite fortunately, they
+found another bee just going into one of the flowers. Rollo secured him
+in the same way, and carried him along, and pushed him into the
+flower-pot. Henry stood ready to clap the stone on, as soon as he was
+in, and then they came back to the hollyhocks again. They had then to
+wait a little while, watching for bees; at length, however, one came,
+and, by and by, another; and so, in the course of an hour or two, they
+got seven bees, all safe in the honey-pot, and Rollo said he thought
+seven were about enough to go to work, at least, to begin. They had not
+yet found any one, however, that seemed to Rollo to be a queen bee.
+
+At last, it was time for Henry to go home, and Rollo concluded to leave
+his bee-hive until the next morning. He thought he would leave the hole
+stopped up, so that the bees might get used to their new accommodations;
+but he intended to open it the next day, in order to let them begin
+their work.
+
+The next morning, Henry came over soon after breakfast to see how
+affairs stood in respect to the bee-hive. He and Rollo went out into the
+garden to look at the establishment, and found every thing as they had
+left it the night before. Rollo felt quite confident of the success of
+his experiment. The only thing that gave him any uneasiness was the want
+of a queen bee. He and Henry were just speculating upon the expediency
+of sending in a bumble-bee instead, for a king, when their attention was
+arrested by hearing Jonas calling Rollo. They looked up, and saw him
+standing at the garden gate.
+
+"Rollo," said Jonas, "do you want to go out with me to the pasture, and
+catch the horse?"
+
+"Why,--yes," said Rollo. But yet he did not go. He seemed to feel in
+doubt. "Must you go this minute?" said he.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas. "Come; and Henry may go, too."
+
+"Well, wait a minute, just till I go and open the door in my bee-hive."
+
+"Your bee-hive!" said Jonas; "what do you mean by that?"
+
+But Rollo did not hear what Jonas said; for he had run off along the
+alley, Henry after him, towards the place where they had established
+their hive.
+
+"What does he mean by his bee-hive?" said Jonas to himself. "I mean to
+go and see."
+
+So Jonas opened the garden gate, and came in. When he came up near the
+seat where Henry and Rollo stood, he found the boys standing a step or
+two back from the flower-pot, both watching the hole with the utmost
+intentness.
+
+"What are you looking at, there, boys?" said Jonas, with great surprise.
+
+"O, we are looking to see the bees come out."
+
+"The bees come out!" said Jonas.
+
+"Yes," said Rollo; "that is our bee-hive,--honey-pot we call it. We have
+put some bees in it."
+
+Here Jonas burst into a loud, and long, and apparently incontrollable
+fit of laughter. Henry and Rollo looked upon him with an expression of
+ludicrous gravity and perplexity.
+
+"What are you laughing at?" said Rollo.
+
+Jonas could hardly control himself sufficiently to speak; but presently
+he succeeded in asking Rollo if he supposed that bees would make honey
+there.
+
+"Certainly I do," said Rollo, with a positive air. "Why should they not?
+They don't care what shape their hive is, or what it is made of, and this
+flower-pot is as good as any thing else. There! there! see, Henry," he
+exclaimed, interrupting himself, and pointing down to the flower-pot,
+"one is coming out."
+
+Henry and Jonas both looked, and they saw a poor, forlorn-looking bee
+cautiously putting forth his head at the hole, and then slowly crawling
+out. He came on until he was fairly out of the hole, and then, extending
+his wings, rose and flew away through the air.
+
+Here Jonas burst out again in a fit of laughter.
+
+"You needn't laugh, Jonas," said Rollo; "he'll come back again; I know
+he will. That's the way they always do."
+
+"And you suppose that the bees will fill up the flower-pot with honey?"
+said Jonas.
+
+"Yes," said Rollo; "and then I shall take it away without killing any of
+the bees. I read how to do it in a book."
+
+"How shall you do it?" said Jonas.
+
+"Why, when this honey-pot is full of honey, I shall get another, and put
+on the top of it, bottom upwards. Then the bees will work up into that,
+and come out at the upper hole. When they get fairly at work in the
+upper hive, then I shall get Henry to hold it, while I slip the lower
+one out, and put the upper one down in its place."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+As Rollo was speaking these words, in order to show Jonas more exactly
+how he meant to perform the operation, he took hold of the flower-pot
+with both his hands, and slid it suddenly off of the seat. Now it
+happened that the poor bees that were inside, chilled with the dampness
+and cold, were nearly all crawling about upon the seat; and when Rollo
+suddenly moved the flower-pot along, forgetting for a moment what there
+was inside, the rough edges of the flower-pot bruised and ground them to
+death, and they dropped down upon the walk, some dead, some buzzing a
+little, and one trying to crawl.
+
+"There now, Rollo," said Henry, in a tone of great disappointment and
+sorrow, "now you have killed all our bees!"
+
+Rollo looked astonished enough. He had no idea of such a catastrophe;
+and he and Henry both at the same instant took up the honey-pot to see
+if any of the bees had escaped destruction. Their eyes fell, at the
+same moment, upon one solitary bee that was standing upon the inside
+of the flower-pot. His attention had been arrested by the sudden glare
+of light, and so, just as Rollo and Henry first observed him, and before
+they had time to put the flower-pot down again, he spread his wings and
+flew out towards them.
+
+Down dropped the flower-pot. The boys started. "Run!" exclaimed Jonas,
+following them with shouts of laughter, "run, run, boys, for dear life!"
+and away they all went towards the garden gate.
+
+The bee, however, was not following them. His only object was to get
+away. He flew in another direction; but Rollo, Henry, and Jonas did not
+stop to look behind them. They kept on running, until Jonas was well on
+his way towards the pasture, and Rollo and Henry were safe in the shed.
+And this was the last time that Rollo ever attempted to _make up_ a hive
+of bees.
+
+
+
+
+JONAS'S MAGNET.
+
+
+One evening, after tea, Rollo was seated upon his cricket, before the
+fire, reading. His mother was upon the sofa, also reading, and so the
+room was very still.
+
+By and by, Rollo finished his book. It was quite a small story-book, and
+he had been reading it some time, and so he had got to the end. He laid
+the book down, therefore, upon the table, and began to consider what he
+should do next.
+
+"Mother," said Rollo, "what shall I do?"
+
+"I don't know," said his mother; "you must contrive some way to amuse
+yourself, for I am busy reading, now."
+
+Rollo sat still, looking at the fire a few minutes, and then he thought
+he would go out into the kitchen, and see what Nathan was about.
+Accordingly, he went into the kitchen. Dorothy was at work, making some
+bread for the next day. Jonas was bringing in wood. Nathan was sitting
+upon the floor before the fire, very much interested in looking at
+something which he held in his hand.
+
+"What have you got, Nathan?" said Rollo.
+
+"I am seeing this nail stick on," said Nathan.
+
+"Stick on!" said Rollo; "what does the child mean?" He accordingly came
+up to Nathan, and found that he had a smooth, flat bar of steel, not
+very regular in its shape, in one hand, and a nail in the other; and he
+was amusing himself with applying the nail to the bar of steel, and
+seeing it adhere.
+
+"It is a magnet," said Rollo. "What a big magnet! Where did you get it,
+Nathan?"
+
+"Jonas gave it to me," said Nathan.
+
+"Let me try it," said Rollo. And he stooped down by the side of Nathan,
+and offered to take away the magnet.
+
+But Nathan held it off upon one side, and said, "No, no; I must have it.
+Jonas gave it to me."
+
+"Well, Thanny," said Rollo, "I won't take it away; only you let me sit
+here and see you play with it."
+
+So Rollo sat still, and did not molest Nathan, but only looked on and
+saw him touch the little nail to the bar, and leave it hanging there.
+Rollo knew it was a magnet, for he had heard of magnets, though he had
+never before had an opportunity of seeing one. As Nathan found that
+Rollo was not going to take the magnet away from him, he soon ceased to
+appear afraid of him, and presently he let Rollo have the magnet in his
+hands. Rollo said he only wanted to look at it a moment, to see what
+made the nail stick on.
+
+He examined the steel bar carefully. It was not quite a foot long, and
+was shaped like a common flat ruler; only, instead of being straight
+from end to end, it was swelled out a little along in the middle. On
+looking at the bar very attentively, Rollo observed some very fine,
+hair-like lines, crossing each other, so as to produce the appearance of
+fine net-work. Rollo supposed that this was what caused the magnet to
+take up the nail. He observed that there was one place, near the middle
+of the bar, where this net-work was more distinct and strong than in the
+other parts of the bar, and so he put the nail there, expecting that it
+would be attracted very strongly. But he was surprised at observing
+that it was not attracted there at all. He then tried it at different
+places, all along the bar, and he found that it was not attracted any
+where in the middle, but only at the two ends.
+
+While he was wondering what could be the cause of this, he heard the
+front door open, and he knew that his father had come home. So he jumped
+up and ran off into the entry, Nathan following him, to show his father
+the magnet. His father was busy putting away his coat and hat, and told
+the boys to go into the parlor, and he would come in, in a moment, and
+see it. When he came in, he sat down before the fire, and took the
+magnet, Rollo and Nathan standing by his side, and looking on with eager
+curiosity.
+
+Rollo's father examined the magnet from end to end, very carefully, for
+some time, without speaking. At length, he said,
+
+"It is an old file."
+
+"An old file!" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said his father. "Some of Jonas's work, I suppose."
+
+"Yes, sir," replied Rollo; "at least it is Jonas's magnet."
+
+"There you see the marks," continued his father, pointing to the
+net-work, "of the old file teeth. Jonas ground them nearly out."
+
+"Are those the marks of the file teeth?" said Rollo. "I thought it was
+the magnetism."
+
+"No," said his father, smiling, "those are the traces of the file teeth,
+undoubtedly. You may go and ask Jonas how he got his magnet."
+
+So away went Rollo and Nathan in pursuit of Jonas. They found him in the
+kitchen, just arranging his wood for the morning fires. They asked him
+where he got his magnet, and Jonas replied as follows:--
+
+"Why, the other day, I went into town with your father's watch, to get a
+new crystal put in; and when I was at the watchmaker's, I saw a
+curious-shaped piece of iron hanging up. I asked the man what it was. He
+said it was a magnet, that he kept to touch needles. Then he gave me a
+nail, and let me see how the magnet would attract it. He told me, too,
+that if I had a knife, and would rub my knife on the magnet, the knife
+would attract, too; and so I did rub it, and I found that my knife would
+attract the nail, though not very strong. Then I asked him if any piece
+of iron would attract, after it was rubbed upon the magnet; and he said
+that _iron_ would not, but that any piece of _steel_ would. He told me
+that if I would bring a larger piece of steel, when I came after the
+watch, he would rub it for me, and then I should have a larger magnet. I
+told him I had not any steel. But he said any old file would do, and
+that I might grind the sides and edges a little, and make it smooth.
+
+"So, when I came home, I found some old files in the barn. Some were
+three-cornered, and some were flat. I thought the flat would be the best
+shape, and I asked your father if he would give me one of them. He said
+he would; and so I ground the ends square, and the sides smooth, upon
+the grindstone. Then, when I went after the watch, the man rubbed it for
+me, and it makes a very good magnet."
+
+Then Rollo and Nathan went back, and repeated this story to their
+father.
+
+"Very well," said their father; "that was a very good way to get a
+magnet. I remember giving Jonas the file; but I did not know what he
+wanted it for."
+
+"I think a magnet is a very curious thing," said Rollo. "See how the
+nail sticks to it!"
+
+"There are a great many other things curious about it," said his father,
+"besides that."
+
+"What?" said Rollo.
+
+"I should want some other apparatus to show you," replied his father.
+
+"And can't you get the other apparatus?"
+
+"I don't know. Perhaps mother might get it. Yes, I'll tell you what we
+will do. I will name some things which mother may prepare, and you may
+get them together upon the table in the kitchen, when they have got the
+kitchen all in order. Then I will come out, and give you all, out there,
+a lecture upon magnetism."
+
+Rollo and Nathan were exceedingly pleased with this plan; and even
+Rollo's mother looked somewhat gratified. She said she did not know much
+about magnetism, and she meant to go out into the kitchen herself, and
+hear the lecture.
+
+"And what things shall we get?" said Rollo.
+
+"Two or three needles," replied his father, "some fine, and some coarse;
+some thread, a saucer nearly full of water, a cork, the sand-box off of
+my table, and a sheet of white paper. Put them all in good order upon
+the table, and set the chairs around it. Then, when all is ready, come
+and tell me."
+
+So Rollo's mother put down her book and went to help Rollo collect the
+articles which his father had said he should require. She began to look
+into her needle book for the needles and thread, while Rollo went for
+the sand-box. When Rollo came back with the sand-box and the sheet of
+paper in his hand, he found Nathan with his high chair, at the kitchen
+door, trying to get in.
+
+"What are you doing here, Nathan?" said Rollo.
+
+"I want to get my high chair in," he replied.
+
+The truth was, that Nathan, having learned from the conversation what
+was going on, was eager to secure a good seat for himself, and so he
+was attempting to drag out the high chair which was kept in the parlor
+for him to sit up to the table in.
+
+Rollo, as he happened to feel rather good-natured than otherwise, just
+then, after putting down his things, helped Nathan get his chair through
+the door, and placed it up at the kitchen table, which stood out in the
+middle of the floor. He then went into a closet, and opened a little
+drawer, where he knew corks were kept, and brought out one or two,
+selecting the cleanest and softest that he could find. When he came
+back, he found Nathan, pouring out some black sand, from the sand-box,
+upon the sheet of paper.
+
+"Now, Nathan," exclaimed Rollo, running up to him, and seizing the
+sand-box, "you are a very naughty boy." And he attempted to take away
+the sand-box violently.
+
+But Nathan, though he knew very well that he was doing wrong, did not
+seem fully disposed to admit Rollo's authority to set him right by
+violence. He resisted; and, in the struggle, the table was pushed away,
+and the water in the saucer spilled over. The water ran along under the
+sheet of paper. Nathan, seeing the mischief that had been done, was a
+little frightened, and released his hold. Rollo then took up the paper,
+which had sand upon the upper side, and water dripping off from the
+under side, saying,
+
+"There, Nathan, now see what you have done!"
+
+"I didn't do it," said Nathan.
+
+"You did," said Rollo.
+
+"I didn't," said Nathan.
+
+Hereupon, Jonas came up to the table to see what was the matter. Each of
+the boys told his story.
+
+"Now we are in pretty trouble," said Jonas; "we thought we were going to
+have a fine lecture; instead of that, there are two boys to be punished,
+and wet paper to be dried."
+
+"Punished?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said Jonas, "Nathan for touching the sand-box, and you for
+touching _him_."
+
+"Why, he was pouring out all the sand," said Rollo, "and I was only
+trying to stop him."
+
+"Yes, but you know," said Jonas, "that you had no right to stop him by
+violence. That always makes the difficulty worse."
+
+Here Rollo began to look pretty sober. He knew that he had done what he
+had very often been forbidden to do.
+
+"Now," said Jonas, "we can wait and tell your mother about it, when she
+comes out, or we can just settle it all among ourselves."
+
+"How?" said Rollo, with an anxious look.
+
+"Why, I can dry the paper and the sand," said Jonas, "if you and Nathan
+will only punish the boys."
+
+"How shall we do it?" asked Rollo, looking up with a faint and doubtful
+smile.
+
+"I think a pretty good punishment," said Jonas, "would be for you and
+Nathan to go and sit in two corners of the room, with your faces to the
+wall, until I get the paper and sand dry--if you think that would be
+punishment enough."
+
+"Well," said Rollo,--his eye brightening at the idea of winding up so
+unpleasant a business so easily,--"well, Nathan, let's go."
+
+Nathan was ready, and so he climbed down from his high chair, and as
+Rollo went to one corner of the room, he went to the other, and they
+took their places, as Jonas had directed; only Nathan could not resist
+the temptation of looking round, now and then, to see how Jonas got on
+with the drying of the paper. They, however, bore their self-inflicted
+punishment very patiently; and when Jonas had got the paper dried, and
+the table wiped down, and every thing replaced as it was before, he told
+them that it was time for them to get up again. The punishment was not
+very severe, it is true; but then, it was probably a pretty efficacious
+one, in respect to its effect in impressing it upon Nathan's mind that
+he must not touch things without leave, and upon Rollo's, that, when
+Nathan is doing wrong, he must not set him right by violence.
+
+In a short time after this, the things were all ready upon the table,
+the chairs were placed around it, and Rollo went to call his father. He
+found him writing a letter. As soon as he reached the end of a sentence,
+he came out, and took his place at the table. Rollo's mother sat next to
+him at the same side of the table, and Jonas and Dorothy in two chairs,
+on the opposite side. Rollo then was placed at one end of the table,
+and Nathan, in his high chair, at the other.
+
+Just then, however, Rollo's mother observed that the table was wet a
+little.
+
+"Why, Rollo," said she, "how came the table wet?"
+
+"Why, Nathan and I did it," said he.
+
+"How?" said his mother.
+
+"Why, we did it--eh--pulling. But Jonas has settled it all, mother."
+
+"Ah! Jonas has settled it, has he? very well. Then we will all now
+attend to the lecture."
+
+
+
+
+MAGNETISM.
+
+
+Rollo's father looked over the things which had been arranged upon the
+table, for a moment, in silence, and then took up Jonas's magnet.
+
+"This bar is what they call a magnet," said he; "but all the magnetism
+is in the two ends."
+
+"It is?" said Rollo; "and what is the reason of that?"
+
+"You can see that it is so," said his father, without answering Rollo's
+question, "in this way."
+
+So he laid a small nail down upon the table, and then touched the middle
+of the magnet to the nail. It was not attracted at all. Then he moved it
+along a little, towards one end, and touched it again. Still it was not
+attracted. Then he moved it along farther and farther; but the nail was
+not attracted until he got to the end of the bar, and then the nail
+hopped up and adhered to it quite strongly.
+
+"How curious!" said Rollo.
+
+His father then repeated the same experiment with the other half of the
+bar, and found the result the same. The nail did not appear to be at all
+attracted until he reached the end, and then it was lifted and held by
+this end, just as it was by the other.
+
+"So that, you see," said Rollo's father, "that the attractive power of
+the magnet resides in the ends."
+
+"Well, father, what is the reason?"
+
+"I don't know," said his father.
+
+"Don't you know, father?" said Rollo. "I thought you were going to tell
+us all about it."
+
+"No," said his father. "I only know a very little about it, myself. I am
+going to explain to you some of the facts,--such as I happen to know. So
+you must all remember this fact, that in the magnet, the attractive
+power is not distributed over the whole mass, but resides only in the
+opposite ends. These ends are called _poles_."
+
+"Yes, sir," said Rollo, "we will remember."
+
+"Now I can make this apparent in another way," said his father. Then he
+asked Rollo's mother to thread a needle; and when it was threaded, he
+asked Jonas to stand up and hold the thread in such a manner as to let
+the needle hang over the middle of the table.
+
+Then, when the needle was still, he brought up the middle of the magnet
+very near to the needle; but it did not move towards it at all. Then he
+drew the magnet along towards himself, keeping it at the same distance
+from the needle, and when the end of the bar came opposite to the
+needle, it immediately leaped out of its place, and adhered strongly to
+it.
+
+"There is another way still," continued the lecturer, "better than
+either of these."
+
+So saying, he took off the needle, which had adhered to the magnet, and
+drawing out the thread, he laid the needle itself carefully away upon a
+distant corner of the table. Rollo took it up, and was going to place it
+back with the others. But his father told him to put it down again, by
+itself, where he had placed it, and not to touch any of the things
+without his direction.
+
+"I am going to show you another way," he added, "of making it evident
+that the attractive power of the magnet resides at or near the poles."
+
+So saying, he opened the sheet of paper, and spread it out upon the
+table. Then he laid the magnet down upon it.
+
+"Now, Jonas," said he, "sprinkle some sand upon it from my sand-box,
+carefully, and see where the sand will adhere."
+
+So Jonas took the sand-box, and held it over the bar, not very high, and
+moved it slowly along, from one end to the other, and thus sanded the
+magnet all over. The sand fell off of it, however, freely, at every part
+except the ends; and Jonas, observing that it seemed to adhere there,
+held the sand-box a little longer over those places; and thus there was
+formed a sort of a black bur at the extremities, consisting of an
+accumulation of the black particles of sand. Rollo's father then took up
+the bar carefully, and passed it around, so that all who were seated at
+the table could examine it closely.
+
+"It is thickest on all the edges and corners," said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said his mother; "and the sand forms little black bristles,
+pointing off in every direction."
+
+They all examined it attentively, and observed the little black bristles
+pointing out every way from the edges and corners at the ends.
+
+"This shows you," said Rollo's father, "exactly how the magnetic power,
+so far as its attractive force on other bodies is concerned, is
+distributed. You see it resides in the two ends, and the two ends seem
+to be exactly alike."
+
+"Yes, sir," said Rollo, "exactly."
+
+"They _seem_ to be so," continued his father; "but the fact is, the
+magnetism of one end is very different from that of the other."
+
+"I see that the cluster of sand is a little bigger at one end, than it
+is at the other," said Rollo's mother. She was more observing than the
+others, and had noticed a little difference, which had escaped the rest.
+
+"That indicates only a difference in degree," said Rollo's father; "but
+there is a difference in _kind_."
+
+"What do you mean by that, father?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Why, if the attractive powers at the two ends were both alike in their
+nature, only one was stronger than the other, then the difference would
+be in _degree_; but there is a difference in the nature of the magnetism
+itself. In fact, the magnetisms of the two ends are of opposite natures
+in some respects."
+
+"Why, both ends attract the sand," said Rollo, "just alike."
+
+"True," said his father; "they seem to attract the sand in precisely the
+same way; and, looking at the bar, as I now hold it up," he added, "with
+the sand adhering in the same way at the two ends, one would suppose
+that they were both magnetic alike. But, in fact, there is a great
+difference between them."
+
+All the company looked upon the two ends of the bar, as Rollo's father
+held it up, wondering how he would show that there was any difference
+between them.
+
+"Now, in the first place," he continued, "we must get the sand off of
+the ends. Do you think you can get it off for me, Rollo?" said he.
+
+Rollo took the bar very eagerly, and attempted to brush the sand back
+upon the paper. He succeeded in brushing off a little of it; but the
+greater portion remained. When he rubbed upon one side, it moved round
+to the other; and he could not get it off.
+
+"Hand it to me," said his father, "and I will show you how it can be
+done."
+
+He also asked Jonas to hand him the tongs, which were standing by the
+side of the fire. He then held the tongs over the sheet of paper, in a
+horizontal position, and gently rapped the end of the magnet against
+them, letting the end project a little over the tongs. This knocked all
+the sand off, and left the bar clean as it was before.
+
+"Now let me see," said he, "what was it that I was going to tell you
+next?"
+
+"You were going to show us," said Rollo's mother, "that there are two
+different kinds of magnetisms in the two ends of the bar."
+
+"O, yes," said he. "In order to do this, I must poise a needle in a new
+way."
+
+He then took up one of the corks which Rollo had put upon the table.
+From one end of this cork, he cut off, with his penknife, a round, flat
+piece. It was about as large around as a wafer, but somewhat thicker.
+He cut a little groove along the upper side of this, and laid the same
+needle which he had before used, and which he had put away upon the
+corner of the table, into this groove. Then he put the whole carefully
+into the saucer of water, which he had previously drawn up towards him.
+
+"There," said he, "we call a cork like that, a _float_; because it is
+intended to float a needle upon. Now, you see, the needle being
+supported by the cork, and the cork floating freely in the water, the
+needle is at liberty to move in any way."
+
+Nathan thought it was a very curious experiment to poise a needle so,
+upon a piece of cork,--even without the magnetism. And he watched it as
+it slowly moved about, with a face full of interest and curiosity.
+
+The needle swung round a little one way and the other, and finally came
+to a state of rest. Then Rollo's father held the magnet in his hands, in
+such a manner as to point it towards the needle, and then gradually
+brought it down near the water, just by the side of the point of the
+needle. The point immediately began to move slowly towards the bar; but
+Rollo's father lifted it up suddenly, before the needle had time to
+touch it. Then he brought the same end of the magnet down upon the other
+side of the point of the needle, and that drew it back again.
+
+"There," said he, "you all see that the point of the needle is attracted
+by the bar, whichever side I put it."
+
+They all said they saw it very plainly.
+
+"Now," said he, "I am going to turn the magnet, and bring the other end
+of it down to the point of the needle; and if the magnetism at this end
+is the same with that in the other, the point of the needle will of
+course be attracted by this end too."
+
+"Certainly," said Rollo's mother.
+
+Then he brought down the other end of the bar towards the needle. This
+other end was a little bigger than the one which he had tried first,
+because the file had been a little bigger at that end. But the needle,
+instead of being drawn towards it, as it had been towards the other end,
+began to move slowly away from it.
+
+"Why, it is going away," said Rollo.
+
+His father did not answer, but immediately raised the bar and put it
+down upon the other side of the point, and then the point began to move
+away back again; being evidently driven away from the large end of the
+magnet, on whichever side it was presented.
+
+Then Rollo's father reversed the magnet again; that is, he brought the
+smaller end towards the needle as at first. The point of the needle was
+now attracted, that is, drawn towards the magnet; and then when he
+changed it again, and brought the large end to the needle, it was always
+_repelled_; that is, driven away again.
+
+"Now you see," he said, "that the small end of the magnet attracts the
+point of the needle, and the large end drives it away. That shows that
+the magnetism in the two ends is of two different kinds.
+
+"And now," he continued, "there is one thing more which is remarkable
+about it; and I want you to observe it very carefully. You see," he
+says, "that the small end of the magnet attracts the point of the
+needle. But if I try it now upon the other end of the needle, where the
+eye is, it will _repel_ that, just as the large end of the magnet repels
+the point."
+
+He tried it, and the result was just as he had said. And he repeated the
+experiment in a great many ways, and they always found that the large
+end of the magnet would draw the eye of the needle towards it, and drive
+the point away; and the small end of the magnet would draw the point of
+the needle, and drive the eye away. This proved, as Rollo's father said,
+some great difference between the magnetisms of the two ends. "And you
+see," he added, "that it is a difference in _kind_, not merely a
+difference in _degree_."
+
+"But one thing seems strange to me," said Rollo's mother, "and that is,
+that both ends of the magnet don't attract the point of the needle, just
+as both of them attracted the nail."
+
+"And the sand," said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," added his mother. "When you brought both ends of the magnet, one
+after the other, to the nail, they both attracted it."
+
+"And so they did the needle which hung down by the thread," said Jonas.
+
+"Yes," said Rollo's mother; "but now this needle, that is floating upon
+the water, is half attracted, and half repelled."
+
+"The reason is," said Rollo's father, "that the needle, that is floating
+upon the water, is a magnet itself, and has two magnetic poles; but the
+sand, and the nail and the needle that Jonas held up by the thread, were
+not magnets. They were only common pieces of iron and steel."
+
+"Why, father," said Rollo, "that was the very same needle; you laid it
+away upon the corner of the table."
+
+"Yes," said his father; "but it was not a magnet _then_."
+
+"When?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Why, when Jonas held it up by the thread."
+
+"And is it a magnet now?"
+
+"Yes," said his father. "We will see if it is not."
+
+So he took the needle off from the float, and put it upon the paper. He
+then sprinkled a little sand over it, from the sand-box, and, upon
+taking it up, they all saw that there was a little tuft of black sand
+both upon the point and at the eye, showing that it was magnetic at both
+ends.
+
+"It became magnetic," said Rollo's father, "only by being touched by the
+bar magnet; and that was the reason why I put it away by itself as soon
+as it had touched the bar. I did not want to have it mixed with the
+other needles, which had not been touched, and which, of course, were
+not magnetic. Now, if I take one of the needles which has not been
+touched, and put it upon the float, you will see that both ends of it
+will be attracted by both ends of the bar."
+
+So he placed away the magnetized needle upon the corner of the table
+again, and took another one, and placed it very carefully upon the
+float. Then he brought down one end of Jonas's magnet very near the
+point of the needle. It attracted it. Then he brought it down very near
+the eye of the needle. It attracted the eye too. Then he turned the
+magnet, and tried the other end, and he found that that end also would
+attract both the eye and the point of the needle.
+
+"Try the magnetized needle, and see if that will attract it too," said
+Rollo's mother.
+
+Then Rollo's father took the magnetized needle from the corner again,
+and brought the two ends of that, one after another, near to the ends of
+the needle upon the float. It attracted them just as Jonas's magnet had
+done, only a great deal more feebly.
+
+"So, you see that this needle is really a little magnet, just like
+Jonas's great one."
+
+"Only there is no proof that it has the two different kinds of magnetism
+in the two ends," said Rollo's mother.
+
+"We can easily show that," said his father. He asked Dorothy to get
+another saucer full of water, while he prepared another float. Then he
+put the magnetized needle upon the new float, leaving the unmagnetized
+one upon the old float. They both looked almost precisely alike, each
+upon its own little disc of cork in its saucer of water.
+
+"There," said he, "you cannot see any difference between them; but there
+is a great deal of difference between them; for one is only a common
+needle of steel, but the other has its two extremities magnetic in
+opposite ways."
+
+To prove this, Rollo's father brought one end of the bar to the _point_
+of the magnetized needle, and the point was repelled. He brought it then
+to the _eye_ of the same needle, and it attracted it. Then he brought
+the same end of the bar, first to the point, and then to the eye of the
+unmagnetic needle, and it attracted them both; so it was evident that
+there was a considerable difference, in reality, between the condition
+of the two, though there was no difference in external appearance.
+
+"Now you see, from all this," added Rollo's father, "that when a magnet
+touches a piece of steel, like a needle, it immediately makes it a
+magnet itself; that is, it makes the two ends magnetic, one having one
+kind of magnetism, and the other the other kind; and then, if you take
+two magnets, and bring those two poles which have the same magnetism
+together, they repel one another; and if you bring those together which
+have different magnetisms, they attract each other."
+
+"How do you know that they are the same magnetisms that repel, and
+different that attract?" said Rollo's mother.
+
+"I will show you," said his father.
+
+Then he took the needles that he had used off from their floats, and
+laid them away. He took next two new needles, exactly of a size, and he
+held them together between his thumb and finger, with the eyes
+projecting together. Then he rubbed them once or twice upon the end of
+Jonas's magnet, saying,
+
+"There, you see I use both of these needles alike. Of course the eyes
+have both the same magnetisms. Now you will find that when I put one of
+them upon the float, and then bring the eyes together, they will repel
+each other; but an eye and a point will attract. So two points will
+repel."
+
+"But you have not magnetized the points," said Rollo's mother.
+
+"Yes," said his father. "When we magnetize one end, the other end
+becomes magnetized, itself, in the contrary way."
+
+So he put one of the needles upon the float, and then brought the eye of
+the other down very near to its eye. It was repelled, as he had said it
+would be. He then brought the two points together, and they were
+repelled. But if he brought an eye towards a point, or a point towards
+an eye, they were attracted.
+
+"This is the end of my lecture," said he, "for to-night."
+
+"O, father," said Rollo, "a little more."
+
+"No more to-night, only to recapitulate," said he.
+
+"Recapitulate? what is that?"
+
+"Why, tell you, briefly, the substance of what I have explained, so that
+you may remember it."
+
+"Well, father," said Rollo.
+
+"In the first place, a magnet has a peculiar and mysterious attractive
+power for iron, residing in its two extremities, which are called _its
+poles;_ and the power which resides in one extremity is, in some way or
+other, opposite in its nature to that of the other extremity. Each of
+these poles repels a pole like itself, and attracts one different from
+itself, in any other magnet."
+
+Poor Nathan could not understand this grave, philosophical disquisition
+very well, and he began to get pretty sleepy. He had, however, been
+somewhat amused, during the greater part of the time, in seeing the
+corks float about upon the water, with the needles upon them. So his
+father took the needles off, and let him have the two floats in one of
+the saucers to play with, a few minutes, while Dorothy put the other
+things away. He asked her to put all the things away together, so that
+they could get them ready the next evening, and then he said that
+perhaps he would give them another lecture.
+
+
+
+
+INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY
+
+
+Rollo's father gave one or two other lectures upon magnetism, in the
+course of which Rollo found out a good deal about the subject; and,
+having learned from his father's explanations that any magnet, when
+balanced freely, would point to the north and south, that is, one end to
+the north and the other to the south, he determined to try the
+experiment. He accordingly poised a needle carefully upon a cork, as his
+father had done in his lecture, and put it in a basin of water upon the
+platform. But he did not succeed very well. The needle would always
+swing round, and turn its point towards the garden gate; but Rollo knew
+very well that the garden gate was not north from the platform. He
+remembered that the North Star was over the barn, for he and Jonas had
+noticed it particularly when they had made the dial. The needle,
+therefore, ought to have pointed towards the barn, according to his
+father's lecture; but it would not. Rollo took up a straw, and pushed
+the point of the needle round, and said, "Point there! point there, I
+tell you!" But all in vain. The needle would not heed either his pushing
+or his commands; but, as soon as he let it go, it would immediately
+swing back into its old position, where it pointed towards the garden
+gate.
+
+Rollo was just about giving up in despair, when he saw his sister Mary
+coming in from the garden gate, with a book under her arm.
+
+"O Mary," said he, "what shall I do? My needle won't point right."
+
+"Why, what is the matter with it?" said Mary.
+
+"It will point over towards the garden," said Rollo; "look."
+
+So Mary came up, and looked at his needle. She saw that it was pointing
+towards the garden gate.
+
+"Now I'll push it away," said Rollo, "and you will see that it comes
+directly back again."
+
+So he took up his straw, and pushed the point of the needle away. The
+cork moved, turning round rapidly, until at length it swung away
+towards one side of the basin, and then suddenly drifted up against the
+side, and stuck there.
+
+"That's another plague," said Rollo. "It will run up to the side of the
+basin, and stick there."
+
+"What makes it?" said Mary.
+
+"I don't know," said Rollo.
+
+Mary sat down upon the platform, and examined the needle and the surface
+of the water very carefully. She observed that the water was heaped up a
+little against the side of the basin, all around. She asked Rollo to
+observe it.
+
+"Yes," said he, "and the needle and cork run right up that ridge of
+water."
+
+"And the bubbles too," said Mary.
+
+Mary pointed, when she said this, to several little bubbles which were
+adhering closely to the side of the basin, in another place.
+
+She took up a little straw, and pushed away some of the bubbles from the
+side of the basin, and then gently moved them back again until they were
+pretty near, and observed that they would immediately rush up against
+the side again. She did not understand this phenomenon, especially as
+the water was raised a little along the edge by the side of the basin,
+so that the bubbles and the needle actually appeared to rush up hill.
+
+After examining this for some time, Mary moved the cork float, with the
+needle upon it, back into the middle of the basin, and then left it to
+itself. It slowly moved around until it pointed to the garden gate, as
+it had done before.
+
+"Now what is the reason?" said Rollo; "that isn't north."
+
+Mary looked upon it very attentively for a few minutes in silence, and
+then said, suddenly,
+
+"O, I see."
+
+"What?" said Rollo.
+
+She did not answer, but pointed down to the platform by the side of the
+basin.
+
+Rollo looked where she pointed, and saw the hammer lying there. He had
+had it to play with a short time before, and, when he brought the basin
+of water, he had laid it down by his side.
+
+"What?" said Rollo.
+
+"The hammer attracts the needle," replied Mary.
+
+"The hammer?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," replied Mary. "Don't you know that iron attracts the needle, and
+it will not point to the north if there is any iron near to draw it
+away?"
+
+Rollo was just going to take the hammer up, but Mary stopped him,
+saying,
+
+"Wait a moment. Let me take it away slowly, and see the effect."
+
+So Mary told Rollo to watch the needle, while she carefully drew the
+hammer away.
+
+Rollo did so. He and Mary both watched the needle. It was pointing
+pretty nearly toward the hammer, and when Mary gently moved the hammer
+away, the needle, released from the influence which the iron exerted
+upon it, slowly moved back towards the direction of the barn, that is,
+the direction of a north and south line, which is called the meridian.
+
+"It's going back! it's going back!" said Rollo.
+
+Mary said nothing, but watched it carefully. The needle swung beyond the
+direction of the meridian a little way, and then came slowly back
+again. So it continued vibrating from one side to the other, though to a
+less and less distance every time. Finally, it came to a state of rest;
+but it was not then, however, exactly in the meridian.
+
+"What makes it swing so, back and forth?" said Rollo.
+
+"I don't know exactly," said Mary. "I suppose the force that it moves
+with, carries it a little beyond, and then it is drawn back again, and
+that makes the oscillations."
+
+"Oscillations?" said Rollo, inquiringly.
+
+"Yes. They call this swinging back and forth, _oscillating_; and each
+movement is an oscillation."
+
+"Is that the name of it?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said Mary. "When you tie a little stone to a string, and hold the
+upper end of the string still, and let the stone swing back and forth,
+it makes oscillations."
+
+"I mean to try it," said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said Mary; "and I will help you by and by, after I have studied
+my philosophy lesson."
+
+"Your philosophy lesson?" asked Rollo. "Have you got a philosophy lesson
+to get?"
+
+"Yes," said Mary, "in that great book."
+
+So Rollo took up Mary's book, which she had laid down upon the platform
+near Rollo's apparatus. He found that the title of it was "Intellectual
+Philosophy."
+
+"Intellectual Philosophy?" said Rollo; "and what sort of philosophy is
+_intellectual_ philosophy?"
+
+"It is the philosophy of the _mind_," replied Mary. "It explains to us
+about the thoughts and feelings of our minds."
+
+"Are there any _experiments_ in intellectual philosophy?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said Mary, "we can try experiments in intellectual philosophy."
+
+"What experiments?" said Rollo.
+
+"Why, there is a question whether we always dream when we are asleep."
+
+"_I_ do," said Rollo, "every night."
+
+"Yes, but perhaps not all night long."
+
+"Yes, I do," said Rollo. "I have good long dreams."
+
+"But," replied Mary, "you may dream several hours in the night, so as to
+remember good long dreams in the morning, and yet perhaps you might have
+been, for some time, perfectly sound asleep, so as not to have any
+dreams in your mind at all. Some persons think we dream all the time
+when we are asleep, and others think we don't dream all the time. Now we
+might contrive some experiments to decide the question."
+
+"How?" said Rollo.
+
+"Why, you and I might agree to wake each other up several times, from a
+sound sleep, and then, if we were dreaming at that time, we should
+probably remember it."
+
+"Well," said Rollo, "let us try it."
+
+"That would be an experiment in intellectual philosophy," said Mary.
+
+Rollo determined to try the experiment; and then he took Mary's book,
+and asked her where her lesson was that day. She found the place, and
+Rollo read a little. He could not understand it very well, and so he
+concluded that he would rather have Mary go and study her lesson, and
+then come down and help him make the experiments of oscillation.
+
+Mary accordingly took her book and went in, and left Rollo at his play.
+
+
+
+
+OSCILLATIONS.
+
+
+In about an hour, Mary came down into the yard in pursuit of Rollo, in
+order to try the experiments which she had proposed.
+
+When Rollo saw her coming, he left his play, and ran to meet her.
+
+"Well, Mary," said he, "have you come to make the oscillations?"
+
+"Yes," said Mary. "I have brought some thread for strings, and I want
+you to get some pebble stones--some large, and some small ones."
+
+Rollo went for the pebble stones, while Mary looked about for a suitable
+place for making the experiments. In a corner of the yard there was a
+bench under a tree, and the branches came down pretty low. Mary thought
+that this would be a good place, for she could tie her strings to these
+branches with the pebbles hanging down below; and she and Rollo could
+watch the oscillations, while seated upon the bench.
+
+Mary took her station here, and Rollo presently appeared, with the crown
+of his cap half filled with pebble stones. Mary said they would do
+finely. She poured them out upon the bench by her side, and Rollo put
+his cap upon his head again.
+
+"Now, Rollo," said she, "we will study the art of experimenting."
+
+"No," said Rollo, "we are going to study oscillation."
+
+"Yes," replied Mary; "the experiments are to be on oscillations; but
+what I want principally to teach you, is, the proper way to make
+experiments."
+
+"Well," said Rollo.
+
+Mary said no more, but she proceeded to tie a small pebble to the end of
+one of the long threads which she had brought out with her. Then she
+tied the other end of the thread to the branch of the tree, which was
+over her head. The pebble then hung down before them, so that both Rollo
+and herself could plainly see all its motions.
+
+"The first thing," said Mary, "is to get a clear idea of the nature of
+the oscillation, for we must know what we are experimenting about."
+
+So saying, Mary carefully took hold of the suspended pebble stone, and
+began to draw it off towards one side. She showed Rollo that, as it was
+confined by its string above, it must move in a curved line when she
+drew it away from its place, rising higher and higher the farther it was
+drawn away. And when she had drawn it out to a considerable distance, to
+one side, it was at a much higher level, than when it hung down freely
+in its natural position.
+
+"Now," said Mary, "you see that if I let it go, it will descend of
+course as much as it can, for the earth draws it downwards."
+
+"The earth draws it?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said Mary. "The reason why things fall is that they are
+attracted, or drawn down, by the earth. Now the earth draws the pebble.
+It _would_ go straight towards it, if it could; but the string confines
+it, and so it can only go down in the same way that it came up; that is,
+by the curved line."
+
+Mary then held one of her hands open at the place where the pebble had
+hung when it had been at liberty, and let go the pebble, which she had
+been holding with the other. It fell down in the curved line, or arc, as
+Mary had said it would, until it struck her hand, and there it stopped
+and remained at rest.
+
+"What did you stop it for?" said Rollo.
+
+"So that we could see and attend to one part of the phenomenon at a
+time," said Mary; "that is, the _descent_ of the pebble. You see the
+attraction of the earth causes the pebble to go down if it can, and the
+confinement of the string prevents its going down in any other way than
+in that curve or arc. For the string keeps it always just its own length
+from the branch, and so that makes the curved line the arc of a circle."
+
+"Yes," said Rollo, "I understand."
+
+Then Mary drew up the pebble once or twice more, and let Rollo see it
+fall against her hand. Rollo observed that it was a very regular arc.
+
+"Now we see," continued Mary, "that I hold my hand so as to stop the
+pebble stone at the lowest point to which it can go; for I hold it
+exactly under the point where the upper end of the string is fastened to
+the tree. Now I will take my hand away, and then let the pebble fall,
+and we will see what takes place."
+
+So Mary took her hand away, and let the pebble fall freely. It descended
+as before through the arc, and then, by the force which it acquired in
+moving so far, it was propelled beyond the lowest point, and ascended in
+another curve, upon the other side, similar to the first. When the force
+was expended, it came back again; and thus it swung to and fro, several
+times, and at length came almost to a state of rest.
+
+"There," said Mary, "those are the oscillations we are going to
+experiment upon."
+
+"Yes," said Rollo.
+
+"And first," said Mary, "we notice that they are regular."
+
+So she swung the pebble again; and as it moved to and fro, she counted
+the oscillations aloud, beating time with her hand, down and up, thus,--
+
+"One,--two,--three,--four," &c. Rollo perceived that they were very
+regular.
+
+"Now, first we will endeavor to ascertain by our experiments," said
+Mary, "what the _time_ of the vibrations depends upon."
+
+"Well," said Rollo.
+
+"You see," continued Mary, "it swings back and forth with a certain
+degree of rapidity. Now we want to know what this rapidity depends
+upon, and then we could make a pendulum so that it would oscillate
+faster or slower, just as we pleased."
+
+"A pendulum?" asked Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said Mary, "we call it a _pendulum_. Any heavy body hung in this
+manner, so as to swing back and forth by its weight, is called a
+_pendulum_. So that we are experimenting upon the oscillations of a
+pendulum."
+
+"Yes," said Rollo, "I understand."
+
+"Now the question which we are going to examine," said Mary, "is, what
+the rapidity of the vibrations depends upon."
+
+"O, it depends upon the bigness of the pebble," said Rollo.
+
+"How do you know?" said Mary.
+
+"Why, of course, a bigger pebble will be heavier, and will fall quicker,
+and that will make it vibrate faster."
+
+"That is _reasoning_ about it," said Mary, "and what we want to do, now,
+is to _experiment_. Now, in order to decide it by experiment, we must
+try two pendulums, one with a small pebble, and the other with a large
+one."
+
+"Very well," said Rollo, "we will; and then we shall see that the big
+one will vibrate the quickest."
+
+"Let us think, first, what other circumstances there are, that it may
+depend upon."
+
+"I can't think of any thing else," said Rollo.
+
+"Why, there is the nature of the body which we suspend. A piece of cork
+may oscillate differently from a piece of stone."
+
+"Yes," said Rollo, "it will oscillate slower."
+
+"We must not decide," said Mary, "in our own minds, before we try the
+experiment. We must leave our minds free to observe the facts, and wait
+until we make the experiment, before we come to any conclusion, or else
+we shall not be good experimenters."
+
+"Why not?" said Rollo.
+
+"Because," said Mary, "when persons make up their minds beforehand what
+the facts will be, they are very apt not to observe fairly. So good
+observers or experimenters always take care to keep their minds free and
+unbiassed."
+
+"Well," said Rollo, "and what else is there that the oscillations may
+depend upon?"
+
+"The length of the string," replied Mary.
+
+"O yes," said Rollo, "it may depend upon that."
+
+"Let us see," continued Mary. "There are three experiments we have
+already proposed; a large and a small pebble; a pebble and a cork; a
+long and a short string; and now there is one more,--a long and short
+arc."
+
+"How?" said Rollo.
+
+"Why, if I draw up the weight, which forms the pendulum, pretty high, it
+will swing back and forth through a long arc. But if I move it only a
+little way, it will swing through only a short arc, and _that_ may make
+a difference in the length of the vibrations."
+
+"Well," said Rollo, "and now let us try."
+
+"First, let us see whether we have got all the apparatus we want. Here
+are strings and pebbles,--only we want a cork."
+
+"I'll go and get one," said Rollo.
+
+So Rollo went off towards the house to get the cork. In a few minutes he
+came back, saying,
+
+"I have got the cork. Now how shall we begin?"
+
+"First," replied Mary, "we will try what effect the weight of the pebble
+will have upon the oscillations."
+
+"Very well," said Rollo.
+
+"Now, in order to test that," added Mary, "we must take two pebble
+stones, of different sizes, and hang them together, by strings of the
+same kind, and of the same length; and then we must set them a-going
+exactly together, and then watch the oscillations. You see that as they
+will be alike in every respect, excepting the size of the pebble stones,
+whatever difference there is in the mode of vibration will probably be
+caused by the difference in the size of the stones."
+
+"Is that the way they do it?" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," replied Mary. "Whenever we want to know what effect any one
+circumstance produces, in such a case, we always arrange two experiments,
+making them very different in respect to the circumstance which we wish
+to examine, and as nearly alike as possible in all other respects."
+
+"I think that is a very good way," said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," replied Mary, "I think it is an excellent way."
+
+While Mary was thus explaining her plan to Rollo, she was going on
+steadily with preparations, Rollo standing all the time by her side,
+looking on with great interest. Mary selected two pebbles. One was as
+big as a walnut, and the other about as big as an egg. She tied two of
+her threads to these stones, one to each, and then tied the other ends
+of these threads to a small branch of the tree which extended
+horizontally over their heads. They hung down about two feet. She took
+care so to adjust the strings, as to have the centres of the stones as
+nearly as possible on a level.
+
+"The big one is twice as large, and so it will go twice as fast," said
+Rollo.
+
+"We shall see," said Mary.
+
+She then drew them both carefully out a little way on one side, and
+holding them there steadily a moment, she let them go. They immediately
+began to swing back and forth, together.
+
+After a few oscillations, however, the large stone began to gain a
+little upon the other, and seemed to be moving faster. Presently it had
+gained half an oscillation, i. e. when the large one was moving forward,
+the small one would be coming back.
+
+"The big one moves the fastest," said Rollo.
+
+"Not much," said Mary.
+
+"No," said Rollo, "not much."
+
+"And I don't think it is owing to the difference in the bigness of the
+stones."
+
+"What else can it be?" said Rollo. "They are exactly alike in all other
+respects."
+
+"Not exactly," said Mary. "We have made them as nearly alike as we
+could, but not exactly. There may be a good many little differences that
+we do not observe. But if the size of the stone would cause any
+difference in the vibrations, I should think it would make a much
+greater difference, for one is twice as big as the other."
+
+"Let us try a _very_ big stone," said Rollo.
+
+"Well," said Mary.
+
+So Rollo got a stone as large as an orange, which was as heavy a one as
+Mary thought the thread would hold; and Mary suspended that from the
+branch of the tree, and then swung it in company with the two others.
+They all went very nearly together at first, though there was evidently
+a slight difference, which, in a short time, separated the oscillations,
+so that the stones did not keep together; while yet they each swung back
+and forth, in nearly the same time. Rollo and Mary both concluded, from
+the result of this experiment, that the size of the vibrating body did
+not perceptibly affect the rapidity of the vibrations.
+
+"Now," said Mary, "we will try different lengths of string."
+
+So she began to look over Rollo's pebbles, to find two as nearly as
+possible alike.
+
+"The pebble stones must be of the same size, this time, for we want the
+two pendulums to be alike in all respects, except the length of the
+string, for that is the circumstance which we are now going to consider.
+We will have one string twice as long as the other."
+
+Mary found two pebbles very nearly equal in size, and similar in shape.
+She tied them to two strings, making one string twice as long as the
+other. She suspended them as before, and then, taking hold of one with
+one hand, and the other with the other, she drew them out to the same
+distance on one side, and let them go. The short one began at once to
+swing back and forth very quick, while the other followed quite slowly.
+
+"That makes a difference," said Rollo, clapping his hands.
+
+"It goes twice as fast," said Mary.
+
+"More than twice as fast," said Rollo, "I think."
+
+"Let us see," said Mary.
+
+They set them vibrating again; but they did not succeed in ascertaining
+whether the short one went more or less than twice as fast as the other.
+The two motions, so rapid and so near together, confused them. At
+length, Mary proposed that Rollo should count the vibrations of the long
+pendulum, while she counted those of the short one, and when she had got
+up to twenty, she said they would both stop, and then Rollo could tell
+how many he had got in the same time. But this plan, though apparently a
+very simple one, they found it somewhat difficult to put into practice.
+Mary's pendulum puzzled Rollo's counting, and Rollo, who could not count
+very well without at least whispering the numbers, puzzled Mary, and so
+pretty soon they gave it up.
+
+Rollo then said that he meant to try a very short pendulum indeed, and
+he asked Mary to tie one up for him, not more than an inch in length.
+She, however, said that it would not be necessary to tie it to the
+branch; but, instead of that, she took hold of the string of one of the
+pebbles which was already hanging before them, about an inch above the
+pebble itself, and then set the pebble in motion; and they were both
+very much interested in observing how quick it vibrated to and fro.
+
+Rollo then wanted to try a very long one, and proposed that he should
+climb up into the tree, and tie the end of the string to a high branch.
+But Mary was afraid that he would fall; and besides, she said that the
+pendulum would not swing clear of the branches below. She, however,
+immediately thought of the chamber window, and said that she would try
+it there. She accordingly went up into her chamber, taking a large
+pebble stone with her, and Rollo remained below to set the pendulum in
+motion, when it should be ready. Mary soon appeared at the window, and
+Rollo watched her while she tied her pebble to the end of a thread.
+
+"Have you got your thread long enough?" said Rollo. "It will take a
+good long thread to reach away down here."
+
+"It is a whole spool of cotton," said Mary. And, so saying, she held up
+in her hand the spool, to the thread of which she was tying her pebble
+stone.
+
+When it was secured, she slowly let it down, until it reached Rollo's
+hand, which was held up from below, ready to receive it. Mary then held
+the thread steady above, at a little distance out from the window, while
+Rollo took the stone along the side of the house, three or four feet
+from the place where it would naturally hang. He then let it go, and it
+swung back very slowly.
+
+"O, how slow!" said Rollo.
+
+"Yes," said Mary, "it is very slow, indeed."
+
+"I wish you had gone up to the garret window," said Rollo.
+
+"O, this will do very well," said Mary.
+
+Rollo determined to see how many he could count while the stone made one
+oscillation to and fro. He counted sixteen.
+
+Mary then said she was tired of experimenting, and so she should not
+come down again. She, however, asked Rollo to set the pendulum
+swinging, and that then she would draw the thread in, and he could see
+that it would go faster and faster, the farther she drew it up, for that
+would make the string grow shorter and shorter.
+
+Rollo did so; and this was the end of the experiments on oscillations.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+The following corrections have been made to the text:
+
+Page 14: She looked on with a good deal{original omitted this word} of
+interest
+
+Page 32: "What is satiety, father?"{original had a single quotation mark
+instead of the double one}
+
+Page 88: Then he stirred{original had stirrred} it about with his hand
+
+Page 122: he took hold of the flower-pot with both his hands, and slid
+it suddenly off of the seat.{the original had a footnote here, See
+Frontispiece. The frontispiece however relates to a different chapter
+(Pruning) and so the footnote has been removed}
+
+Page 149: and the small end{original had and} of the magnet would draw
+the point of the needle
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rollo's Experiments, by Jacob Abbott
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