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Ph.D.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the Divinity School of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Philadelphia</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">New York</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Charles Scribner's Sons</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">1913</p> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + </front> + +<body> + +<pb n='v'/><anchor id='Pgv'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Errata.</head> + +<p> +[Transcriber's Note: These corrections have already been applied to +the text in this e-book.] +</p> + +<p> +Page 55, line 26. Lucian, of Samosata, does, etc.: omit commas. +</p> + +<p> +Page 65, lines 20, 21, 25, 27, 31, 34, 35, 36. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. +</p> + +<p> +Page 77, line 27. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. +</p> + +<p> +Page 77, line 28. Panarion, Italics. [<hi rend='italic'>Panarion</hi> is the title of +the book.] +</p> + +<p> +Page 93, line 34. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. +</p> + +<p> +Page 95, lines 9, 11. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. +</p> + +<p> +Page 110, line 11. Insert after V, 24: (given below, § 38). +</p> + +<p> +Page 128, line 12. For, and to use it: read, and use it. +</p> + +<p> +Page 245, line 16. Transpose so as to read: Were the sacraments they administered +to be regarded, then, +</p> + +<p> +Page 267, line 20. For, are: read, art. +</p> + +<p> +Page 273, line 1. For, is: read, are. +</p> + +<p> +Page 282, line 29. For, exemptions from the clergy: read, exemptions of the +clergy. +</p> + +<p> +Page 283, line 24. For, V. <hi rend='italic'>supra</hi>, 58 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>: +read, V. <hi rend='italic'>supra</hi> § 58, <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Page 299, line 18. For, Constantinople: read, Alexandria. +</p> + +<p> +Page 306, line 14. Add: And in the Holy Ghost. [This should stand as a sentence +by itself, although there is no complete sentence.] +</p> + +<p> +Page 316, line 6. For, <hi rend='italic'>desensus</hi>: read, <hi rend='italic'>descensus</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +Page 337, line 6. For, 368: read, 378. +</p> + +<p> +Page 361, note. Omit all after: Council of Chalcedon in 451; changing comma to +period. +</p> + +<p> +Page 402, line 19. For, Milcoe: read, Mileve. +</p> + +<p> +Page 579, line 24. Insert comma after: common faith. +</p> + +<p> +Page 594, line 22. For, will: read, wilt. +</p> + +<p> +Page 603, line 31. For, rivalries: read, rivalry. +</p> + +<p> +Page 627, line 28. For, days: read, days'. +</p> + +<p> +Page 697, line 1. For, ἀσπασμον: read ἀσπασμὸν. +</p> + +<p> +Page 705, col. 2, lines 29, 30. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='vii'/><anchor id='Pgvii'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Preface.</head> + +<p> +The value of the source-book has long been recognized in +the teaching of general history. In ecclesiastical history +quite as much use can be made of the same aid in instruction. +It is hoped that the present book may supply a want +increasingly felt by teachers employing modern methods in +teaching ecclesiastical history. It has grown out of classroom +work, and is addressed primarily to those who are +teaching and studying the history of the Christian Church in +universities and seminaries. But it is hoped that it may +serve the constantly increasing number interested in the +early history of Christianity. +</p> + +<p> +In the arrangement of the selected illustrative material, a +chronological analysis and grouping of topics has been followed, +according to the lines of treatment employed by K. +Müller, F. Loofs, Von Schubert in his edition of Moeller's +text-book, and by Hergenröther to some extent. The whole +history of ancient Christianity has accordingly been divided +into comparatively brief periods and subdivided into chapters +and sections. These divisions are connected and introduced +by brief analyses and characterizations, with some indications +of additional source material available in English. +</p> + +<p> +A bibliography originally prepared for each chapter and +section has been omitted. When the practical question arose +of either reducing the amount of source material to admit a +bibliography, or of making the book too expensive for general +use by students, the main purpose of the book determined the +only way of avoiding two unsatisfactory solutions of the problem, +and the bibliography has been omitted. In this there +may be less loss than at first appears. The student of ecclesiastical +<pb n='viii'/><anchor id='Pgviii'/> +history is fortunately provided with ample bibliographical +material for the ancient Church in the universally +available theological and other encyclopædias which have +very recently appeared or are in course of publication, and in +the recent works on patristics. Possibly the time has come +when, in place of duplicating bibliographies, reliance in such +matters upon the work of others may not be regarded as +mortal sin against the ethics of scholarship. A list of works +has been given in the General Bibliographical Note, which the +student is expected to consult and to which the instructor +should encourage him to go for further information and bibliographical +material. +</p> + +<p> +The book presupposes the use of a text-book of Church +history, such as those by Cheetham, Kurtz, Moeller, Funk, or +Duchesne, and a history of doctrine, such as those of Seeberg, +Bethune-Baker, Fisher, or Tixeront. Readings in more elaborate +treatises, special monographs, and secular history may +well be left to the direction of the instructor. +</p> + +<p> +The translations, with a few exceptions which are noted, +are referred for the sake of convenience to the <hi rend='italic'>Patrology</hi> of +Migne or Mansi's <hi rend='italic'>Concilia</hi>. Although use has been freely +made of the aid offered by existing translations, especially +those of the <hi rend='italic'>Ante-Nicene</hi> and +<hi rend='italic'>Post-Nicene Fathers</hi>, yet all translations +have been revised in accordance with the best critical +texts available. The aim in the revision has been accuracy +and closeness to the original without too gross violation of the +English idiom, and with exactness in the rendering of ecclesiastical +and theological technical terms. Originality is hardly +to be expected in such a work as this. +</p> + +<p> +An author may not be conscious of any attempt to make +his selection of texts illustrate or support any particular phase +of Christian belief or ecclesiastical polity, and his one aim may +be to treat the matter objectively and to render his book +useful to all, yet he ought not to flatter himself that in either +respect he has been entirely successful. In ecclesiastical +history, no more than in any other branch of history, is it +<pb n='ix'/><anchor id='Pgix'/> +possible for an author who is really absorbed in his work to +eliminate completely the personal equation. He should be +glad to be informed of any instance in which he may have +unwittingly failed in impartiality, that when occasion presented +he might correct it. The day has gone by in which +ecclesiastical history can not be treated save as a branch of +polemical theology or as an apologetic for any particular +phase of Christian belief or practice. It has at last become +possible to teach the history of the Christian Church, for many +centuries the greatest institution of Western Europe, in colleges +and universities in conjunction with other historical courses. +</p> + +<p> +This volume has been prepared at the suggestion of the +American Society of Church History, and valuable suggestions +have been gained from the discussions of that society. To +Professor W. W. Rockwell, of Union Theological Seminary, +New York, Professor F. A. Christie, of Meadville Theological +School, the late Professor Samuel Macauley Jackson, of New +York, and Professor Ephraim Emerton, of Harvard University, +I have also been indebted for advice. The first two +named were members with me of a committee on a <hi rend='italic'>Source-Book +for Church History</hi> appointed several years ago by the +American Society of Church History. +</p> + +<p> +That the book now presented to the public may be of service +to the teacher and student of ecclesiastical history is my +sincere wish. It may easily happen that no one else would +make just the same selection of sources here made. But it +is probable that the principal documents, those on which the +majority would agree and which are most needed by the +teacher in his work, are included among those presented. +There are, no doubt, slips and defects in a book written at +intervals in a teacher's work. With the kind co-operation of +those who detect them, they may be corrected when an opportunity +occurs. +</p> + +<ab> +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">Joseph Cullen Ayer, Jr.</hi> +</ab> + +</div> + +<pb n='xix'/><anchor id='Pgxix'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>General Bibliographical Note</head> + +<p> +Under each period special collections of available sources are to be +found. The student is not given any bibliography of works bearing +on the topics, but is referred to the following accessible works of +reference of recent date for additional information and bibliographies: +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge</hi>, edited +by S. M. Jackson, New York, 1908-12. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>The Catholic Encyclopædia</hi>, New York, 1907-12. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>The Encyclopædia Britannica</hi>, eleventh edition, Cambridge, 1910. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>The Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</hi>, edited by J. Hastings, +Edinburgh and New York, 1908 ff. (In course of publication.) +</p> + +<p> +For the patristic writers, their lives, works, editions, and other bibliographical +matter, see: +</p> + +<p> +G. Krüger, <hi rend='italic'>History of Early Christian Literature in the First Three +Centuries</hi>, English translation by C. R. Gillett, New York, 1897. +Cited as Krüger. +</p> + +<p> +B. Bardenhewer, <hi rend='italic'>Patrologie</hi>, Freiburg-i.-B., 1911, English +translation of second edition (1901) by T. J. Shahan, St. Louis, 1908. Cited +as Bardenhewer. +</p> + +<p> +In addition to the encyclopædias the following are indispensable, +and should be consulted: +</p> + +<p> +Smith and Wace, <hi rend='italic'>Dictionary of Christian Biography</hi>, Literature, +Sects and Doctrines, London, 1877-87. (The Condensed Edition of +1911 by no means takes the place of this standard work.) Cited +DCB. +</p> + +<p> +Smith and Cheetham, <hi rend='italic'>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</hi>, London, +1875-80. Cited DCA. +</p> + +<pb n='xx'/><anchor id='Pgxx'/> + +<p> +Advanced students and those capable of using French and German +are referred to the following, which have admirable and authoritative +articles and ample bibliographies: +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Realencyclopædie für protestantische Theologie</hi>, edited by A. +Hauck, Leipsic, 1896 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> Two supplementary volumes appeared in +1913. Cited PRE. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Kirchenlexicon oder Encyclopædie der katholischen Theologie und ihrer +Hilfswissenschaften</hi>, second edition, by J. Hergenröther und F. +Kaulen, Freiburg-i.-B., 1882-1901. Cited KL. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique</hi>, edited by A. Vacant and E. +Mangenot, Paris, 1903 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Dictionnaire d'Archéologie Chrétienne et de Liturgie</hi>, edited by +F. Cabrol, 1903 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie Ecclesiastiques</hi>; edited +by A. Baudrillart, A. Vogt, and U. Roziès, Paris, 1909 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Collections of sources in the original languages, easily procured +and to be consulted for texts and to some extent for bibliographies: +</p> + +<p> +C. Mirbt, <hi rend='italic'>Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums und des römischen +Katholizismus</hi>, third edition, Tübingen, 1911. Cited as Mirbt. +</p> + +<p> +C. Kirch, S. J., <hi rend='italic'>Enchiridion fontium historiæ ecclesiasticæ +antiquæ</hi>. Freiburg-i.-B., 1910. Cited as Kirch. +</p> + +<p> +H. Denziger, <hi rend='italic'>Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de +rebus fidei et morum</hi>, eleventh edition, edited by Clemens Bannwart, +S. J., Freiburg-i.-B., 1911. Cited as Denziger. +</p> + +<p> +A. Hahn. <hi rend='italic'>Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der alten +Kirche</hi>, third edition, Breslau, 1897. Cited as Hahn. +</p> + +<p> +G. Krüger. <hi rend='italic'>Sammlung ausgewählter kirchen und dogmengeschichtlicher +Quellenschriften</hi>, Freiburg-i.-B. +</p> + +<p> +Of this useful collection especially important are the following +of more general application: +</p> + +<p> +E. Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta: Kürzere Texte zur Geschichte der alten +Kirche und des Kanons</hi>, second edition, 1909-10. +</p> + +<p> +F. Lauchert, <hi rend='italic'>Die Kanones der wichtigsten altkirchlichen Concilien +nebst den apostolischen Kanones</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +R. Knopf, <hi rend='italic'>Ausgewählte Märtyreracten</hi>. Cited as Knopf. +</p> + +<p> +Other volumes are cited in connection with topics. +</p> + +<pb n='xxi'/><anchor id='Pgxxi'/> + +<p> +H. T. Bruns, <hi rend='italic'>Canones apostolorum et conciliorum sæculorum IV, V, VI, +VII</hi>, Berlin, 1839. Cited as Bruns. +</p> + +<p> +Although not source-books, yet of very great value for the sources +they contain should be mentioned: +</p> + +<p> +J. C. L. Gieseler, <hi rend='italic'>A Text-Book of Church History</hi>, English +translation, New York, 1857. +</p> + +<p> +K. R. Hagenbach, <hi rend='italic'>A History of Christian Doctrines</hi>, English +translation, Edinburgh, 1883-85. +</p> + +<p> +C. J. Hefele, <hi rend='italic'>Conciliengeschichte</hi>, Freiburg-i.-B., 1855-70. Second +edition, 1873 <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi> A new French translation with admirable +supplementary notes has just appeared. The English translation +(<hi rend='italic'>History of the Councils</hi>), Edinburgh, 1876-95, extends only +through the eighth century. Cited as Hefele. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='003'/><anchor id='Pg003'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>The First Division Of Ancient Christianity: The Church Under The Heathen Empire: To A. D. 324</head> + +<p> +By the accession of Constantine to the sole sovereignty of +the Roman Empire, A. D. 324, ancient Christianity may be +conveniently divided into two great periods. In the first, it +was a religion liable to persecution, suffering severely at +times and always struggling to maintain itself; in the second, +it became the religion of the State, and in its turn set about +to repress and persecute the heathen religions. It was no +longer without legal rights; it had the support of the secular +rulers and was lavishly endowed with wealth. The conditions +of the Church in these two periods are so markedly different, +and the conditions had such a distinct effect upon the +life and growth of the Christian religion, that the reign of +Constantine is universally recognized as marking a transition +from one historical period to another, although no date which +shall mark that transition is universally accepted. The year +311, the year in which the Diocletian persecution ceased, has +been accepted by many as the dividing point. The exact +date adopted is immaterial. +</p> + +<p> +The principal sources in English for the history of the +Christian Church before A. D. 324 are: +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Translations of the Writings of +the Fathers down to A. D. 325.</hi> American edition, Buffalo +and New York, 1885-1896; new edition, New York, 1896 (a +reprint). The collection, cited as ANF, contains the bulk of +<pb n='004'/><anchor id='Pg004'/> +the Christian literature of the period, with the exception of +the less important commentaries of Origen. +</p> + +<p> +Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Church History</hi>. Translated with Prolegomena +and Notes by Arthur Cushman McGiffert. In <hi rend='italic'>A Select Library +of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church</hi>. +Second series, New York, 1890. The <hi rend='italic'>Church History</hi> of +Eusebius is the foundation of the study of the history of the +Church before A. D. 324, as it contains a vast number of citations +from works now lost. The edition by Professor McGiffert +is the best in English, and is provided with scholarly +notes, which serve as an elaborate commentary on the text. +It should be in every library. This work is cited as Eusebius, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi> The text used in the extracts given in this source +book is that of Ed. Schwartz, in <hi rend='italic'>Die Griechischen Christlicher: +Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte</hi>. Kleine Ausgabe, +Leipsic, 1908. This text is identical with the larger and less +convenient edition by the same editor. +</p> + +<pb n='005'/><anchor id='Pg005'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Period I. The Apostolic Age: To Circa A. D. 100</head> + +<p> +The period in the Church before the clash with Gnosticism +and the rise of an apologetic literature comprises the apostolic +and the post-apostolic ages. These names have become traditional. +The so-called apostolic age, or to circa 100, is that +in which the Apostles lived, though the best tradition makes +John the only surviving Apostle for the last quarter of a +century. +</p> + +<p> +The principal sources for the history of the Church in this +period are the books of the New Testament, and only to a +slight degree the works of contemporaneous Jewish and +heathen writers. It is hardly necessary to reproduce New +Testament passages here. The Jewish references of importance +will be found in the works on the life of Christ and of +St. Paul. As the treatment of this period commonly falls +under a different branch of study, New Testament exegesis, +it is not necessary in Church history to enter into any detail. +There are, however, a few references to events in this period +which are to be found only outside the New Testament, and +are of importance to the student of Church history. These +are the Neronian persecution (§ 1), the death of the Apostles +(§§ 2, 3), and the persecution under Domitian (§ 4). The +paucity of references to Christianity in the first century is +due chiefly to the fact that Christianity appeared to the men +of the times as merely a very small Oriental religion, struggling +for recognition, and contending with many others coming +from the same region. It had not yet made any great advance +either in numbers or social importance. +</p> + +<pb n='006'/><anchor id='Pg006'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_1"/> +<head>§ 1. The Neronian Persecution</head> + +<p> +The Neronian persecution took place A. D. 64. The occasion +was the great fire which destroyed a large part of the +city of Rome. To turn public suspicion from himself as responsible +for the fire, Nero attempted to make the Christians +appear as the incendiaries. Many were put to death in horrible +and fantastic ways. It was not, however, a persecution +directed against Christianity as an unlawful religion. It was +probably confined to Rome and at most the immediate vicinity, +and there is no evidence that it was a general persecution. +</p> + +<p> +Additional source material: Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>De Mortibus Persecutorum</hi>, +ch. 2 (ANF, VII); Sulpicius Severus, Chronicon, II. 28 (PNF, ser. II, +vol. XI). +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Tacitus, <hi rend='italic'>Annales</hi>, XV, 44. +Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, § 3:1. Mirbt, n. 3.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Tacitus (c. 52-c. 117), although not an eye-witness of the persecution, +had exceptionally good opportunities for obtaining accurate information, +and his account is entirely trustworthy. He is the principal +source for the persecution. +</quote> + +<p> +Neither by works of benevolence nor the gifts of the prince +nor means of appeasing the gods did the shameful suspicion +cease, so that it was not believed that the fire had been +caused by his command. Therefore, to overcome this rumor, +Nero put in his own place as culprits, and punished with most +ingenious cruelty, men whom the common people hated for +their shameful crimes and called Christians. Christ, from +whom the name was derived, had been put to death in the +reign of Tiberius by the procurator Pontius Pilate. The +deadly superstition, having been checked for a while, began +to break out again, not only throughout Judea, where this +<pb n='007'/><anchor id='Pg007'/> +mischief first arose, but also at Rome, where from all sides all +things scandalous and shameful meet and become fashionable. +Therefore, at the beginning, some were seized who made confessions; +then, on their information, a vast multitude was convicted, +not so much of arson as of hatred of the human race. +And they were not only put to death, but subjected to insults, +in that they were either dressed up in the skins of wild beasts +and perished by the cruel mangling of dogs, or else put on +crosses to be set on fire, and, as day declined, to be burned, +being used as lights by night. Nero had thrown open his +gardens for that spectacle, and gave a circus play, mingling +with the people dressed in a charioteer's costume or driving in +a chariot. From this arose, however, toward men who were, +indeed, criminals and deserving extreme penalties, sympathy, +on the ground that they were destroyed not for the public +good, but to satisfy the cruelty of an individual. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Clement of Rome, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Corinthios</hi>, I, 5, 6. Funk, <hi rend='italic'>Patres Apostolici</hi>, 1901. (MSG, +1:218.) Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, § 3:5.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The work known as the First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians +was written in the name of the Roman Church about 100. The occasion +was the rise of contentions in the Corinthian Church. The name +of Clement does not appear in the body of the epistle, but there is no +good ground for questioning the traditional ascription to Clement, +since before the end of the second century it was quoted under his name +by several writers. This Clement was probably the third or fourth +bishop of Rome. The epistle was written soon after the Domitian +persecution (A. D. 95), and refers not only to that but also to an earlier +persecution, which was very probably that under Nero. As the reference +is only by way of illustration, the author gives little detail. The +passage translated is of interest as containing the earliest reference +to the death of the Apostles Peter and Paul, and the language used +regarding Paul has been thought to imply that he labored in parts +beyond Rome. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 5. But to leave the ancient examples, let us come to the +champions who lived nearest our times; let us take the noble +examples of our generation. On account of jealousy and +envy the greatest and most righteous pillars of the Church +<pb n='008'/><anchor id='Pg008'/> +were persecuted, and contended even unto death. Let us set +before our eyes the good Apostles: Peter, who on account of +unrighteous jealousy endured not one nor two, but many +sufferings, and so, having borne his testimony, went to his +deserved place of glory. On account of jealousy and strife +Paul pointed out the prize of endurance. After he had been +seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been +stoned, had been a preacher in the East and in the West, he +received the noble reward of his faith; having taught righteousness +unto the whole world, and having come to the farthest +bounds of the West, and having borne witness before rulers, +he thus departed from the world and went unto the holy +place, having become a notable pattern of patient endurance. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 6. Unto these men who lived lives of holiness was +gathered a vast multitude of the elect, who by many indignities +and tortures, being the victims of jealousy, set the +finest examples among us. On account of jealousy women, +when they had been persecuted as Danaïds and Dircæ, and +had suffered cruel and unholy insults, safely reached the goal +in the race of faith and received a noble reward, feeble though +they were in body. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_2"/> +<head>§ 2. The Death of Peter and Paul</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, II, 25. (MSG, 20:207.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 33. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +For an examination of the merits of Eusebius as a historian, see +McGiffert's edition, PNF, ser. II, vol. I, pp. 45-52; also J. B. Lightfoot, +art. <q>Eusebius (23) of Caesarea,</q> in DCB. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The works of Caius have been preserved only in fragments; see +Krüger, § 90. If he was a contemporary of Zephyrinus, he probably +lived during the pontificate of that bishop of Rome, 199-217 A. D. +The Phrygian heresy which Caius combated was Montanism; see +below, <ref target="Section_25">§ 25</ref>. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, was a contemporary of Soter, Bishop +of Rome, 166-174 A. D., whom he mentions in an epistle to the Roman +Church. Of his epistles only fragments have been preserved; see +Krüger, § 55. The following extract from his epistle to the Roman +Church is the earliest explicit statement that Peter and Paul suffered +<pb n='009'/><anchor id='Pg009'/> +martyrdom at the same time or that Peter was ever in Italy. In connection +with this extract, that from Clement of Rome (see § 1, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) should +be consulted; also Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>De Mortibus Persecutorum</hi>, ch. 2 +(ANF). +</quote> + +<p> +It is therefore recorded that Paul was beheaded at Rome +itself, and that Peter was crucified likewise at the same time. +This account of Peter and Paul is confirmed by the fact that +their names are preserved in the cemeteries of that place even +to the present time. It is confirmed no less by a member of +the Church, Caius by name, a contemporary of Zephyrinus, +Bishop of Rome. In carrying on a discussion in writing with +Proclus, the leader of the Phrygian heresy, he says as follows +concerning the places where the sacred corpses of the aforesaid +Apostles are laid: <q>But I am able to show the trophies +of the Apostles. For if you will go to the Vatican or to the +Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who laid the +foundations of this church.</q> And that they two suffered +martyrdom at the same time is stated by Dionysius, Bishop +of Corinth, corresponding with the Romans in writing, in +the following words: <q>You have thus by such admonition +bound together the planting of Peter and Paul at Rome and +at Corinth. For both planted in our Corinth and likewise +taught us, and in like manner in Italy they both taught and +suffered martyrdom at the same time.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_3"/> +<head>§ 3. The Death of the Apostle John</head> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_3_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adversus Hæreses</hi>, II, +22, 5; III, 3, 4. (MSG, 7:785, 854.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Irenæus was bishop of Lyons soon after 177. He was born in Asia +Minor about 120, and was a disciple of Polycarp (ob. circa 155) and +of other elders who had seen John, the disciple of the Lord. +</quote> + +<p> +II, 22, 5. Those in Asia associated with John, the disciple +of the Lord, testify that John delivered it [a tradition regarding +the length of Christ's ministry] to them. For he remained +among them until the time of Trajan [98-117 A. D.]. +</p> + +<p> +III, 3, 4. But the church in Ephesus also, which was +<pb n='010'/><anchor id='Pg010'/> +founded by Paul, and where John remained until the time of +Trajan, is a faithful witness of the apostolic tradition. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Comm. ad Galat.</hi> (MSL, +26:462.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following extract from Jerome's commentary on Galatians is +of such late date as to be of doubtful value as an authority. There is, +however, nothing improbable in it, and it is in harmony with other +traditions. It is to be taken as a tradition which at any rate represents +the opinion of the fourth century regarding the Apostle John. +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>De Viris Inlustribus</hi>, +ch. 9 (PNF, ser. II, vol. III, 364). +</quote> + +<p> +When the holy Evangelist John had lived to extreme old +age in Ephesus, he could be carried only with difficulty by the +hands of the disciples, and as he was not able to pronounce +more words, he was accustomed to say at every assembly, +<q>Little children, love one another.</q> At length the disciples +and brethren who were present became tired of hearing always +the same thing and said: <q>Master, why do you always say +this?</q> Thereupon John gave an answer worthy of himself: +<q>Because this is the commandment of the Lord, and if it is +observed then is it enough.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 31. +(MSG, 20:279.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Polycrates was bishop of Ephesus and a contemporary of Victor of +Rome (189-199 A. D.). His date cannot be fixed more precisely. +The reference to the <q>high priest's mitre</q> is obscure; see J. B. Lightfoot, +<hi rend='italic'>Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians</hi>, p. 345. +A longer extract +from this epistle of Polycrates will be found under the Easter +Controversy (<ref target="Section_38">§ 38</ref>). +</quote> + +<p> +The time of John's death has been given in a general way,<note place="foot">See +Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 23, who gives quotations from +Irenæus. This passage also gives a lengthy extract from the work of Clement of +Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Quis dives salvetur</hi>, bearing on St. John's +life at Ephesus (ANF. II, 591-604).</note> +but his burial-place is indicated by an epistle of Polycrates +(who was bishop of the parish of Ephesus) addressed to Victor +of Rome, mentioning him, together with the Apostle Philip +and his daughters, in the following words: <q>For in Asia also +great lights have fallen asleep, which shall rise again at the +last day, at the coming of the Lord, when he shall come with +<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/> +glory from heaven and seek out all the saints. Among these +are Philip, one of the twelve Apostles, who sleeps at Hierapolis, +and his two aged virgin daughters, and another daughter who +lived in the Holy Spirit and now rests at Ephesus; and moreover +John, who was both a witness and a teacher, who reclined +upon the bosom of the Lord, and being a priest wore +the high priest's mitre, also sleeps at Ephesus.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_4"/> +<head>§ 4. The Persecution under Domitian</head> + +<p> +What is commonly called the persecution under Domitian +(81-96) does not seem to have been a persecution of Christianity +as such. The charges of atheism and superstition +may have been due to heathen misunderstanding of the Christian +faith and worship. There is no sufficient ground for +identifying Flavius Clemens with the Clemens who was +bishop of Rome. For bibliography of the persecution under +Domitian, see Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, second ed., I, 11. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Cassius Dio (excerpt. per Xiphilinum), +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Rom.</hi>, LXVII, 14 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> Preuschen, +<hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, § 4:11.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For Cassius Dio, see <hi rend='italic'>Encyc. Brit.</hi>, art. <q>Dio Cassius.</q> +</quote> + +<p> +At that time (95) the road which leads from Sinuessa to +Puteoli was paved. And in the same year Domitian caused +Flavius Clemens along with many others to be put to death, +although he was his cousin and had for his wife Flavia Domitilla, +who was also related to him. The charge of atheism +was made against both of them, in consequence of which many +others also who had adopted the customs of the Jews were +condemned. Some were put to death, others lost their property. +Domitilla, however, was only banished to Pandataria. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 18. +(MSG, 20:252.)</head> + +<p> +To such a degree did the teaching of our faith flourish at +that time<note place="foot">Reign of Domitian, 81-96.</note> +that even those writers who were far from our +<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/> +religion did not hesitate to mention in their histories the persecutions +and martyrdoms which took place during that time. +And they, indeed, accurately indicate the time. For they +record that, in the fifteenth year of Domitian, Flavia Domitilla, +daughter of a sister of Flavius Clemens, who was at +that time one of the consuls of Rome, was exiled with many +others to the island of Pontia<note place="foot">Pontia was an island near Pandataria. +The group is known as Pontiæ Insulæ. See DCB, art. <q>Domitilla, Flavia;</q> Eusebius, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, ed. McGiffert (PNF, ser. II, vol. I), III, 18, +notes 4-6; also Lightfoot, <hi rend='italic'>Commentary on the Epistle to the +Philippians</hi>, p. 22, n. 1.</note> in consequence of testimony +borne to Christ. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Period II. The Post-Apostolic Age: A. D. 100-A. D. 140</head> + +<p> +The post-apostolic age, extending from circa 100 to circa +140, is the age of the beginnings of Gentile Christianity on an +extended scale. It is marked by the rapid spread of Christianity, +so that immediately after its close the Church is found +throughout the Roman world, and the Roman Government is +forced to take notice of it and deal with it as a religion +(§§ <ref target="Section_6">6</ref>, <ref target="Section_7">7</ref>); +the decline of the Jewish element in the Church and extreme +hostility of Judaism to the Church (<ref target="Section_5">§ 5</ref>); +the continuance of chiliastic expectations +(<ref target="Section_10">§ 10</ref>); the beginnings of the passion +for martyrdom (<ref target="Section_8">§ 8</ref>); as well as the appearance of the forms +of organization and worship which subsequently became +greatly elaborated and remained permanently in the Church +(§§ 12-15); as also the appearance of religious and moral +ideas which became dominant in the ancient Church +(§§ <ref target="Section_11">11</ref>, +<ref target="Section_12">12</ref>, <ref target="Section_16">16</ref>). +The literature of the period upon which the study +of the conditions and thought of the Church of this age must +be based is represented principally by the so-called Apostolic +Fathers, a name which is convenient, but misleading and to +be regretted. These are Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Ignatius, +Polycarp, Papias, Hermas; with the writings of these are commonly +included two anonymous books known as the <hi rend='italic'>Didache</hi>, +or <hi rend='italic'>Teaching of the Twelve Apostles</hi>, and the +<hi rend='italic'>Epistle to Diognetus</hi>. +From all of these selections are given.<note place="foot"><p>There are three +leading critical editions of the Apostolic Fathers: +</p> +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Patrum Apostolicorum Opera</hi>, edited by A. von Gebhardt, A. +Harnack, and Th. Zahn, Leipsic, 1876, 1877, reprinted 1894 and since. +</p> +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Opera Patrum Apostolicorum</hi>, edited by F. X. Funk, Tübingen, 1881. +There is a very inexpensive reprint of the text in Krüger's <hi rend='italic'>Sammlung +ausgewählter kirchen- und dogmengeschichtlicher Quellenschriften</hi>, 2te Reihe, 1 Heft. +Funk's text is used in the following sections, but as the Apostolic Fathers are +everywhere accessible no references are given to Migne. +</p> +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>The Apostolic Fathers</hi>, edited by J. B. Lightfoot, second ed., +part I, 2 vols. (Clement of Rome), London, 1890; part II, 3 vols. (Ignatius and +Polycarp), London, 1889; smaller ed. (containing all the Apostolic Fathers), London. +1890. +</p> +<p> +The most recent edition of the Apostolic Fathers is that of Kirsopp Lake, +in the <hi rend='italic'>Loeb Classical Library</hi>, 1912 (text and translation on +opposite pages). +</p></note> +</p> + +<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_5"/> +<head>§ 5. Christianity and Judaism</head> + +<p> +The Christian Church grew up not on Jewish but on Gentile +soil. In a very short time the Gentiles formed the overwhelming +majority within the Church. As they did not become +Jews and did not observe the Jewish ceremonial law, a +problem arose as to the place of the Jewish law, which was accepted +without question as of divine authority. One solution +is given by the author of the so-called Epistle of Barnabas, +which should be compared with the solution given by St. +Paul in his epistles to the Galatians and to the Romans. The +number of conversions from Judaism rapidly declined, and +very early an extreme hostility toward Christianity became +common among the Jews. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Barnabas, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi>, 4, 9.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The epistle attributed to Barnabas is certainly not by the Apostle +of that name. Its date is much disputed, but may be safely placed +within the first century. The author attempts to show the contrast +<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/> +between Judaism and Christianity by proving that the Jews wholly +misunderstood the Mosaic law and had long since lost any claims +supposed to be derived from the Mosaic covenant. The epistle is +everywhere marked by hostility to Judaism, of which the writer has +but imperfect knowledge. The book was regarded as Holy Scripture +by Clement of Alexandria and by Origen, though with some hesitation. +The position taken by the author was undoubtedly extreme, and not +followed generally by the Church. It was, however, merely pushing to +excess a conviction already prevalent in the Church, that Christianity +and Judaism were distinct religions. For a saner and more commonly +accepted position, see Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apol.</hi>, +I, 47-53 (ANF, I, 178 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>). +A translation of the entire epistle may be found in ANF, I, 137-149. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 4. It is necessary, therefore, for us who inquire much +concerning present events to seek out those things which are +able to save us. Let us wholly flee, then, from all the works +of iniquity, lest the works of iniquity take hold of us; and let +us hate the error of the present times, that we may set our +love on the future. Let us not give indulgence to our soul, +that it should have power to run with sinners and the wicked, +that we become not like them. The final occasion of stumbling +approaches, concerning which it is written as Enoch +speaks: For this end the Lord has cut short the times and +the days, that His beloved may hasten and will come to his +inheritance.… <note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Matt. 24:6, +22; Mark 13:7, 20. These words do not occur in the book of Enoch.</note> +Ye ought therefore to understand. And +this also I beg of you, as being one of you and with special +love loving you all more than my own soul, to take heed to +yourselves, and not be like some, adding largely to your sins, +and saying: <q>The covenant is both theirs and ours.</q> For it +is ours; but they thus finally lost it, after Moses had already +received it.<note place="foot">The writer quotes Ex. 31:18; 34:28; 32:7; Deut. +9:12.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 9. … But also circumcision, in which they trusted, +has been abrogated. He declared that circumcision was not of +the flesh; but they transgressed because an evil angel deluded +them.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, so that they believed +that circumcision should be made in the flesh and not taken spiritually.</note>… +Learn, then, my beloved children, concerning all +<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/> +things richly, that Abraham, the first who enjoined circumcision, +looking forward in spirit to Jesus, circumcised, the +teaching of the three letters having been received. For the +Scripture saith: <q>Abraham circumcised eighteen and three +hundred men of his household.</q> What, then, was the knowledge +[<hi rend='italic'>gnosis</hi>] given to him in this? Learn that he says the +eighteen first and then, making a space, the three hundred. +The eighteen are the Iota, ten, and the Eta, eight; and you +have here the name of Jesus. And because the cross was to +express the grace in the letter Tau, he says also, three hundred. +He discloses therefore Jesus in the two letters, and the +cross in one. He knows this who has put within us the engrafted +gift of his teaching. No one has learned from me a more +excellent piece of knowledge, but I know that ye are worthy.<note place="foot">ΙΗ +or Ιη = Ἰησους. T was taken as a picture of a cross. For the Tau or +Egyptian cross, see DCA, art. <q>Cross.</q> The method of allegorical interpretation +here used is that species known as gematria, in which the numerical equivalence +of letters composing a word is employed as a key to mystic meaning. This +differs somewhat from the ordinary gematria, for which see Farrar, +<hi rend='italic'>History of Interpretation</hi>, 1886, pp. 98 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, 445 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> Barnabas is by no means +singular among early Christians in resorting to Jewish allegorical interpretation.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Dialogus cum +Tryphone</hi>, 17. J. C. T. Otto, Corpus <hi rend='italic'>Apologetarum Christianorum +Sæculi Secundi</hi>, third ed.; 1876-81. (MSG, 6:511.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Justin Martyr was born about 100 in Samaria. He was one of the +first of the Gentiles who had been trained in philosophy to become a +Christian. His influence upon the doctrinal development of the Church +was profound. He died as a martyr between 163 and 168. His principal +works are the two Apologies written in close connection under +Antoninus Pius (138-161), probably about 150, and his dialogue with +Trypho the Jew, which was written after the first Apology. All translations +of Justin Martyr are based upon Otto's text, <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +For the other nations have not been so guilty of wrong +inflicted on us and on Christ as you have been, who are +in fact the authors of the wicked prejudices against the Just +One and against us who hold by Him.<note place="foot">For the same charge +brought against the Jews of stirring up hostility against +the Christians, see Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Ad Nationes</hi>, I, +14; <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Marcionem</hi>, III, 23; <hi rend='italic'>Adv. +Judæos</hi>, 13; Origen, <hi rend='italic'>Contra Celsum</hi>, VI, 27.</note> +For after you +<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/> +had crucified Him, the only blameless and righteous Man, +through whose stripes there is healing to those who through +Him approach the Father, when you knew that He had risen +from the dead and ascended into heaven, as the prophecies +foretold would take place, not only did you not repent of those +things wherein you had done wickedly, but you then selected +and sent out from Jerusalem chosen men through all the world +to say that the atheistical heresy of the Christians had appeared +and to spread abroad those things which all they who +know us not speak against us; so that you are the cause of +unrighteousness not only in your own case, but, in fact, in the +case of all other men generally.… Accordingly, you show +great zeal in publishing throughout all the world bitter, dark, +and unjust slanders against the only blameless and righteous +Light sent from God to men. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Martyrdom of Polycarp</hi>, 12, +13.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, died at Smyrna February 2, 155, at the +age of at least eighty-six, but he was probably nearer one hundred years +old. He was the disciple of John, probably same as the Apostle John. +His epistle was written circa 115, soon after the death of Ignatius of +Antioch. At present it is generally regarded as genuine, though grave +doubts have been entertained in the past. The martyrdom was written +by some member of the church at Smyrna for that body to send to the +church at Philomelium in Phrygia, and must have been composed soon +after the death of the aged bishop. It is probably the finest of all the +ancient martyrdoms and should be read in its entirety. Translation +in the ANF, I, 37-45. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 12. The whole multitude both of the heathen and the +Jews who dwelt at Smyrna cried out with uncontrollable fury +and in loud voice: <q>This is the teacher of Asia, the father of +the Christians and the overthrower of our gods, who teaches +many neither to sacrifice nor to worship.</q> Saying these things, +they cried out and demanded of Philip, the Asiarch, to let a +lion loose upon Polycarp. But he said he could not do this, +since the sports with beasts had ended. Then it pleased them +to cry out with one consent that he should burn Polycarp +alive.… +</p> + +<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/> + +<p> +Ch. 13. These things were carried into effect more rapidly +than they were spoken, and the multitude immediately +gathered together wood and fagots out of the shops and baths, +and the Jews especially, as was their custom, assisted them +eagerly in it. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_6"/> +<head>§ 6. The Extension of Christianity</head> + +<p> +It is impossible to determine with accuracy even the principal +places to which Christianity had spread in the first half +of the second century. Ancient writers were not infrequently +led astray by their own rhetoric in dealing with this topic. +</p> + +<div> +<head>Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Dialogus cum Tryphone</hi>, 117. (MSG, +6:676.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passage is of significance as bearing not only upon the +extent to which Christianity had spread, after making due allowance +for rhetoric, but also upon the conception of the eucharist and its +relation to the ancient sacrifices held, by some Christians at least, in +the first half of the second century. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> ch. 41 +of the same work, <hi rend='italic'>v. +infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_12">§§ 12</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +Therefore, as to all sacrifices offered in His name, which +Jesus Christ commanded to be offered, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, in the eucharist +of the bread and cup, and which are offered by Christians +in all places throughout the world, God, anticipating +them, testified that they are well-pleasing to Him; but +He rejects those presented by you and by those priests of yours, +saying: And your sacrifices I will not accept at your hands; +for from the rising of the sun unto the going down of the same +my name is great among the Gentiles (He says), but ye have +profaned it.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mai. 1:10-12.</note> +But since you deceive yourselves, both you and +your teachers, when you interpret what was said as if the +Word spoke of those of your nation who were in the dispersion, +and that it said that their prayers and sacrifices +offered in every place are pure and well-pleasing, you should +know that you are speaking falsely and are trying to cheat +<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/> +yourselves in every way; for, in the first place, not even yet +does your nation extend from the rising to the setting sun, +for there are nations among which none of your race ever +dwelt. For there is not a single race of men, whether among +barbarians or Greeks, or by whatever name they may be +called, of those who live in wagons or are called nomads or of +herdsmen living in tents, among whom prayers and thanksgivings +are not offered through the name of the crucified Jesus +to the Father and Maker of all things. For, furthermore, +at that time, when the prophet Malachi said this, your dispersion +over the whole earth, as you are now, had not taken +place, as is evident from the Scriptures. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_7"/> +<head>§ 7. Relation of the Roman State to Christianity</head> + +<p> +The procedure of the Roman Government against the Christians +first took a definite form with the rescript of Trajan +addressed to Pliny circa A. D. 111-113, but there is no formal +imperial edict extant before Decius on the question of the +Christian religion. In an addition to the rescript of Trajan +addressed to Pliny there is a letter of Hadrian on the Christians +(<hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Servianum</hi>) which is of interest as giving the +opinion of that Emperor, but the rescript addressed to Minucius +Fundanus is probably spurious, as is also the Epistle of +Antoninus Pius to the Common Assembly of Asia. +</p> + +<p> +Additional source material: The text of the rescripts may be found +in Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, §§ 6, 7; translations, ANF, I, 186 +<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, and Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi> (ed. +McGiffert), IV, 9, and IV, 13. +</p> + +<div> +<head>Plinius Junior, <hi rend='italic'>Epistulæ</hi>, X, 96, 97. Preuschen, +<hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, 12 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, nn. 14. 15.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Caius Cæcilius Secundus is commonly known as Pliny the Younger, +to distinguish him from his uncle, Pliny the Naturalist, whose wealth +he inherited and whose name he seems to have borne. He was proprætor +of Bithynia under Trajan (98-117), with whom he stood on +terms of friendship and even intimacy. His letter to the Emperor +requesting advice as to the right mode of dealing with Christians was +written between 111 and 113. +</quote> + +<pb n='020'/><anchor id='Pg020'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +This correspondence is of the first importance, as it is unimpeachable +evidence as to the spread of Christianity in the province in which +Pliny was placed, to the customs of the Christians in their worship, +and to the method of dealing with the new religion, which was followed +for a long time with little change. It established the policy that +Christianity, as such, was not to be punished as a crime, that the State +did not feel called upon to seek out Christians, that it would not act +upon anonymous accusations, but that when proper accusations were +brought, the general laws, which Christians had violated on account +of their faith, should be executed. Christianity was not to be treated +as a crime. The mere renunciation of Christianity, coupled with the +proof of renunciation involved in offering sacrifice, enabled the accused +to escape punishment. +</quote> + +<p> +Ep. 96. It is my custom, my lord, to refer to you all questions +about which I have doubts. Who, indeed, can better +direct me in hesitation, or enlighten me in ignorance? In the +examination of Christians I have never taken part; therefore +I do not know what crime is usually punished or investigated +or to what extent. So I have no little uncertainty whether +there is any distinction of age, or whether the weaker offenders +fare in no respect otherwise than the stronger; whether pardon +is granted on repentance, or whether when one has been a +Christian there is no gain to him in that he has ceased to be +such; whether the mere name, if it is without crimes, or crimes +connected with the name are punished. Meanwhile I have +taken this course with those who were accused before me as +Christians: I have asked them whether they were Christians. +Those who confessed I asked a second and a third time, threatening +punishment. Those who persisted I ordered led away +to execution. For I did not doubt that, whatever it was they +admitted, obstinacy and unbending perversity certainly deserve +to be punished. There were others of the like insanity, +but because they were Roman citizens I noted them down to +be sent to Rome. Soon after this, as it often happens, because +the matter was taken notice of, the crime became wide-spread +and many cases arose. An unsigned paper was presented +containing the names of many. But these denied that they +were or had been Christians, and I thought it right to let them +<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/> +go, since at my dictation they prayed to the gods and made +supplication with incense and wine to your statue, which I +had ordered to be brought into the court for the purpose, together +with the images of the gods, and in addition to this +they cursed Christ, none of which things, it is said, those who +are really Christians can be made to do. Others who were +named by an informer said that they were Christians, and +soon afterward denied it, saying, indeed, that they had been, +but had ceased to be Christians, some three years ago, some +many years, and one even twenty years ago. All these also not +only worshipped your statue and the images of the gods, but +also cursed Christ. They asserted, however, that the amount +of their fault or error was this: that they had been accustomed +to assemble on a fixed day before daylight and sing by turns +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, antiphonally] a hymn to Christ as a god; and that they +bound themselves with an oath, not for any crime, but to +commit neither theft, nor robbery, nor adultery, not to break +their word and not to deny a deposit when demanded; after +these things were done, it was their custom to depart and +meet together again to take food, but ordinary and harmless +food; and they said that even this had ceased after my edict +was issued, by which, according to your commands, I had forbidden +the existence of clubs. On this account I believed it +the more necessary to find out from two maid-servants, who +were called deaconesses [<hi rend='italic'>ministræ</hi>], and that by torture, what +was the truth. I found nothing else than a perverse and +excessive superstition. I therefore adjourned the examination +and hastened to consult you. The matter seemed to me to +be worth deliberation, especially on account of the number +of those in danger. For many of every age, every rank, and +even of both sexes, are brought into danger; and will be in the +future. The contagion of that superstition has penetrated +not only the cities but also the villages and country places; +and yet it seems possible to stop it and set it right. At any +rate, it is certain enough that the temples, deserted until quite +recently, begin to be frequented, that the ceremonies of religion, +<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/> +long disused, are restored, and that fodder for the +victims comes to market, whereas buyers of it were until now +very few. From this it may easily be supposed what a multitude +of men can be reclaimed if there be a place of repentance. +</p> + +<p> +Ep. 97 (<hi rend='italic'>Trajan to Pliny</hi>). You have followed, my dear +Secundus, the proper course of procedure in examining the +cases of those who were accused to you as Christians. For, +indeed, nothing can be laid down as a general law which contains +anything like a definite rule of action. They are not to +be sought out. If they are accused and convicted, they are +to be punished, yet on this condition, that he who denies that +he is a Christian and makes the fact evident by an act, that +is, by worshipping our gods, shall obtain pardon on his repentance, +however much suspected as to the past. Papers, however, +which are presented anonymously ought not to be admitted +in any accusation. For they are a very bad example +and unworthy of our times. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_8"/> +<head>§ 8. Martyrdom and the Desire for Martyrdom</head> + +<div> +<head>Ignatius of Antioch, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Romanos</hi>, 4.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Ignatius was bishop of Antioch in the opening years of the second +century. According to tradition, he suffered martyrdom in Rome +under Trajan, circa 117. Having been sent from Antioch to Rome +by command of the Emperor, on his way he addressed letters to various +churches in Asia, exhorting them to seek unity and avoid heresy by +close union with the local bishop. His aim seems to have been practical, +to promote the welfare of the Christian communities rather than +the exaltation of the episcopal office itself. Doubts have arisen as to +the authenticity of these epistles on account of the frequent references +to the episcopate and to heresy. Further difficulty has been caused +by the fact that the epistles of Ignatius appear in three forms or +recensions, a longer Greek recension forming a group of thirteen epistles, +a short Greek of seven epistles, and a still shorter Syriac version of +only three. After much fluctuation of opinion, due to the general +reconstruction of the history of the whole period, which has gone +through various marked changes, the opinion of scholars has been +steadily settling upon the short Greek recension of seven epistles as +authentic, especially since the critical re-examination of the whole +question by Zahn and Lightfoot. +</quote> + +<pb n='023'/><anchor id='Pg023'/> + +<p> +I write to all the churches and impress on all, that I +shall willingly die for God unless ye hinder me. I beseech +you not to show unseasonable good-will toward me.<note place="foot">The Christians +at Rome seem, according to this statement, to have been in such a position that +they might be able to interfere in the case of prisoners.</note> Permit +me to be the food of wild beasts, through whom it will be +granted me to attain unto God. I am the wheat of God and +I am ground by the teeth of wild beasts, that I may be found +the pure bread of Christ. Rather entice the wild beasts, that +they may become my tomb and leave nothing of my body, so +that when I have fallen asleep I may be burdensome to no +one. Then I shall be truly a disciple of Jesus Christ, when +the world sees not my body. Entreat Christ for me, that by +these instruments I may be found a sacrifice to God. Not as +Peter and Paul<note place="foot">A possible reference to the presence of Peter and +Paul at Rome, but by no means certain, as epistolatory commands would fulfil the +conditions better. The connection of Peter with Rome, however, is very significant.</note> +do I issue commandments unto you. They +were Apostles, I a condemned man; they were free, I even +until now a slave.<note place="foot">It can not be concluded from this that Ignatius was +of servile condition. His journey to Rome in chains might be enough here to explain the +language, especially when the style of Ignatius is considered.</note> +But if I suffer, I shall be the freedman of +Jesus Christ, and shall rise again free in Him. And now, +being in bonds, I learn not to desire anything. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_9"/> +<head>§ 9. The Position of the Roman Community of Christians in the Church</head> + +<p> +The Roman Church took very early a leading place in the +Christian Church, even before the rise of the Petrine tradition, +and its importance was generally recognized. Its charity +was very widely known and extolled. It was a part of its +care for Christians everywhere, a care which found expression +later in the obligation of maintaining the faith in the great +theological controversies. On the position of the Roman +Church in this period, see the address of the Epistle of Ignatius +to the Romans (ANF, I, 73), as also the relation of Polycarp +<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/> +to the Roman Church in connection with the question of the +date of Easter (see <ref target="Section_38">§ 38</ref>, below). +</p> + +<div> +<head>Dionysius of Corinth, <q>Epistle to the Roman Church,</q> in +Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV, 23. (MSG, 20:388.) For text, see +Kirch, n. 49 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></head> + +<p> +Moreover, there is still current an Epistle of Dionysius to +the Romans, addressed to Soter, bishop at that time. But +there is nothing like quoting its words in which, in approval +of the custom of the Romans maintained until the persecution +in our own time, he writes as follows: <q>For you have +from the beginning this custom of doing good in different +ways to all the brethren, and of sending supplies to many +churches in all the cities, in this way refreshing the poverty +of those in need, and helping brethren in the mines with the +supplies which you have sent from the beginning, maintaining +as Romans the customs of the Romans handed down from +the fathers, which your blessed bishop Soter has not only +kept up, but also increased, helping the saints with the abundant +supply he sends from time to time, and with blessed +words exhorting, as a loving father his children, the brethren +who come up to the city.</q> In this same epistle he also mentions +the Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, showing that +from the first it was read by ancient custom before the Church. +He says, therefore: <q>To-day, then, being the Lord's day we +kept holy; in which we read your letter; for reading it we +shall always have admonition, as also from the former one +written to us through Clement.</q> Moreover, the same writer +speaks of his own epistles as having been falsified, as follows: +<q>For when the brethren asked me to write letters, I wrote +them. And these the apostles of the devil have filled with +tares, taking away some things and adding others. For them +there is woe in store. So it is not marvellous that some have +tried to falsify even the dominical scriptures [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the Holy +Scriptures], when they have conspired against writings of another +sort.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_10"/> +<head>§ 10. Chiliastic Expectations</head> + +<p> +Primitive Christianity was marked by great chiliastic enthusiasm, +traces of which may be found in the New Testament. +By chiliasm, strictly speaking, is meant the belief +that Christ was to return to earth and reign visibly for one +thousand years. That return was commonly placed in the +immediate future. With that reign was connected the bodily +resurrection of the saints. This belief, in somewhat varying +form, was one of the great ethical motives in apostolic and +post-apostolic times. It was a part of the fundamental +principles of Montanism. It disappeared with the rise of a +<q>scientific theology</q> such as that of Alexandria, the exclusion +of Montanism, and the changed conception of the +relation of the Church and the world, due to the lapse of +time and the establishment of Christianity as the religion +of the State. From the fourth century it ceased to be a +living doctrine. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Papias, in Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, +III, 39. (MSG, 20: 300.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Papias, from whom two selections have been taken, was bishop of +Hierapolis in Phrygia during the first part of the second century. He +was, therefore, an elder contemporary of Justin Martyr. His work, +<hi rend='italic'>The Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord</hi>, has perished, +with the exception +of a few fragments. The comments of Eusebius in introducing +the quotations of Papias are characteristic of the change that had come +over the Church since the post-apostolic period. That Papias was not +to be regarded as a man of small power simply because he held chiliastic +ideas is sufficiently refuted by the fact that Justin Martyr falls but +little behind Papias in extravagance of expression. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>I shall not hesitate, also, to set in order for you with my +interpretations whatsoever things I have ever learned carefully +from the elders and carefully remembered, guaranteeing +the truth of them.… For I did not think that what was to +be gotten from the books would profit me as much as what +came from the living and abiding voice.…</q> The same +writer gives also other accounts which he says came to him +<pb n='026'/><anchor id='Pg026'/> +through unwritten traditions, certain strange parables and +teachings of the Saviour and some other more mythical things. +Among these he says that there will be a period of some +thousand years after the resurrection of the dead, when the +kingdom of Christ will be set up in a material form on this +very earth. I suppose he got these ideas through a misunderstanding +of the apostolic accounts, not perceiving that the +things said by them were spoken mystically in figures. For +he appears to have been of very limited understanding, as +one can see from his discourses, though so many of the Church +Fathers after him adopted a like opinion, urging in their support +the antiquity of the man; as, for instance, Irenæus and +any one else that may have proclaimed similar views. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Irenæus. <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hæreses</hi>, V, 33. +(MSG, 7:1213.)</head> + +<p> +The elders who saw John, the disciple of the Lord, relate +that they heard from him how the Lord used to teach in +regard to those times, and say: <q>The days will come in +which vines shall grow, each having ten thousand branches, +and in each branch ten thousand twigs, and in each twig ten +thousand shoots, and in each one of the shoots ten thousand +clusters, and on every cluster ten thousand grapes, and every +grape when pressed will yield five-and-twenty metretes of +wine. And when any one of the saints shall lay hold of a +cluster, another shall cry out, <q>I am better cluster, take me; +bless the Lord through me.</q> In like manner [the Lord declared] +that a grain of wheat would produce ten thousand ears, and +that every ear would produce ten thousand grains, and every +grain would yield ten pounds of clear, pure, fine flour; and +that all other fruit-bearing trees, and seeds and grass would +produce similar proportions, and that all animals feeding [only] +on the productions of the earth would [in those days] become +peaceful and harmonious with each other and be in perfect +subjection to men.</q> And these things are borne witness to in +writing by Papias, the hearer of John, and a companion of +Polycarp, in his fourth book; for there were five books compiled +<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/> +by him. And he says in addition: <q>Now these things +are credible to believers.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Dialogus cum +Tryphone</hi>, 80 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> (MSG, 6:665.)</head> + +<p> +Ch. 80. Although you have fallen in with some who are +called Christians, but who do not admit this truth [the resurrection] +and venture to blaspheme the God of Abraham and +the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob,<note place="foot">Such were evidently Gnostics, +as shown by their rejection of the God of the Jews.</note> and who say that +there is no resurrection of the dead and that their souls, when +they die, are taken to heaven, be careful not to regard them +as Christians.… But I and whoever are on all points +right-minded Christians know that there will be a resurrection +of the dead and a thousand years in Jerusalem, which will +then be built, adorned, and enlarged as the prophets Ezekiel +and Isaiah and the others declare. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 81. And, further, a certain man with us, named John, +one of the Apostles of Christ, predicted by a revelation that +was made to him that those who believed in our Christ would +spend a thousand years in Jerusalem, and thereafter the general, +or to speak briefly, the eternal resurrection and judgment +of all men would likewise take place. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_11"/> +<head>§ 11. The Church and the World</head> + +<p> +So long as chiliastic expectations were the basis of the +Christian's hope and his judgment of the order of this present +world, the Christian felt that he was but a stranger and +sojourner in the world, and that his real home was the kingdom +of Christ, soon to be established here on earth. With such +a view the Christian would naturally define his relation to +the world as being in it, yet not of it. As time passed, the +opinion became more common that the kingdom of Christ +was not a future world-order to be set up on His return, but +the Church here on earth. This thought, which is the key to +<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/> +the <hi rend='italic'>City of God</hi> by St. Augustine, was not to be found in the +first century and a half of the Church. +</p> + +<div> +<head><hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Diognetum</hi>, 5, 6.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Epistle to Diognetus is one of the choicest pieces of ante-Nicene +literature. Although it is commonly included among the Apostolic +Fathers, the date is uncertain, it is anonymous, and the reason for its +inclusion is not clear. The weight of opinion is in favor of an early +date. It was preserved in but one manuscript, which was unfortunately +destroyed in 1870. The main themes of the epistle are the faith and +manners of the Christians, and an attempt to explain the late appearance +of Christianity in the world. The work, therefore, is of the nature +of an apology, and should be compared with <hi rend='italic'>The Apology of +Aristides</hi>. A translation of the epistle may be found in ANF, I, 23. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 5. The Christians are distinguished from other men +neither by country, nor language, nor the customs which they +observe. For they neither inhabit cities of their own, nor +employ a peculiar form of speech, nor lead a life which is +marked out by any singularity. The course of conduct which +they follow has not been devised by any speculation or deliberation +of inquisitive men; nor do they, like some, proclaim +themselves the advocates of any merely human doctrines. +But, inhabiting Greek as well as barbarian cities, according +as the lot of each of them has been determined, and following +the customs of the natives in respect to clothing, food, and +the rest of their ordinary conduct, they display to us their +wonderful and confessedly striking method of life. They +dwell in their own countries, but simply as sojourners. As +citizens, they share in all things with others, and yet endure +all things as if foreigners. Every foreign country is to them +as their native land, and every land of their birth as a land of +strangers. They marry as do all; they beget children; but +they do not commit abortion. They have a common table, +but not a common bed. They are in the flesh, but they do not +live after the flesh. They pass their days on earth, but they +are the citizens of heaven. They obey the prescribed laws, +and at the same time surpass the laws by their lives. They +love all men, and are persecuted by all. They are unknown +<pb n='029'/><anchor id='Pg029'/> +and condemned; they are put to death and restored to life. +They are poor, yet they make many rich; they are in lack of +all things, and yet abound in all. They are dishonored, and +yet in their very dishonor are glorified. They are evil-spoken +of, and yet are justified. They are reviled and bless; they are +insulted and repay insult with honor; they do good, yet are +punished as evil-doers. When punished they rejoice as if +quickened into life; they are assailed by the Jews as foreigners +and are persecuted by the Greeks; yet those who hate them +are unable to assign a reason for their hatred. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 6. What the soul is in the body, that the Christians +are in the world. The soul is spread through all the members +of the body, and Christians through the cities of the world. +The soul dwells in the body, but is not of the body; so +Christians dwell in the world, but they are not of the world. +The invisible soul is guarded in the visible body; so Christians +are known as existing in the world, but their religion +remains invisible. The flesh hates the soul and wages war +on it, though it has received no wrong, because it is forbidden +to indulge in pleasures; so the world hates Christians, though +it receives no wrong from them, because they are opposed +to its pleasures. The soul loves the flesh which hates it, and +it loves the members; so Christians love those who hate +them. The soul is enclosed in the body, yet itself holds the +body together; so the Christians are kept in the world as in +a prison-house, yet they themselves hold the world together. +The immortal soul dwells in a mortal tabernacle; so Christians +sojourn amid corruptible things, looking for the incorruptibility +in the heavens. The soul when hardly treated in +the matter of meats and drinks is improved; so Christians +when punished increase more and more daily. In so great +an office has God appointed them, which it is not lawful for +them to decline. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_12"/> +<head>§ 12. Theological Ideas</head> + +<p> +In the post-apostolic period are to be traced the beginnings +of distinctive forms of religious and ethical ideas as distinguished +from mere repetition of New Testament phrases. +The most influential writer was Ignatius of Antioch, the +founder, or earliest representative, of what may be called the +Asia Minor theology, which is to be traced through Irenæus, +Methodius, and Athanasius to the other great theologians +of the Nicene period, becoming the distinctive Eastern type +of piety. It probably persisted in Asia Minor after Ignatius. +Among its characteristic features was the thought of redemption +as the imparting to man of incorruptibility through the +incarnation and the sacraments. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Ignatius, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Ephesios</hi>, 18 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Epistle to the Ephesians is doctrinally the most important of +the writings of Ignatius. In the passage that follows there is a remarkable +anticipation of a part of the Apostles' Creed (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Hahn. § 1). +The whole passage contains in brief the fundamental point of the +writer's teachings. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 18. My spirit is an offering<note place="foot">Piaculum.</note> +of the cross, which is +a stumbling-block to unbelievers, but to us salvation and +life eternal. <q>Where is the wise man? where the disputer?</q> +[I Cor. 1:20.] Where is the boasting of those called prudent? +For our God, Jesus Christ, was, according to the dispensation +of God, conceived in the womb of Mary of the seed of David, +but of the Holy Ghost. He was born and baptized, that by +His passion He might purify the water. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 19. And the virginity of Mary was hidden from the +Prince of this World, and her bringing forth, and likewise the +death of the Lord; three mysteries of shouting, which were +wrought in silence of God. How, then, was He manifested to +the world? A star shone forth from heaven above all other +stars, and its light was inexpressible, while its novelty struck +<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/> +men with astonishment, but all the rest of the stars, with the +sun and moon, formed a chorus to this star, and its light was +exceedingly great above them all. And there was agitation +whence this novelty, so unlike to everything else. Hence +every kind of magic was destroyed and every bond of wickedness +disappeared; ignorance was removed and the old kingdom +abolished, for God had been manifested in human form +for the renewal of eternal life. And now that took a beginning +which had been prepared by God. Henceforth all things were +in a state of tumult because He meditated the abolition of +death. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 20. … Especially [will I write again] if the Lord +make known to me that ye all, man by man, through grace +given to each, agree in one faith and in Jesus Christ, who was +of the family of David according to the flesh, the Son of Man +and the Son of God, so that ye obey the bishop and the presbytery +with an undivided mind, breaking one bread, which +is the medicine of immortality, and the antidote to prevent +dying, but which is life forever in Jesus Christ. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Ignatius, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Smyrnæos</hi>, +7.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passage may be regarded as a parallel to part of the +preceding extract from the same writer's Epistle to the Ephesians. +</quote> + +<p> +They abstain from the eucharist and from prayer, because +they confess not that the eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour +Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the +Father, of His goodness, raised up again. Those, therefore, +who speak against this gift of God, die while disputing. But +it were better for them to love it, that they also may rise again. +It is fitting, therefore, that ye should keep aloof from such +persons, and not speak of them either in private or public, +but to give heed to the prophets and, above all, to the Gospel, +in which the passion has been revealed to us and the resurrection +fully proved. But avoid all divisions as the beginning +of evils. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Ignatius, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Trallianos</hi>, 9, +10.</head> + +<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The heresy which the writer fears is that known as Docetism, which +denied the reality of the body of Jesus. Reference is made to it in the +New Testament, I John 4:2. It was based upon the same philosophical +idea as much of the later Gnostic speculation, that matter is +essentially evil, and therefore a pure spirit could not be united to a +real body composed of matter. See J. B. Lightfoot, +<hi rend='italic'>Apostolic Fathers</hi>, pt. II, vol. II, p. 173 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 9. Be ye therefore deaf when any one speaks to you +apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the race of David, who +was born of Mary, who was truly born and ate and drank, +who was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, who was truly +crucified and died while those in heaven and those on earth +and those under the earth looked on; who, also, was truly +raised from the dead, His Father having raised Him, who in +like fashion will raise us who believe in Him; His Father, +I say, will raise us in Christ Jesus, apart from whom we have +not true life. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 10. But if it were as certain persons who are godless, +that is, unbelievers, say, that He only appeared to suffer, they +themselves being only in appearance, why am I bound? +And why, also, do I desire to fight with wild beasts? I therefore +die in vain. Truly, then, I lie against the Lord. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_13"/> +<head>§ 13. Worship in the Post-Apostolic Period</head> + +<p> +The worship of the Christian Church in the earliest period +centred in the eucharist. There are references to this in the +New Testament (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Acts 2:42; 20:7; I Cor. 10:16). How +far the agape was connected with the eucharist is uncertain. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: See Pliny's letter to Trajan (<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_7">§ 7</ref>); the selections from Ignatius already given +(<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_12">§ 12</ref>) +and the <hi rend='italic'>Didache</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_14">§ 14</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi>). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apologia</hi>, I, 61:65-67. (MSG, 6:428 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 18.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <hi rend='italic'>First Apology</hi> of Justin Martyr was written probably about +150. As Justin's work is dated, and is of indisputable authenticity, his +account of the early worship of the Christians is of the very first importance. +<pb n='033'/><anchor id='Pg033'/> +It should be noted, however, that, inasmuch as he is writing for +non-Christians, he uses no technical terms in his description, and therefore +nothing can be determined as to the exact significance of the titles +he applies to the presiding officer at the eucharist. The following +passage is of importance, also, as a witness to the custom of reading, +in the course of Christian public worship, books that appear to be the +Gospels. Irenæus, thirty years later, limits the number of the Gospels +to four, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_28">§ 28</ref>. +On the eucharist, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_33">§ 33</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 61. But I will explain the manner in which we who +have been made new through Christ have also dedicated ourselves +to God, lest by passing it over I should seem in any way +to be unfair in my explanation. As many as are persuaded +and believe that the things are true which are taught and said +by us, and promise that they are able to live accordingly, +they are taught to pray and with fasting to ask God forgiveness +of their former sins, while we pray and fast with them. +Thereupon they are brought by us to where there is water, +and are born again in the same manner of a new birth as we, +also, ourselves were born again. For in the name of God the +Father and Lord of all, and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, and of +the Holy Spirit, they then receive the washing in the water. +For Christ said: <q>Except ye be born again, ye shall not enter +into the kingdom of heaven.</q> But that it is impossible for +those once born to enter into the wombs of their mothers is +manifest to all.… And this washing is called enlightenment, +because those who learn these things have their understandings +enlightened. But, also, in the name of Jesus Christ who was +crucified under Pontius Pilate, and in the name of the Holy +Spirit who by the prophets foretold all things pertaining to +Jesus, he who is illuminated is washed. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 65. But after we have thus washed him who is persuaded +and has assented, we bring him to those who are called +the brethren, to where they are gathered together, making +earnest prayer in common for ourselves and for him who is +enlightened, and for all others everywhere, that we may be +accounted worthy, after we have learned the truth, by our +works also to be found right livers and keepers of the +<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/> +commandments, that we may be saved with the eternal salvation. +We salute each other with a kiss when we conclude +our prayers. Thereupon to the president of the brethren +bread and a cup of water and wine are brought, and he takes +it and offers up praise and glory to the Father of the universe +through the name of the Son and the Holy Spirit, and +gives thanks at length that we have been accounted worthy +of these things from Him; and when he has ended the prayers +and thanksgiving the whole people present assent, saying +<q>Amen.</q> Now the word Amen in the Hebrew language +signifies, So be it. Then after the president has given thanks +and all the people have assented, those who are called by +us deacons give to each one of those present to partake of +the bread and of the wine and water for which thanks have +been given, and for those not present they take away a +portion. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 66. And this food is called by us eucharist, and it is +not lawful for any man to partake of it but him who believes +the things taught by us to be true, and has been washed with +the washing which is for the remission of sins and unto a new +birth, and is so living as Christ commanded. For not as +common bread and common drink do we receive these; but +just as Jesus Christ our Saviour, being made flesh through +the word of God, had for our salvation both flesh and blood, +so, also, we are taught that the food for which thanks are given +by the word of prayer which is from Him, and from which by +conversion our flesh and blood are nourished, is the flesh and +blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. For the Apostles +in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels, +thus delivered what was commanded them: that Jesus took +bread and gave thanks and said, This do in remembrance of +Me, this is My body; and that He likewise took the cup, +and when He had given thanks, said, This is My blood, and +gave only to them. And this the evil demons imitating, commanded +it to be done also in the mysteries of Mithras; for +that bread and a cup of water are set forth with certain explanations +<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/> +in the ceremonial of initiation, you either know or +can learn. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 67. But we afterward always remind one another of +these things, and those among us who are wealthy help all +who are in want, and we always remain together. And for +all things we eat we bless the Maker of all things through His +Son Jesus Christ and through the Holy Spirit. And on the +day called the Day of the Sun there is a gathering in one +place of us all who live in cities or in the country, and the +memoirs of the Apostles or the writings of the prophets are +read as long as time allows. Then, when the reader has ceased, +the president gives by word of mouth his admonition and +exhortation to imitate these excellent things. Afterward we +all rise at once and offer prayers; and as I said, when we have +ceased to pray, bread is brought and wine and water, and the +president likewise offers up prayers and thanksgivings as he +has the ability, and the people assent, saying <q>Amen.</q> The +distribution to each and the partaking of that for which thanks +were given then take place; and to those not present a portion +is sent by the hands of the deacons. Those who are well-to-do +and willing give, every one giving what he will, according to +his own judgment, and the collection is deposited with the +president, and he assists orphans and widows, and those who +through sickness or any other cause are in want, and those +who are in bonds, and the strangers that are sojourning, and, +in short, he has the care of all that are in need. Now we all +hold our common meeting on the Day of the Sun, because it +is the first day on which God, having changed the darkness +and matter, created the world; and Jesus Christ our Saviour +on the same day rose from the dead. For on the day before +Saturn's they crucified Him; and on the day after Saturn's, +which is the Day of the Sun, having appeared to his Apostles +and disciples, He taught them these things which we have +offered you for consideration. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_14"/> +<head>§ 14. Church Organization</head> + +<p> +No subject in Church history has been more hotly discussed +than the organization of the primitive Christian Church. +Each of several Christian confessions have attempted to justify +a polity which it regarded as <hi rend='italic'>de fide</hi> by appeal to the +organization of the Church of the primitive ages. Since +it has been seen that the admission of the principle of development +does not invalidate claims for divine warrant for a +polity, the acrimonious debate has been somewhat stilled. +There seems to have been in the Church several forms of +organization, and to some extent the various contentions of +conflicting creeds and polities have been therein justified. The +ultimately universal form, episcopacy, may in some parts of +the Church be traced to the end of the apostolic age, but it +seems not to have been universally diffused at that time. +Since Christian communities sprang up without official propaganda, +at least in many instances, and were due to the +work of independent Christian believers moving about in the +Empire, this variety of organization was what might have been +expected, especially as the significance of the organization +was first felt chiefly in connection with the danger from heresy. +That various external influences affected the development +is also highly probable. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Clement of Rome, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Corinthios</hi>, I, 42, 44.</head> + +<p> +Ch. 42. The Apostles have preached the Gospel to us +from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ was sent forth +from God. Christ, therefore, was from God, and the Apostles +from Christ. Both these appointments, then, came about in +an orderly way, by the will of God. Having, therefore, received +their orders, and being fully assured by the resurrection +of our Lord Jesus Christ, and established in the word of God, +with full assurance of the Holy Ghost, they went forth proclaiming +that the kingdom of God was at hand. And thus +preaching through countries and cities, they appointed their +<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/> +first-fruits, having proved them by the Spirit, to be bishops +and deacons of those who should afterward believe. Nor +was this a new thing; for, indeed, many ages before it was +written concerning bishops and deacons. For thus saith the +Scripture in a certain place: <q>I will appoint their bishops in +righteousness, and their deacons in faith.</q><note place="foot">Clement alters the +passage slightly; see Is. 60:17.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 44. Our Apostles also knew, through our Lord Jesus +Christ, that there would be strife on account of the office of +the episcopate.<note place="foot">The Greek is ἐπισκοπή +(<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">episcopē</foreign>), +meaning primarily <q>oversight.</q></note> For this cause, therefore, inasmuch as they +had obtained a perfect foreknowledge of this, they appointed +those already mentioned, and afterward gave instructions +that when these should fall asleep other approved men should +succeed them in their ministry. We are of the opinion, +therefore, that those appointed by them, or afterward by +other eminent men, with the consent of the whole Church, +and who have blamelessly served the flock of Christ in lowliness +of mind, peaceably, and with all modesty, and for a long +time have borne a good report with all—these men we consider +to be unjustly thrust out of their ministrations.<note place="foot">This seems to be the +occasion for this letter to the Corinthians. As they +appear to be several, they correspond to presbyters rather than to bishops, and the use +of the term <q>presbyters</q> in the passage sustains this interpretation.</note> For +it will be no light sin for us, if we thrust out those who have +offered the gifts of the bishop's office blamelessly and holily. +Blessed are those presbyters who have gone before seeing +their departure was fruitful and ripe; for they have no fear +lest any one should remove them from their appointed place. +For we see that ye have displaced certain persons, though +they were living honorably, from the ministration which had +been honored by them blamelessly. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_14_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Didache</hi>, 7-15.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">Didache</foreign> is a very early manual +of the instruction for Christian +converts. It consists of two quite distinct parts, viz., a brief account +of the moral law (chapters 1-6). which appears to be based upon a Jewish +original to which the name of <hi rend='italic'>The Two Ways</hi> has been given, and a +<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/> +somewhat longer account of the various rites of the Church and the +regulations governing its organization. Its date is in the first half of +the second century and belongs more probably to the first quarter +than to the second. It is a document of first-class importance, especially +in the part bearing on the organization of the Church, which is +here given. The extensive literature on the subject may be found in +Krüger. <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, § 21. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 7. But concerning baptism, thus shall ye baptize. +Having first recited all these things, baptize in the name of +the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit in living +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, running] water. But if thou hast not living water, then +baptize in any other water; and if thou art not able in cold, +in warm. But if thou hast neither, pour water upon the head +thrice in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the +Holy Spirit. But before baptism let him that baptizeth and +him that is baptized fast, and any others also who are able; +and thou shalt order him that is baptized to fast a day or two +before. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 8. And let not your fastings be with the hypocrites. +For they fast on the second and the fifth days of the week; +but do ye keep your fast on the fourth and on the preparation +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the sixth day]. Neither pray ye as the hypocrites, +but as the Lord commanded in His Gospel, thus pray ye: +Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name; Thy +kingdom come; Thy will be done, as in heaven, so also on +earth; give us this day our daily<note place="foot">The word rendered daily is +ἐπιοὑσιον, the same as that used in Matt. 6:11.</note> bread; and forgive us +our debt, as we also forgive our debtors; and lead us not into +temptation, but deliver us from the Evil One; for Thine is +the power and the glory forever.<note place="foot">Note the doxology also at the end of +the other prayers.</note> Three times in the day +pray ye so. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 9. But as regards the eucharist [thanksgiving], give +ye thanks thus. First, as regards the cup: We give Thee +thanks, O our Father, for the holy vine of David, Thy Son, +which Thou madest known unto us through Jesus, Thy Son; +Thine is the glory forever. Then as regards the breaking +<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/> +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, of the bread]: We give thanks to Thee, O our Father, +for the life and knowledge which thou madest known unto us +through Jesus, Thy Son; Thine is the glory forever. As +this broken bread was scattered upon the mountains and +being gathered together became one, so may Thy Church be +gathered together from the ends of the earth into Thy kingdom; +for Thine is the glory and the power through Jesus +Christ for ever and ever. But let no one eat or drink of this +eucharist [thanksgiving] but they that have been baptized +into the name of the Lord; for concerning this also the Lord +hath said: Give not that which is holy unto the dogs. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 10. After ye are satisfied give thanks thus: We give +Thee thanks, Holy Father, for Thy holy name, which Thou +hast made to tabernacle in our hearts, and for the knowledge +and faith and immortality, which Thou hast made known unto +us through Thy Son Jesus; Thine is the glory forever. Thou, +Almighty Master, created all things for Thy name's sake, and +gave food and drink unto men for enjoyment, that they might +render thanks to Thee; but bestowed upon us spiritual food +and drink and eternal life through Thy Son. Before all +things we give Thee thanks that Thou art powerful; Thine +is the glory forever. Remember, Lord, Thy Church to deliver +it from all evil and to perfect it in Thy love; and gather it +together from the four winds—even the Church which has +been sanctified—into Thy kingdom which Thou hast prepared +for it; for Thine is the power and the glory forever. +May grace come and may this world pass away. Hosanna to +the God of David. If any one is holy let him come; if any +one is not, let him repent. Maran Atha. Amen. But permit +the prophets to offer thanksgiving as much as they will. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 11. Whosoever, therefore, shall come and teach you +all these things that have been said receive him; but if the +teacher himself be perverted and teach a different doctrine +to the destruction thereof, hear him not; but if to the increase +of righteousness and knowledge of the Lord, receive him as +the Lord. +</p> + +<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/> + +<p> +But concerning the apostles and prophets, so do ye according +to the ordinance of the Gospel: Let every apostle coming +to you be received as the Lord; but he shall not abide more +than a single day, or if there be need, a second likewise; but +if he abide three days, he is a false prophet. And when he +departs, let not the apostle receive anything save bread +until he find shelter; but if he ask money, he is a false prophet. +And any prophet speaking in the Spirit ye shall not try, +neither discern; for every sin shall be forgiven, but this sin +shall not be forgiven. Yet not every one that speaketh in +the Spirit is a prophet, but only if he have the ways of the +Lord. From his ways, therefore, the false prophet and the +[true] prophet shall be recognized. And no prophet when he +ordereth a table in the Spirit shall eat of it; otherwise he is +a false prophet.<note place="foot">The sense is: If a prophet speaking in the Spirit +commands a meal to be prepared for the poor and should himself eat of it, it would be +apparent that he ordered it for himself. But if he eats he must be a false prophet.</note> +And every prophet teaching the truth, if +he doeth not what he teacheth, is a false prophet. And every +prophet approved and found true, working unto a worldly +mystery of the Church,<note place="foot">A most difficult and obscure passage. Various +interpretations have been proposed; see the various editions of the Apostolic Fathers, +especially Funk's. The rendering here given is strictly literal.</note> +and yet teacheth not to do what +he himself doeth, shall not be judged before you; he hath his +judgment in the presence of God; for in like manner also +did the ancient prophets. And whosoever shall say in the +Spirit, Give me silver or anything else, do not listen to him; +but if he say to give on behalf of others who are in want, let +no one judge him. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 12. But let every one coming in the name of the Lord +be received; and when ye have tested him ye shall know him, +for ye shall have understanding on the right hand and on the +left. If the comer is a traveller, assist him as ye are able; but +let him not stay with you but for two or three days, if it be +necessary. But if he wishes to settle with you, being a craftsman, +let him work and eat. But if he has no craft, according +<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/> +to your wisdom provide how without idleness he shall live +as a Christian among you. If he will not do this, he is trafficking +upon Christ. Beware of such men. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 13. But every true prophet desiring to settle among +you is worthy of his food. In like manner, a true teacher is +also worthy, like the workman, of his food. Every first-fruit, +then, of the produce of the wine-vat and of the threshing-floor, +of thy oxen and of thy sheep, thou shalt take and give as the +first-fruit to the prophets; for they are your chief priests. +But if ye have not a prophet, give them to the poor. If thou +makest bread, take the first-fruit and give according to the +commandment. In like manner, when thou openest a jar of +wine or oil, take the first-fruit and give to the prophets; yea, +and of money and raiment and every possession take the first-fruit, +as shall seem good to thee, and give according to the +commandment. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 14. And on the Lord's day gather yourselves together +and break bread and give thanks, first confessing your transgressions, +that your sacrifice may be pure. And let no man +having a dispute with his fellow join your assembly until +they have been reconciled, that your sacrifice may not be +defiled; for this is the sacrifice spoken of by the Lord: In +every place and at every time offer me a pure sacrifice; for I +am a great king, saith the Lord, and my name is wonderful +among the nations. [Mal. 1:11, 14.] +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 15. Appoint [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, lay hands on], therefore, for yourselves +bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord, men meek, not +lovers of money, truthful, and approved; for they also render +you the service of prophets and teachers. Despise them not, +therefore, for they are your honored ones together with the +prophets and teachers. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_14_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Ignatius, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Trallianos</hi>, 2, +3.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For Ignatius, see <ref target="Section_8">§ 8</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. For since ye are subject to the bishop as Jesus Christ, +ye appear to me to live not after the manner of men, but +<pb n='042'/><anchor id='Pg042'/> +according to Jesus Christ, who died for us, in order that by +believing in His death ye may escape death. It is therefore +necessary that just as ye indeed do, so without the bishop +ye should do nothing, but should also be subject to the presbytery, +as to the Apostles of Jesus Christ, our Hope, living +in whom we shall be found [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, at the last]. It is right, also, +that the deacons, being [ministers] of the mysteries of Jesus +Christ, should in every respect be well-pleasing to all. For +they are not the ministers of meats and drinks, but servants +of the Church of God. It is necessary, therefore, that they +guard themselves from all grounds of accusation as they would +from fire. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. In like manner, let all reverence the deacons as Jesus +Christ, as also the bishop, who is a type of the Father, and the +presbyters as the sanhedrim of God and the assembly of the +Apostles. Apart from these there is no Church. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Ignatius, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Smyrnæos</hi>, +8.</head> + +<p> +See that ye follow the bishop as Jesus Christ does the +Father, and the presbyters as ye would the Apostles; and reverence +the deacons as a commandment of God. Without the +bishop let no one do any of those things connected with the +Church. Let that be deemed a proper eucharist which is +administered either by the bishop or by him to whom he has +intrusted it. Wherever the bishop shall appear there let +also the multitude be, even as wherever Jesus Christ is there +is the Catholic Church. It is not lawful without the bishop +either to baptize or to make an agape. But whatsoever he +shall approve that is also pleasing to God, so that everything +that is done may be secure and valid. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_15"/> +<head>§ 15. Church Discipline</head> + +<p> +The Church was the company of the saints. How far, then, +could the Church tolerate in its midst those who had committed +serious offences against the moral law? A case had +occurred in the Corinthian church about which St. Paul had +<pb n='043'/><anchor id='Pg043'/> +given some instructions to the Christians of that city (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +I Cor. 5:3-5; II Cor. 13:10). There was the idea current +that sins after baptism admitted of no pardon and involved +permanent exclusion from the Church (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Heb. 10:26). A +distinction was also made as to sins whereby some were +regarded as <q>sins unto death</q> and not admitting of pardon +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> I John 5:16). In principle, the exclusion from the Church +of those who had committed gross sins was recognized, but +as the Church grew it soon became a serious question as to +the extent to which this strict discipline could be enforced. +We find, therefore, a well-defined movement toward relaxing +this rigor of the law. The beginning appears in Hermas, +who admits the possibility of one repentance after baptism. +A special problem was presented from the first by the difference +between the conceptions of marriage held by the Christians +and by the heathen. The Church very early took the +position that marriage in some sense was indissoluble, that +so long as both parties to a marriage lived, neither could +marry again, but after the death of one party the surviving +spouse could remarry, although this second marriage was +looked upon with some disfavor. Both the idea of a second +repentance and the idea of the indissolubility of marriage are +expressed in the following extract from Hermas: +</p> + +<div> +<head>Hermas, <hi rend='italic'>Pastor</hi>, Man. IV, I, 3.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Hermas wrote in the second century. Opinions have varied as to +his date, some putting him near the beginning, some near the middle +of the century. The weight of opinion seems to be that he lived +shortly before 150. His work entitled <hi rend='italic'>The Pastor</hi> is in the form of +revelations, and was therefore thought to partake of an inspiration +similar to that of Holy Scripture. This naturally gave it a place +among Scriptures for a while and accounts for the great popularity of +the work in the early Church. It is the best example of an extensive +apocalyptic literature which flourished in the Church in the first two +centuries. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 1. If the husband should not take her back [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the +penitent wife who has committed adultery] he sins, and +brings a great sin upon himself; for he ought to take back +<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/> +her who has sinned and repented; but not frequently; for +there is but one repentance to the servants of God [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, after +becoming the servants of God]. On account of her repentance +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, because she may repent, and therefore should be +taken back] the husband ought not to marry. This treatment +applies to the woman and to the man. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. And I said to him: <q>I should like to continue my +questions.</q> <q>Speak on,</q> said he. And I said: <q>I have +heard, sir, from some teachers that there is no other repentance +than that when we descend into the water and receive +remission of our former sins.</q> He said to me: <q>Thou hast +well heard, for so it is. For he who has received remission of +his sins ought to sin no more, but to live in purity. Since, +however, you inquire diligently into all things, I will point +out this also to you, not as giving occasion for error to those +who are to believe, or have lately believed, in the Lord. For +those who have now believed and those who are to believe +have not repentance of their sins, but they have remission +of their former sins. For to those who have been called before +these days the Lord has set repentance. For the Lord, who +knows the heart and foreknows all things, knew the weakness +of men and the manifold wiles of the devil, that he would +inflict some evil on the servants of God and would act wickedly +against them. The Lord, therefore, being merciful, has +had mercy on the works of His hands and has set repentance +for them; and has intrusted to me the power over this repentance. +And therefore I say unto you,</q> he said, <q>that if after +that great and holy calling any one is tempted by the devil +and sins, he has one repentance. But if thereupon he should +sin and then repent, to such a man his repentance is of no +benefit; for with difficulty will he live.</q><note place="foot">This passage is quoted +at length by Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Stromata</hi>, II, 12, +13.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_16"/> +<head>§ 16. Moral Ideas in the Post-Apostolic Period</head> + +<p> +Christians were convinced that their religion made the +highest possible moral demands upon them. They were to +live in the world, but remain uncontaminated by it (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +<hi rend='italic'>supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_11">§ 11</ref>). This belief +even candid heathen were sometimes forced to admit (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +Pliny's correspondence with Trajan, <hi rend='italic'>supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_7">§ 7</ref>). The morality of the Christians and the loftiness +of their ethical code were common features in the apologies +which began to appear in the post-apostolic period (<hi rend='italic'>cf. The +Apology of Aristides, infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_20_a">§ 20, +<hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>). Christianity was a revealed +code of morals, by the observance of which men might +escape the fires of hell and obtain the bliss of immortality +(<ref target="Section_16_a"><hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>) +(<hi rend='italic'>cf. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_30">§ 30</ref>). At the same time there was developed +a tendency toward asceticism, by which a higher excellence +might be obtained than the law required of ordinary Christians +(<hi rend='italic'><ref target="Section_16_b">b</ref>, +<ref target="Section_16_c">c</ref></hi>). +This higher morality was not without its compensations; +superior merit was recognized by God, and was +accordingly rewarded; it might even be applied to offset sins +committed (<hi rend='italic'><ref target="Section_16_d">d</ref>, +<ref target="Section_16_e">e</ref></hi>). This last idea is to be traced to the book +of Tobit (cf. also James 5:20; I Peter 4:8). The fuller +development is to be found in the theology of Tertullian and +Cyprian (v. <hi rend='italic'>infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_39">§ 39</ref>). +</p> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_16_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apologia</hi>, I, 10, +12. (MSG, 6:339, 342.)</head> + +<p> +Ch. 10. We have received by tradition that God does not +need man's material offerings, since we see that He himself +provides all things. And we have been taught, have been +convinced, and do believe that He accepts only those who +imitate the virtues which reside in Him, temperance and justice +and philanthropy, and as many virtues as are peculiar +to a God who is called by no given name. And we have been +taught that He in the beginning, since He is good, did for +man's sake create all things out of unformed matter; and if +men by their works show themselves worthy of His design, +they are deemed worthy, for so we have received, of reigning +<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/> +in company with Him, having become incorruptible and incapable +of suffering. For as in the beginning He created us +when we were not, so we consider that, in like manner, those +who choose what is pleasing to Him are, on account of their +choice, deemed worthy of incorruption and of fellowship with +Him. For the coming into being at first was not in our power; +and in order that we may follow those things which please Him, +choosing them by means of the rational faculties with which +He has himself endowed us, He both persuades us and leads +us to faith.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 12. And more than all other men are we your helpers +and allies in promoting peace; for we are of the opinion that +it is impossible for the wicked, or the covetous, or the conspirator, +or the virtuous to escape the notice of God, and +that each man goes to eternal punishment or salvation +according to the deserts of his actions. For if all men knew +this, no one would choose wickedness, even for a little time, +knowing that he goes to the eternal punishment of fire; but +he would in every respect restrain himself and adorn himself +with virtue, that he might obtain the good gifts of God and +escape punishment. For those who, on account of the laws +and punishments you impose, endeavor when they offend to +escape detection, offend thinking that it is possible to escape +your detection, since you are but men; but if they learned +and were convinced that it is not possible that anything, +whether actually done or only intended, should escape the +notice of God, they would live decently in every respect, on +account of the penalties threatened, as even you yourselves +will admit. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_16_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Didache</hi>, 6. +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 13.</head> + +<p> +See that no one cause thee to err from this way of the +teaching, since apart from God it teacheth thee. For if thou +art able to bear all the yoke of the Lord, thou wilt be perfect; +but if thou art not able, do what thou art able. And concerning +foods, bear what thou art able; but against that which +<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/> +is sacrificed to idols be exceedingly on thy guard; for it is +the service of dead gods. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_16_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Hermas, <hi rend='italic'>Pastor</hi>, Man. IV, +4.</head> + +<p> +And again I asked him, saying: <q>Sir, since you have been +so patient with me, will you show me this also?</q> <q>Speak,</q> +said he. And I said: <q>If a wife or husband die, and the widow +or widower marry, does he or she commit sin?</q> <q>There is +no sin in marrying again,</q> said he; <q>but if they remain unmarried, +they gain greater honor and glory with the Lord; +but if they marry, they do not sin. Guard, therefore, your +chastity and purity and you will live to God. What commandments +I now give you, and what I am to give you, keep +from henceforth, yea, from the very day when you were intrusted +to me, and I will dwell in your house. And your +former sins will be forgiven, if you keep my commandments. +And to all there is forgiveness if they keep these my commandments +and walk in this chastity.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_16_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Clement of Rome, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Corinthios</hi>, II, 4, 16.</head> + +<p> +Ch. 4. Let us, then, not call Him Lord, for that will not +save us. For He saith: <q>Not every one that saith to me, +Lord, Lord, shall be saved, but he that worketh righteousness.</q> +Wherefore, brethren, let us confess Him by our works, by loving +one another, by not committing adultery, or speaking evil +of one another, or cherishing envy; but by being continent, +compassionate, and good. We ought also to sympathize with +one another, and not be avaricious. By such works let us +confess Him, and not by those that are of an opposite kind. +And it is not fitting that we should fear men, but rather God. +For this reason, if we should do such things, the Lord hath +said: <q>Even though ye were gathered together to me in my +very bosom, yet if ye were not to keep my commandments, I +would cast you off, and say unto you. Depart from me; I +know you not, whence ye are, ye workers of iniquity.</q><note place="foot">The first +part of this quotation has not been identified; the conclusion is +Matt. 7:23.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/> + +<p> +Ch. 16. So then, brethren, having received no small occasion +to repent, while we have opportunity, let us turn to God, +who called us while we yet have One to receive us. For if +we renounce these indulgences and conquer the soul by not +fulfilling its wicked desires, we shall be partakers of the mercy +of Jesus. Know ye not that the day of judgment draweth +nigh like a burning oven, and certain of the heavens and all +the earth will melt, like lead melting in fire; and then will +appear the hidden and manifest deeds of men? Good, then, +are alms as repentance from sin; better is fasting than prayer, +and alms than both; <q>charity covereth a multitude of sins,</q> +and prayer out of a good conscience delivereth from death. +Blessed is every one that shall be found complete in these; +for alms lighten the burden of sin. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_16_e"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Hermas, <hi rend='italic'>Pastor</hi>, Sim. V, 3.</head> + +<p> +<q>If you do anything good beyond the commandment of +God, you will gain for yourself more abundant glory, and +will be more honored before God than you would otherwise +be. If, therefore, you keep the commandments of God and +do these services, you will have joy if you observe them according +to my commandment.</q> I said unto him: <q>Sir, whatsoever +you command me I will observe; for I know that +you are with me.</q> <q>I will be with you,</q> he said, <q>because +you have such a desire for doing good; I will be with all those,</q> +he said, <q>who have such a desire. This fasting,</q> he continued, +<q>is very good, provided the commandments of the Lord +be observed. Thus, then, shall you observe the fast which +you intend to keep. First of all, be on your guard against +every evil word and every evil desire, and purify your heart +from all the vanities of this world. If you guard against +these things, your fasting will be perfect. But do thus: having +fulfilled what is written, during the day on which you fast +you will taste nothing but bread and water; and having +reckoned up the price of the dishes of that day which you +intended to have eaten, you will give it to a widow, an orphan, +<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/> +or to some one in want, and thus you will be humble-minded, +so that he who has received benefit from your humility may +fill his own soul and pray to the Lord for you. If you observe +fasting as I have commanded you, your sacrifice will be +acceptable to God, and this fasting will be written down; and +the service thus performed is noble and sacred and acceptable +to the Lord.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Period III. The Critical Period: A. D. 140 to A. D. 200</head> + +<p> +The interval between the close of the post-apostolic age +and the end of the second century, or from about 140 to 200, +may be called the Critical Period of Ancient Christianity. +In this period there grew up conceptions of Christianity +which were felt by the Church, as a whole, to be fundamentally +opposed to its essential spirit and to constitute a serious +menace to the Christian faith as it had been commonly +received. These conceptions, which grew up both alongside +of, and within the Church, have been grouped under the +term Gnosticism, a generic term including many widely +divergent types of teaching and various interpretations of +Christian doctrine in the light of Oriental speculation. There +were also reactionary and reformatory movements which were +generally felt to be out of harmony with the development +upon which Christian thought and life had already entered; +such were Montanism and Marcionism. To overcome these +tendencies and movements the Christian churches in the +various parts of the Roman Empire were forced, on the one +hand, to develop more completely such ecclesiastical institutions +as would defend what was commonly regarded as the +received faith, and, on the other hand, to pass from a condition +in which the various Christian communities existed in +isolated autonomy to some form of organization whereby the +spiritual unity of the Church might become visible and better +able to strengthen the several members of that Church in +dealing with theological and administrative problems. The +Church, accordingly, acquired in the Critical Period the +<pb n='051'/><anchor id='Pg051'/> +fundamental form of its creed, as an authoritative expression +of belief; the episcopate, as a universally recognized essential +of Church organization and a defence of tradition; and its +canon of Holy Scripture, at least in fundamentals, as the +authoritative primitive witness to the essential teachings of +the Church. It also laid the foundations of the conciliar +system, and the bonds of corporate unity between the scattered +communities of the Church were defined and recognized. +At the same time, the Church developed in its conflict with +heathenism an apologetic literature, and in its conflict with +heresy a polemical literature, in which are to be found the +beginnings of its theology or scientific statement of Christian +truth. Of this theology two lines of development are to be +traced: one a utilization of Greek philosophy which arose +from the Logos doctrine of the Apologists, and the other a +realistic doctrine of redemption which grew out of the Asia +Minor type of Christian teaching, traces of which are to be +found in Ignatius of Antioch. +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter I. The Church In Relation To The Empire And Heathen Culture</head> + +<p> +In the course of the second century the Church spread +rapidly into all parts of the Empire, and even beyond. It +became so prominent that the relation of the Church to +heathen thought and institutions underwent a marked change. +Persecutions of Christians became more frequent, and thereby +the popular conviction was deepened that Christians were +malefactors. To some extent men of letters began to notice +the new faith and attack it. In opposition to persecution and +criticism, the Church developed an active apologetic or defence +of Christianity and Christians against heathen aspersions. +</p> + +<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_17"/> +<head>§ 17. The Extension of Christianity</head> + +<p> +Under the head of Extension of Christianity are to be placed +only such texts as may be regarded as evidence for the presence +of the Church in a well-defined locality. It is apparent +that the evidence must be incomplete, for many places must +have received the Christian faith which were unknown to the +writers whose works we have or which they had no occasion +to mention. Rhetorical overstatement of the extension of +the Church was a natural temptation in view of the rapid +spread of Christianity. Each text needs to be scrutinized +and its merits assessed. It should, however, be borne in mind +that the existence of a well-established church in any locality +is in most cases sufficient reason for believing that Christianity +had already been there for some time. In this way valid +historical reasoning carries the date of the extension of the +Church to a locality somewhat further back than does the +date of the appearance of a document which testifies to the +existence of Christianity in a definite place at a definite time. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Judæos</hi>, 7. +(MSL, 2:649.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (circa 160-circa 220 A. D.) +is the most important ante-Nicene Latin ecclesiastical writer. He +has been justly regarded as the founder of Latin theology and the +Christian Latin style. His work is divided into two periods by his +adherence (between 202 and 207 A. D.) to the Montanistic sect. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The treatise <hi rend='italic'>Adversus Judæos</hi> probably belongs to Tertullian's +pre-Montanist period, though formerly placed among his Montanist writings +(see Krüger, § 85, 6). For Geographical references, see W. Smith, +<hi rend='italic'>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +Upon whom else have all nations believed but upon the +Christ who has already come? For whom have the other +nations believed—Parthians, Medes, Elamites, and they who +inhabit Mesopotamia, Armenia, Phrygia, Cappadocia, and +<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/> +those dwelling in Pontus and Asia, and Pamphylia, sojourners +in Egypt, and inhabitants of the region of Africa which is +beyond Cyrene, Romans and sojourners, yes, and in Jerusalem, +Jews and other nations;<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Acts 2:9 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></note> as now the varied races of +the Gætulians, and manifold confines of the Moors, all the +limits of Spain, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the +places of the Britons inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated +to Christ, and of the Sarmatians and Dacians, and +Germans and Scythians, and of many remote nations and +provinces and many islands unknown to us and which we can +hardly enumerate? In all of these places the name of Christ, +who has already come, now reigns. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Apologeticus adversus +Gentes pro Christianis</hi>, 37. (MSL, 1:525.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The date of this work is 197 A. D. +</quote> + +<p> +We are but of yesterday, and we have filled every place +among you—cities, islands, fortresses, towns, market-places, +the very camps, tribes, companies, palace, Senate, and Forum. +We have left you only the temples. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hæreses</hi>, I, 10, +3. (MSG, 7:551 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>) For text, see Kirch, § 91.</head> + +<p> +Since the Church has received this preaching and this faith, +as we have said, the Church, although it is scattered throughout +the whole world, diligently guards it as if it dwelt in one +house; and likewise it believes these things as if it had one +soul and one heart, and harmoniously it preaches, teaches, +and believes these things as if possessing one mouth. For +although the languages of the world are dissimilar, yet the +import of the tradition is one and the same. For the churches +which have been founded in Germany have not believed nor +handed down anything different, nor have those among the +Iberians, nor those among the Gauls, nor those in the East, +<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/> +nor those in Egypt, nor those in Libya, nor those which have +been established in the central regions<note place="foot">Probably Palestine +is here meant.</note> of the world. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Bardesanes, <hi rend='italic'>De Fato</hi>. F. Nau, +<hi rend='italic'>Bardesane l'astrologue; le livre des lois des pays</hi>, Paris. +1899.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Bardesanes (154-222 A. D.) was the great Christian teacher of +Edessa. He lived at the court of Abgar IX (179-214), whom, according +to a doubtful tradition, he is said to have converted. The entire +book may be found well translated by B. P. Pratten, ANF, VIII. 723-734. +</quote> + +<p> +In Syria and Edessa men used to part with their manhood +in honor of Tharatha,<note place="foot">The great Syrian goddess Atargatis.</note> +but when King Abgar became a believer +he commanded that every one that did so should have his +hand cut off, and from that day until now no one does so in +the country of Edessa. +</p> + +<p> +And what shall we say of the new race of us Christians, +whom Christ at His advent planted in every country and in +every region? For, lo, wherever we are, we are called after +the one name of Christ—namely, Christians. On one day, +the first day of the week, we assemble ourselves together, and +on the days of the readings<note place="foot">Reference is obscure.</note> +we abstain from sustenance. The +brethren who are in Gaul do not take males for wives, nor +those in Parthia two wives; nor do those in Judea circumcise +themselves; nor do those of our sisters who are among the +Geli consort with strangers; nor do those of our brethren who +are in Persia take their daughters for wives; nor do those +who are in Media abandon their dead or bury them alive or +give them as food to the dogs; nor do those who are in Edessa +kill their wives who commit adultery, nor their sisters, but they +withdraw from them, and give them over to the judgment of +God; nor do those who are in Hatra stone thieves to death; +but wherever they are, and in whatever place they are found, +the laws of the several countries do not hinder them from +obeying the law of their Christ; nor does the Fate of the +<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/> +celestial governors<note place="foot">A reference to astrological doctrine.</note> +compel them to make use of the things +which they regard as impure. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 10. +(MSG, 20:455.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Missions in the extreme East. +</quote> + +<p> +They say that Pantænus displayed such zeal for the divine +word that he was appointed a herald of the Gospel of Christ +to the nations of the East and was sent as far as India.<note place="foot">There is +good reason for believing that by India is meant what is now +understood as India, and not Arabia. There was no little intercourse between +India and the West, and we have the direct testimony of Dio Chrysostom, +circa 100, that there was intercourse between Alexandria and India, and that +Indians came to Alexandria to study in the schools of that city. See DCB, +art. <q>Pantænus.</q></note> For +indeed there were still many evangelists of the word who +sought earnestly to use their inspired zeal, after the example +of the Apostles, for the increase and building up of the divine +word. Pantænus was one of these, and he is said to have gone +to India. The report is that among persons in that country +who knew of Christ he found the Gospel according to Matthew, +which had anticipated his own arrival. For Bartholomew, one +of the Apostles, had preached to them and left them the writing +of Matthew in the Hebrew language, and they had preserved +it till that time. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_18"/> +<head>§ 18. Heathen Religious Feeling and Culture in Relation to Christianity</head> + +<p> +The Christian religion in the course of the latter part of +the second century began to attract the attention of heathen +writers; it became an object of literary attack. The principal +literary opponent of Christianity was Celsus, who subjected +the Christian traditions and customs to a searching +criticism to prove that they were absurd, unscientific, and +false. Lucian of Samosata, does not seem to have attacked +Christianity from any philosophical or religious interest, but +treated it as an object of derision, making sport of it. There +<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/> +were also in circulation innumerable heathen calumnies, many +of the most abominable character. These have been preserved +only by Christian writers. It was chiefly in reference to these +calumnies that the Christian apologists wrote. The answer to +Celsus made by Origen belongs to a later period, though +Celsus represents the best philosophical criticism of Christianity +of the latter part of the second century. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Celsus, <hi rend='italic'>The True Word</hi>, in Origen, +<hi rend='italic'>Contra Celsum</hi>. (MSG, 11:651 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The work of Celsus against Christianity, or <hi rend='italic'>The True Word</hi>, written +about 178, is lost, but it has been so incorporated in the elaborate reply +of Origen that it can be reconstructed without much difficulty. This +Theodor Keim has done. The following extracts from Origen's <hi rend='italic'>Contra +Celsum</hi> are quotations from Celsus or references to his criticism of +Christianity. For Origen, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_43_b">§ 43, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +I, 1. (MSG, 11:651.) Wishing to throw discredit upon +Christianity, the first point Celsus brings forward is that the +Christians have entered secretly into associations with each +other which are forbidden by the laws; saying that <q>of +associations some are public, others again secret; and the +former are permitted by the laws; the latter are prohibited +by the laws.</q> +</p> + +<p> +I, 4. (MSG, 11:661.) Let us notice, also, how he thinks to +cast discredit upon our system of morals as neither venerable +nor a new branch of instruction, inasmuch as it is common +to other philosophers. +</p> + +<p> +I, 9. (MSG, 11:672.) He says that <q>Certain of them do +not wish either to give or to receive reasons for those things +to which they hold; saying, <q>Do not examine, only believe and +your faith will save you!</q></q>; and he alleges that such also say: +<q>The wisdom of this life is bad, but foolishness is a good thing.</q> +</p> + +<p> +I, 38. (MSG, 11:733.) He admits somehow the miracles +which Jesus wrought and by means of which He induced the +multitude to follow Him as the Christ. He wishes to throw +discredit on them, as having been done not by divine power, +but by help of magic, for he says: <q>That he [Jesus], having +<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/> +been brought up secretly and having served for hire in Egypt, +and then coming to the knowledge of certain miraculous +powers, returned from thence, and by means of those powers +proclaimed himself a god.</q> +</p> + +<p> +II, 55. (MSG, 11:884.) <q>Come, now, let us grant to you +that these things [the prediction made by Christ of His resurrection] +were said. Yet how many others are there who have +used such wonders to deceive their simple hearers, and who +made gain of their deception? Such was the case, they say, +with Zalmoxis in Scythia, the slave of Pythagoras; and with +Pythagoras himself in Italy.… But the point to be considered +is, whether any one who was really dead ever rose with +a veritable body. Or do you imagine the statements of others +not only are myths, but appear as such, but you have discovered +a becoming and credible termination of your drama, the +voice from the cross when he breathed his last, the earthquake +and the darkness? that while living he was of no help +to himself, but when dead he rose again, and showed the +marks of his punishment and his hands as they had been. +Who saw this? A frantic woman, as you state, and, if any +other, perhaps one of those who were engaged in the same +delusion, who, owing to a peculiar state of mind, had either +dreamed so, or with a wandering fancy had imagined things in +accordance with his own wishes, which has happened in the +case of very many; or, which is most probable, there was +some one who desired to impress the others with this portent, +and by such a falsehood to furnish an occasion to other jugglers.</q> +</p> + +<p> +II, 63. (MSG, 11:896.) <q>If Jesus desired to show that +his power was really divine, he ought to have appeared to +those who had ill-treated him, and to him who had condemned +him, and to all men universally.</q> +</p> + +<p> +III, 59. (MSG, 11:997.) <q>That I bring no heavier charge +than what truth requires, let any one judge from the following. +Those who invite to participation in other mysteries make +proclamation as follows: <q>Every one who has clean hands and +<pb n='058'/><anchor id='Pg058'/> +a prudent tongue</q>; others again thus: <q>He who is pure from +every pollution, and whose soul is conscious of no evil, and +who has lived well and justly.</q> Such is the proclamation made +by those who promise purification from sins. But let us hear +whom the Christians invite. <q>Whoever,</q> they say, <q>is a +sinner, whoever is devoid of understanding, whoever is a +child,</q> and, to speak generally, <q>whoever is unfortunate, him +will the kingdom of God receive.</q> Do you not call him a +sinner, then, who is unjust and a thief and a house-breaker and +a poisoner, a committer of sacrilege and a robber of the dead? +Whom else would a man invite if he were issuing a proclamation +for an assembly of robbers?</q> +</p> + +<p> +VII, 18. (MSG, 11:1445.) <q>Will they not again make this +reflection: If the prophets of the God of the Jews foretold +that he who should come was the son of this same God, how +could he command them through Moses to gather wealth, +to rule, to fill the earth, to put to the sword their enemies from +youth up, and to destroy them utterly, which, indeed, he +himself did in the eyes of the Jews, as Moses says, threatening +them, moreover, that if they did not obey his commands he +would treat them as his open enemies; whilst, on the other +hand, his son, the man of Nazareth, promulgating laws in +opposition to these, declares that no one comes to the Father +who is rich or who loves power or seeks after wisdom or glory; +that men ought to be no more careful in providing food than +the ravens: that they were to be in less concern about their +raiment than the lilies; that to him who has smitten them +once they should offer opportunity to smite again? Is it +Moses or Jesus who lies? Did the Father when he sent Jesus +forget the things he commanded Moses? Or did he change +his mind and, condemning his own laws, send forth a messenger +with the opposite instructions?</q> +</p> + +<p> +V, 14. (MSG, 11:1201.) <q>It is folly for them to suppose +that when God, as if he were a cook, introduces the fire, all +the rest of the human race will be burnt up, while they alone +will remain, not only those who are alive, but also those who +<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/> +have been dead long since, which latter will arise from the +earth clothed with the self-same flesh as during life; the hope, +to speak plainly, of worms. For what sort of human soul is it +that would still long for a body gone to corruption? For this +reason, also, this opinion of yours is not shared by some of the +Christians,<note place="foot">Probably the Gnostics.</note> +and they pronounce it exceedingly vile and loathsome +and impossible; for what kind of body is that which, +after being completely corrupted, can return to its original +nature, and to that self-same first condition which it left? +Having nothing to reply, they betake themselves to a most +absurd refuge—that all things are possible to God. But God +cannot do things which are disgraceful, nor does he wish +things contrary to his nature; nor, if in accordance with your +wickedness you desire something shameful, would God be +able to do it; nor must you believe at once that it will be done. +For God is the author, not of inordinate desires nor of a nature +disordered and confused, but of what is upright and just. +For the soul, indeed, he might be able to provide everlasting +life; but dead bodies, on the other hand, are, as Heraclitus +observes, more worthless than dung. So, then, God neither will +nor can declare contrary to reason that the flesh is eternal, +which is full of those things which it is not honorable to mention. +For he is the reason of all things that exist, and therefore +can do nothing either contrary to reason or contrary to himself.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Lucian of Samosata, <hi rend='italic'>De morte +Peregrini Protei</hi>, § 11 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> Preuschen, +<hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, 20 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<p> +Ch. 11. About this time he made himself proficient in the +marvellous wisdom of the Christians by associating around +Palestine with their priests and scribes. And would you believe +it? In a short time he convinced them that they were +mere children and himself alone a prophet, master of ceremonies, +head of the synagogue, and everything. He explained +and interpreted some of their books, and he himself also wrote +<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/> +many, so they came to look upon him almost as a God, made +him their law-giver and chose him as their patron.… At +all events, they still worship that enchanter [mage] who was +crucified in Palestine for introducing among men this new +religious sect. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 12. Then Proteus was, on this account, seized and +thrown into prison, and this very circumstance procured for +him during his subsequent career no small renown and the +reputation for wonderful powers and the glory which he +loved. When, then, he had been put in bonds, the Christians +looked upon these things as a misfortune and in their efforts +to secure his release did everything in their power. When +this proved impracticable, other assistance of every sort was +rendered him, not occasionally, but with zeal. From earliest +dawn old women, widows, and orphan children were to be +seen waiting beside the prison, and men of rank among them +slept with him in the prison, having bribed the prison guards. +Then they were accustomed to bring in all kinds of viands, +and they read their sacred Scriptures together, and the most +excellent Peregrinus (for such was still his name) was styled +by them a New Socrates. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 13. Certain came even from the cities of Asia, sent by +the Christians at the common charge, to assist and plead for +him and comfort him. They exhibit extraordinary activity +whenever any such thing occurs affecting their common interest. +In short, they are lavish of everything. And what is +more, on the pretext of his imprisonment, many contributions +of money came from them to Peregrinus at that time, and he +made no little income out of it. These poor men have persuaded +themselves that they are going to be immortal and +live forever; they both despise death and voluntarily devote +themselves to it; at least most of them do so. Moreover, their +law-giver persuaded them that they were all brethren, and +that when once they come out and reject the Greek gods, +they should then worship that crucified sophist and live +according to his laws. Therefore they despise all things and +<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/> +hold everything in common, having received such ideas from +others, without any sufficient basis for their faith. If, then, any +impostor or trickster who knows how to manage things came +among them, he soon grew rich, imposing on these foolish +folk. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 14. Peregrinus was, however, set at liberty by the +governor of Syria at that time, a lover of philosophy, who +understood his folly and knew that he would willingly have +suffered death that by it he might have acquired glory. Thinking +him, however, not worthy of so honorable an end, he let +him go.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 16. A second time he left his country to wander about, +having the Christians as a sufficient source of supplies, and +he was cared for by them most ungrudgingly. Thus he was +supported for some time; at length, having offended them in +some way—he was seen, I believe, eating food forbidden +among them—he was reduced to want, and he thought that +he would have to demand his property back from the city;<note +place="foot">He had given his property to his native place.</note> +and having obtained a process in the name of the Emperor, +he expected to recover it. But the city sent messengers to +him, and nothing was done; but he was to remain where he +was, and to this he agreed for once. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Minucius Felix, <hi rend='italic'>Octavius</hi>, VIII, +3-10. (MSL. 3:267 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passage is taken from an apologetic dialogue entitled +<hi rend='italic'>Octavius</hi>. Although it was composed by a Christian, +it probably represents +the current heathen conceptions of Christianity and its morals, +especially its assemblies, where the worst excesses were supposed to +take place. In the dialogue the passage is put into the mouth of the +disputant who represents the heathen objection to the new faith. The +date is difficult to determine probably it was the last third of the +second century. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 8. … Is it not lamentable that men of a reprobate, +unlawful, and dangerous faction should rage against the +gods? From the lowest dregs, the more ignorant and women, +credulous and yielding on account of the heedlessness of their +<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/> +sex, gathered and established a vast and wicked conspiracy, +bound together by nightly meetings and solemn feasts and inhuman +meats—not by any sacred rites, but by such as require +expiation. It is a people skulking and shunning the light; in +public silent, but in corners loquacious. They despise the +temples as charnel-houses; they reject the gods; they deride +sacred things. While they are wretched themselves, if allowed +they pity the priests; while they are half naked themselves, +they despise honors and purple robes. O wonderful folly and +incredible effrontery! They despise present torments, but +fear those that are uncertain and in the future. While they +fear to die after death, for the present life they do not fear +to die. In such manner does a deceitful hope soothe their +fear with the solace of resuscitation. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 9. And now, as wickeder things are advancing more +successfully and abandoned manners are creeping on day by +day, those foul shrines of an impious assembly are increasing +throughout the whole world. Assuredly this confederacy +should be rooted out and execrated. They know one another +by secret marks and signs. They love one another almost +before they know one another. Everywhere, also, there is +mingled among them a certain religion of lust; and promiscuously +they call one another brother and sister, so that +even a not unusual debauchery might, by the employment +of those sacred names, become incestuous. It is thus that their +vain and insane superstition glories in crimes. Nor, concerning +these matters, would intelligent report speak of things +unless there was the highest degree of truth, and varied crimes +of the worst character called, from a sense of decency, for an +apology. I hear that they adore the head of an ass, that +basest of creatures, consecrated by I know not what silly +persuasion—a worthy and appropriate religion for such morals. +Some say that they worship the genitalia of their pontiff +and priest, and adore the nature, as it were, of their parent. +I know not whether these things be false; certainly suspicion +has place in the case of secret and nocturnal rites; and he +<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/> +who explains their ceremonies by reference to a man punished +by extreme suffering for wickedness, and to the deadly wood +of the cross, bestows fitting altars upon reprobate and wicked +men, that they may worship what they deserve. Now the +story of their initiation of young novices is as detestable as +it is well known. An infant covered with meal, so as to deceive +the unwary, is placed before him who is to be defiled with +their rites; this infant is slain with dark and secret wounds +by the young novice, who has been induced to strike harmless +blows, as it were, on the surface of the meal. Thirstily—O +horror!—they lick up its blood; eagerly they divide its +limbs. By this victim they are confederated, with the consciousness +of this wickedness they are pledged to a mutual +silence. These sacred rites are more foul than any sort of +sacrilege. And of their banqueting it is well known what +is said everywhere; even the speech of our Cirtensian<note place="foot">Fronto. +See W. Smith, <hi rend='italic'>Dict. of Greek and Roman Biography</hi>.</note> testifies +to it. On a solemn day they assemble at a banquet with all +their children, their sisters and mothers, people of every sex and +age. There, after much feasting, when the sense of fellowship +has waxed warm and the fervor of incestuous lust has grown +hot with drunkenness, a dog that has been tied to a chandelier +is provoked to rush and spring about by throwing a piece of +offal beyond the length of the line by which he is bound; +and thus the light, as if conscious, is overturned and extinguished +in shameless darkness, while unions of abominable +lust involve them by the uncertainty of chance. Although if +all are not in fact, yet all are in their conscience, equally incestuous; +since whatever might happen by the act of the individuals +is sought for by the will of all. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 10. I purposely pass over many things, for there are +too many, all of which, or the greater part of them, the +obscurity of their vile religion declares to be true. For why +do they endeavor with such pains to conceal and cloak whatever +they worship, since honorable things always rejoice in +publicity, but crimes are kept secret? Why have they no +<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/> +altars, no temples, no acknowledged images? Why do they +never speak openly, never congregate freely, unless it be for +the reason that what they adore and conceal is either worthy +of punishment or is something to be ashamed of? Moreover, +whence or who is he, or where is the one God, solitary and +desolate, whom no free people, no kingdoms, and not even +Roman superstition have known? The sole, miserable nationality +of the Jews worshipped one God, and one peculiar +to itself; but they worshipped him openly, with temples, +with altars, with victims, and with ceremonies; and he has +so little force or power that he is enslaved together with his +own special nation to the Roman deities. But the Christians, +moreover, what wonders, what monstrosities, do they +feign, that he who is their God, whom they can neither show +nor see, inquires diligently into the conduct of all, the acts +of all, and even into their words and secret thoughts. They +would have him running about everywhere, and everywhere +present, troublesome, even shamelessly inquisitive, since he +is present at everything that is done, and wanders about in +all places. When he is occupied with the whole, he cannot +give attention to particulars; or when occupied with particulars, +he is not enough for the whole. Is it because they +threaten the whole earth, the world itself and all its stars, +with a conflagration, that they are meditating its destruction? +As if either the natural and eternal order constituted by the +divine laws would be disturbed, or, when the league of the +elements has been broken up and the heavenly structure +dissolved, that fabric in which it is contained and bound +together would be overthrown! +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_19"/> +<head>§ 19. The Attitude of the Roman Government toward +Christians, A. D. 138 to A. D. 192</head> + +<p> +No general persecution of the Christians was undertaken +by the Roman Government during the second century, +though Christians were not infrequently put to death under +<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/> +the existing laws. These laws, however, were by no means +uniformly carried out. The most sanguinary persecutions +were generally occasioned by mob violence and may be compared +to modern lynchings. At Lyons and Vienne, in Gaul, +there was much suffering in 177. The letter from the churches +of these cities to the Christians in Asia and Phrygia, Eusebius, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 1 (PNF, ser. I, vol. I, 211), +and the <hi rend='italic'>Martyrdom +of Polycarp</hi> (ANF, I, 37) are among the finest pieces of literature +in this period and should be read by every student. +Under Commodus (180-193), Marcia seems to have aided +the Christians suffering persecution. The <hi rend='italic'>Martyrdom of +Justin</hi> may be found ANF, I, 303, appended to his works. +The doubtful rescript of Hadrian and the certainly spurious +rescript of Antoninus Pius may be found in the Appendix to +Justin Martyr's works (ANF, I, 186), and in Eusebius, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV, 9 and 13. For a discussion of their genuineness, +see McGiffert's notes to Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi> The original +texts may be found in Preuschen's <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, § 6 +<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apologia</hi>. II. 2. +(MSG, 6:445.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The martyrdom of Ptolemæus. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +A certain woman had been converted to Christianity by Ptolemæus. +Her dissolute husband, who had deserted her some time before, was +divorced by her on account of his profligacy. In revenge he attempted +to injure her, but she sought and obtained the protection of the imperial +courts. The husband thereupon turned his attack upon Ptolemæus. +According to Ruinart, the martyrdom took place in 166. See +DCB, arts. <q>Ptolemæus</q> and <q>Justin Martyr.</q> This and the following +martyrdoms illustrate the procedure of the courts in dealing with +Christians. +</quote> + +<p> +Since he was no longer able to prosecute her, he directed +his assaults against a certain Ptolemæus whom Urbicus punished, +and who had been the teacher of the woman in the +Christian doctrines. And he did this in the following way: +He persuaded a centurion, his friend, who had cast Ptolemæus +into prison, to take Ptolemæus and interrogate him only as +to whether he were a Christian. And Ptolemæus, being a +lover of the truth, and not of deceitful or false disposition, +<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/> +when he confessed himself to be a Christian, was thrown in +chains by the centurion and for a long time was punished in +prison. At last, when he was brought to Urbicus, he was +asked this one question only: whether he was a Christian. +And again, conscious of the noble things that were his through +the teaching of Christ, he confessed his discipleship in the +divine virtue. For he who denies anything either denies it +because he condemns the thing itself or he avoids confession +because he knows his own unworthiness or alienation from it; +neither of which cases is that of a true Christian. And when +Urbicus ordered him to be led away to punishment, a certain +Lucius, who was also himself a Christian, seeing the unreasonable +judgment, said to Urbicus: <q>What is the ground of this +judgment? Why have you punished this man: not as an +adulterer, nor fornicator, nor as one guilty of murder, theft, or +robbery, nor convicted of any crime at all, but who has only +confessed that he is called by the name of Christian? You +do not judge, O Urbicus, as becomes the Emperor Pius, nor +the philosopher, the son of Cæsar, nor the sacred Senate.</q> +And he, replying nothing else to Lucius, said: <q>You also +seem to me to be such an one.</q> And when Lucius answered, +<q>Most certainly I am,</q> he then ordered him also +to be led away. And he professed his thanks, since he knew +that he was going to be delivered from such wicked rulers +and was going to the Father and King of the heavens. +And still a third came forward and was condemned to be +punished. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Passion of the Scilitan +Martyrs.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Text: J. A. Robinson, <hi rend='italic'>Text and Studies</hi>, I, 2, 112-116, +Cambridge, 1891; reprinted in R. Knopf, <hi rend='italic'>Ausgewählte Märtyreracten</hi>, +34 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, Tübingen, 1901. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The date of this martyrdom is July 17, 180 A.D. Scili, the place of +residence of these martyrs, was a small city in northwestern Proconsular +Africa. For an account of ancient martyrologies, see Krüger, +§§ 104 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/> + +<p> +When Præsens, for the second time, and Claudianus were +consuls, on the seventeenth day of July, and when Speratus, +Nartzalus, Cittinus, Donata, Secunda, and Vestia were +brought into the judgment-hall at Carthage, the proconsul +Saturninus said: Ye can win the indulgence of our lord the +Emperor if ye return to a sound mind. +</p> + +<p> +Speratus said: We have never done ill; we have not lent +ourselves to wrong; we have never spoken ill; but when we +have received ill we have given thanks, because we pay heed +to our Emperor. +</p> + +<p> +Saturninus, the proconsul, said: We, too, are religious, and +our religion is simple; and we swear by the genius of our +lord the Emperor, and pray for his welfare, which also ye, +too, ought to do. +</p> + +<p> +Speratus said: If thou wilt peaceably lend me thine ears, +I will tell thee the mystery of simplicity. +</p> + +<p> +Saturninus said: I will not lend my ears to thee, when thou +beginnest to speak evil things of our sacred rites; but rather +do thou swear by the genius of our lord the Emperor. +</p> + +<p> +Speratus said: The empire of this world I know not; but +rather I serve that God whom no man hath seen nor with +these eyes can see. [I Tim. 6:16.] I have committed no theft; +but if I have bought anything I pay the tax; because I know +my Lord, the King of kings and Emperor of all nations. +</p> + +<p> +Saturninus, the proconsul, said to the rest: Cease to be of +this persuasion. +</p> + +<p> +Speratus said: It is an ill persuasion to do murder, to bear +false witness. +</p> + +<p> +Saturninus, the proconsul, said: Be not partakers of this +folly. +</p> + +<p> +Cittinus said: We have none other to fear except only our +Lord God, who is in heaven. +</p> + +<p> +Donata said: Honor to Cæsar as Cæsar, but fear to God. +[<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Rom. 13:7.] +</p> + +<p> +Vestia said: I am a Christian. +</p> + +<p> +Secunda said: What I am that I wish to be. +</p> + +<pb n='068'/><anchor id='Pg068'/> + +<p> +Saturninus, the proconsul, said to Speratus: Dost thou +persist in being a Christian? +</p> + +<p> +Speratus said: I am a Christian. And with him they all +agreed. +</p> + +<p> +Saturninus, the proconsul, said: Will ye have a space to +consider? +</p> + +<p> +Speratus said: In a matter so just there is no considering. +</p> + +<p> +Saturninus, the proconsul, said: What are the things in +your chest? +</p> + +<p> +Speratus said: Books and epistles of Paul, a just man. +</p> + +<p> +Saturninus, the proconsul, said: Have a delay of thirty +days and bethink yourselves. +</p> + +<p> +Speratus said a second time: I am a Christian. And with +him all agreed. +</p> + +<p> +Saturninus, the proconsul, read out the decree from the +tablet: Speratus, Nartzalus, Cittinus, Donata, Vestia, Secunda, +and the rest who have confessed that they live according +to the Christian rite because an opportunity has been +offered them of returning to the custom of the Romans and +they have obstinately persisted, it is determined shall be +put to the sword. +</p> + +<p> +Speratus said: We give thanks to God. +</p> + +<p> +Nartzalus said: To-day we are martyrs in heaven; thanks +be to God. +</p> + +<p> +Saturninus, the proconsul, ordered it to be proclaimed by +the herald: Speratus, Nartzalus, Cittinus, Veturius, Felix, +Aquilinus, Lætatius, Januaria, Generosa, Vestia, Donata, and +Secunda I have ordered to be executed. +</p> + +<p> +They all said: Thanks be to God. +</p> + +<p> +And so they all at one time were crowned with martyrdom; +and they reign with the Father and the Son and the Holy +Ghost, forever and ever. Amen. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_19_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refutatio omnium +Hæresium</hi>, X, 7. (MSG, 16:3382.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Hippolytus, a Greek writer of the West, lived at Rome in the time +of Zephyrinus (198-217) and until shortly after A. D. 235. He appears +<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/> +to have been consecrated bishop of a schismatical party in +Rome. Of his numerous works many have been lost in whole or in +part. The <hi rend='italic'>Philosophumena, or the Refutation of All Heresies</hi>, +was lost, with the exception of the first book, until 1842, and was then published +among the works of Origen. It is of importance as giving much material +for the study of Gnosticism. It may be found as a whole translated +in ANF, V. +</quote> + +<p> +But after a time, when other martyrs were there [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, in the +mines in Sardinia], Marcia, the pious concubine of Commodus, +wishing to perform some good deed, called before her the +blessed Victor [193?-202], at that time bishop of the Church, +and inquired of him what martyrs were in Sardinia. And +he delivered to her the names of all, but did not give the +name of Callistus, knowing what things had been attempted +by him. Marcia, having obtained her request from Commodus, +hands the letter of emancipation to Hyacinthus, a +certain eunuch rather advanced in life [or a presbyter], who, +receiving it, sailed away to Sardinia. He delivered the letter +to the person who at that time was governor of the territory, +and he released the martyrs, with the exception of Callistus. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_20"/> +<head>§ 20. The Literary Defence of Christianity</head> + +<p> +In reply to the attacks made upon Christianity, the apologists +defended their religion along three lines: It was +philosophically justified; it was true; it did not favor immorality, +but, on the contrary, inculcated virtue. The philosophical +defence, or justification, of Christianity was most +brilliantly undertaken by Justin Martyr, who employed the +current philosophical conception of the Logos. The general +proof of Christianity was chiefly based upon the argument +from the fulfilment of prophecy. All apologists undertook to +show that the heathen calumnies against the Christians were +false, that the heathen religions were replete with obscene tales +of the gods, and that the worship of idols was absurd. +</p> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_20_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Aristides, <hi rend='italic'>Apology</hi>, 2, 13, 15, +16. Ed. J. R. Harris and J. A. Robinson, <hi rend='italic'>Texts and Studies</hi>, I, 1, +Cambridge, 1891.</head> + +<pb n='070'/><anchor id='Pg070'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <hi rend='italic'>Apology</hi> of Aristides was long lost, but was found in a Syriac +version in 1889. It was then found that much of the Greek original +had been incorporated in the <hi rend='italic'>Life of Barlaam and Josaphat</hi>, a popular +religious romance of the Middle Ages; see the introduction to the +parallel translations by D. H. McKay in ANF, vol. IX, 259-279. +This work of Aristides may be as early as 125; if so, it disputes with +the similar work of Quadratus the honor of being the first Christian +apology. A large part of it is taken up with a statement of the contradictions +and absurdities of the mythology of the Greeks and Barbarians. +Of this statement, ch. 13, quoted below, is the conclusion. +Then, after a short passage regarding the Jews, the author passes to +an exposition of the faith of Christians and a statement regarding +their high morality. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. [Found only in Syriac.] The Christians trace the +beginning of their religion to Jesus the Messiah; and He is +named the Son of the most high God. And it is said that +God came down from heaven and from a Hebrew virgin +assumed and clothed Himself with flesh, and that the Son +of God lived in a daughter of man. This is taught in that +Gospel which, as is related among them, was preached +among them a short time ago. And you, also, if you will read +therein, may perceive the power that belongs to it. This +Jesus, therefore, was born of the race of the Hebrews. He +had twelve disciples, that His wonderful plan of salvation +might be carried out. But He himself was pierced by the +Jews, and He died and He was buried. And they say that +after three days He rose and was raised to heaven. Thereupon +those twelve disciples went forth into the known parts of +the world, and with all modesty and uprightness taught concerning +His greatness. And therefore also those at the present +time who now believe that preaching are called Christians +and they are known. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 13. When the Greeks made laws they did not perceive +that by their laws they condemned their gods. For if their +laws are righteous, their gods are unrighteous, because they +committed transgressions of the law in that they killed one +another, practised sorcery, and committed adultery, robbed, +stole, and lay with males, not to mention their other practices. +<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/> +For if their gods have done right in doing all this, as +they write, then the laws of the Greeks are unrighteous in +not being made according to the will of their gods. And consequently +the whole world has gone astray. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 15. The Christians, O King, in that they go about and +seek the truth, have found it and, as we have understood from +their writings, they have come much nearer to the truth and +correct knowledge than have the other peoples. They know +and trust God, the creator of heaven and earth, in whom are +all things and from whom are all things, in Him who has no +other God beside Him, in Him from whom they have received +commandments which they have engraved upon their minds, +commandments which they observe in the faith and expectation +of the world to come. Wherefore they do not commit +adultery or fornication, nor bear false witness, nor covet +what is held in pledge, nor covet what is not theirs. They +honor father and mother and show kindness to their neighbors. +If they are judges, they judge uprightly. They do not worship +idols made in human form. And whatsoever they would +not that others should do unto them, they do not to others. +They do not eat of food offered to idols, because they are pure. +And their oppressors they appease and they make friends of +them; they do good to their enemies.… If they see a +stranger, they take him to their dwellings and rejoice over +him as over a real brother. For they do not call themselves +brethren after the flesh, but after the Spirit and in God. +But if one of their poor passes from the world, each one of +them who sees him cares for his burial according to his ability. +And if they hear that one of them is imprisoned or oppressed +on account of the name of their Messiah, all of them care for +his necessity, and if it is possible to redeem him, they set +him free. And if any one among them is poor and needy, +and they have no spare food, they fast two or three days in +order to supply him with the needed food.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +Hermas, <hi rend='italic'>Pastor</hi>, Sim. V, 3. ANF, II, 34.</note> +The precepts of their Messiah they observe with great care. They live justly +<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/> +and soberly, as the Lord their God commanded them. Every +morning and every hour they acknowledge and praise God +for His lovingkindnesses toward them, and for their food and +drink they give thanks to Him. And if any righteous man +among them passes from this world, they rejoice and thank +God and they escort his body as if he were setting out on a +journey from one place to another.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 16. … Their words and precepts, O King, and the +glory of their worship and their hope of receiving reward, +which they look for in another world, according to the work +of each one, you can learn about from their writings. It is +enough for us to have informed your Majesty in a few words +concerning the conduct and truth of the Christians. For +great, indeed, and wonderful is their doctrine for him who will +study it and reflect upon it. And verily this is a new people, +and there is something divine in it. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apologia</hi>, I, 46. +(MSG, 6:398.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In the following, Justin Martyr states his argument from the doctrine +of the Logos, which was widely accepted in Greek philosophy +and found its counterpart in Christianity in the Johannine theology +(see below, <ref target="Section_32_A">§ 32 <hi rend='italic'>A</hi></ref>). +With Justin should be compared Clement of Alexandria +(see below, <ref target="Section_43_a">§ 43 <hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>), +who develops the same idea in showing the +relation of Greek philosophy to the Mosaic dispensation and to the +Christian revelation. +</quote> + +<p> +We have been taught that Christ is the first-born of God, +and we have declared above that He is the Word of whom +every race of men partake; and those who lived reasonably +were Christians, even though they have been thought atheists; +as among the Greeks, Socrates and Heraclitus and those like +them; and among the Barbarians, Abraham and Ananias, +and Azarias, and Misael, and Elias, and many others whose +actions and names we now decline to recount, because we +know it would be tedious. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apologia</hi>, II, 10, +13. (MSG, 6:459, 466.)</head> + +<p> +Ch. 10. Our doctrines, then, appear to be greater than all +human teaching; because Christ who appeared for our sakes, +<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/> +became the whole rational being,<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +the Logos; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> previous chapter.</note> body and reason and soul. +For whatever either law-givers or philosophers uttered well +they elaborated by finding and contemplating some part of +the Logos. But since they did not know the whole of the +Logos, which is Christ, they often contradicted themselves. +And those who by human birth were more ancient than Christ, +when they attempted to consider and prove things by reason, +were brought before the tribunals as impious persons and busybodies. +And Socrates, who was more zealous in this direction +than all of them, was accused of the very same crimes as ourselves. +For they said that he was introducing new divinities, +and did not consider those to be gods whom the State recognized. +But he cast out from the State both Homer and the +rest of the poets, and taught men to reject the wicked demons +and those who did the things which the poets related; and +he exhorted them to become acquainted with the God who +was unknown to them, by means of the investigation of +reason, saying, <q>That it is not easy to find the Father and +Maker of all, nor, having found Him, is it safe to declare Him +to all.</q><note place="foot">See Plato, <hi rend='italic'>Timæus</hi>, p. +28<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>.</note> But these things our Christ did through His own +power. For no one trusted in Socrates so as to die for this +doctrine, but in Christ, who was partially known even by Socrates +(for He was and is the Logos who is in every man, and +who foretold the things that were to come to pass both through +the prophets and in His own person when He was made of like +passions and taught these things), not only philosophers and +scholars believed, but also artisans and people entirely uneducated, +despising both glory and fear and death; since He is +the power of the ineffable Father, and not the mere instrument +of human reason.<note place="foot">For a remarkable passage on the moral influence of +Christ's teaching as a proof of the truth of His message, see Origen, +<hi rend='italic'>Contra Celsum</hi>, I, 67 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 13. … I confess that I both boast and with all my +strength strive to be found a Christian; not because the +teachings of Plato are different from those of Christ, but +<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/> +because they are not in all respects similar, as neither are +those of others, Stoics, poets, and historians. For each man +spoke well in proportion to the share he had of the spermatic +divine Logos, seeing what was related to it. But they +who contradict themselves on the more important points +appear not to have possessed the heavenly wisdom and the +knowledge which cannot be spoken against. Whatever things +were rightly said among all men are the property of us +Christians. For next to God we worship and love the Logos, +who is from the unbegotten and ineffable God, since also He +became man for our sakes, that, becoming a partaker of our +sufferings, He might also bring us healing. For all the writers +were able to see realities darkly through the sowing of the +implanted Logos that was in them. For the seed of anything +and a copy imparted according to capacity [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, to +receive] is one thing, and quite another is the thing itself, of +which there is the participation and imitation according to +the grace which is from Him. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apologia</hi>, I, 31, +53. (MSG, 6:375, 406.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The argument from prophecy. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 31. There were then among the Jews certain men who +were prophets of God, through whom the prophetic Spirit +[context shows that the Logos is here meant] published +beforehand things that were to come to pass before they +happened. And their prophecies, as they were spoken and +when they were uttered, the kings who were among the +Jews at the several times carefully preserved in their possession, +when they had been arranged by the prophets themselves +in their own Hebrew language.… They are also in possession +of all Jews throughout the world.… In these books +of the prophets we found Jesus our Christ foretold as coming, +born of a virgin, growing up to manhood, and healing every +disease and every sickness, and raising the dead, and being +hated and unrecognized, and crucified, and dying, and rising +again, and ascending into heaven, and both being and also +<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/> +called the Son of God, and that certain persons should be sent +by Him into every race of men to publish these things, and +that rather among the Gentiles [than among the Jews] men +should believe on Him. And He was predicted before He +appeared first 5,000 years before, and again 3,000, then 2,000 +then 1,000, and yet again 800; for according to the succession +of generations prophets after prophets arose. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 53. Though we have many other prophecies, we forbear +to speak, judging these sufficient for the persuasion of +those who have ears capable of hearing and understanding; +and considering also that these persons are able to see that +we do not make assertions, and are unable to produce proof, +like those fables that are told of the reputed sons of Jupiter. +For with what reason should we believe of a crucified man +that He is the first-born of the unbegotten God, and Himself +will pass judgment on the whole human race, unless we found +testimonies concerning Him published before He came and +was born as a man, and unless we saw that things had happened +accordingly? +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter II. The Internal Crisis: The Gnostic And Other Heretical Sects</head> + +<p> +In the second century the Church passed through an internal +crisis even more trying than the great persecutions of +the following centuries and with results far more momentous. +Of the conditions making possible such a crisis the most +important was absence in the Church of norms of faith universally +acknowledged as binding. Then, again, many had +embraced Christianity without grasping the spirit of the +new religion. Nearly all interpreted the Christian faith more +or less according to their earlier philosophical or religious +conceptions; <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, the apologists within the Church used the +philosophical Logos doctrine. In this way arose numerous interpretations +of Christian teaching and perversions of that +teaching, some not at all in harmony with the generally +received tradition. These discordant interpretations or perversions +<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/> +are the heretical movements of the second century. +They varied in every degree of departure from the generally +accepted Christian tradition. Some, like the earlier Gnostics +(<ref target="Section_21">§ 21</ref>), and even the greater Gnostic systems +(<ref target="Section_22">§ 22</ref>), at least +in their esoteric teaching, show that their principal inspiration +was other than Christian; others, as the Gnosticism of +Marcion (<ref target="Section_23">§ 23</ref>) and the enthusiastic sect of the Montanists +(<ref target="Section_25">§ 25</ref>), seem to have built largely upon exaggerated +Christian tenets, contained, indeed, in the New Testament, but not +fully appreciated by the majority of Christians; or still others, +as the Encratites (<ref target="Section_24">§ 24</ref>), laid undue stress upon what was +generally recognized as an element of Christian morality. +</p> + +<p> +The principal source materials for the history of Gnosticism and +other heresies of this chapter may be found collected and provided +with commentary in Hilgenfeld, <hi rend='italic'>Ketzergeschichte des Urchristenthums</hi>, +Leipsic, 1884. +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_21"/> +<head>§ 21. The Earlier Gnostics: Gnosticism in General</head> + +<p> +Gnosticism is a generic name for a vast number of syncretistic +religious systems prevalent, especially in the East, both +before and after the Christian era. For the most part the +movement was outside of Christianity, and was already dying +out when Christianity appeared. It derived its essential features +from Persian and Babylonian sources and was markedly +dualistic. As it spread toward the West, it adopted many +Western elements, making use of Christian ideas and terms +and Greek philosophical concepts. Modified by such new +matter, it obtained a renewed lease of life. In proportion as +the various schools of Gnosticism became more influenced by +Christian elements, they were more easily confused with +<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/> +Christianity, and accordingly more dangerous to it. Among +such were the greater schools of Basilides and Valentinus +(see <ref target="Section_22">next section</ref>). The doctrines of Gnosticism were held by +many who were nominally within the Church. The tendency +of the Gnostics and their adherents was to form little coteries +and to keep much of their teaching secret from those who +were attracted by their more popular tenets. The esoteric +element seems to have been the so-called <q>systems</q> in which +the fanciful and mythological element in Gnosticism appears. +This, as being the most vulnerable part of the Gnostic teaching, +was attacked most bitterly by the opponents of heresy. +There are no extant writings of the earlier Gnostics, Simon, +Menander, or Cerinthus. They are known only from Christian +opponents. +</p> + +<p> +Sources for the history of Gnosticism: The leading sources +are the Church Fathers Irenæus, Hippolytus, Tertullian, Clement +of Alexandria (all translated in ANF), Origen (in part only +translated in ANF), and Epiphanius. The accounts of these +bitter enemies must necessarily be used with caution. They +contain, however, numerous fragments from Gnostic writings. +The fragments in the ante-Nicene Fathers may be found in +A. Hilgenfeld, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, in Greek, with commentary. For the +literary remains of Gnosticism, see Krüger, §§ 22-31. The +more accessible are: <hi rend='italic'>Acts of Thomas</hi> (best Greek text by +Bonnet, Leipsic, 1903, German translation with excellent +commentary in E. Hennecke, <hi rend='italic'>Neutestamentliche Apokryphen</hi>, +Tübingen and Leipsic, 1904); Ptolemæus, <hi rend='italic'>Epistle to Flora</hi> +(in Epiphanius, <hi rend='italic'>Panarion</hi>, Hær. XXXIII); <hi rend='italic'>Hymn of +the Soul</hi>, from the <hi rend='italic'>Acts of Thomas</hi> (text and English +translation by Bevan in <hi rend='italic'>Text and Studies</hi>, V, 3, Cambridge, 1897, +also translated in F. C. Burkitt, <hi rend='italic'>Early Eastern Christianity</hi>, +N. Y., 1904). +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Præscriptione +Hæreticorum</hi>, 7. (MSL, 2:21.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +A wide-spread opinion that Gnosticism was fundamentally a perversion +of Christianity finds its most striking expression in the phrase +of Harnack that it was <q>the acute secularizing or Hellenizing of Christianity</q> +<pb n='078'/><anchor id='Pg078'/> +(<hi rend='italic'>History of Dogma</hi>, English translation, I, 226). The foundation +for this representation is the later Gnosticism, which took over many +Christian and Greek elements, and the opinion of Tertullian that +Gnosticism and Greek philosophy discussed the same questions and +held the same opinions. (<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> the thesis of Hippolytus in his +<hi rend='italic'>Philosophumena, or the Refutation of All Heresies</hi>; see the +Proemium, ANF, V, 9 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, and especially bk. VII.) Tertullian, +although retaining unconsciously the impress of his former Stoicism, was violently +opposed to philosophy, and in his denunciation of heresy felt that it was a powerful +argument against the Gnostics to show similarities between their teaching +and the Greek philosophy he so heartily detested. It is a brilliant +work and may be taken as a fair specimen of Tertullian's style. +</quote> + +<p> +These are the doctrines of men and of demons born of the +spirit of this world's wisdom, for itching ears; and the Lord, +calling this foolishness, chose the foolish things of this world +to the confusion of philosophy itself. For philosophy is the +material of the world's wisdom, the rash interpreter of the +nature and dispensation of God. Indeed, heresies themselves +are instigated by philosophy. From this source came the +eons, and I know not what infinite forms, and the trinity of +man in the system of Valentinus; he was of Plato's school. +From this source came Marcion's better god with all his +tranquillity; he came of the Stoics. Then again the opinion +that the soul dies is held by the Epicureans. The denial of the +resurrection of the body is taken from the united schools of +all philosophers. When matter is made equal to God, you +have the teaching of Zeno; and when anything is alleged +touching a fiery god, then Heraclitus comes in. The same +subject-matter is discussed over and over again by the heretics +and the philosophers; the same arguments are involved. +Whence and wherefore is evil? Whence and how has come +man? Besides these there is the question which Valentinus +has very recently proposed, Whence comes God? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, 23. (MSG, +7:670.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Simon Magus. For additional source material, see Justin Martyr, +<hi rend='italic'>Apol.</hi> I, 26, 56, <hi rend='italic'>Dial. c. Tryph.</hi>, 120; +Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Ref.</hi> VI, 72 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> The +appearance of Simon in the pseudo-Clementine literature (translated +in ANF, VIII), presents an interesting historical problem. The +<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/> +present condition of investigation is given in the article <q>Clementine +Literature</q> by J. V. Bartlett, in <hi rend='italic'>Encyc. Brit.</hi>, eleventh ed. +</quote> + +<p> +Simon the Samaritan, that magician of whom Luke, the +disciple and follower of the Apostles, says: <q>But there was a +certain man, Simon by name,</q> etc. [Acts 8:9-11, 20, 21, 23.] +Since he did not put his faith in God a whit more, he +set himself eagerly to contend against the Apostles, in order +that he himself might seem to be a wonderful being, and +studied with still greater zeal the whole range of magic art, +that he might the better bewilder the multitude of men. +Such was his procedure in the reign of Claudius Cæsar, by +whom also he is said to have been honored with a statue on +account of his magic. This man, then, was glorified by many +as a god, and he taught that it was he himself who appeared +among the Jews as the Son, but descended in Samaria as the +Father, while he came to other nations in the character of +the Holy Spirit. He represented himself as the loftiest of all +powers, that it is he who is over all as the Father, and he +allowed himself to be called whatsoever men might name him. +</p> + +<p> +Now this Simon of Samaria, from whom all heresies derive +their origin, has as the material for his sect the following: +Having redeemed from slavery at Tyre, a city of Phœnicia, a +certain woman named Helena,<note place="foot">For a discussion of this Helena, see +Bousset, <hi rend='italic'>Die Hauptprobleme der Gnosis</hi>, +1907, pp. 77 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></note> a prostitute, he was in the +habit of carrying her about with him, declaring that she was +the first conception [<hi rend='italic'>Ennœa</hi>] of his mind, the mother of all, by +whom he conceived in his mind to make the angels and archangels. +For this Ennœa, leaping forth from him and comprehending +the will of her father, descended to the lower regions +and generated angels and powers, by whom, also, he declared +this world was made. But after she had generated them she +was detained by them through jealousy, because they were +unwilling that they should be regarded as the progeny of +any other being. As to himself, he was wholly unknown to +them, but his Ennœa was detained by those powers and +<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/> +angels who had been produced by her. She suffered all kinds +of contumely from them, so that she could not return upward +to her father, but was even shut up in a human body and for +ages passed in succession from one female body to another, +as from one vessel to another vessel. She was in that Helen +on whose account the Trojan War was undertaken; wherefore +also Stesichorus was struck blind, because he cursed her +in his poems; but afterward, when he had repented and +written those verses which are called palinodes, in which he +sung her praises, he saw once more. Thus passing from +body to body and suffering insults in every one of them, she +at last became a common prostitute; and she it is who was +the lost sheep. +</p> + +<p> +For this purpose he himself had come, that he might win +her first and free her from chains, and confer salvation upon +men by making himself known to them. For since the angels +ruled the world poorly, because each one of them coveted the +principal power, he had come to mend matters and had descended, +been transfigured and assimilated to powers and +angels, so that he might appear among men as man, although +he was not a man; and that he was supposed to have suffered +in Judea, although he had not suffered. Moreover, the prophets +inspired by the angels, who were the makers of the world, +pronounced their prophecies; for which reason those who place +their trust in him and Helena no longer regard them, but are +free to do what they will; for men are saved according to +his grace, and not according to their righteous works. For +deeds are not righteous in the nature of things, but by mere +accident and just as those angels who made the world have +determined, seeking by such precepts to bring men into bondage. +On this account he promised that the world should +be dissolved and that those who are his should be freed from +the rule of them who made the world. +</p> + +<p> +Thus, then, the mystic priests belonging to this sect both +live profligately and practise magical arts, each one to the +extent of his ability. They use exorcisms and incantations, +<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/> +love-potions, also, and charms, as well as those beings who are +called <q>familiars</q> [<hi rend='italic'>paredri</hi>] and "dream senders" +[<hi rend='italic'>oniropompi</hi>], and whatever other curious arts can be had are +eagerly pressed into their service. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, 23. +(MSG, 7:673.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The system of Menander. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> also Eusebius. +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 26. +</quote> + +<p> +The successor of Simon Magus was Menander, a Samaritan +by birth, who also became a perfect adept in magic. He +affirms that the first power is unknown to all, but that he +himself is the person who has been sent forth by the invisible +beings as a saviour for the salvation of men. The world was +made by angels, who, as he also, like Simon, says, were produced +by the Ennœa, He gives also, as he affirms, by means +of the magic which he teaches knowledge, so that one may +overcome those angels that made the world. For his disciples +obtain the resurrection by the fact that they are baptized +into him, and they can die no more, but remain immortal +without ever growing old. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, 26. (MSG, +7:686.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The system of Cerinthus. For additional source material, see +Irenæus, III, 3, 4; Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Ref.</hi> VII, 33; X, 21; Eusebius, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 28. +</quote> + +<p> +Cerinthus, again, taught in Asia that the world was not +made by the supreme God, but by a power separated and distant +from that Ruler [<hi rend='italic'>principalitate</hi>] who is over the universe, +and ignorant of the God who is above all. He represented +Jesus as not having been born of a virgin, for this seemed +impossible to him, but as having been the son of Joseph and +Mary in the same way that all other men are sons, only he +was more righteous, prudent, and wise than other men. After +his baptism Christ descended upon him in the form of a dove +from the Supreme Ruler; and that then he proclaimed the +unknown Father and performed miracles. But at last Christ +<pb n='082'/><anchor id='Pg082'/> +departed from Jesus, and then Jesus suffered and rose again, +but Christ remained impassable, since He was a spiritual being. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_22"/> +<head>§ 22. The Greater Gnostic Systems: Basilides and Valentinus</head> + +<p> +The Gnostic systems having most influence within the +Church and effect upon its development were those of Basilides +and Valentinus. Of these teachers and their followers +we have not only the accounts of those opponents who +attacked principally their esoteric and most characteristically +Gnostic tenets, but also fragments and other remains which +give a more favorable impression of the religious and moral +value of the great schools of Gnosticism. In their <q>systems</q> +of vast theogonies and cosmologies, in their wild mythological +treatment of the most abstract conceptions and their +dualism, the Church writers naturally saw at once their most +vulnerable and most dangerous element. +</p> + +<div> +<head>A. The School of Basilides</head> + +<p> +The school of Basilides marks the beginning of the distinctively +Hellenistic stadium of Gnosticism. Basilides, its +founder, apparently worked first in the East; circa 120-130 +he was at Alexandria. He was the first important Gnostic +writer. Of his Gospel, Commentary on that Gospel in twenty-four +books (<hi rend='italic'>Exegetica</hi>), and his odes only fragments remain of +the second, preserved by Clement of Alexandria and in the <hi rend='italic'>Acta +Archelai</hi> (collected by Hilgenfeld, <hi rend='italic'>Ketzergeschichte</hi>, 207-213). +</p> + +<p> +Additional source material: Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi>, II, +3, 8, 20; IV, 24, 26 (ANF. II); Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Ref.</hi>, VII, 20-27; X, 14 +(=VII, 1-15, X, 10, ANF, V); Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV. 7. The account +of Hippolytus differs markedly from that of Irenæus, and his quotations +and references have been the subject of long dispute among scholars. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Acta Archelai</hi>, 55. (MSG, +10:1526.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <hi rend='italic'>Acta Archelai</hi> purport to be an account of a disputation held +in the reign of the Emperor Probus (276-282) by Archelaus, Bishop +of Kaskar in Mesopotamia, with Mani, the founder of Manichæanism. +<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/> +The work is of uncertain authorship; it belongs to the first part of +the fourth century. It is the most important source for the Manichæan +doctrine (<hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_54">§ 54</ref>). It +exists only in a Latin translation probably from a Greek original. +</quote> + +<p> +Among the Persians there was also a certain preacher, one +Basilides, of more ancient date, not long after the time of our +Apostles. Since he was of a shrewd disposition himself, and +observed that at that time all other subjects were preoccupied, +he determined to affirm that dualism which was maintained +also by Scythianus. And so, since he had nothing to advance +which he might call his own, he brought the sayings of others +before his adversaries. And all his books contain some +matters difficult and extremely harsh. The thirteenth book +of his Tractates,<note place="foot">Probably to be identified with his +<hi rend='italic'>Exegetica</hi>.</note> however, is still extant, which begins thus: +<q>In writing the thirteenth book of our Tractates, the word +of salvation furnished us with the necessary and fruitful word. +It illustrates<note place="foot">Query: the antagonism between good and evil.</note> +under the figure of a rich [principle] and a poor +[principle], a nature without root and without place and only +supervenes upon things.<note place="foot">Very obscure: see ANF, and Routh, +<hi rend='italic'>ad loc.</hi>, and Neander, <hi rend='italic'>Ch. Hist.</hi>, I, +402.</note> This is the only topic which the +book contains.</q> Does it not, then, contain a strange word, as +also certain persons think? Will ye not all be offended with +the book itself, of which this is the beginning? But Basilides, +returning to the subject, some five hundred lines intervening, +more or less, says: <q>Give up this vain and curious variation, +and let us rather find out what inquiries the Barbarians [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +the Persians] have instituted concerning good and evil, and +to what opinions they have come on all these subjects. For +certain among them have said that there are for all things +two beginnings [or principles], to which they have referred +good and evil, holding these principles are without beginning +and ingenerate; that is to say, that in the origins of things +there were light and darkness, which existed of themselves, +and which were not declared to exist.<note place="foot">Routh, <hi rend='italic'>loc. +cit.</hi>, proposes as an emendation, <q>declared to be made.</q></note> +When these subsisted +<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/> +by themselves, they each led its own proper mode of life +as it willed to lead, and such as was competent to it. For +in the case of all things, what is proper to it is in amity with +it, and nothing seems evil to itself. But after they came to +the knowledge of each other, and after the darkness contemplated +the light, then, as if fired with a passion for something +superior, the darkness rushed to have intercourse with the +light.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi>, +IV, 12. (MSG, 8:1289.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Basilides taught the transmigration of souls as an explanation of +human suffering. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Origen in <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Rom.</hi>, +V: <q>I [Paul], he says, died +[Rom. 7:9], for now sin began to be reckoned unto me. But Basilides, +not noticing that these things ought to be understood of the natural +law, according to impious and foolish fables turns this apostolic saying +into the Pythagorean dogma, that is, attempts to prove from this +word of the Apostle that souls are transferred from one body to +another. For he says that the Apostle has said, <q>I lived without any +law</q>—<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, before I came into the body I lived in that sort +of body which is not under the law, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, of beasts and birds.</q> +</quote> + +<p> +Basilides, in the twenty-third book of the Exegetics, respecting +those that are punished by martyrdom, expresses +himself in the following language: <q>For I say this, Whosoever +fall under the afflictions mentioned, in consequence of +unconsciously transgressing in other matters, are brought to +this good end by the kindness of Him who brings about all +things, though they are accused on other grounds; so that +they may not suffer as condemned for what are acknowledged +to be iniquities, nor reproached as the adulterer or the murderer, +but because they are Christians; which will console +them, so that they do not appear to suffer. And if one who +has not sinned at all incur suffering (a rare case), yet even +he will not suffer aught through the machinations of power, +but will suffer as the child which seems not to have sinned +would suffer.</q> Then further on he adds: <q>As, then, the +child which has not sinned before, nor actually committed +sin, but has in itself that which committed sin, when subjected +<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/> +to suffering is benefited, reaping the advantage of +many difficulties; so, also, although a perfect man may not +have sinned in act, and yet endures afflictions, he suffers +similarly with the child. Having within him the sinful principle, +but not embracing the opportunity of committing +sin, he does not sin; so that it is to be reckoned to him as +not having sinned. For as he who wishes to commit adultery +is an adulterer, although he fails to commit adultery, and he +who wishes to commit murder is a murderer, although he is +unable to kill; so, also, if I see the man without sin, whom I +refer to, suffering, though he have done nothing bad, I should +call him bad on account of the wish to sin. For I will affirm +anything rather than call Providence evil.</q> Then, in continuation, +he says expressly concerning the Lord, as concerning +man: <q>If, then, passing from all these observations, you were +to proceed to put me to shame by saying, perchance impersonating +certain parties, This man has then sinned, for this +man has suffered; if you permit, I will say, He has not +sinned, but was like a child suffering. If you insist more +urgently, I would say, That the man you name is man, but +God is righteous, <q>for no one is pure,</q> as one said, <q>from +pollution.</q></q> But the hypothesis of Basilides says that the +soul, having sinned before in another life, endures punishment +in this—the elect soul with honor by martyrdom, the +other purged by appropriate punishment. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, 24:3 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> (MSG, 7:675.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The system of Basilides, as presented by Irenæus, is dualistic and +emanationist; with it is to be compared the presentation of the system +by Hippolytus in his <hi rend='italic'>Philosophumena</hi>, where it appears as +evolutionary and pantheistic. The trend of present opinion appears +to be that the account given by Irenæus is more correct, or, at least, is +earlier. The following account has all the appearance of having been +taken from an original source (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Hilgenfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Ketzergeschichte</hi>, 195, +198). It represents the esoteric and more distinctively Gnostic teaching +of the school. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 3. Basilides, to appear to have discovered something +more sublime and plausible, gives an immense development +<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/> +to his doctrine. He declares that in the beginning the Nous +was born of the unborn Father, that from him in turn was +born the Logos, then from the Logos the Phronesis, from the +Phronesis Sophia and Dynamis, and from Dynamis and +Sophia the powers and principalities and angels, whom he +calls the first; and that by these the first heaven was made. +Then by emanation from these others were formed, and these +created another heaven similar to the first. And in like +manner, when still others had been formed by emanations +from these, corresponding to those who were over them, they +framed another third heaven; and from this third heaven +downward there was a fourth succession of descendants; and +so on, in the same manner, they say that other and still other +princes and angels were formed, and three hundred and sixty-five +heavens. Wherefore the year contained the same number +of days in conformity with the number of the heavens. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 4. The angels occupying the lowest heaven, that, +namely, which is visible to us, created all those things which +are in the world, and made allotments among themselves of +the earth, and of those nations which are upon it. The chief +of them is he who is thought to be the God of the Jews. +Inasmuch as he wished to make the other nations subject to +his own people, the Jews, all the other princes resisted and +opposed him. Wherefore all other nations were hostile to +his nation. But the unbegotten and nameless Father, seeing +their ruin, sent his own first-begotten Nous, for he it is +who is called Christ, to set free from the power of those who +made the world them that believe in him. He therefore +appeared on earth as a man to the nations of those powers +and wrought miracles. Wherefore he did not himself suffer +death, but Simon, a certain Cyrenian, was compelled and +bore the cross in his stead; and this latter was transfigured +by him that he might be thought to be Jesus and was crucified +through ignorance and error; but Jesus himself took the form +of Simon and stood by and derided him. For as he is an +incorporeal power and the Nous of the unborn Father, he +<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/> +transfigured himself at pleasure, and so ascended to him who +had sent him, deriding them, inasmuch as he could not be +held, and was invisible to all. Those, then, who know these +things have been freed from the princes who made the world; +so that it is not necessary to confess him who was crucified, +but him who came in the form of a man, and was thought +to have been crucified, and was called Jesus, and was sent +by the Father, that by this dispensation he might destroy +the works of the makers of the world. Therefore, Basilides +says that if any one confesses the crucified, he is still a slave, +under the power of those who made our bodies; but whoever +denies him has been freed from these beings and is acquainted +with the dispensation of the unknown Father. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 5. Salvation is only of the soul, for the body is by +nature corruptible. He says, also, that even the prophecies +were derived from those princes who made the world, but +the law was especially given by their chief, who led the people +out of the land of Egypt. He attaches no importance to +meats offered to idols, thinks them of no consequence, but +makes use of them without hesitation. He holds, also, the +use of other things as indifferent, and also every kind of lust. +These men, furthermore, use magic, images, incantations, +invocations, and every other kind of curious arts. Coining +also certain names as if they were those of the angels, they +assert that some of these belong to the first, others to the +second, heaven; and then they strive to set forth the names, +principles, angels, powers, of the three hundred and sixty-five +imagined heavens. They also affirm that the name in which +the Saviour ascended and descended is Caulacau.<note place="foot">A mystic name; it is +the Hebrew for <q>line upon line,</q> see Is. 28:10. It +means norm or rule.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 6. He, then, who has learned these things, and known +all the angels and their causes, is rendered invisible and +incomprehensible to the angels and powers, even as Caulacau +also was. And as the Son was unknown to all, so must they +also be known by no one; but while they know all and pass +<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/> +through all, they themselves remain invisible and unknown +to all; for <q>Do thou,</q> they say, <q>know all, but let nobody +know thee.</q> For this reason, persons of such a persuasion +are also ready to recant, yea, rather, it is impossible that they +should suffer on account of a mere name, since they are alike +to all. The multitude, however, cannot understand these +matters, but only one out of a thousand, or two out of ten +thousand. They declare that they are no longer Jews, and +that they are not yet Christians; and that it is not at all +fitting to speak openly of their mysteries, but right to keep +them secret by preserving silence. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 7. They make out the local position of the three hundred +and sixty-five heavens in the same way as do the mathematicians. +For, accepting the theorems of the latter, they +have transferred them to their own style of doctrine. They +hold that their chief is Abraxas [or Abrasax]; and on this +account that the word contains in itself the numbers amounting +to three hundred and sixty-five. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>B. The School of Valentinus</head> + +<p> +The Valentinians were the most important of all the Gnostics +closely connected with the Church. The school had many +adherents scattered throughout the Roman Empire, its leading +teachers were men of culture and literary ability, and the +sect maintained itself a long time. Valentinus himself was +a native of Egypt, and probably educated at Alexandria, +where he may have come under the influence of Basilides. +He taught his own system chiefly at Rome c. 140-c. 160. +The great work of Irenæus against the Gnostics, although +having all Gnostics in view, especially deals with the Valentinians +in their various forms, because Irenæus was of the +opinion that he who refutes their system refutes all (<hi rend='italic'>cf. Adv. +Hær.</hi>, IV, <hi rend='italic'>præf.</hi>, 2). It is difficult to reconstruct +with certainty the esoteric system of Valentinus as distinguished from +possibly later developments of the school, as Irenæus, the +principal authority, follows not only Valentinus, but Ptolomæus +<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/> +and others, in describing the system. The following +selection of sources gives fragments of the letters and other +writings of Valentinus himself as preserved by Clement of +Alexandria, passages from Irenæus bringing out distinctive +features of the system, and the important letter of Ptolemæus +to Flora, one of the very few extant writings of the Gnostics +of an early date. It gives a good idea of the character of +the exoteric teaching of the school. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: The principal authority for the system +of the Valentinians is Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, Lib. I (ANF), see also +Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refut.</hi>, VI, 24-32 (ANF); <q>The Hymn of the Soul,</q> +from the <hi rend='italic'>Acts of Thomas</hi>, trans. by A. A. Bevan, +<hi rend='italic'>Texts and Studies</hi>, III, Cambridge, 1897; +<hi rend='italic'>The Fragments of Heracleon</hi>, trans. by A. E. Burke, +<hi rend='italic'>Text and Studies</hi>, I, Cambridge, 1891; see also ANF, IX, index, p. +526, <hi rend='italic'>s. v., Heracleon</hi>. The <hi rend='italic'>Excerpta Theodoti</hi> +contained in ANF, VIII, are really the <hi rend='italic'>Excerpta Prophetica</hi>, another +collection, identified with the <hi rend='italic'>Excerpta Theodoti</hi> by mistake of +the editor of the American edition, A. C. Coxe (on the <hi rend='italic'>Excerpta</hi>, +see Zahn, <hi rend='italic'>History of the Canon of the New Testament</hi>). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi>, +IV, 13. (MSG, 8:1296.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passages appear to be taken from the same homily of +Valentinus. The pneumatics are naturally immortal, but have assumed +mortality to overcome it. Death is the work of the imperfect Demiurge. +The concluding portion, which is very obscure, does not fit +well into the Valentinian system. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hilgenfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, p. 300. +</quote> + +<p> +Valentinian in a homily writes in these words: <q>Ye are +originally immortal, and ye are children of eternal life, and ye +desired to have death distributed to you, that ye may spend +and lavish it, and that death may die in you and by you; for +when ye dissolve the world, and are not yourselves dissolved, +ye have dominion over creation and all corruption.</q><note +place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> the doctrine of redemption among the Marcosians, +a branch of the Valentinians, stated in Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, +215.</note> For +he also, similarly with Basilides, supposes a class saved by +nature [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the pneumatics, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>], +and that this different +race has come hither to us from above for the abolition of +death, and that the origin of death is the work of the Creator +<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/> +of the world. Wherefore, also, he thus expounds that Scripture, +<q>No one shall see the face of God and live</q> [Ex. 33:20], +as if He were the cause of death. Respecting this God, he +makes those allusions, when writing, in these expressions: <q>As +much as the image is inferior to the living face, so much is the +world inferior to the living Eon. What is, then, the cause of +the image? It is the majesty of the face, which exhibits the +figure to the painter, to be honored by his name; for the +form is not found exactly to the life, but the name supplies +what is wanting in that which is formed. The invisibility +of God co-operates also for the sake of the faith of that which +has been fashioned.</q> For the Demiurge, called God and Father, +he designated the image and prophet of the true God, +as the Painter, and Wisdom, whose image, which is formed, +is to the glory of the invisible One; since the things which +proceed from a pair [syzygy] are complements [<hi rend='italic'>pleromata</hi>], +and those which proceed from one are images. But since what +is seen is no part of Him, the soul [<hi rend='italic'>psyche</hi>] comes from what +is intermediate, and is different; and this is the inspiration +of the different spirit. And generally what is breathed into +the soul, which is the image of the spirit [<hi rend='italic'>pneuma</hi>], and in +general, what is said of the Demiurge, who was made according +to the image, they say was foretold by a sensible image +in the book of Genesis respecting the origin of man; and the +likeness they transfer to themselves, teaching that the addition +of the different spirit was made, unknown to the Demiurge. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi>, +II, 20. (MSG, 8:1057.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +According to Basilides, the various passions of the soul were no original +parts of the soul, but appendages to the soul. <q>They were in essence +certain spirits attached to the rational soul, through some original +perturbation and confusion; and that again, other bastard and heterogeneous +natures of spirits grow onto them, like that of the wolf, the +ape, the lion, and the goat, whose properties, showing themselves around +the soul, they say, assimilate the lusts of the soul to the likeness +of these animals.</q> See the whole passage immediately preceding +the following fragment. The fragment can best be understood by reference +<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/> +to the presentation of the system by W. Bousset in <hi rend='italic'>Encyc. Brit.</hi>, +eleventh ed., art. <q>Basilides.</q> +</quote> + +<p> +Valentinus, too, in a letter to certain people, writes in these +very words respecting the appendages: <q>There is One good, +by whose presence is the manifestation, which is by the Son, +and by Him alone can the heart become pure, by the expulsion +of every evil spirit from the heart; for the multitude of +spirits dwelling in it do not suffer it to be pure; but each of +them performs his own deeds, insulting it oft with unseemly +lusts. And the heart seems to be treated somewhat like a +caravansary. For the latter has holes and ruts made in it, +and is often filled with filthy dung; men living filthily in it, +and taking no care for the place as belonging to others. So +fares it with the heart as long as there is no thought taken +for it, being unclean and the abode of demons many. But +when the only good Father visits it, it is sanctified and gleams +with light. And he who possesses such a heart is so blessed +that he shall see God.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi>, +II. 8. (MSG, 8:972.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The teaching in the following passage attaches itself to the text, +<q>The fear of God is the beginning of wisdom</q> (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Prov. +1:7). Compare with it Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, 30:6. +</quote> + +<p> +Here the followers of Basilides, interpreting this expression +[Prov. 1:7] say that <q>the Archon, having heard the speech +of the Spirit, who was being ministered to, was struck with +amazement both with the voice and the vision, having had +glad tidings beyond his hopes announced to him; and that +his amazement was called fear, which became the origin of +wisdom, which distinguishes classes, and discriminates, and +perfects, and restores. For not the world alone, but also +the election, He that is over all has set apart and sent forth.</q> +</p> + +<p> +And Valentinus appears also in an epistle to have adopted +such views. For he writes in these very words: <q>And as +terror fell on the angels at this creature, because he uttered +things greater than proceeds from his formation, by reason +<pb n='092'/><anchor id='Pg092'/> +of the being in him who had invisibly communicated a germ +of the supernal essence, and who spoke with free utterance; +so, also, among the tribes of men in the world the works of +men became terrors to those who made them—as, for example, +images and statues. And the hands of all fashion things +to bear the image of God; for Adam, formed into the name of +man, inspired the dread attaching to the pre-existing man, as +having his being in him; and they were terror-stricken and +speedily marred the work.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi>, +III, 7. (MSG, 8:1151.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Docetism of Valentinus comes out in the following. It is to +be noted that Clement not only does not controvert the position taken +by the Gnostic as to the reality of the bodily functions of Jesus, but +in his own person makes almost the same assertions (<hi rend='italic'>cf. Strom.</hi>, +VI, 9). He might indeed call himself, as he does in this latter passage, a +Gnostic in the sense of the true or Christian Gnostic, but he comes +very close to the position of the non-Christian Gnostic. +</quote> + +<p> +Valentinus in an epistle to Agathopous says: <q>Since He +endured all things, and was continent [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, self-controlled], +Jesus, accordingly, obtained for Himself divinity. He ate and +drank in a peculiar manner, not giving forth His food. Such +was the power of His continence [self-control] that the food +was not corrupted in Him, because He himself was without +corruption.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, 7, 15; +I, 8, 23. (MSG, 7:517, 528.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The division of mankind into three classes, according to their nature +and consequent capacity for salvation, is characteristic of the Valentinian +Gnosticism. The other Gnostics divided mankind into two +classes: those capable of salvation, or the pneumatics, or Gnostics, +and those who perish in the final destruction of material existence, or +the hylics. Valentinus avails himself of the notion of the trichotomy of +human nature, and gives a place for the bulk of Christians, those +who did not embrace Gnosticism; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Irenæus, +<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi>, I, 6. Valentinus remained long within the +Church, accommodating his teaching as far as possible, and in +its exoteric side very fully, to the current teaching +of the Church. The doctrine as to the psychics, capable of a +limited salvation, appears to be a part of this accommodation. +</quote> + +<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/> + +<p> +I, 7, 5. The Valentinians conceive of three kinds of men: +the pneumatic [or spiritual], the choic [or material],<note place="foot">Generally +spoken of as hylics.</note> and the +psychic [or animal]; such were Cain, Abel, and Seth. These +three natures are no longer in one person, but in the race. +The material goes to destruction. The animal, if it chooses +the better part, finds repose in an intermediate place; but if +it chooses the worse, it, too, goes to the same [destruction]. +But they assert that the spiritual principles, whatever Acamoth +has sown, being disciplined and nourished here from +that time until now in righteous souls, because they were +sent forth weak, at last attain perfection and shall be given +as brides<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> introductory note to +following selection.</note> to the angels of the Saviour, but their animal souls +necessarily rest forever with the Demiurge in the intermediate +place. And again subdividing the animal souls themselves, +they say that some are by nature good and others are +by nature evil. The good are those who become capable of +receiving the seed; the evil by nature, those who are never +able to receive that seed. +</p> + +<p> +I, 8, 23. The parable of the leaven which the woman is +said to have hid in three measures of meal they declare manifests +the three kinds of men: pneumatic, psychic, and the +choic, but the leaven denoted the Saviour himself. Paul +also very plainly set forth the choic, the psychic, and the +pneumatic, saying in one place: <q>As is the earthy [choic] such +are they also that are earthy</q> [I Cor. 15:48]; and in another +place, <q>He that is spiritual [pneumatic] judgeth all things</q> +[I Cor. 2:14]. And the passage, <q>The animal man receiveth +not the things of the spirit</q> [I Cor. 2:15], they affirm was +spoken concerning the Demiurge, who, being psychic, knew +neither his mother, who was spiritual, nor her seed, nor the +Eons in the pleroma. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Irenæus. <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, 1. +(MSG, 7:445 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passage appears, from the context, to have been +written with the teaching of Ptolemæus especially in mind. It should +<pb n='094'/><anchor id='Pg094'/> +be compared with the account further on in the same book, I, 11: 1-3. +The syzygies are characteristic of the Valentinian teaching, and the +symbolism of marriage plays an important part in the <q>system</q> of +all the Valentinians. In the words of Duchesne (<hi rend='italic'>Hist. ancienne de +l'église</hi>, sixth ed., p. 171): <q>Valentinian Gnosticism is from one end +to the other a <q>marriage Gnosticism.</q> From the most abstract origins +of being to their end, there are only syzygies, marriages, and generations.</q> +For the connection between these conceptions and antinomianism, +see Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, 6:3 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> For +their sacramental application, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi>, I, 21:3. +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> I, 13:3, a passage which seems to belong to the sacrament +of the bridal chamber. +</quote> + +<p> +They [the Valentinians] say that in the invisible and ineffable +heights above there exists a certain perfect, pre-existent +Eon, and him they call Proarche, Propator, and Bythos; +and that he is invisible and that nothing is able to comprehend +him. Since he is comprehended by no one, and is invisible, +eternal, and unbegotten, he was in silence and profound quiescence +in the boundless ages. There existed along with him +Ennœa, whom they call Charis and Sige. And at a certain +time this Bythos determined to send forth from himself the +beginnings of all things, and just as seed he wished to send +forth this emanation, and he deposited it in the womb of her +who was with him, even of Sige. She then received this seed, +and becoming pregnant, generated Nous, who was both +similar and equal to him who had sent him forth<note place="foot">The term used for +a sending forth is προβολή or emanation, and is constantly +used in Gnosticism; hence the objection on the part of the majority +of Christian theologians to the use of the term in describing the relations of +the members of the Trinity.</note> and alone +comprehended his father's greatness. This Nous they also +call Monogenes and Father and the Beginning of all Things. +Along with him was also sent forth Aletheia; and these +four constituted the first and first-begotten Pythagorean +Tetrad, which also they denominate the root of all things. +For there are first Bythos and Sige, and then Nous and +Aletheia. And Monogenes, when he perceived for what +purpose he had been sent forth, also himself sent forth +Logos and Zoe, being the father of all those who are to come +after him, and the beginning and fashioning of the entire +<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/> +pleroma. From Logos and Zoe were sent forth, by a conjunction, +Anthropos and Ecclesia, and thus were formed the first-begotten +Ogdoad, the root and substance of all things, called +among them by four names; namely, Bythos, Nous, Logos, +and Anthropos. For each of these is at once masculine and +feminine, as follows: Propator was united by a conjunction +with his Ennœa, then Monogenes (<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Nous) with Aletheia, +Logos with Zoe, Anthropos with Ecclesia. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Ptolemæus, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula ad Floram</hi>, +ap. Epiphanius, <hi rend='italic'>Panarion, Hær.</hi> XXXIII, 3. Ed. Oehler, 1859. +(MSG, 41:557.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Ptolemæus was possibly the most important disciple of Valentinus. +and the one to whom Irenæus is most indebted for his first-hand knowledge +of the teaching of the sect of the Valentinians. Of his writings +have been preserved, in addition to numerous brief fragments, a connected +passage of some length, apparently from a commentary on the +Prologue or the Gospel of St. John (see Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, I, +8:5), and the Epistle to Flora. The commentary is distinctly a part of the +esoteric teaching, the epistle is as clearly exoteric. +</quote> + +<p> +That many have not<note place="foot">This negative seems to spoil the sense of the +passage, and is omitted in some editions.</note> received the Law given by Moses, +my dear sister Flora, without recognizing either its fundamental +ideas or its precepts, will be perfectly clear to you, +I believe, if you become acquainted with the different views +regarding the same. For some [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the Church] say that +it was commanded by God and the Father; but others [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +the Marcionites], taking the opposite direction, affirm that +it was commanded by an opposing and injurious devil, and +they attribute to him the creation of the world, and say +that he is the Father and Creator. But such as teach such +doctrine are altogether deceived, and each of them strays +from the truth of what lies before him. For it appears not +to have been given by the perfect God and Father, because +it is itself imperfect, and it needs to be completed [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Matt. +5:17], and it has precepts not consonant with the nature and +mind of God; neither is the Law to be attributed to the wickedness +<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/> +of the adversary, whose characteristic is to do wrong. +Such do not know what was spoken by the Saviour, that a +city or a house divided against itself cannot stand, as our +Saviour has shown us. And besides, the Apostle says that +the creation of the world was His work (all things were made +by Him and without Him nothing was made), refuting the unsubstantial +wisdom of lying men, the work not of a god working +ruin, but a just one who hates wickedness. This is the +opinion of rash men who do not understand the cause of the +providence of the Creator [Demiurge] and have lost the eyes +not only of their soul, but of their body. How far, therefore, +such wander from the way of truth is evident to you from +what has been said. But each of these is induced by something +peculiar to himself to think thus, some by ignorance +of the God of righteousness: others by ignorance of the Father +of all, whom the Only One who knew Him alone revealed when +He came. To us it has been reserved to be deemed worthy +of making manifest to you the ideas of both of these, and to +investigate carefully this Law, whence anything is, and the +law-giver by whom it was commanded, bringing proofs of +what shall be said from the words of our Saviour, by which +alone one can be led without error to the knowledge of things. +</p> + +<p> +First of all, it is to be known that the entire Law contained +in the Pentateuch of Moses was not given by one—I mean not +by God alone; but some of its precepts were given by men, +and the words of the Saviour teach us to divide it into three +parts. For He attributes some of it to God himself and His +law-giving, and some to Moses, not in the sense that God +gave laws through him, but in the sense that Moses, impelled +by his own spirit, set down some things as laws; and He +attributes some things to the elders of the people, who first +discovered certain commandments of their own and then +inserted them. How this was so you clearly learn from the +words of the Saviour. Somewhere the Saviour was conversing +with the people, who disputed with Him about divorce, +that it was allowed in the Law, and He said to them: Moses, +<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/> +on account of the hardness of your hearts, permitted a man to +divorce his wife; but from the beginning it was not so. For +God, said He, joined this bond, and what the Lord joined +together let not man, He said, put asunder. He therefore +pointed out one law that forbids a woman to be separated +from her husband, which was of God, and another, which was +of Moses, that allows, on account of the hardness of men's +hearts, the bond to be dissolved. And accordingly, Moses gives +a law opposed to God, for it is opposed to the law forbidding +divorce. But if we consider carefully the mind of Moses, +according to which he thus legislated, we shall find that he +did not do this of his own mere choice, but by constraint +because of the weakness of those to whom he was giving the +law. For since they were not able to observe that precept +of God by which it was not permitted them to cast forth +their wives, with whom some of them lived unhappily, and +because of this they were in danger of falling still more into +unrighteousness, and from that into utter ruin, Moses, +intending to avoid this unhappy result, because they were +in danger of ruin, gave a certain second law, according to +circumstances less evil, in place of the better; and by his own +authority gave the law of divorce to them, that if they could +not keep that they might keep this, and should not fall into +unrighteousness and wickedness by which complete ruin +should overtake them. This was his purpose in as far as he +is found giving laws contrary to God. That thus the law +of Moses is shown to be other than the Law of God is indisputable, +if we have shown it in one instance. +</p> + +<p> +And as to there being certain traditions of the elders which +have been incorporated in the Law, the Saviour shows this also. +For God, said He, commanded: Honor thy father and thy +mother, that it may be well with thee. But ye, He said, +addressing the elders, have said: It is a gift to God, that by +which ye might be profited by me, and ye annul the law of +God by the traditions of your elders. And this very thing +Isaiah declared when he said: This people honor me with +<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/> +their lips, but their heart is far from me, vainly do they worship +me, teaching the doctrines and commandment of men [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +Matt. 15:4-9.] Clearly, then, from these things it is shown +that this whole Law is to be divided into three parts. And in +it we find laws given by Moses, by the elders, and by God; +and this division of the whole Law as we have made it, has +shown the real truth as to the Law. +</p> + +<p> +But one portion of the Law, that which is from God, is +again to be divided into three parts: first, into the genuine +precepts, quite untainted with evil, which is properly called +the law, and which the Saviour came not to destroy but to complete +(for what he completed was not alien to Him, but yet it +was not perfect); secondly, the part comprising evil and unrighteous +things, which the Saviour did away with as something +unfitting His nature; and thirdly, the part which is for +types and symbols, which is given as a law, as images of things +spiritual and excellent which, from being evident and manifest +to the senses, the Saviour changed into the spiritual and +unseen. Now the law of God, pure and untainted with +anything base, is the Decalogue itself, or those ten precepts +distributed in two tables, for the prohibition of things to be +avoided and the performance of things to be done. Although +they constitute a pure body of laws, yet they are not perfect, +but need to be completed by the Saviour. But there is that +body of commands which are tainted with unrighteousness; +such is the law requiring vengeance and requital of injuries +upon those who have first injured us, commanding the smiting +out of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth and revenging +bloodshed with bloodshed. For one who is second in doing +unrighteousness acts no less unrighteously, when the difference +is only one of order, doing the self-same work. But +such a precept was, and is, in other respects just, because of +the infirmity of those to whom the law was given, and it +was given in violation of the pure law, and was not consonant +with the nature and goodness of the Father of all; it was to +a degree appropriate, but yet given under a certain compulsion. +<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/> +For he who forbids the commission of a single murder +in that he says, Thou shalt not kill, but commands that he +who kills shall in requital be killed, gives a second law and +commands a second slaying, when he has forbidden one, and +has been compelled to do this by necessity. And therefore +the Son, sent by Him, abolishes this portion of the Law, He +himself confessing that it is from God, and this, among other +things, is to be attributed to an ancient heresy, among which, +also, is that God, speaking, says: He that curseth father or +mother, let him die the death. But there is that part of the +Law which is typical, laying down that which is an image of +things spiritual and excellent, which gives laws concerning +such matters as offerings, I mean, and circumcision, the Sabbath +and fasting, the passover and the unleavened bread, and +such like. For all these things, being images and symbols of +the truth which had been manifested, have been changed. +They were abrogated so far as they were external, visible acts +of bodily performance, but they were retained so far as they +were spiritual, the names remaining, but the things being +changed. For the Saviour commands us to present offerings, +though not of irrational animals or of incense, but spiritual +offerings—praise, glory, and thanksgiving, and also liberality +and good deeds toward the neighbor. He would have us +circumcised with a circumcision not of the flesh, but spiritual +and of the heart; and have us observe the Sabbath, for he +wishes us to rest from wicked actions; and fast, but he does +not wish us to observe a bodily fast, but a spiritual, in that +we abstain from all that is unworthy. External fasting, however, +is observed among our people, since it is capable of +benefiting the soul to some degree, if it is practised with +reason, when it is neither performed from imitation of any +one, nor by custom, nor on account of a day, as if a day were +set apart for that purpose; and at the same time it is also +for a reminder of true fasting, that they who are not able +to fast thus may have a reminder of it from the fast which is +external. And that the passover, in the same way, and the +<pb n='100'/><anchor id='Pg100'/> +unleavened bread are images, the Apostle Paul also makes +clear, saying: Christ our Passover is sacrificed for us, and +That ye may be unleavened, not having any leaven (for he +calls leaven wickedness), but that ye may be a new dough. +</p> + +<p> +This entire Law, therefore, acknowledged to be from God, +is divided into three parts: into that part which is fulfilled +by the Saviour, such as Thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not +commit adultery, thou shalt not forswear thyself, for they +are included in this, thou shalt not be angry, thou shalt not +lust, thou shalt not swear; into that which is completely +abolished, such as an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, +being tainted with unrighteousness, and having the same +work of unrighteousness, and these are taken away by the +Saviour because contradictory (for those things which are contradictory +are mutually destructive), <q>For I say unto you +that ye in no wise resist evil, but if any one smite thee turn +to him the other cheek also;</q> and into that part which is +changed and converted from that which is bodily into that +which is spiritual, as he expounds allegorically a symbol which +is commanded as an image of things that are excellent. For +these images and symbols, fitted to represent other things, +were good so long as the truth was not yet present; but when +the truth is present, it is necessary to do the things of truth, +not the image of truth. The same thing his disciples and the +Apostle Paul teach, inasmuch as in regard to things which are +images, as we have already said, they show by the passover +and the unleavened bread that they are for our sake, but in +regard to the law which is tainted with unrighteousness, they +call it the law of commandments and ordinances, that is +done away; but as to the law which is untainted with evil, +he says that the law is holy and the commandment holy and +just and good. +</p> + +<p> +Accordingly, I think that it has been sufficiently shown you, +so far as it is possible to discuss the matter briefly, that there +are laws of men which have slipped in, and there is the very +Law of God which is divided into three parts. There remains, +<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/> +therefore, for us to show, who, then, is that God who gave the +Law. But I think that this has been shown you in what +has already been said, if you have listened attentively. For +if the Law was not given by the perfect God, as we have shown, +nor by the devil, which idea merely to mention is unlawful, +there is another beside these, one who gave the Law. This +one is, therefore, the Demiurge and maker of this whole +world and of all things in it, different from the nature of the +other two, and placed between them, and who therefore +rightly bears the name of the Midst. And if the perfect God +is good according to His own nature, as also He is (for that +there is only One who is good, namely, God and His Father, +the Saviour asserted, the God whom He manifested), there is +also one who is of the nature of the adversary, bad and +wicked and characterized by unrighteousness. Standing, +therefore, between these, and being neither good nor bad nor +unjust, he can be called righteous in a sense proper to him, +as the judge of the righteousness that corresponds to him, +and that god will be lower than the perfect God, and his +righteousness lower than His, because he is begotten and not +unbegotten. For there is one unbegotten One, the Father, +from whom are all things, for all things have been prepared +by Him. But He is greater and superior to the adversary, and +is of a different essence or nature from the essence of the other. +For the essence of the adversary is corruption and darkness, +for he is hylic and composite,<note place="foot">Simplicity is always regarded +in ancient thought as a characteristic of Deity.</note> +but the essence of the unbegotten Father of all is incorruptibility, and He is light +itself, simple and uniform. But the essence of these<note place="foot">According to +another reading, of this one.</note> brings +forth a certain twofold power, and he is the image of the better. +Do not let these things disturb you, who wish to learn how +from one principle of all things, whom we acknowledge and +in whom be believe, namely, the unbegotten and the incorruptible +and the good, there exist two other natures, namely, +that of corruption and that of the Midst, which are not of +<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/> +the same essence [ἀνομοοῦσιοι], though the good by nature +begets and brings forth what is like itself, and of the same +essence [ὁμοοῦσιος]. For you will learn by God's permission, +in due order, both the beginning of this and its generation, +since you are deemed worthy of the apostolic tradition, +which by a succession we have received, and in due season to +test all things by the teaching of the Saviour. The things which +in a few words I have said to you, my sister Flora, I have not +exhausted, and I have written briefly. At the same time I +have sufficiently explained to you the subject proposed, and +what I have said will be constantly of use to you, if as a beautiful +and good field you have received the seed and will by +it produce fruit. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_23"/> +<head>§ 23. Marcion</head> + +<p> +Recently Marcion has been commonly treated apart from +the Gnostics on account of the large use he made of the +Pauline writings. By some he has even been regarded as a +champion of Pauline ideas which had failed to hold a place +in Christian thought. This opinion of Marcion is being +modified under the influence of a larger knowledge of Gnosticism. +At the bottom Marcion's doctrine was thoroughly +Gnostic, though he differed from the vast majority of Gnostics +in that his interest seems to have been primarily ethical rather +than speculative. His school maintained itself for some +centuries after undergoing some minor modifications. Marcion +was teaching at Rome, A. D. 140. The aspersions upon +his moral character must be taken with caution, as it had +already become a common practice to blacken the character +of theological opponents, regardless of the truth, a custom +which has not yet wholly disappeared. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apol.</hi>, I. 26, 58; +Irenæus, III. 12:12 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> The most important source is Tertullian's +elaborate <hi rend='italic'>Adversus Marcionem</hi>, especially I, 1 +<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, 29; III, 8. 11. +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_23_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Irenæus, Adv. <hi rend='italic'>Hær.</hi>, I, 27: 1-3. +(MSG, 7:687.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The system of Cerdo and Marcion. +</quote> + +<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/> + +<p> +Ch. 1. A certain Cerdo, who had taken his fundamental +ideas from those who were with Simon [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Simon Magus], +and who was in Rome in the time of Hyginus, who held the +ninth place from the Apostles in the episcopal succession, +taught that the God who was preached by the law and the +prophets is not the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. For the +former is known, but the latter is unknown; and the former +is righteous, but the other is good. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 2. And Marcion of Pontus succeeded him and developed +a school, blaspheming shamelessly Him who is proclaimed +as God by the law and the prophets; saying that He is maker +of evils and a lover of wars, inconstant in purpose and inconsistent +with Himself. He said, however, that Jesus came from +the Father, who is above the God who made the world, +into Judea in the time of Pontius Pilate, the procurator of +Tiberius Cæsar, and was manifested in the form of a man to +those who were in Judea, destroying the prophets and the +law, and all the works of that God who made the world and +whom he also called Cosmocrator. In addition to this, he +mutilated the Gospel which is according to Luke, and removed +all that refers to the generation of the Lord, removing also +many things from the teaching in the Lord's discourses, in +which the Lord is recorded as very plainly confessing that +the founder of this universe is His Father; and thus Marcion +persuaded his disciples that he himself is truer than the +Apostles who delivered the Gospel; delivering to them not +the Gospel but a part of the Gospel. But in the same manner +he also mutilated the epistles of the Apostle Paul, removing +all that is plainly said by the Apostle concerning that God +who made the world, to the effect that He is the Father of our +Lord Jesus Christ, and all that the Apostle taught by quotation +from the prophetical writings which foretold the coming +of the Lord. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. He taught that salvation would be only of the souls +of those who should receive his doctrine, and that it is impossible +for the body to partake of salvation, because it was +taken from the earth. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_23_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Marcion.</hi>, I, +19; IV, 2, 3. (MSL, 2: 293. 393.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Tertullian's great work against Marcion is his most important and +most carefully written polemical treatise. He revised it three times. +The first book of the present revision dates from A. D. 207; the other +books cannot be dated except conjecturally. In spite of the openly +displayed hostile animus of the writer, it can be used with confidence +when controlled by reference to other sources. +</quote> + +<p> +I, 19. Marcion's special and principal work is the separation +of the law and the Gospel; and his disciples will not be +able to deny that in this they have their best means by +which they are initiated into, and confirmed in, this heresy. +For these are Marcion's antitheses—that is, contradictory +propositions; and they aim at putting the Gospel at variance +with the law, that from the diversity of the statements of +the two documents they may argue for a diversity of gods, also. +</p> + +<p> +IV, 2. With Marcion the mystery of the Christian religion +dates from the discipleship of Luke. Since, however, it +was under way previously, it must have had its authentic +materials by means of which it found its way down to Luke; +and by aid of the testimony which it bore Luke himself +becomes admissible. +</p> + +<p> +IV, 3. Well, but because Marcion finds the Epistle to the +Galatians by Paul, who rebukes even Apostles for <q>not walking +uprightly according to the truth of the Gospel</q> [Gal. 2:14], +as well as accuses certain false apostles of being perverters +of the Gospel of Christ, he attempts to destroy the standing +of those gospels which are published as genuine and under +the names of Apostles, or of apostolic men, to secure, forsooth, +for his own gospel the credit he takes away from them. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Rhodon, in Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, +V, 13. (MSG, 20:459.)</head> + +<p> +At this time Rhodon, a native of Asia, who, as he himself +states, had been instructed at Rome by Tatian, with whom +we have already become acquainted, wrote excellent books, +and published among the rest one against the heresy of +Marcion which, he says, was in his time divided into various +<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/> +sects; and he describes those who occasioned the division +and refutes carefully the falsehood devised by each. But hear +what he writes: <q>Therefore also they have fallen into disagreement +among themselves, and maintain inconsistent +opinions. For Apelles, one of their herd, priding himself on +his manner of life and his age, acknowledged one principle +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, source of existence], but says that the prophecies were +from an opposing spirit. And he was persuaded of the truth +of this by the responses of a demoniac maiden named Philumene. +But others hold to two principles, as does the mariner +Marcion himself, among these are Potitus and Basiliscus. +These, following the wolf of Pontus and, like him, +unable to discover the divisions of things, became reckless, +and without any proof baldly asserted two principles. Again, +others of them drifted into worse error and assumed not only +two, but three, natures. Of these Syneros is the leader +and chief, as those say who defend his teaching.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_24"/> +<head>§ 24. Encratites</head> + +<p> +Asceticism is a wide-spread phenomenon in nearly all religions. +It is to be found in apostolic Christianity. In the early +Church it was regarded as a matter in the option of the Christian +who was aiming at the religious life [see above, <ref target="Section_16">§ 16</ref>]. +The characteristic of the Encratites was their insistence upon +asceticism as essential to Christian living. They were therefore +associated, and with abundant historical justification, +with Gnosticism. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi>, III, +<hi rend='italic'>passim</hi>; Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV, 29, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> the many references in the notes to McGiffert's edition, PNF. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Hippolytus, VIII, 13. (MSG, 16:3368.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +See above, <ref target="Section_19_c">§ 19, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +Others, however, styling themselves Encratites, acknowledge +some things concerning God and Christ in like manner +<pb n='106'/><anchor id='Pg106'/> +with the Church, but in respect to their mode of life they +pass their time inflated with pride; thinking that by meats +they glorify themselves, they abstain from animal food, are +water drinkers, and, forbidding to marry, they devote the rest +of their life to habits of asceticism. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi> I, 28. (MSG, +7:690.)</head> + +<p> +Many offshoots of numerous heresies have already been +formed from those heresies which we have described.… +By way of example, let us say there are those springing from +Saturninus and Marcion, who are called Encratites [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +self-controlled], who preached the unmarried state, thus setting +aside the original creation of God, and indirectly condemning +Him who made male and female for the propagation of +the human race. Some of those reckoned as belonging to +them have also introduced abstinence from animal food, being +ungrateful to God who created all things. They deny, also, +the salvation of him who was first created. It is but recently +that this opinion has been discovered among them, since a +certain man named Tatian first introduced the blasphemy. +He had been a hearer of Justin's, and as long as he continued +with him he expressed no such views; but after his martyrdom +[circa A. D. 165] he separated from the Church, and +having become excited and puffed up by the thought of being +a teacher, as if he were superior to others, he composed his +own peculiar type of doctrine. He invented a system of +certain invisible Eons, like the followers of Valentinus; and +like Marcion and Saturninus, he declared that marriage was +nothing else than corruption and fornication. But this +denial of Adam's salvation was an opinion due entirely to +himself. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_25"/> +<head>§ 25. Montanism</head> + +<p> +Montanism was, in part at least, an attempt to revive the +enthusiastic prophetic element in the early Christian life. In +its first manifestations, in Asia Minor, Montanism was wild +<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/> +and fanatical. It soon spread to the West, and in doing so +it became, as did other Oriental religious movements (<hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, +Gnosticism and Manichæanism, see <ref target="Section_54">§ 54</ref>), far more sober. +It even seemed to many serious persons to be nothing more +than a praiseworthy attempt to revive or retain certain +primitive Christian conditions, both in respect to personal +morals and ecclesiastical organization and life. In this way +it came to be patronized by not a few (<hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, Tertullian) who, +in other respects, deviated in few or no points from the prevailing +thought and practice of Christians. See also <ref target="Section_26">§ 26</ref>. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 16-19, cf. +literature cited in McGiffert's notes. The sayings of Montanus, Maximilla, and +Priscilla are collected in Hilgenfeld, <hi rend='italic'>Ketzergeschichte</hi>, 591 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> See also Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refut.</hi>, X, +25<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> [= X, 21, ANF.] +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_25_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 16:7. +(MSG, 20:463.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For Eusebius, see <ref target="Section_3">§ 3</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +There is said to be a certain village named Ardabau, in +Mysia, on the borders of Phrygia. There, they say, when +Gratus was proconsul of Asia, a recent convert, Montanus +by name—who, in his boundless desire for leadership, gave +the adversary opportunity against him—first became inspired; +and falling into a sort of frenzy and ecstasy raved and began +to babble and utter strange sounds, prophesying in a +manner contrary to the traditional and constant custom of +the Church from the beginning.… And he stirred up, +besides, two women [Maximilla and Priscilla], and filled them +with the false spirit, so that they talked frantically, at unseasonable +times, and in a strange manner, like the person +already mentioned.… And the arrogant spirit taught them +to revile the universal and entire Church under heaven, because +the spirit of false prophecy received from it neither +honor nor entrance into it; for the faithful in Asia met often +and in many places throughout Asia to consider this matter +and to examine the recent utterances, and they pronounced +them profane and rejected the heresy, and thus these persons +<pb n='108'/><anchor id='Pg108'/> +were expelled from the Church and shut out from the communion. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Apollonius, in Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Ec.</hi>, V, 18. (MSG, 20:475.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Apollonius was possibly bishop of Ephesus. His work against the +Montanists, which appears to have been written about 197, was one +of the principal sources for Eusebius in his account of the Montanists. +Only fragments of his work have been preserved. +</quote> + +<p> +This is he who taught the dissolution of marriages; who +laid down laws for fasting; who named Pepuza and Tymion +(which were small cities in Phrygia) Jerusalem, desiring to +gather people to them from everywhere; who appointed collectors +of money; who devised the receiving of gifts under +the name of offerings; who provided salaries for those who +preached his doctrine, so that by gluttony the teaching of his +doctrine might prevail. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refut.</hi>, VIII, 19. +(MSG, 16:3356.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For Hippolytus, see <ref target="Section_19_c">§ 19, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +But there are others who are themselves in nature more +heretical than the Quartodecimans. These are Phrygians by +birth and they have been deceived, having been overcome by +certain women called Priscilla and Maximilla; and they hold +these for prophetesses, saying that in them the Paraclete +Spirit dwelt; and they likewise glorify one Montanus before +these women as a prophet. So, having endless books of these +people, they go astray, and they neither judge their statements +by reason nor pay attention to those who are able to judge. +But they behave without judgment in the faith they place +in them, saying they have learned something more through +them than from the law and the prophets and the Gospels. +But they glorify these women above the Apostles and every +gift, so that some of them presume to say that there was +something more in them than in Christ. These confess God +the Father of the universe and creator of all things, like the +Church, and all that the Gospel witnesses concerning Christ, +<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/> +but invent new fasts and feasts and meals of dry food and +meals of radishes, saying that thus they were taught by their +women. And some of them agree with the heresy of the Noetians +and say that the Father is very Son, and that this One +became subject to birth and suffering and death. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter III. The Defence Against Heresy</head> + +<p> +The Church first met the various dangerous heresies which +distracted it in the second century by councils or gatherings +of bishops (<ref target="Section_26">§ 26</ref>). Although it +was not difficult to bring about +a condemnation of novel and manifestly erroneous doctrine, +there was need of fixed norms and definite authorities to which +to appeal. This was found in the apostolic tradition, which +could be more clearly determined by reference to the continuity +of the apostolic office, or the episcopate, and especially to +the succession of bishops in the churches founded by Apostles +(<ref target="Section_27">§ 27</ref>), the apostolic witness to the truth, +or the more precise determination of what writings should be regarded as apostolic, +or the canon of the New Testament (<ref target="Section_28">§ 28</ref>); and the +apostolic faith, which was regarded as summed up in the Apostles' +Creed (<ref target="Section_29">§ 29</ref>). These norms of orthodoxy seem to have been +generally established as authoritative somewhat earlier in the +West than in the East. The result was that Gnosticism was +rapidly expelled from the Church, though in some forms it lingered +for centuries (<ref target="Section_30">§ 30</ref>), and that the Church, becoming +organized around the episcopate, assumed by degrees a rigid +hierarchical constitution (<ref target="Section_31">§ 31</ref>). +</p> + +<pb n='110'/><anchor id='Pg110'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_26"/> +<head>§ 26. The Beginnings of Councils as a Defence against Heresy</head> + +<p> +Ecclesiastical councils were the first defence against heresy. +As the Church had not as yet attained its hierarchical constitution +and the autonomy of the local church still persisted, +these councils had little more than the combined authority +of the several members composing them. They had, as yet, +only moral force, and did not speak for the Church officially. +With the development of the episcopal constitution, the +councils gained rapidly in authority. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: See Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 16 (given +above, <ref target="Section_25_a">§ 25, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>), V, 24; +Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Jejun.</hi>, 13 (given below, +<ref target="Section_38">§ 38</ref>). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Libellus Synodicus</hi>, Man. I, +723.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For a discussion of the credibility of the <hi rend='italic'>Libellus Synodicus</hi>, a +compilation of the ninth century, see Hefele, <hi rend='italic'>History of the +Councils</hi>, § 1. +</quote> + +<p> +A holy and provincial synod was held at Hierapolis in Asia +by Apollinarius, the most holy bishop of that city, and twenty-six +other bishops. In this synod Montanus and Maximilla, +the false prophets, and at the same time, Theodotus the +tanner, were condemned and expelled. A holy and local +synod was gathered under the most holy Bishop Sotas of +Anchialus<note place="foot">A city of Thrace on the Black Sea.</note> +and twelve other bishops, who condemned and +rejected Theodotus the tanner and Montanus together with +Maximilla. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Eusebius. <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 18. +(MSG, 20:475.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 21.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following should be connected with the first attempts of the +Church to meet the heresy of the Montanists by gatherings of bishops. +It also throws some light on the methods of dealing with the new +prophets. +</quote> + +<p> +Serapion, who, according to report, became bishop of +Antioch at that time, after Maximinus, mentions the works +<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/> +of Apollinarius against the above-mentioned heresy. And he +refers to him in a private letter to Caricus and Pontius, in +which he himself exposes the same heresy, adding as follows: +<q>That you may see that the doings of this lying band of new +prophecy, as it is called, are an abomination to all the brethren +throughout the world, I have sent you writings of the most +blessed Claudius Apollinarius, bishop of Hierapolis in Asia.</q> +In the same letter of Serapion are found the signatures of +several bishops, of whom one has subscribed himself as follows: +<q>I, Aurelius Cyrenius, a witness, pray for your health.</q> +And another after this manner: <q>Ælius Publius Julius, +bishop of Debeltum, a colony of Thrace. As God liveth in +the heavens, the blessed Sotas in Anchialus desired to cast +the demon out of Priscilla, but the hypocrites would not +permit him.</q> And the autograph signatures of many other +bishops who agreed with them are contained in the same +letter. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_27"/> +<head>§ 27. The Apostolic Tradition and the Episcopate</head> + +<p> +The Gnostics claimed apostolic authority for their teaching +and appealed to successions of teachers who had handed +down their teachings. This procedure forced the Church to +lay stress upon the obvious fact that its doctrine was derived +from the Apostles, a matter on which it never had had any +doubt, but was vouched for, not by obscure teachers, but +by the churches which had been founded by the Apostles +themselves in large cities and by the bishops whom the Apostles +had instituted in those churches. Those churches, +furthermore, agreed among themselves, but the Gnostic +teachers differed widely. By this appeal the bishop came +to represent the apostolic order (for an earlier conception +<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_14">§ 14</ref>, +<ref target="Section_14_b"><hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>, +<ref target="Section_14_c"><hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>), +and to take an increasingly important place in the church +(<hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_31">§ 31</ref>). +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: For Gnostic references to successions +of teachers, see Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Præscr.</hi>, 25; Clement of +Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi>, VII, 17; Hippolytus, +<hi rend='italic'>Refut.</hi>, VII, 20. (= VII, 8. ANF.) +</quote> + +<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, III, 3: 1-4. +(MSG, 7:848.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 30.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The first appearance of the appeal to apostolic tradition as preserved +in apostolic sees is the following passage from Irenæus, written +about 175. The reference to the church of Rome, beginning, <q>For +with this Church, on account of its more powerful leadership,</q> has +been a famous point of discussion. While it is obscure in detail, the +application of its general purport to the argument of Irenæus is clear. +Since for this passage we have not the original Greek of Irenæus, but +only the Latin translation, there seems to be no way of clearing up the +obscurities and apparently contradictory statements. The text may be +found in Gwatkin, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, and in part in Kirch, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, §§ 110-113. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 1. The tradition, therefore, of the Apostles, manifested +throughout the world, is a thing which all who wish to see +the facts can clearly perceive in every church; and we are +able to count up those who were appointed bishops by the +Apostles, and to show their successors to our own time, who +neither taught nor knew anything resembling these men's +ravings. For if the Apostles had known hidden mysteries +which they used to teach the perfect, apart from and without +the knowledge of the rest, they would have delivered them +especially to those to whom they were also committing the +churches themselves. For they desired them to be very perfect +and blameless in all things, and were also leaving them as +their successors, delivering over to them their own proper +place of teaching; for if these should act rightly great advantage +would result, but if they fell away the most disastrous +calamity would occur. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 2. But since it would be very long in such a volume +as this to count up the successions [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, series of bishops] +in all the churches, we confound all those who in any +way, whether through self-pleasing or vainglory, or through +blindness and evil opinion, gather together otherwise than +they ought, by pointing out the tradition derived from the +Apostles of the greatest, most ancient, and universally known +Church, founded and established by the two most glorious +Apostles, Peter and Paul, and also the faith declared to +<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/> +men which through the succession of bishops comes down +to our times. For with this Church, on account of its more +powerful leadership [<hi rend='italic'>potiorem principalitatem</hi>], every church, +that is, the faithful, who are from everywhere, must needs +agree; since in it that tradition which is from the Apostles has +always been preserved by those who are from everywhere. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. The blessed Apostles having founded and established +the Church, intrusted the office of the episcopate to +Linus.<note place="foot">See this passage as quoted in Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Ec.</hi>, V, 6, and McGiffert's notes.</note> +Paul speaks of this Linus in his Epistles to Timothy. +Anacletus succeeded him, and after Anacletus, in the +third place from the Apostles, Clement received the episcopate. +He had seen and conversed with the blessed Apostles, +and their preaching was still sounding in his ears and +their tradition was still before his eyes. Nor was he alone +in this, for many who had been taught by the Apostles yet +survived. In the times of Clement, a serious dissension having +arisen among the brethren in Corinth, the Church of +Rome sent a suitable letter to the Corinthians, reconciling +them in peace, renewing their faith, and proclaiming the doctrine +lately received from the Apostles.… +</p> + +<p> +Evaristus succeeded Clement, and Alexander Evaristus. +Then Sixtus, the sixth from the Apostles, was appointed. +After him Telesephorus, who suffered martyrdom gloriously, +and then Hyginus; after him Pius, and after Pius Anicetus; +Soter succeeded Anicetus, and now, in the twelfth place from +the Apostles, Eleutherus [174-189] holds the office of bishop. +In the same order and succession the tradition and the +preaching of the truth which is from the Apostles have continued +unto us. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 4. But Polycarp, too, was not only instructed by the +Apostles, and acquainted with many that had seen Christ, +but was also appointed by Apostles in Asia bishop of the +church in Smyrna, whom we, too, saw in our early youth +(for he lived a long time, and died, when a very old man, a +glorious and most illustrious martyr's death); he always +<pb n='114'/><anchor id='Pg114'/> +taught the things which he had learned from the Apostles, +which the Church also hands down, and which alone are +true. To these things all the Asiatic churches testify, as do +also those who, down to the present time, have succeeded +Polycarp, who was a much more trustworthy and certain +witness of the truth than Valentinus and Marcion and the +rest of the evil-minded. It was he who was also in Rome in +the time of Anicetus and caused many to turn away from the +above-mentioned heretics to the Church of God, proclaiming +that he had received from the Apostles this one and only +truth which has been transmitted by the Church. And there +are those who heard from him that John, the disciple of the +Lord, going to bathe in Ephesus, when he saw Cerinthus +within, ran out of the bath-house without bathing, crying: +<q>Let us flee, lest even the bath-house fall, because Cerinthus, +the enemy of the truth, is within.</q> And Polycarp himself, +when Marcion once met him and said, <q>Knowest thou us?</q> +replied, <q>I know the first-born of Satan.</q> Such caution did +the Apostles and their disciples exercise that they might not +even converse with any of those who perverted the truth; +as Paul, also, said: <q>A man that is a heretic after the first +and second admonition, reject; knowing that he that is such +subverteth and sinneth, being condemned by himself.</q> There +is also a very powerful Epistle of Polycarp written to the +Philippians, from which those who wish to, and who are concerned +for their own salvation, may learn the character of +his faith and the preaching of the truth. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Prœscriptione</hi>, +20, 21. (MSL, 2:38.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Tertullian worked out in legal fashion the argument of Irenæus +from the testimony of the bishops in apostolic churches. He may +have obtained the argument from Irenæus, as he was evidently +acquainted with his works. From Tertullian's use of the argument +it became a permanent element in the thought of the West. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 20. The Apostles founded in the several cities churches +from which the other churches have henceforth borrowed +the shoot of faith and seeds of teaching and do daily borrow +<pb n='115'/><anchor id='Pg115'/> +that they may become churches; and it is from this fact +that they also will be counted as apostolic, being the offspring +of apostolic churches. Every kind of thing must be judged +by reference to its origin. Therefore so many and so great +churches are all one, being from that first Church which is +from the Apostles. Thus they are all primitive and all +apostolic, since they altogether are approved by their unity, +and they have the communion of peace, the title of brotherhood, +and the interchange of hospitality, and they are governed +by no other rule than the single tradition of the same mystery. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 21. Here, then, we enter our demurrer, that if the Lord +Jesus Christ sent Apostles to preach, others than those whom +Christ appointed ought not to be received as preachers. +For no man knoweth the Father save the Son and he to whom +the Son has revealed Him [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Luke 10:22]; nor does it appear +that the Son has revealed Him unto any others than the +Apostles, whom He sent forth to preach what, of course, He +had revealed to them. Now, what they should preach, that +is, what Christ revealed to them, can, as I must likewise +here enter as a demurrer, properly be proved in no other +way than by those very churches which the Apostles themselves +founded by preaching to them, both <hi rend='italic'>viva voce</hi>, as the +phrase is, and subsequently by epistles. If this is so, it is +evident that all doctrine which agrees with those apostolic +churches, the wombs and origins of the faith, must be reckoned +for truth, as undoubtedly containing what the churches +received from the Apostles, the Apostles from Christ, Christ +from God. There remains, therefore, for us to show whether +our doctrine, the rule of which we have given above [<hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_29_c">§ 29, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>], agrees with the +tradition of the Apostles, and likewise +whether the others come from deceit. We hold fast to the +apostolic churches, because in none is there a different doctrine; +this is the witness of the truth. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Præscriptione</hi>, +36. (MSL, 2:58.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +It should be noted that the appeal to apostolic churches is to any +and all such, and is accordingly just so much the stronger in the +<pb n='116'/><anchor id='Pg116'/> +controversy in which it was brought forward. The argument, whenever +it occurs, does not turn upon the infallibility of any one see or +church as such. That point is not touched. Such a turn to the +argument would have weakened the force of the appeal in the dispute +with the Gnostics, however powerfully it might be used in other +controversies. +</quote> + +<p> +Come, now, you who would indulge a better curiosity, if +you would apply it to the business of your salvation, run +over the apostolic churches, in which the very thrones of +the Apostles are still pre-eminent in their places, in which +their own authentic writings are read, uttering the voice and +representing the face of each of them severally. Achaia is +very near you, in which you find Corinth. Since you are +not far from Macedonia, you have Philippi; there, too, +you have the Thessalonians. Since you are able to cross +to Asia, you get Ephesus. Since, moreover, you are close +upon Italy, you have Rome, from which there comes even +into our own hands the very authority of Apostles themselves. +How happy is that church, on which Apostles poured forth +all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter +endures a passion like his Lord's; where Paul wins a crown +in a death like John's; where the Apostle John was first +plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to +his island exile! See what she has learned, what taught; +what fellowship she has had with even our churches in Africa! +One Lord God does she acknowledge, the Creator of the +universe, and Christ Jesus born of the Virgin Mary, the Son +of God the Creator; and the resurrection of the flesh; the +law and the prophets she unites in one volume with the +writings of Evangelists and Apostles, from which she drinks +in her faith. This she seals with the water of baptism, arrays +with the Holy Ghost, feeds with the eucharist, cheers with +martyrdom, and against such a discipline thus maintained +she admits no gainsayer. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='117'/><anchor id='Pg117'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_28"/> +<head>§ 28. The Canon or the Authoritative New Testament Writings</head> + +<p> +The Gnostics used in support of their doctrines writings +which they attributed to the Apostles, thus having a direct +apostolic witness to these doctrines. This they did in imitation +of the Church's practice of using apostolic writings for +edification and instruction. Marcion drew up a list of books +which were alone to be regarded as authoritative among his +followers [<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_23_a">§ 23, +<hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>]. The point to be made by the +champions of the faith of the great body of Christians was +that only those books could be legitimately used in support +of Christian doctrine which could claim actual apostolic +origin and had been used continuously in the Church. As +a fact, the books to which they appealed had been in use +generation after generation, but the Gnostic works were +unknown until a comparatively recent time and were too +closely connected with only the founders of a sect to deserve +credence. It was a simple literary argument and appeal to +tangible evidence. The list of books regarded as authoritative +constituted the Canon of Scripture. The state of the Canon +in the second half of the second century, especially in the +West, is shown in the following extracts. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: See Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, II, Tübingen, +1910; Tatian, Diatessaron, ANF, IX; The Gospel of Peter, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>The Muratorian Fragment.</hi> Text, B. +F. Westcott, <hi rend='italic'>A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New +Testament</hi>, seventh ed., Cambridge, 1896. Appendix C; Kirch, n. 134; Preuschen, +<hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, II, 27. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 20.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The earliest list of canonical books of the New Testament was +found by L. A. Muratori in 1740 in a MS. of the eighth century. +It lacks beginning and end. It belongs to the middle or the second +half of the second century. It cannot with certainty be attributed +to any known person. The obscure Latin text is probably a translation +from the Greek. The fragment begins with what appears to +be an account of St. Mark's Gospel. +</quote> + +<pb n='118'/><anchor id='Pg118'/> + +<p> +… but at some he was present, and so he set them +down. +</p> + +<p> +The third book of the gospels, that according to Luke. +Luke, the physician, compiled it in his own name in order, +when, after the ascension of Christ, Paul had taken him to +be with him like a student of law. Yet neither did he see the +Lord in the flesh; and he, too, as he was able to ascertain +events, so set them down. So he began his story from the +birth of John. +</p> + +<p> +The fourth of the gospels is John's, one of the disciples. +When exhorted by his fellow-disciples and bishops, he said, +<q>Fast with me this day for three days; and what may be +revealed to any of us, let us relate to one another.</q> The +same night it was revealed to Andrew, one of the Apostles, +that John was to write all things in his own name, and they +were all to certify. +</p> + +<p> +And therefore, though various elements are taught in the +several books of the gospels, yet it makes no difference +to the faith of the believers, since by one guiding Spirit all +things are declared in all of them concerning the nativity, +the passion, the resurrection, the conversation with His +disciples, and His two comings, the first in lowliness and +contempt, which has come to pass, the second glorious with +royal power, which is to come. +</p> + +<p> +What marvel, therefore, if John so firmly sets forth each +statement in his epistles, too, saying of himself: <q>What we +have seen with our eyes and heard with our ears and our hands +have handled, these things we have written to you</q>? For +so he declares himself to be not an eye-witness and a hearer +only, but also a writer of all the marvels of the Lord in order. +</p> + +<p> +The acts, however, of all the Apostles are written in one +book. Luke puts it shortly, <q>to the most excellent Theophilus,</q> +that the several things were done in his own presence, +as he also plainly shows by leaving out the passion of +Peter, and also the departure of Paul from the city [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +Rome] on his journey to Spain. +</p> + +<pb n='119'/><anchor id='Pg119'/> + +<p> +The epistles, however, of Paul make themselves plain to +those who wish to understand what epistles were sent by +him, and from what place and for what cause. He wrote +at some length, first of all, to the Corinthians, forbidding +schisms and heresies; next to the Galatians, forbidding circumcision; +then to the Romans, impressing on them the +plan of the Scriptures, and also that Christ is the first principle +of them, concerning which severally it is necessary for +us to discuss, since the blessed Apostle Paul himself, following +the order of his predecessor John, writes only by name to +seven churches in the following order: to the Corinthians a +first, to the Ephesians a second, to the Philippians a third, +to the Colossians a fourth, to the Galatians a fifth, to the +Thessalonians a sixth, to the Romans a seventh; and yet, +although for the sake of admonition there is a second to the +Corinthians and to the Thessalonians, but one Church is +recognized as being spread over the entire world. For John, +too, in the Apocalypse, though he writes to seven churches, +yet speaks to all. Howbeit to Philemon one, to Titus one, +and to Timothy two were put in writing from personal +inclination and attachment, to be in honor, however, with +the Catholic Church for the ordering of the ecclesiastical mode +of life. There is current, also, one to the Laodiceans, another +to the Alexandrians, [both] forged in Paul's name to suit a +heresy of Marcion, and several others, which cannot be +received into the Catholic Church; for it is not fitting that +gall be mixed with honey. +</p> + +<p> +The Epistle of Jude, no doubt, and the couple bearing the +name of John are accepted in the Catholic [Church], and the +Wisdom written by the friends of Solomon in his honor. +The Apocalypse, also, of John and of Peter only we receive; +which some of us will not have read in the Church. But the +Shepherd was written quite lately in our times by Hermas, +while his brother Pius, the bishop, was sitting in the chair of +the church of the city of Rome; and therefore it ought to +be read, indeed, but it cannot to the end of time be publicly +<pb n='120'/><anchor id='Pg120'/> +read in the Church to the people, either among the prophets, +who are complete in number, or among the Apostles. +</p> + +<p> +But of Valentinus, the Arsinoite, and his friends, we receive +nothing at all, who have also composed a long new +book of Psalms, together with Basilides and the Asiatic +founder of the Montanists. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, III, II:8. +(MSG, 7:885.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following extract illustrates the allegorical method of exegesis +in use throughout the Church, and also the opinion of the author +that there were but four gospels, and could be no more than four. +It should be noted that the symbolism of the beasts is not that which +has become current in ecclesiastical art. +</quote> + +<p> +It is not possible that the gospels be either more or fewer +than they are. For since there are four regions of the world +in which we live, and four principal winds, and the Church +is scattered over the whole earth, and the pillar and ground +of the Church is the Gospel and the Spirit of Life, it is fitting +that she should have four pillars, breathing forth immortality +on every side, and giving life to men. From this it is evident +that the Word, the Artificer of all, who sitteth upon the +cherubim and who contains all things and was manifested +to men, has given us the Gospel under four forms, but bound +together by one Spirit. As also David says when he prayed +for His coming: <q>Thou that sittest between the cherubim, +shine forth</q> [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Psalm 80:1]. For the cherubim, also, were +four-faced, and their faces were images of the dispensation +of the Son of God. For he says, <q>The first living creature +was like a lion</q> [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ezek. 1:5 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>], +symbolizing His effectual +working, leadership, and royal power; the second was like +a calf, symbolizing His sacrificial and sacerdotal order; but +<q>the third had, as it were, the face of a man,</q> evidently +describing His coming as a human being; <q>the fourth was +like a flying eagle,</q> pointing out the gift of the Spirit hovering +over the Church. And therefore the gospels are in accord +with these things, among which Christ is seated. For that +according to John relates His original, effectual, and glorious +<pb n='121'/><anchor id='Pg121'/> +generation from the Father, thus declaring, <q>In the beginning +was the Word and the Word was with God and the Word was +God</q> [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> John 1:1 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>], and +further, <q>All things were made +by Him and without Him was nothing made.</q> For this reason, +also, is that Gospel full of confidence, for such is His person. +But that according to Luke, which takes up His priestly character, +commenced with Zacharias, the priest, who offers +sacrifice to God. For now was made ready the fatted calf, +about to be immolated for the recovery of the younger son +[Luke 15:23]. Matthew, again, relates His generation as a +man, saying, <q>The book of the generation of Jesus Christ, +the son of David, the son of Abraham</q> [Matt. 1:1]; and +<q>The birth of Jesus Christ was on this wise</q> [Matt. 1:18]. +This, then, is the gospel of His humanity; for which reason +the character of a humble and meek man is kept up through +the whole gospel. Mark, on the other hand, commences +with reference to the prophetical Spirit who comes down +from on high to men, saying, <q>The beginning of the Gospel +of Jesus Christ, as it is written in Isaiah the prophet,</q> pointing +to the winged aspect of the Gospel, and on this account he +makes a compendious and brief narrative, for such is the +prophetical character. And the Word of God himself had +intercourse with the patriarchs, before Moses, in accordance +with His divinity and glory; but for those under the Law He +instituted a sacerdotal and liturgical service. Afterward, +having been made man for us, He sent the gift of the heavenly +Spirit over all the earth, to protect it with His wings. Such, +then, was the course followed by the Son of God, and such, +also, were the forms of the living creatures; and such as was +the form of the living creatures, such, also, was the character +of the Gospel. For the living creatures are quadriform, +and the Gospel is quadriform, as is also the course followed +by our Lord. For this reason four principal covenants were +given mankind: one prior to the Deluge, under Adam; the +second after the Deluge, under Noah; the third was the +giving of the law under Moses; the fourth is that which +<pb n='122'/><anchor id='Pg122'/> +renovates man and sums up all things in itself by means of +the Gospel, raising and bearing men upon its wings into the +heavenly kingdom. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Marcion.</hi>, IV, +5. (MSL, 2:395.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Tertullian's work against Marcion belongs to the first decade of +the third century; see above, <ref target="Section_23_b">§ 23, +<hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>. In the following passage he combines +the argument from the apostolic churches with the authority +of the apostolic witness. This is the special importance of the reference +to the connection of St. Mark's Gospel with St. Peter, and is +an application of the principle that the authority of a book in the +Church rested upon its apostolic origin. +</quote> + +<p> +If it is evidently true that what is earlier is more true, +that what is earlier is what is from the beginning, that what +is from the beginning is from the Apostles, it will be equally +evidently true that what is handed down from the Apostles +is what has been a sacred deposit in the churches of the +Apostles. Let us see what milk the Corinthians drank from +Paul; to what rule the Galatians were brought for correction; +what the Philippians, the Thessalonians, the Ephesians, +read; what the Romans near by also say, to whom Peter and +Paul bequeathed the Gospel even sealed with their own +blood. We have also John's nursling churches. For, although +Marcion rejects his Apocalypse, the order of bishops, +when traced to their origin, will rest on John as their author. +Likewise the noble lineage of the other churches is recognized. +I say, therefore, that in them, and not only in the apostolic +churches, but in all those which are united with them in +the fellowship of the mystery [<hi rend='italic'>sacramenti</hi>], that Gospel of +Luke, which we are defending with all our might [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +<ref target="Section_23">§ 23</ref>], +has stood its ground from its very first publication; whereas +Marcion's gospel is not known to most people, and to none +whatever is it known without being condemned. Of course +it has its churches, but they are its own; they are as late as +they are spurious. Should you want to know their origins, +you will more easily discover apostasy in it than apostolicity, +with Marcion, forsooth, as their founder or some one of +<pb n='123'/><anchor id='Pg123'/> +Marcion's swarm. Even wasps make combs; so, also, these +Marcionites make churches. The same authority of the +apostolic churches will afford evidence to other gospels, also, +which we possess equally through their means and according +to their usage—I mean the Gospel of John and the Gospel +of Matthew, but that which Mark published may be affirmed +to be Peter's, whose interpreter Mark was. For even the +Digest of Luke men usually ascribe to Paul. And it may +well seem that the works which disciples publish belong to +their masters. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_29"/> +<head>§ 29. The Apostles' Creed</head> + +<p> +By the middle of the second century there were current in +the Church brief confessions of faith which had already +been in use from a time in the remoter past as summaries +of the apostolic faith. They were naturally attributed to the +Apostles themselves, although they seem to have varied in +many details. They were used principally in baptism, and +were long kept secret from the catechumen until just before +that rite was administered. They are preserved only in paraphrase, +and can be reconstructed only by a careful comparison +of many texts. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: See Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliothek der Symbole und +Glaubensregeln der allen Kirche</hi>, third ed., Breslau, 1897; +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 16, 16 <hi rend='italic'>a</hi>. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Haer.</hi>, 1, 10. +(MSG, 7:549 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_3_a">§ 3, +<hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +The Church, though dispersed through the whole world to +the ends of the earth, has received from the Apostles and +their disciples the faith: In one God, the Father Almighty, +who made the heaven and the earth and the seas, and all +that in them is; And in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, +who was incarnate for our salvation; And in the Holy Ghost, +who through the prophets preached the dispensations and +<pb n='124'/><anchor id='Pg124'/> +the advents, and the birth from the Virgin, and the passion, +and the resurrection from the dead, and the bodily assumption +into the heavens of the beloved Christ Jesus our Lord, +and His appearing from the heavens in the glory of the Father, +in order to sum up all things under one head [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ephes. 1:10], +and to raise up all flesh of all mankind, that to Christ Jesus, +our Lord and God and Saviour and King, every knee of those +that are in heaven and on earth and under the earth should +bow [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Phil. 2:11], according to the good pleasure of the +Father invisible, and that every tongue should confess Him, +and that He may execute righteous judgment on all; sending +into eternal fire the spiritual powers of wickedness and the +angels who transgressed and apostatized, and the godless +and unrighteous and lawless and blasphemous among men, +but granting life and immortality and eternal glory to the +righteous and holy, who have both kept the commandments +and continued in His love, some from the beginning, some +from their conversion. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, III, 4. +(MSG, 7:855.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following form of the creed more closely resembles the traditional +Apostles' Creed. With it compare the paraphrase in Irenæus. +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, IV, 33:7. +</quote> + +<p> +If the Apostles had not left us the Scriptures, would it +not be necessary to follow the order of tradition which they +handed down to those to whom they committed the churches? +To this order many nations of the barbarians gave assent, of +those who believe in Christ, having salvation written in their +hearts by the Spirit without paper and ink, and guarding +diligently the ancient tradition: Believing in one God, +Maker of heaven and earth, and all that is in them; through +Jesus Christ, the Son of God; who, because of His astounding +love toward His creatures, sustained the birth of the Virgin, +Himself uniting man to God, and suffered under Pontius +Pilate, and rising again was received in brightness, and shall +come again in glory as the Saviour of those who are saved +<pb n='125'/><anchor id='Pg125'/> +and the judge of those who are judged, and sending into +eternal fire the perverters of the truth and despisers of His +Father and His coming. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_29_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Virginibus +Velandis</hi>, 1. (MSL, 2:937).</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Tertullian gives various paraphrases of the creed. The three most +important are the following and +<ref target="Section_29_d"><hi rend='italic'>d</hi></ref>, +<ref target="Section_29_e"><hi rend='italic'>e</hi></ref>. The date of the work +<hi rend='italic'>De Virginibus Velandis</hi> is about 211, and belongs to his +Montanist period. +</quote> + +<p> +The Rule of Faith is altogether one, sole, immovable, and +irreformable—namely, of believing in one God the Almighty, +the Maker of the world; and His Son, Jesus Christ, born of the +Virgin Mary, crucified under Pontius Pilate, on the third day +raised again from the dead, received in the heavens, sitting now +at the right hand of the Father, coming to judge the quick +and the dead, also through the resurrection of the flesh.<note place="foot">By +a slight change in the order of the words, as suggested by Neander, the +last two clauses might read more clearly: <q>To judge the quick and also the +dead through the resurrection of the flesh.</q></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_29_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Praxean</hi>, 2. +(MSL, 2:156.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The work of Tertullian against Praxeas is one of his latest works, +and is especially important as developing the doctrine of the Trinity +as opposed to the Patripassianism of Praxeas. To this theory of +Praxeas, Tertullian refers in the opening sentence of the following +extract, quoting the position of Praxeas. See below, +<ref target="Section_40_b">§ 40, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>Therefore after a time the Father was born, and the +Father suffered, He himself God, the omnipotent Lord, Jesus +Christ was preached.</q> But as for us always, and now more, +as better instructed by the Paraclete, the Leader into all +truth: We believe one God; but under this dispensation +which we call the economy there is the Son of the only God, +his Word [<hi rend='italic'>Sermo</hi>] who proceeded from Him, through whom +all things were made, and without whom nothing was made. +This One was sent by the Father into the Virgin, and was +born of her, Man and God, the Son of Man and the Son of +God, and called Jesus Christ; He suffered, He died and was +buried, according to the Scriptures; and raised again by the +<pb n='126'/><anchor id='Pg126'/> +Father, and taken up into the heavens, and He sits at the +right hand of the Father; He shall come again to judge the +quick and the dead: and He thence did send, according to +His promise, from the Father, the Holy Ghost, the Paraclete, +the Sanctifier of the faith of those who believe in the Father +and the Son and the Holy Ghost. That this rule has come +down from the beginning, even before any of the earlier +heresies, much more before Praxeas, who is of yesterday, +the lateness of date of all heresies proves, as also the novelties +of Praxeas, a pretender of yesterday. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_29_e"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Præscriptione</hi>, +13. (MSL, 2:30.)</head> + +<p> +The Rule of Faith is … namely, that by which it is +believed: That there is only one God, and no other besides +the Maker of the world, who produced the universe out of +nothing, through His Word [Verbum], sent forth first of all; +that this Word, called His Son, was seen in the name of God +in various ways by the patriarchs, and always heard in the +prophets, at last was sent down from the Spirit and power +of God the Father, into the Virgin Mary, was made flesh in +her womb, and born of her, lived as Jesus Christ; that thereupon +He preached the new law and the new promise of the +kingdom of the heavens; wrought miracles; was fastened to +the cross; rose again the third day; was caught up into the +heavens; and sat down at the right hand of the Father; He +sent in His place the power of the Holy Ghost, to lead the +believers; He will come again with glory to take the saints +into the enjoyment of eternal life and the celestial promises, +and to judge the wicked with perpetual fire, with the restoration +of the flesh. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_30"/> +<head>§ 30. Later Gnosticism</head> + +<p> +Though Gnosticism was expelled from the Church as it +perfected its organization and institutions on the basis of +the episcopate, the Canon of Scripture, and the creeds, +outside the Catholic Church, or the Church as thus organized, +<pb n='127'/><anchor id='Pg127'/> +Gnosticism existed for centuries, though rapidly declining in +the third century. The strength of the movement was still +further diminished by loss of many adherents to Manichæanism +(<hi rend='italic'>v.</hi> <ref target="Section_54">§ 54</ref>), +which had much in common with Gnosticism. +The persistence of these sects, together with various later +heresies, in spite of the very stringent laws of the Empire +against them (<hi rend='italic'>v.</hi> <ref target="Section_73">§ 73</ref>) +should prevent any hasty conclusions +as to the unity of the faith and the absence of sects in the +patristic age. Unity can be found only by overlooking those +outside the unity of the largest body of Christians, and agreement +by ignoring those who differed from it. +</p> + +<div> +<head>Theodoret of Cyrus, <hi rend='italic'>Epistulæ 81</hi>, 145. (MSG, 83:1259, +1383.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Ep. 81 was written to the Consul Nonus, A. D. 445. Ep. 145 was +written to the monks of Constantinople, A. D. 450. +</quote> + +<p> +Ep. 81. To every one else every city lies open, and that +not only to the followers of Arius and Eunomius, but to +Manichæans and Marcionites, and to those suffering from the +disease of Valentinus and Montanus, yes, and even to pagans +and Jews; but I, the foremost champion of the teaching of +the Gospel, am excluded from every city.… I led eight +villages of Marcionites with their surrounding country into +the way of truth, another full of Eunomians and another +of Arians I brought to the light of divine knowledge, and, by +God's grace, not a tare of heresy was left among us. +</p> + +<p> +Ep. 145. I do indeed sorrow and lament that I am compelled +by the attacks of fever to adduce against men, supposed +to be of one and the same faith with myself, the arguments +which I have already urged against the victims of the +plague of Marcion, of whom, by God's grace, I have converted +more than ten thousand and brought them to holy +baptism. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='128'/><anchor id='Pg128'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_31"/> +<head>§ 31. The Results of the Crisis</head> + +<p> +The internal crisis, or the conflict with heresy, led the +Church to perfect its organization, and, as a result, the +foundation was laid for such a development of the episcopate +that the Church was recognized as based upon an order of +bishops receiving their powers in succession from the Apostles. +Just what those powers were and how they were transmitted +were matters left to a later age to determine. (<hi rend='italic'>V. infra</hi>, +§§ <ref target="Section_50">50</ref>, <ref target="Section_51">51</ref>.) +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, IV, 26:2, +5. (MSG, 7:1053.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +That Irenæus, writing about 175, could appeal to the episcopal +succession as commonly recognized and admitted, and use it as a +basis of unity for the Church, is generally regarded as evidence of the +existence of a wide-spread episcopal organization at an early date in +the second century. Possibly the connection of Irenæus with Asia +Minor, where the episcopal organization admittedly was earliest, +diminishes the force of the argument. The reference to the <q>charisma +of truth,</q> which the bishops were said to possess, was to furnish later +a theoretical basis for the authority of bishops assembled in council. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. Wherefore it is incumbent to obey the presbyters +who are in the Church, those who, as I have shown, possess +the succession from the Apostles; those who together with +the succession of the episcopate have received the certain +gift [charisma] of the truth according to the good pleasure +of the Father; but also to hold in suspicion others who +depart from the primitive succession and assemble themselves +together in any place whatsoever.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 5. Such presbyters does the Church nourish, of whom +also the prophet says: <q>I will give thy rulers in peace, and +thy bishops in righteousness</q> [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Is. 60:17]. Of whom +also the Lord did declare: <q>Who, then, shall be a faithful +steward, good and wise, whom the Lord sets over His household, +to give them their meat in due season? Blessed is that +servant whom his Lord when he cometh shall find so doing</q> +[Matt. 24:45 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>]. Paul, then, teaching us where one may +<pb n='129'/><anchor id='Pg129'/> +find such, says: <q>God hath placed in the Church, first, Apostles; +secondly, prophets; thirdly, teachers</q> [I Cor. 12:28]. +Where, then, the gifts of the Lord have been placed there we +are to learn the truth; namely, from those who possess the +succession of the Church from the Apostles, and among +whom exists that which is sound and blameless in conduct, as +well as that which is unadulterated and incorrupt in speech. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Præscriptione</hi>, +32. (MSL, 2:52.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In Tertullian's statement as to the necessity of apostolic succession, +the language is more precise than in Irenæus's. Bishop and presbyter +are not used as interchangeable terms, as would appear in the passage +in Irenæus. The whole is given a more legal turn, as was in harmony +with the writer's legal mind. +</quote> + +<p> +But if there be any heresies bold enough to plant themselves +in the midst of the apostolic age, that they may thereby +seem to have been handed down from the Apostles, because +they were in the time of the Apostles, we can say: Let them +produce the originals of their churches; let them unfold the +roll of their bishops, running down in due succession from +the beginning in such manner that that first bishop of theirs +shall be able to show for his ordainer or predecessor some one +of the Apostles or of apostolic men—a man, moreover, who +continued steadfast with the Apostles. For in this manner +the apostolic churches transmit their registers; as the church +of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp was placed therein +by John; as also the church of Rome, which makes Clement +to have been ordained in like manner by Peter. In exactly +the same way the other churches likewise exhibit their several +worthies, whom, as having been appointed to their episcopal +places by the Apostles, they regard as transmitters of +the apostolic seed. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter IV. The Beginnings Of Catholic Theology</head> + +<p> +The theology of the Church, as distinguished from the +current traditional theology, was the statement of the beliefs +commonly held by Christians but expressed in the more +<pb n='130'/><anchor id='Pg130'/> +precise and scientific language of current philosophy, the +co-ordination of those beliefs as so stated together with their +necessary consequences, and their proof by reference to +Holy Scripture and reason. In this attempt to build up a +body of reasoned religious ideas there were two lines of +thought or interpretation of the common Christianity already +distinguished by the middle of the second century, and destined +to hold a permanent place in the Church. These were +the apologetic conception of Christianity as primarily a +revealed philosophy (<ref target="Section_32">§ 32</ref>), and the so-called Asia Minor +school of theology, with its conception of Christianity as +primarily salvation from sin and corruptibility (<ref target="Section_33">§ 33</ref>). In +both lines of interpretation the Incarnation played an essential +part: in the apologetic as insuring the truth of the revealed +philosophy, in the Asia Minor theology as imparting +to corruptible man the divine incorruptibility. +</p> + + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_32"/> +<head>§ 32. The Apologetic Conception of Christianity</head> + +<p> +Christianity was regarded as a revealed philosophy by +the apologists. This they considered under three principal +aspects: knowledge, or a revelation of the divine nature; +a new law, or a code of morals given by Christ; and life, +or future rewards for the observance of the new law that +had been given. The foundation of all was laid in the doctrine +of the Logos (<hi rend='italic'>A</hi>), which involved, as a consequence, +some theory of the relation of the resulting distinctions in +the divine nature to the primary conviction of the unity of +God, or some doctrine of the Trinity (<hi rend='italic'>B</hi>). As a result of the +new law given, moralism was inevitable, whereby a man by +his efforts earned everlasting life (<hi rend='italic'>C</hi>). The proof that Jesus +was the incarnate Logos was drawn from the fulfilment of +Hebrew prophecy (<hi rend='italic'>D</hi>). It should be remembered that the +apologists influenced later theology by their actual writings, +<pb n='131'/><anchor id='Pg131'/> +and not by unexpressed and undeveloped opinions which they +held as a part of the common tradition and the Christianity +of the Gentile Church. Whatever they might have held in +addition to their primary contentions had little or no effect, +however valuable it may be for modern students, and the +conviction that Christianity was essentially a revealed philosophy +became current, especially in the East, finding its +most powerful expression in the Alexandrian school. (<hi rend='italic'>V. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_43">§ 43</ref>.) +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_32_A"/> +<head>(A) The Logos Doctrine</head> + +<p> +As stated by the apologists, the Logos doctrine not only +furnished a valuable line of defence for Christianity (<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_20">§ 20</ref>), but also gave theologians a useful formula for +stating the relation of the divine element in Christ to God. That +divine element was the Divine Word or Reason (Logos). +It is characteristic of the doctrine of the Logos as held by the +early apologists that, although they make the Word, or +Logos, personal and distinguish Him from God the Father, +yet that Word does not become personally distinguished +from the source of His being until, and in connection with, +the creation of the world. Hence there arose the distinction +between the <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">Logos endiathetos</foreign>, +or as yet within the being of the Father, and the +<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">Logos prophorikos</foreign>, +or as proceeding forth and becoming a distinct person. Here is, at any rate, a +marked advance upon the speculation of Philo, by whom the +Logos is not regarded as distinctly personal. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apol.</hi>, I, 46. +(MSG, 6:398.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In addition to the following passage from Justin Martyr, see above, +<ref target="Section_20">§ 20</ref>, for a longer statement to much the same effect. +</quote> + +<p> +We have been taught that Christ is the first-born of God, +and we have declared above that He is the Word of whom +every race of men were partakers; and those who lived reasonably +are Christians even though they have been thought +atheists; as among the Greeks, Socrates and Heraclitus, and +<pb n='132'/><anchor id='Pg132'/> +men like them; and among the barbarians, Abraham and +Ananias, Azarias, and Missael [the <q>three holy children,</q> +companions of Daniel, see LXX, Dan. 3:23 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>], and Elias +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Elijah], and many others whose actions and names we +now decline to recount because we know that it would be +tedious. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Theophilus, <hi rend='italic'>Ad Autolycum</hi>, II, +10, 22. (MSG, 6:398.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Theophilus was the sixth bishop of Antioch, from 169 until after +180. His apology, consisting of three books addressed to an otherwise +unknown Autolycus, has alone been preserved of his works. Fragments +attributed to him are of very doubtful authenticity. The +date of the third book must be subsequent to the death of Marcus +Aurelius, March 17, 180, which is mentioned. The first and second +books may be somewhat earlier. The distinction made in the following +between the <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">Logos endiathetos</foreign> +and the <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">Logos prophorikos</foreign> was +subsequently dropped by theologians. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 10. God, then, having His own Logos internal [<foreign lang="el" +rend="font-style: italic">endiatheton</foreign>] +within His own bowels, begat Him, emitting Him +along with His own wisdom before all things. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 22. What else is this voice but the Word of God, +who is also His Son? Not as the poets and writers of myths +talk of the sons of the gods begotten from intercourse with +women, but as the Truth expounds, the Word that always +exists, residing within [<foreign lang="el" +rend="font-style: italic">endiatheton</foreign>] the heart of God. For +before anything came into existence He had Him for His +counsellor, being His own mind and thought. But when +God wished to make all that He had determined on, He +begat this Word proceeding forth [<foreign lang="el" +rend="font-style: italic">prophorikon</foreign>], the first-born +of all creation, not being Himself emptied of the Word [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +being without reason], but having begotten Reason and +always conversing with His reason. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_32_B"/> +<head>(B) The Doctrine of the Trinity</head> + +<p> +The doctrine of the Trinity followed naturally from the +doctrine of the Logos. The fuller discussion belongs to the +Monarchian controversies. It is considered here as a position +<pb n='133'/><anchor id='Pg133'/> +resulting from the general position taken by the apologists. +(<hi rend='italic'>V. infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_40">§ 40</ref>.) +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Theophilus, <hi rend='italic'>Ad Autolycum</hi>, II, +15. (MSG, 6:1078.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passage is probably the earliest in which the word +Trinity, or Trias, is applied to the relation of Father, Son, and Holy +Ghost. It is usual in Greek theology to use the word Trias as equivalent +to the Latin term Trinity. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Tertullian, +<hi rend='italic'>Adv. Praxean</hi>, 2, for +first use of the term Trinity in Latin theology. +</quote> + +<p> +In like manner, also, the three days, which were before the +luminaries<note place="foot">Reference to the creation of the sun, moon, and stars on +the fourth day of creation.</note> are types of the Trinity (Trias) of God, and His +Word, and His Wisdom. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Athenagoras, <hi rend='italic'>Supplicatio</hi>, 10, +12. (MSG, 6:910, 914.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Athenagoras, one of the ablest of the apologists, was, like Justin +Martyr and several others, a philosopher before he became a Christian. +His apology, known as <hi rend='italic'>Supplicatio</hi>, or +<hi rend='italic'>Legatio pro Christianis</hi>, is his +most important work. Its date is probably 177, as it is addressed to +the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 10. If it occurs to you to inquire what is meant by +the Son, I will briefly state that He is the first product of the +Father, not as having been brought into existence (for from +the beginning God, who is the eternal mind +[<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">Nous</foreign>], had the +Logos in Himself, being eternally reasonable [λογικός]), but inasmuch +as He came forth to be idea and energizing power of +all material things, which lay like a nature without attributes, +and an inactive earth, the grosser particles being mixed up +with the lighter. The prophetic Spirit also agrees with our +statements: <q>The Lord, it says, created me the beginning of +His ways to His works.</q> The Holy Spirit himself, also, which +operates in the prophets we say is an effluence of God, flowing +from Him and returning back again as a beam of the sun. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 12. Are, then, those who consider life to be this, <q>Let +us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die</q> [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> I Cor. 15:32], +and who regard death as a deep sleep and forgetfulness +[<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Hom., <hi rend='italic'>Iliad</hi>, XVI. 672], to be +regarded as living piously? +<pb n='134'/><anchor id='Pg134'/> +But men who reckon the present life as of very small worth +indeed, and are led by this one thing along—that they know +God and with Him His Logos, what is the oneness of the Son +with the Father, what the communion of the Father with +the Son, what is the Spirit, and what is the unity of these and +their distinction, the Spirit, the Son, and the Father—and who +know that the life for which we look is far better than can be +described in word, provided we arrive at it pure from all +wrong-doing, and who, moreover, carry our benevolence to +such an extent that we not only love our friends … shall +we, I say, when such we are and when we thus live that we +may escape condemnation, not be regarded as living piously? +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_32_C"/> +<head>(C) Moralistic Christianity</head> + +<p> +The moralistic conception of Christianity, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the view of +Christianity as primarily a moral code by the observance of which eternal +life was won, remained fixed in Christian thought along with the +philosophical conception of the faith as formulated by the apologists. +This moralism was the opposite pole to the conceptions of the Asia +Minor school, the Augustinian theology, and the whole mystical conception +of Christianity. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +For additional source material, see above, <ref target="Section_16">§ 16</ref>. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>Theophilus, <hi rend='italic'>Ad Autolycum</hi>, II, 27. (MSG, 6:27.)</head> + +<p> +God made man free and with power over himself. That +[death], man brought upon himself through carelessness and +disobedience, this [life], God vouchsafes to him as a gift +through His own love for man and pity when men obey Him. +For as man, disobeying, drew death upon himself, so, obeying +the will of God, he who desires is able to procure for +himself everlasting life. For God has given us a law and +holy commandments; and every one who keeps these can +be saved, and obtaining the resurrection, can inherit incorruption. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_32_D"/> +<head>(D) Argument from Hebrew Prophecy</head> + +<p> +The appeal to the fulfilment of Hebrew prophecy was the +main argument of the apologists for the divine character of +<pb n='135'/><anchor id='Pg135'/> +the mission of Christ. The exegesis of the prophetic writings +was in the spirit of the times. Hebrew prophecy was also +regarded as the source of all knowledge of God outside of +Israel. The theory that the Greeks and other nations borrowed +was employed to show the connection; in this the +apologists followed Philo Judæus. No attempt was made +either by them or by Clement of Alexandria to remove the +inconsistency of this theory of borrowing with the doctrine +of the Logos; see above, under <q>Logos Doctrine;</q> also +<ref target="Section_20">§ 20</ref>. +</p> + +<div> +<head>Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Apol.</hi>, I, 30, 44. (MSG, 6:374, 394.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Justin Martyr, <hi rend='italic'>Dial. c. Tryph.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>passim</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 30. But lest any one should say in opposition to us: +What should prevent that He whom we call Christ, being a +man born of men, performed what we call His mighty works +by magical art, and by this appeared to be the Son of God? +We will offer proof, not trusting to mere assertions, but being +of necessity persuaded by those who prophesied of Him +before these things came to pass. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 44. Whatever both philosophers and poets have said +concerning the immortality of the soul, or punishments after +death, or contemplation of things heavenly, or doctrines of +the like kind, they have received such suggestions from the +prophets as have enabled them to understand and interpret +these things. And hence there seem to be seeds of truth +among all men. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_33"/> +<head>§ 33. The Asia Minor Conception of Christianity</head> + +<p> +The Asia Minor school regarded Christianity primarily +as redemption, salvation, the imparting of new power, life, +and incorruptibility by union with divinity in the Incarnation. +Its leading representative was Irenæus, a native of Asia +Minor, but many of his leading ideas had been anticipated +by Ignatius of Antioch, and they were shared by many others. +</p> + +<pb n='136'/><anchor id='Pg136'/> + +<p> +The theology of Irenæus influenced Tertullian to some extent, +but its essential points were reproduced by Athanasius, +who was directly indebted to Irenæus, and through +him it superseded in the Neo-Alexandrian school the tradition +derived through Origen and Clement from the apologists. +Characteristic features of the Asia Minor theology +are the place assigned to the Incarnation as itself effecting +redemption or salvation, the idea of recapitulation whereby +Christ becomes the head of a new race of redeemed men, a +second Adam, and of the eucharist as imparting the incorruptibility +of Christ's immortal flesh which is received by the +faithful. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, V, 1. +(MSG, 7:1119.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The position of the Incarnation in the system and its relation to +redemption. +</quote> + +<p> +In no other way could we have learned the things of God, +if our Master, existing previously as the Word, had not been +made man. For no one else could have declared to us the +truths of the Father than the Father's own Word. For +who else knew the mind of the Lord or who else has been +his counsellor? [Rom. 11:34]. Nor again in any other way +could we have learned except by seeing our Master with our +eyes and hearing His voice with our ears; that so as imitators +of His acts and doers of His words we might have fellowship +with Him and receive of the fulness of Him who is perfect +and who was before all creation. All this we have been made +in these latter days by Him who only is supremely good and +who has the gift of incorruptibility; inasmuch as we are +conformed to His likeness and predestinated to become what +we never were before, according to the foreknowledge of the +Father, made a first-fruit of His workmanship, we have, +therefore, received all this at the foreordained season, according +to the dispensation of the Word, who is perfect in all +things. For He, who is the mighty Word and very man, +redeeming us by His blood in a reasonable manner, gave +<pb n='137'/><anchor id='Pg137'/> +Himself as a ransom for those who had been led into captivity. +And since apostasy tyrannized over us unjustly, for +though by nature we were God's possession, it yet alienated +us contrary to nature, making us its own disciples, the Word +of God, powerful in all things and constant in His justice, +dealt justly even with apostasy itself, redeeming from it +what was His own property. Not by force, the way in which +the apostasy had originally gained its mastery over us, +greedily grasping at that which was not its own; but by +moral force [<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">secundum suadelam</foreign>] +as became God, by persuasion +and not by force, regaining what He wished; so that +justice might not be violated and God's ancient handiwork +might not perish. Therefore, since by His own blood the +Lord redeemed us and gave His soul for our soul, and His +flesh for our flesh, and shed on us His Father's spirit to unite +and join us in communion God and man, bringing God down +to men by the descent of the Spirit, and raising up man +to God by His incarnation, and by a firm and true promise +giving us at His advent incorruptibility by communion +with Him, and thus all the errors of the heretics are destroyed. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Irenæus. <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, III. 18:1, +7. (MSG, 6:932, 937.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following is a statement by Irenæus of his doctrine of recapitulation, +which combines the idea of the second Adam of Paul and +the Johannine theology. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 1. Since it has been clearly demonstrated that the +Word, who existed in the beginning with God, and by whom +all things were made, who also was present with the human +race, was in these last days, according to the time appointed +by the Father, united to His own workmanship, having been +made a man liable to suffering, every objection is set aside of +those who say: <q>If Christ was born at that time, He did +not exist before that time.</q> For I have shown that the +Son of God did not then begin to be, since He existed with +His Father always; but when He was incarnate, and was +<pb n='138'/><anchor id='Pg138'/> +made man, He commenced afresh [<foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">in seipso recapitulavit</foreign>] the +long line of human beings, and furnished us in a brief and +comprehensive manner with salvation; so that what we had +lost in Adam—namely, to be according to the image and +likeness of God—that we might recover in Christ Jesus. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 7. He caused human nature to cleave to and to become +one with God, as we have said. For if man had not overcome +the adversary of man, the enemy would not have been +legitimately overcome. And again, if God had not given +salvation, we could not have had it securely. And if man +had not been united to God, he could never have become a +partaker of incorruptibility. For it was incumbent upon +the Mediator between God and man, by His relationship to +both, to bring about a friendship and concord, and to present +man to God and to reveal God to man. For in what way +could we be partakers of the adoption of sons, if we had not +received from Him, through the Son, that fellowship which +refers to Himself, if the Word, having been made flesh, had +not entered into communion with us? Wherefore He passed +also through every stage of life restoring to all communion +with God. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, IV, 18:5. +(MSG, 6:1027 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The conception of redemption as the imparting of incorruptibility +connected itself easily with the doctrine of the eucharist, which had +been called by Ignatius of Antioch <q>the medicine of immortality</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_12">§ 12</ref>). With this +passage compare Irenæus, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Hær.</hi>, IV, 17:5. +</quote> + +<p> +How can they say that the flesh which is nourished with +the body of the Lord and with His blood goes to corruption +and does not partake of life? Let them, therefore, either +alter their opinion or cease from offering the things mentioned. +But our opinion is in accordance with the eucharist, +and the eucharist, in turn, establishes our opinion. For +we offer to Him His own, announcing consistently the fellowship +and union of the flesh and the Spirit. For as the bread +which is produced from the earth when it receives the invocation +<pb n='139'/><anchor id='Pg139'/> +of God is no longer common bread, but the eucharist, +consisting of two realities, earthly and heavenly, so, also, +our bodies, when they receive the eucharist, are no longer +corruptible, having the hope of the resurrection unto eternity. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='140'/><anchor id='Pg140'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Period IV. The Age Of The Consolidation Of The Church: 200 to 324 A. D.</head> + +<p> +In the fourth period of the Church under the heathen +Empire, or the period of the consolidation of the Church, +the number of Christians increased so rapidly that the relation +of the Roman State to the Church became a matter of +the gravest importance (ch. 1). During a period of comparative +peace and prosperity the Church developed its +doctrinal system and its constitution (ch. 2). Although the +school of Asia Minor became isolated and temporarily ceased +to affect the bulk of the Church elsewhere, the school of the +apologists was brilliantly continued at Alexandria under +Clement and Origen, and later under Origen at Cæsarea +in Palestine. Meanwhile the foundations were laid in North +Africa for a distinctive type of Western theology, inaugurated +by Tertullian and developed by Cyprian. After years of +alternating favor and local persecutions, the first general +persecution (ch. 3) broke upon the Church, rudely testing +its organization and ultimately strengthening and furthering +its tendencies toward a strictly hierarchical constitution. In +the long period of peace that followed (ch. 4), the discussions +that had arisen within the Church as to the relation of the +divine unity to the divinity of Christ reached a temporary +conclusion, the cultus was elaborated and assumed the +essentials of its permanent form, and the episcopate was +made supreme over rival authorities within the Church, +becoming at once the expression and organ of ecclesiastical +unity. At the same time new problems arose; within the +<pb n='141'/><anchor id='Pg141'/> +Church there was the appearance of an organized asceticism +which appeared for a time to be a rival to the Church's +system, and outside the Church the appearance of a hostile +rival in the rapidly spreading Manichæan system, in which +was revived, in a better organized and therefore more dangerous +form, the expelled Gnosticism. The period ends with +the last general persecution (ch. 5). +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter I. The Political And Religious Conditions Of The Empire</head> + +<p> +The accession of Septimius Severus, A. D. 193, marks a +change in the condition of the Empire. It was becoming +more harassed by frontier wars, not always waged successfully. +Barbarians were gradually settling within the Empire. +The emperors themselves were no longer Romans or Italians. +Provincials, some not even of the Latin race, assumed the +imperial dignity. But it was a period in which the Roman +law was in its most flourishing and brilliant stage, under +such men as Papinian, Ulpian, and others second only to these +masters. Stoic cosmopolitanism made for wider conceptions +of law and a deeper sense of human solidarity. The Christian +Church, however, profited little by this (<ref target="Section_34">§ 34</ref>) until, +in the religious syncretism which became fashionable in the highest +circles, it was favored by even the imperial family along +with other Oriental religions (<ref target="Section_35">§ 35</ref>). The varying +fortunes of the emperors necessarily affected the Church +(<ref target="Section_36">§ 36</ref>), though, on the whole, +there was little suffering, and the Church spread +rapidly, and in many parts of the Empire became a powerful +organization (<ref target="Section_37">§ 37</ref>), with which the State would soon have +to reckon. +</p> + +<pb n='142'/><anchor id='Pg142'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_34"/> +<head>§ 34. State and Church under Septimius Severus and Caracalla</head> + +<p> +Although Christians were at first favored by Septimius +Severus, they were still liable to the severe laws against +secret societies, and the policy of Septimius was later to enforce +these laws. The Christians tried to escape the penalties +prescribed against such societies by taking the form of +friendly societies which were expressly tolerated by the law. +Nevertheless, numerous cases are to be found in various +parts of the Empire in which Christians were put to death +under the law. Yet the number of martyrs before the general +persecution of Decius in the middle of the century was +relatively small. The position of Christians was not materially +affected by the constitution of Caracalla conferring +Roman citizenship on all free inhabitants of the Empire, and +the constitution seems to have been merely a fiscal measure +which laid additional burdens upon the provincials. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 1-12. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Ad Scapulam</hi>, 4. +(MSL, 1:781.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The account of Tertullian is generally accepted as substantially +correct. Scapula was chief magistrate of Carthage and, under the +circumstances, the author would not have indulged his tendency to +rhetorical embellishment. Furthermore, the book is written with what +was for Tertullian great moderation. +</quote> + +<p> +How many rulers, men more resolute and more cruel than +you, have contrived to get quit of such causes—as Cincius +Severus, who himself suggested the remedy at Thysdris, +pointing out how Christians should answer that they might +be acquitted; as Vespronius Candidus, who acquitted a +Christian on the ground that to satisfy his fellow-citizens +would create a riot; as Asper, who, in the case of a man +who under slight torture had fallen, did not compel him to +<pb n='143'/><anchor id='Pg143'/> +offer sacrifice, having owned among the advocates and assessors +of the court that he was annoyed at having to meddle +with such a case! Prudens, too, at once dismissed a Christian +brought before him, perceiving from the indictment that +it was a case of vexatious accusation; tearing the document +in pieces, he refused, according to the imperial command, +to hear him without the presence of his accuser. All this +might be officially brought under your notice, and by the +very advocates, who themselves are under obligations to +Christians, although they cry out against us as it suits them. +The clerk of one who was liable to be thrown down by an +evil spirit was set free; as was also a relative of another, and +the little boy of a third. How many men of rank (not to mention +common people) have been cured of devils and of diseases! +Even Severus himself, the father of Antonine, was mindful +of the Christians; for he sought out the Christian Proclus, +surnamed Torpacion, the steward of Euhodias, who once had +cured him by means of oil, and whom he kept in his palace +till his death. Antonine [Caracalla], too, was brought up on +Christian milk,<note place="foot">Probably his wet-nurse was a Christian.</note> +was intimately acquainted with this man. +But Severus, knowing both men and women of the highest +rank to be of this sect, not only did not injure them, but +distinguished them with his testimony and restored them +to us openly from the raging populace.<note place="foot">On the occasion +of his triumphal entry into Rome.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Laws Relating to Forbidden Societies.</head> + +<div> +<head>1. Justinian, <hi rend='italic'>Digest</hi>, XLVII. 23:1.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following is a passage taken from the Institutes of Marcian, +Bk. III. +</quote> + +<p> +By princely commands it was prescribed to the governors +of provinces that they should not permit social clubs and +that soldiers should not have societies in the camp. But it +is permitted to the poor to collect a monthly contribution, +so long as they gather together only once in a month, lest under +<pb n='144'/><anchor id='Pg144'/> +a pretext of this sort an unlawful society meet. And that +this should be allowed not only in the city, but also in Italy +and the provinces, the divine Severus ordered. But for the +sake of religion they are not forbidden to come together so +long as they do nothing contrary to the Senatus-consultum, +by which unlawful societies are restrained. It is furthermore +not lawful to belong to more than one lawful society, as this +was determined by the divine brothers [Caracalla and Geta]; +and if any one is in two, it is ordered that it be necessary +for him to choose in which he prefers to be, and he shall +receive from the society from which he resigns that which +belongs to him proportionately of what there is of a common +fund. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>2. Justinian, <hi rend='italic'>Digest</hi>, I, 12:14.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +From Ulpian's treatise, <hi rend='italic'>De officio Præfecti Urbi</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +The divine Severus ordered that those who were accused +of meeting in forbidden societies should be accused before +the prefect of the city. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Persecutions under Severus.</head> + +<div> +<head>1. Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 1. (MSG, 20:522.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following extract is important not only as a witness to the +fact of the execution of the laws against Christians in Alexandria, +but also to the extension of Christianity in the more southern provinces +of Egypt. +</quote> + +<p> +When Severus began to persecute the churches, glorious +testimonies were given everywhere by the athletes of religion. +Especially numerous were they in Alexandria, for thither, +as to a more prominent theatre, athletes of God were sent +from Egypt and all Thebais, according to their merit, and +they won crowns from God through their great patience under +many tortures and every mode of death. Among these was +Leonidas, said to be the father of Origen, who was beheaded +while his son was still young. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='145'/><anchor id='Pg145'/> + +<div> +<head>2. Spartianus, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Severi</hi>, XVII. 1. +(<hi rend='italic'>Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ</hi>. Ed. Peter, 1884; Preuschen, +<hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, 32.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The date of the following is A. D. 202. +</quote> + +<p> +He forbade, under heavy penalties, any to become Jews. +He made the same regulation in regard to Christians. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Tertullian. <hi rend='italic'>Apol.</hi>, 39. (MSL, +1:534.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In the following, Christian assemblies, or churches, are represented +as being a sort of friendly society, similar but superior to those existing +all over the Empire, common and tolerated among the poorer members +of society. The date of the <hi rend='italic'>Apology</hi> is 197. +</quote> + +<p> +Though we have our treasure-chest, it is not made up of +purchase money, as if our religion had its price. On the +regular day in the month, or when one prefers, each one makes +a small donation; but only if it be his pleasure, and only if +he be able; for no one is compelled, but gives voluntarily. +These gifts are, as it were, piety's deposit fund. For they +are taken thence and spent, not on feasts and drinking-bouts, +and thankless eating-houses, but to support and bury poor +people, to supply the wants of boys and girls destitute of +means and parents, and of old persons confined to the +house, likewise the shipwrecked, and if there happen to be +any in the mines, or banished to the islands, or shut up in +the prisons for nothing but their fidelity to the cause of God's +Church, they become the nurslings of their confession. But +it is mainly for such work of love that many place a brand +upon us. See, they say, how they love one another! +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>The Passion of Perpetua and +Felicitas.</hi> (MSL, 3:51.) (<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Knopf, pp. 44-57.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The date of this martyrdom is A. D. 203. The <hi rend='italic'>Passio SS. Perpetuæ +et Felicitatis</hi> has been attributed to Tertullian. It betrays clear evidence +of Montanist sympathies. It has even been thought by some +that the martyrs themselves were Montanists. At that date probably +not a few who sympathized with Montanism were still in good standing +in certain parts of the Church. At any rate, the day of their commemoration +has been from the middle of the fourth century at Rome +March 7. See Kirch, p. 323. +</quote> + +<pb n='146'/><anchor id='Pg146'/> + +<p> +The day of their victory dawned, and they proceeded +from the prison into the amphitheatre, as if to happiness, +joyous and of brilliant countenances; if, perchance, shrinking, +it was with joy and not with fear. Perpetua followed with +placid look, and with step and gait as a matron of Christ, +beloved of God, casting down the lustre of her eyes from the +gaze of all. Likewise Felicitas came, rejoicing that she had +safely brought forth, so that she might fight with the beasts.… +And when they were brought to the gate, and were +constrained to put on the clothing—the men that of the priests +of Saturn, and the women that of those who were consecrated +to Ceres—that noble-minded woman resisted even to the end +with constancy. For she said: <q>We have come thus far of +our own accord, that our liberty might not be restrained. +For this reason we have yielded our minds, that we might +not do any such thing as this; we have agreed on this with +you.</q> Injustice acknowledged the justice; the tribune permitted +that they be brought in simply as they were. Perpetua +sang psalms, already treading under foot the head of +the Egyptian [seen in a vision; see preceding chapters]; Revocatus +and Saturninus and Saturus uttered threatenings +against the gazing people about this martyrdom. When +they came within sight of Hilarianus, by gesture and nod +they began to say to Hilarianus: <q>Thou judgest us, but +God will judge thee.</q> At this the exasperated people demanded +that they should be tormented with scourges as they +passed along the rank of the <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">venatores</foreign>. And they, indeed, +rejoiced that they should have incurred any one of their +Lord's passions. +</p> + +<p> +But He who had said, <q>Ask and ye shall receive,</q> gave to +them, when they asked, that death which each one had desired. +For when they had been discoursing among themselves +about their wish as to their martyrdom, Saturninus, indeed, +had professed that he wished that he might be thrown to all +the beasts; doubtless that he might wear a more glorious +crown. Therefore, in the beginning of the exhibition he +<pb n='147'/><anchor id='Pg147'/> +and Revocatus made trial of the leopard, and, moreover, upon +the scaffold they were harassed by the bear. Saturus, however, +held nothing in greater horror than a bear; but he +thought he would be finished by one bite of a leopard. +Therefore, when a wild boar was supplied, it was the huntsman +who had supplied that boar, and not Saturus, who was +gored by that same beast and who died the day after the +shows. Saturus only was drawn out; and when he had been +bound on the floor near to a bear, the bear would not come +forth from his den. And so Saturus for the second time was +recalled, unhurt. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, for the young women the devil, rivalling their +sex also in that of the beasts, prepared a very fierce cow, +provided especially for that purpose contrary to custom. +And so, stripped and clothed with nets, they were led forth. +The populace shuddered as they saw one young woman of +delicate frame, and another with breasts still dropping from +her recent childbirth. So, being recalled, they were unbound. +Perpetua was first led in. She was tossed and fell on her +loins; and when she saw her tunic torn from her side, she +drew it over her as a veil for her thighs, mindful of her modesty +rather than of her suffering. Then she was called for +again, and bound up her dishevelled hair; for it was not +becoming for a martyr to suffer with dishevelled hair, lest +she should appear to be mourning in her glory. She rose up, +and when she saw Felicitas crushed she approached and +gave her her hand and lifted her up. And both of them +stood together; and the brutality of the populace being +appeased, they were recalled to the Sanavivarian gate. Then +Perpetua was received by a certain one who was still a +catechumen, Rusticus by name, who kept close to her; and +she, as if roused from sleep, so deeply had she been in the +Spirit and in an ecstasy, began to look around her and to +say to the amazement of all: <q>I do not know when we are +to be led out to that cow.</q> Thus she said, and when she +had heard what had already happened, she did not believe +<pb n='148'/><anchor id='Pg148'/> +it until she had perceived certain signs of injury in her own +body and in her dress, and had recognized the catechumen. +Afterward, causing that catechumen and the brother to +approach, she addressed them, saying: <q>Stand fast in the +faith, and love one another, all of you, and be not offended +at our sufferings.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The same Saturus at the other entrance exhorted the +soldier Prudens, saying: <q>Assuredly here I am, as I have +promised and foretold, for up to this moment I have felt no +beast. And now believe with your whole heart. Lo, I am +going forth to the leopard, and I shall be destroyed with one +bite.</q> And immediately on the conclusion of the exhibition +he was thrown to the leopard; and with one bite by it he was +bathed with such a quantity of blood that the people shouted +out to him, as he was returning, the testimony of his second +baptism: <q>Saved and washed, saved and washed.</q> Manifestly +he was assuredly saved who had been glorified in such +a spectacle. Then to the soldier Prudens he said: <q>Farewell, +and be mindful of my faith; and let not these things disturb, +but confirm you.</q> And at the same time he asked for a little +ring from his finger, and returned it to him bathed in his +wound, leaving to him an inherited token and memory of +his blood. And then lifeless he was cast down with the rest, +to be slaughtered in the usual place. And when the populace +called for them into the midst, that as the sword penetrated +into their body they might make their eyes partners in the +murder, they rose up of their own accord, and transferred +themselves whither the people wished; but they first kissed +one another, that they might consummate their martyrdom +with the rites of peace. The rest, indeed, immovable and +in silence, received the sword; and so did Saturus, who had +also first ascended the ladder, and first gave up his spirit, +for he was waiting for Perpetua. But Perpetua, that she +might taste some pain, being pierced between the ribs, cried +out loudly and she herself placed the wavering right hand +of the youthful gladiator to her throat. Possibly such a +<pb n='149'/><anchor id='Pg149'/> +woman could not have been slain unless she herself had +willed it, because she was feared by the impure spirit. +</p> + +<p> +O most brave and blessed martyrs! O truly called and +chosen unto the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ! Whoever +magnifies, and honors, and adores Him, assuredly ought +to read these examples for the edification of the Church, not +less than the ancient ones, so that new virtues also may +testify that one and the same Holy Spirit is always operating +even until now, and God the Father Omnipotent, and his +Son Jesus Christ our Lord, whose is glory and infinite power +forever and ever. Amen. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>Contra Celsum</hi>, III, 8. +(MSG, 11:930.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Origen is writing just before the first general persecution under +Decius about the middle of the century. He points out the relatively +small number of those suffering persecution. +</quote> + +<p> +With regard to Christians, because they were taught not +to avenge themselves upon their enemies, and have thus +observed laws of a mild and philanthropic character; and +because, although they were able, yet they would not have +made war even if they had received authority to do so; for +this cause they have obtained this from God: that He has +always warred on their behalf, and at times has restrained +those who rose up against them and who wished to destroy +them. For in order to remind others, that seeing a few engaged +in a struggle in behalf of religion, they might also be +better fitted to despise death, a few, at various times, and +these easily numbered, have endured death for the sake of the +Christian religion; God not permitting the whole nation +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the Christians] to be exterminated, but desiring that it +should continue, and that the whole world should be filled +with this salvation and the doctrines of religion. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Justinian, <hi rend='italic'>Digest</hi>, I, +5:17.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The edict of Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) conferring +Roman citizenship upon all free inhabitants of the Empire has not +been preserved. It is known only from a brief extract from the +twenty-second book of Ulpian's work on the Prætorian Edict, contained +in the <hi rend='italic'>Digest</hi> of Justinian. +</quote> + +<pb n='150'/><anchor id='Pg150'/> + +<p> +Those who were in the Roman world were made Roman +citizens by the constitution of the Emperor Antoninus. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_35"/> +<head>§ 35. Religious Syncretism in the Third Century</head> + +<p> +In the third century religious syncretism took two leading +forms—the Mithraic worship, which spread rapidly throughout +the Empire, and the fashionable interest in novel religions +fostered by the imperial court. Mithraism was especially +prevalent in the army, and at army posts have been found +numerous remains of sanctuaries, inscriptions, etc. It was +by far the purest of the religions that invaded the Roman +Empire, and drew its leading ideas from Persian sources. +The fashionable court interest in novel religions seems not +to have amounted to much as a positive religious force, +which Mithraism certainly was, though on account of it +Christianity was protected and even patronized by the ladies +of the imperial household. Among the works produced by +this interest was the <hi rend='italic'>Life of Apollonius of Tyana</hi>, written +by Philostratus at the command of the Empress Julia Domna. +Apollonius was a preacher or teacher of ethics and the Neo-Pythagorean +philosophy in the first century, <hi rend='italic'>ob.</hi> A. D. 97. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Philostratus, <hi rend='italic'>Life of Apollonius</hi> (the +latest English translation, by F. C. Conybeare, with Greek text in the +<hi rend='italic'>Loeb Classical Library</hi>, 1912). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>Mithraic Prayer, Albrecht Dietrich, <hi rend='italic'>Eine Mithrasliturgie</hi>, +Leipsic, 1903.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following prayer is the opening invocation of what appears +to be a Mithraic liturgy, and may date from a period earlier than the +fourth century. It gives, as is natural, no elaborated statement of +Mithraic doctrine, but, as in all prayer, much is implied in the forms +used and the spirit of the religion breathed through it. The combination +has already begun as is shown by the doctrine of the four elements. +It should be added that Professor Cumont does not regard it as a +Mithraic liturgy at all, but accounts for the distinct mention of the +name Mithras, which is to be found in some parts, to a common tendency +of semi-magical incantations to employ as many deities as possible. +</quote> + +<pb n='151'/><anchor id='Pg151'/> + +<p> +First Origin of my origin, first Beginning of my beginning, +Spirit of Spirit, first of the spirit in me. Fire which to compose +me has been given of God, first of the fire in me. Water of +water, first of the water in me. Earthy Substance of earthy +substance, first of the earthy substance, the entire body of +me, N. N. son of N. N., completely formed by an honorable +arm and an immortal right hand in the lightless and illuminated +world, in the inanimated and the animated. If it +seem good to you to restore me to an immortal generation, +who am held by my underlying nature, that after this present +need which presses sorely upon me I may behold the immortal +Beginning with the immortal Spirit, the immortal Water, +the Solid and the Air, that I may be born again, by the +thought, that I may be consecrated and the holy Spirit may +breathe in me, that I may gaze with astonishment at the +holy Fire, that I may look upon abysmal and frightful Water +of the sun-rising, and the generative Ether poured around +may listen to me. For I will to-day look with immortal eyes, +I who was begotten a mortal from a mortal womb, exalted +by a mighty working power and incorruptible right hand, +I may look with an immortal spirit upon the immortal Eon +and the Lord of the fiery crowns, purified by holy consecrations, +since a little under me stands the human power of +mind, which I shall regain after the present bitter, oppressive, +and debt-laden need, I, N. N. the son of N. N., according to +God's unchangeable decree, for it is not within my power, +born mortal, to mount up with the golden light flashes of +the immortal illuminator. Stand still, corruptible human +nature, and leave me free after the pitiless and crushing +necessity. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_36"/> +<head>§ 36. The Religious Policy of the Emperors from +Heliogabalus to Philip the Arabian, 217-249</head> + +<p> +With the brief exception of the reign of Maximinus Thrax +(235-238), Christians enjoyed peace from the death of Caracalla +to the death of Philip the Arabian. This was not due +<pb n='152'/><anchor id='Pg152'/> +to disregard of the laws against Christians nor to indifference +to suspected dangers to the Empire arising from the new +religion, but to the policy of religious syncretism which had +come in with the family of Severus. The wife of Septimius +Severus was the daughter of Julius Bassianus, priest of the +Sun-god of Emesa, and of the rulers of the dynasty of Severus +one, Heliogabalus, was himself a priest of the same syncretistic +cult, and another, Alexander, was under the influence +of the women of the same priestly family. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Lampridius, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Heliogabali</hi>, +3, 6, 7. Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, § 12.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Lampridius is one of the <hi rend='italic'>Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ</hi>, by whom is a +series of lives of the Roman emperors. The series dates from the fourth +century, and is of importance as containing much information which +is not otherwise accessible. The dates of the various lives are difficult +to determine. Avitus Bassianus, known as Heliogabalus, a name he +assumed, reigned 218-222. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 3. But when he had once entered the city, he enrolled +Heliogabalus among the gods and built a temple to him on +the Palatine Hill next the imperial palace, desiring to transfer +to that temple the image of Cybele, the fire of Vesta, the +Palladium, the sacred shields, and all things venerated by the +Romans; and he did this so that no other god than Heliogabalus +should be worshipped at Rome. He said, besides, that +the religions of the Jews and the Samaritans and the Christian +worship should be brought thither, that the priesthood +of Heliogabalus should possess the secrets of all religions. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 6. Not only did he wish to extinguish the Roman +religions, but he was eager for one thing throughout the entire +world—that Heliogabalus should everywhere be worshipped +as god. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 7. He asserted, in fact, that all the gods were servants +of his god, since some he called his chamber-servants, others +slaves, and others servants in various capacities. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Lampridius, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Alexandri +Severi</hi>, 29, 43, 49. Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, § 13.</head> + +<pb n='153'/><anchor id='Pg153'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Alexander Severus (222-235) succeeded his cousin Heliogabalus. +The mother of Alexander, Julia Mammæa, sister of Julia Soæmias, +mother of Heliogabalus, was a granddaughter of Julius Bassianus, +whose daughter, Julia Domna, had married Septimius Severus. It was +through marriages with the female descendants of Julius, who was +priest of the Sun-god at Emesa, that the members of the dynasty of +Severus were connected and their attitude toward religion determined. +It was in the reign of Alexander that syncretism favorable to +Christianity was at its height. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 29. This was his manner of life: as soon as there was +opportunity—that is, if he had not spent the night with his +wife—he performed his devotions in the early morning hours +in his lararium, in which he had statues of the divine princes +and also a select number of the best men and the more holy +spirits, among whom he had Apollonius of Tyana, and as a +writer of his times says, Christ, Abraham, and Orpheus, and +others similar, as well as statues of his ancestors. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 43. He wished to erect a temple to Christ and to +number Him among the gods. Hadrian, also, is said to have +thought of doing this, and commanded temples without any +images to be erected in all cities, and therefore these temples, +because they have no image of the Divinity, are to-day called +<hi rend='italic'>Hadriani</hi>, which he is said to have prepared for this end. +But Alexander was prevented from doing this by those who, +consulting the auspices, learned that if ever this were done +all would be Christians, and the other temples would have to +be deserted. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 49. When the Christians took possession of a piece of +land which belonged to the public domain and in opposition +to them the guild of cooks claimed that it belonged to +them, he decreed that it was better that in that place God +should be worshipped in some fashion rather than that it +be given to the cooks. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 21. +(MSG, 20:574.)</head> + +<p> +The mother of the Emperor, whose name was Julia Mammæa, +was a most pious woman, if ever one was. When the +fame of Origen had extended everywhere and had come +<pb n='154'/><anchor id='Pg154'/> +even to her ears, she desired greatly to see the man, and to +make trial of his understanding of divine things, which was +admired by all. When she was staying for a time in Antioch, +she sent for him with a military escort. Having remained +with her for a while and shown her many things which were +for the glory of the Lord and of the excellency of divine +teaching, he hastened back to his accustomed labors. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Firmilianus, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Cyprianum</hi>, +in Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. 75</hi>. (MSL, 3:1211.) Preuschen, +<hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, § 14:2.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following epistle is found among the Epistles of Cyprian, to +whom it is addressed. It is of importance in connection with the +persecution of Maximinus, throwing light on the occasion and extent +of the persecution and relating instances of strange fanaticism and +exorcism. +</quote> + +<p> +But I wish to tell you about an affair connected with this +very matter [baptism by heretics, the main subject of the +epistle, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_52">§ 52</ref>] +which occurred among us. About +twenty years ago, in the time after Emperor Alexander, there +happened in these parts many struggles and difficulties, either +in common to all men or privately to Christians. There were, +furthermore, many and frequent earthquakes, so that many +cities throughout Cappadocia and Pontus were thrown down; +and some even were dragged down into the abyss and swallowed +by the gaping earth. From this, also, there arose a +severe persecution against the Christian name. This arose +suddenly after the long peace of the previous age. Because +of the unexpected and unaccustomed evil, it was rendered +more terrible for the disturbance of our people. +</p> + +<p> +Serenianus was at that time governor of our province, a +bitter and cruel persecutor. But when the faithful had been +thus disturbed and were fleeing hither and thither from fear +of persecution and were leaving their native country and +crossing over to other regions—for there was opportunity of +crossing over, because this persecution was not over the +whole world, but was local—there suddenly arose among us +a certain woman who in a state of ecstasy announced herself +<pb n='155'/><anchor id='Pg155'/> +as a prophetess and acted as if filled with the Holy Ghost. +And she was so moved by the power of the chief demons that +for a long time she disturbed the brethren and deceived them; +for she accomplished certain wonderful and portentous things: +thus, she promised that she would cause the earth to be +shaken, not that the power of the demon was so great that +he could shake the earth and disturb the elements, but that +sometimes a wicked spirit, foreseeing and understanding that +there will be an earthquake, pretends that he will do what +he foresees will take place. By these lies and boastings he +had so subdued the minds of several that they obeyed him +and followed whithersoever he commanded and led. He +would also make that woman walk in the bitter cold of +winter with bare feet over the frozen snow, and not to be +troubled or hurt in any respect by walking in this fashion. +Moreover, she said she was hurrying to Judea and Jerusalem, +pretending that she had come thence. Here, also, she +deceived Rusticus, one of the presbyters, and another one +who was a deacon, so that they had intercourse with the +same woman. This was shortly after detected. For there +suddenly appeared before her one of the exorcists, a man +approved and always well versed in matters of religious discipline; +he, moved by the exhortation of many of the brethren, +also, who were themselves strong in the faith, and praiseworthy, +raised himself up against that wicked spirit to overcome +it; for the spirit a little while before, by its subtle deceitfulness, +had predicted, furthermore, that a certain adverse +and unbelieving tempter would come. Yet that exorcist, +inspired by God's grace, bravely resisted and showed that +he who before was regarded as holy was a most wicked spirit. +But that woman, who previously, by the wiles and deceits +of the demon, was attempting many things for the deception +of the faithful, had among other things by which she deceived +many also frequently dared this—to pretend that with an +invocation, not to be contemned, she sanctified bread and +consecrated the eucharist and offered sacrifice to the Lord +<pb n='156'/><anchor id='Pg156'/> +without the sacrament as customarily uttered; and to have +baptized many, making use of the usual and lawful words of +interrogation, that nothing might seem to be different from +the ecclesiastical and lawful mode. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 34. +(MSG, 20:595.) Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, § 15, and Kirch, n. +397.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following tradition that Philip the Arabian was a Christian is +commonly regarded as doubtful. That he favored the Christians, +and even protected them, may be the basis for such a report. +</quote> + +<p> +When Gordianus (238-244) had been Roman Emperor for +six years, Philip (244-249) succeeded him. It is reported that +he, being a Christian, desired on the day of the last paschal +vigil to share with the multitude in the prayers of the Church, +but was not permitted by him who then presided to enter +until he had made confession and numbered himself among +those who were reckoned as transgressors and who occupied +the place of penitence. For if he had not done this, he would +never have been received by him, on account of the many +crimes he had committed, and it is said that he obeyed +readily, manifesting in his conduct a genuine and pious fear +of God. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_37"/> +<head>§ 37. The Extension of the Church at the Middle of +the Third Century</head> + +<p> +Some approximately correct idea of the extension of the +Church by the middle of the third century may be gathered +from a precise statement of the organization of the largest +church, that at Rome, about the year 250 +(<ref target="Section_37_a"><hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>), from the size +of provincial synods, of which we have detailed statements +for North Africa (<ref target="Section_37_b"><hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>), +from references to organized and apparently +numerous churches in various places not mentioned in +earlier documents (<ref target="Section_37_c"><hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>). +That the Church, at least in Egypt +and parts adjacent, had ceased to be confined chiefly to the +cities and that it was composed of persons of all social ranks +is attested by Origen (<ref target="Section_37_d"><hi rend='italic'>d</hi></ref>). +</p> + +<pb n='157'/><anchor id='Pg157'/> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_37_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Cornelius, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Fabium</hi>, in +Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 43. (MSG, 20:622.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 222 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Cornelius was bishop of Rome 251-253. +</quote> + +<p> +This avenger of the Gospel [Novatus] did not then know +that there should be one bishop in a Catholic church; yet he +was not ignorant (for how could he be) that in it [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the +Roman church] there were forty-six presbyters, seven deacons, +seven subdeacons, forty-two acolytes, fifty-two exorcists, +readers, and janitors, and over fifteen hundred widows +and persons in distress, all of whom the grace and kindness of +the Master nourished. But not even this great multitude, so +necessary in the Church, nor those who through God's providence +were rich and full, together with very many, even +innumerable, people, could turn him from such desperation +and recall him to the Church. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_37_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Epistulæ 71</hi> [=70] +(MSL, 4:424) and 59:10 [=54] (MSL, 3:877)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The church in North Africa had grown very rapidly before Cyprian +was elevated to the see of Carthage. An evidence of this is the number +of councils held in North Africa. That held under Agrippinus, +between 218 and 222, was the first known in that part of the Church. +Under Cyprian a council was held at Carthage in 258 at which no +less than seventy bishops, whose names and opinions have been +preserved, are given. See ANF, V, 565 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Ep. 71</hi> [=70]. <hi rend='italic'>Ad Quintum.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Which thing, indeed, Agrippinus [A. D. 218-222], also a +man of worthy memory, with his fellow-bishops, who at that +time governed the Lord's Church in the province of Africa +and Numidia, decreed, and by the well-weighed examination +of the common council established. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Ep. 59</hi> [=54]:10. <hi rend='italic'>Ad Cornelium.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +I have also intimated to you, my brother, by Felicianus, +that there had come to Carthage Privatus, an old heretic in +the colony of Lambesa, many years ago condemned for many +and grave crimes by the judgment of ninety bishops, and +<pb n='158'/><anchor id='Pg158'/> +severely remarked upon in the letters of Fabian and Donatus, +also our predecessors, as is not hidden from your knowledge. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_37_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula 67</hi> [=68]. +(MSL, 3:1057, 1065.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following extracts from Cyprian's Epistle <q>To the Clergy and +People abiding in Spain, concerning Basilides and Martial,</q> is of +importance as bearing upon the development of the appellate jurisdiction +of the Roman see, for which see the epistle in its entirety as +given in Cyprian's works, ANF, vol. V, for the treatment of the vexed +question of discipline in the case of those receiving certificates that +they had sacrificed, (see below, <ref target="Section_45">§§ 45</ref> +<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>), and as the first definite statements +as to localities in Spain where there were Christians and bishops +placed over the Church. The mass of martyrdoms that have been +preserved refer to still others. +</quote> + +<p> +Cyprian … to Felix, the presbyter, and to the peoples +abiding in Legio [Leon] and Asturica [Astorga], also to Lælius, +the deacon, and the people abiding in Emerita [Merida], brethren +in the Lord, greeting. When we had come together, +dearly beloved brethren, we read your letters, which, according +to the integrity of your faith and your fear of God, you +wrote to us by Felix and Sabinus, our fellow-bishops, signifying +that Basilides and Martial, who had been stained with +the certificates of idolatry and bound with the consciousness +of wicked crimes, ought not to exercise the episcopal office +and administer the priesthood of God. Wherefore, since we +have written, dearly beloved brethren, and as Felix and Sabinus, +our colleagues, affirm, and as another Felix, of Cæsar-Augusta +[Saragossa], a maintainer of the faith and a defender +of the truth, signifies in his letter, Basilides and Martial have +been contaminated by the abominable certificate of idolatry. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_37_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>Contra Celsum</hi>, III, +9. (MSG, 11:951.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +With the following should be compared the statements of Pliny, +more than a hundred years earlier, relative to Bithynia. See above, § 7. +</quote> + +<p> +Celsus says that <q>if all men wished to become Christians, +the latter would not desire it.</q> That this is false, is evident +from this, that Christians do not neglect, as far as they are +able, to take care to spread their doctrines throughout the +<pb n='159'/><anchor id='Pg159'/> +whole world. Some, accordingly, have made it their business +to go round about not only through cities, but even villages +and country houses, that they may persuade others to become +pious worshippers of God.… At present, indeed, when +because of the multitude of those who have embraced the +teaching, not only rich men, but also some persons of rank +and delicate and high-born ladies, receive the teachers of +the Word, there will be some who dare to say that it is for +the sake of a little glory that certain assume the office of +Christian teachers. In the beginning, when there was much +danger, especially to its teachers, this suspicion could have +had no place. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter II. The Internal Development Of The Church In Doctrine, Custom, And +Constitution</head> + +<p> +The characteristic Eastern and Western conceptions of +Christianity began to be clearly differentiated in the early +years of the third century. A juristic conception of the +Church as a body at the head of which, and clothed with +authority, appeared the bishop of Rome, had, indeed, become +current at Rome in the last decade of the second century +on the occasion of the Easter controversy, which had +ended in an estrangement between the previously closely +affiliated churches of Asia Minor and the West, especially +Rome (<ref target="Section_38">§ 38</ref>). Western theology soon became centred in +North Africa under the legally trained Tertullian, by whom +its leading principles were laid down in harmony with the +bent of the Latin genius (<ref target="Section_39">§ 39</ref>). In this period numerous +attempts were made to solve the problem arising from the +unity of God and the divinity of Christ, without recourse to +a Logos christology. Some of the more unsuccessful of these +attempts have since been grouped under the heads of Dynamistic +and of Modalistic Monarchianism (<ref target="Section_40">§ 40</ref>). At the same +time Montanism was excluded from the Church (<ref target="Section_41">§ 41</ref>), as +subversive of the distinction between the clergy and laity +<pb n='160'/><anchor id='Pg160'/> +and the established organs of the Church's government, +which in the recent rise of a theory of the necessity of the +episcopate (see above, <ref target="Section_27">§ 27</ref>) had become important. In the +administration of the penitential discipline (<ref target="Section_42">§ 42</ref>) +the position of the clergy and the realization of a hierarchically +organized Church was still further advanced, preparatory for +the position of Cyprian. At the same time as these constitutional +developments were taking place in the West, and +especially in North Africa, there occurred in Egypt and +Palestine a remarkable advance in doctrinal discussion, +whereby the theology of the apologists was developed in the +Catechetical School of Alexandria, especially under the leadership +of Clement of Alexandria and Origen (<ref target="Section_43">§ 43</ref>). In this +new speculation a vast mass of most fruitful theological ideas +was built up, from which subsequent ages drew for the defence +of the traditional faith, but some of which served as the basis +of new and startling heresies. Corresponding to the intellectual +development within the Church was the last phase of +Hellenic philosophy, known as Neo-Platonism (<ref target="Section_44">§ 44</ref>), which +subsequently came into bitter conflict with the Church. +</p> + +<pb n='161'/><anchor id='Pg161'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_38"/> +<head>§ 38. The Easter Controversy and the Separation of +the Churches of Asia Minor from the Western Churches</head> + +<p> +The Church grew up with only a loose form of organization. +Each local congregation was for a while autonomous, +and it was the local constitution that first took a definite and +fixed form. In the first centuries local customs naturally varied, +and conflicts were sure to arise when various hitherto +isolated churches came into closer contact and the sense of +solidarity deepened. The first clash of opposing customs occurred +over the date of Easter, as to which marked differences +existed between the churches of Asia Minor, at that +time the most flourishing part of the Church, and the churches +of the West, especially with the church of Rome, the strongest +local church of all. The course of the controversy is sufficiently +stated in the following selection from Eusebius. The +outcome was the practical isolation of the churches of Asia +Minor for many years. The controversy was not settled, and +the churches of Asia Minor did not again play a prominent +part in the Church until the time of Constantine and the +Council of Nicæa, 325 (see <ref target="Section_62_i_b">§ 62, +<hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>), although a provisional adjustment +of the difficulty, so far as the West was concerned, +took place shortly before, at the Council of Arles (see +<ref target="Section_62_a">§ 62, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>, 2). +</p> + +<div> +<head>Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 23, 24. (MSG, 20:489.) Mirbt, +n. 22, and in Kirch, n. 78 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +A brief extract from the following may be found above in +<ref target="Section_3">§ 3</ref> in a somewhat different connection. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 23. At this time a question of no small importance +arose. For the parishes [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, dioceses in the later sense of that +word] of all Asia, as from an older tradition, held that the +fourteenth day of the moon, being the day on which the Jews +were commanded to sacrifice the lamb, should be observed +as the feast of the Saviour's passover, and that it was necessary, +<pb n='162'/><anchor id='Pg162'/> +therefore, to end their fast on that day, on whatever +day of the week it might happen to fall. It was not, however, +the custom of the churches elsewhere to end it at this time, +but they observed the practice, which from apostolic tradition +has prevailed to the present time, of ending the fast on +no other day than that of the resurrection of the Saviour. +Synods and assemblies of bishops were held on this account, +and all with one consent, by means of letters addressed to +all, drew up an ecclesiastical decree that the mystery of the +resurrection of the Lord from the dead should be celebrated +on no other day than on the Lord's Day, and that we should +observe the close of the paschal fast on that day only. There +is still extant a writing of those who were then assembled +in Palestine, over whom Theophilus, bishop of the parish of +Cæsarea, and Narcissus, Bishop of Jerusalem, presided; also +another of those who were likewise assembled at Rome, on +account of the same question, which bears the name of Victor; +also of the bishops in Pontus, over whom Palmas, as the +oldest, presided; and of the parishes in Gaul, of which Irenæus +was bishop; and of those in Osrhoene and the cities there; +and a personal letter of Bacchylus, bishop of the church in +Corinth, and of a great many others who uttered one and +the same opinion and judgment and cast the same vote. +Of these, there was one determination of the question which +has been stated. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 24. But the bishops of Asia, led by Polycrates, decided +to hold fast to the customs handed down to them. He himself, +in a letter addressed to Victor and the church of Rome, +set forth the tradition which had come down to him as follows: +<q>We observe the exact day, neither adding nor taking +anything away. For in Asia, also, great lights have fallen +asleep, which shall rise again on the day of the Lord's coming, +when He shall come with glory from heaven and shall seek out +all the saints. Of these were Philip, one of the twelve Apostles, +who fell asleep at Hierapolis, and his two aged virgin daughters +and his other daughter, who, having lived in the Holy +<pb n='163'/><anchor id='Pg163'/> +Spirit, rest at Ephesus; and, moreover, John, who reclined +on the Lord's bosom, and being a priest wore the sacerdotal +mitre, who was both a witness and a teacher; he fell asleep +at Ephesus; and, further, Polycarp in Smyrna, both a bishop +and a martyr.… All these observed the fourteenth day +of the passover, according to the Gospel, deviating in no respect, +but following the rule of faith. And I, Polycrates, do +the same, the least of you all, according to the tradition of +my relatives, some of whom I have closely followed. For +seven of my relatives were bishops, and I am the eighth. +And my relatives always observed the day when the people +put away the leaven; I, therefore, am not affrighted by +terrifying words. For those greater than I have said, We +ought to obey God rather than men.</q>… Thereupon<note place="foot">From +here text in Kirch, nn. 84 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></note> Victor, +who was over the church of Rome, immediately attempted to +cut off from the common unity the parishes of all Asia, with +the churches that agreed with them, as being heterodox. And +he published letters declaring that all the brethren there were +wholly excommunicated. But this did not please all the bishops, +and they besought him to consider the things of peace, of +neighborly unity and love. Words of theirs are still extant, +rather sharply rebuking Victor. Among these were Irenæus, +who sent letters in the name of the brethren in Gaul, over +whom he presided, and maintained that the mystery of the resurrection +of the Lord should be observed only on the Lord's +Day, yet he fittingly admonishes Victor that he should not +cut off whole churches of God which observed the tradition +of an ancient custom, and after many other words he proceeds +as follows: <q>For the controversy is not merely concerning +the day, but also concerning the very manner of the fast. +For some think that they should fast one day, others two, +yet others more; some, moreover, count their days as consisting +of forty hours day and night. And this variety of +observance has not originated in our times, but long before, +in the days of our ancestors. It is likely that they did not +<pb n='164'/><anchor id='Pg164'/> +hold to strict accuracy, and thus was formed a custom for +their posterity, according to their own simplicity and their +peculiar method. Yet all these lived more or less in peace, +and we also live in peace with one another; and the disagreement +in regard to the fast confirms the agreement in +the faith.… Among these were the elders [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, bishops of +earlier date] before Soter, who presided over the church +which thou [Victor] now rulest. We mean Anicetus, and +Pius, and Hyginus, and Telesphorus, and Sixtus. They +neither observed it themselves nor did they permit others +after them to do so. And yet, though they did not observe +it, they were none the less at peace with those who came to +them from the parishes in which it was observed, although +this observance was more opposed to those who did not +observe it. But none were ever cast out on account of this +form, but the elders before thee, who did not observe it, sent +the eucharist to those of the other parishes observing it. And +when the blessed Polycarp was at Rome in the time of Anicetus, +and they disagreed a little about certain other things, +they immediately made peace with one another, not caring +to quarrel over this point. For neither could Anicetus persuade +Polycarp not to observe what he had always observed +with John, the disciple of the Lord, and the other Apostles +with whom he had associated; neither could Polycarp persuade +Anicetus to observe it, as he said that he ought to follow +the customs of the elders who had preceded him. But though +matters were thus, they nevertheless communed together +and Anicetus granted the eucharist in the church to Polycarp, +manifestly as a mark of respect.<note place="foot">Probably the reference is +to the privilege of celebrating the eucharist, and +not merely the reception of the sacrament from the hands of Anicetus.</note> +And they parted from each +other in peace, maintaining the peace of the whole Church, +both of those who observed and those who did not.</q> Thus +Irenæus, who was truly well named, became a peace-maker +in this matter, exhorting and negotiating in this way for the +peace of the churches. And he conferred by letter about this +<pb n='165'/><anchor id='Pg165'/> +disputed question, not only with Victor, but also with most +of the other rulers of the churches. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_39"/> +<head>§ 39. The Religion of the West: Its Moral and Juristic +Character</head> + +<p> +In the writings of Tertullian a conception of Christianity +is quite fully developed according to which the Gospel was a +new law of life, with its prescribed holy seasons and hours +for prayer; its sacrifices, though as yet only sacrifices of +prayer; its fasts and almsgiving, which had propitiatory +effect, atoning for sins committed and winning merit with +God; its sacred rites, solemnly administered by an established +hierarchy; and all observed for the sake of a reward which +God in justice owed those who kept His commandments. +It is noticeable that already there is the same divided opinion +as to marriage, whereby, on the one hand, it was regarded as +a concession to weakness, a necessary evil, and, on the other, +a high and holy relation, strictly monogamous, and of abiding +worth. The propitiatory and meritorious character of fasts +and almsgiving as laid down by Tertullian was developed +even further by Cyprian and became a permanent element +in the penitential system of the Church, ultimately affecting +its conception of redemption. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Oratione</hi>, 23, 25, +28. (MSL, 1:1298.)</head> + +<p> +Ch. 23. As to kneeling, also, prayer is subject to diversity +of observance on account of a few who abstain from kneeling +on the Sabbath. Since this dissension is particularly on its +trial before the churches, the Lord will give His grace that +the dissentients may either yield or else follow their own +opinion without offence to the others. We, however, as we +have received, only on the Sunday of the resurrection ought +to guard not only against this kneeling, but every posture and +office of anxiety; deferring even our businesses, lest we give +any place to the devil. Similarly, too, the period of Pentecost, +<pb n='166'/><anchor id='Pg166'/> +is a time which we distinguish by the same solemnity of +exultation. But who would hesitate every day to prostrate +himself before God, at least in the first prayer with which we +enter on the daylight? At fasts, moreover, and stations, no +prayer should be made without kneeling and the remaining +customary marks of humility. For then we are not only +praying, but making supplication, and making satisfaction to +our Lord God. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 25. Touching the time, however, the extrinsic observance +of certain hours will not be unprofitable; those common +hours, I mean, which mark the intervals of the day—the +third, the sixth, the ninth—which we may find in Scripture +to have been more solemn than the rest. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 28. This is the spiritual victim which has abolished +the pristine sacrifices.… We are the true adorers and true +priests, who, praying in the spirit, in the spirit sacrifice prayer, +proper and acceptable to God, which, assuredly, He has +required, which He has looked forward to for Himself. This +victim, devoted from the whole heart, fed on faith, tended +by truth, entire in innocence, pure in chastity, garlanded +with love [agape], we ought to escort with the pomp of good +works, amid psalms and hymns, unto God's altar, to obtain +all things from God for us. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Jejun.</hi>, 3. (MSL, +2:100.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following is a characteristic statement of the meritorious and +propitiatory character of fasting. See below, +<ref target="Section_39_h"><hi rend='italic'>h</hi></ref>, Cyprian. +</quote> + +<p> +Since He himself both commands fasting and calls a soul +wholly shattered—properly, of course, by straits of diet—a +sacrifice (Psalm 51:18), who will any longer doubt that of all +macerations as to food the rationale has been this: that by a +renewed interdiction of food and observance of the precept +the primordial sin might now be expiated, so that man may +make God satisfaction through the same causative material +by which he offended, that is, by interdiction of food; and +so, by way of emulation, hunger might rekindle, just as +<pb n='167'/><anchor id='Pg167'/> +satiety had extinguished, salvation, contemning for the sake +of one thing unlawful many things that are lawful? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Baptismo</hi>, 17. +(MSL, 1:1326.)</head> + +<p> +It remains to put you in mind, also, of the due observance +of giving and receiving baptism. The chief priest +(<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">summus +sacerdos</foreign>), who is the bishop, has the right of giving it; in the +second place, the presbyters and deacons, yet not without +the bishop's authority, on account of the honor of the Church. +When this has been preserved, peace is preserved. Besides +these, even laymen have the right; for what is equally +received can be equally given. If there are no bishops, +priests, or deacons, other disciples are called. The word of +the Lord ought not to be hidden away by any. In like manner, +also, baptism, which is equally God's property, can be administered +by all; but how much more is the rule of reverence +and modesty incumbent on laymen, since these things belong +to their superiors, lest they assume to themselves the specific +functions of the episcopate! Emulation of the episcopal +office is the mother of schism. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Pœnitentia</hi>, 2. +(MSL, 1:1340.)</head> + +<p> +How small is the gain if you do good to a grateful man, or +the loss if to an ungrateful man! A good deed has God as +its debtor, just as an evil deed has Him also; for the judge +is a rewarder of every cause. Now, since God as judge presides +over the exacting and maintaining of justice, which is +most dear to Him, and since it is for the sake of justice that +He appoints the whole sum of His discipline, ought one to +doubt that, as in all our acts universally, so, also, in the case +of repentance, justice must be rendered to God? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Scorpiace</hi>, 6. +(MSL, 2:157.)</head> + +<p> +If he had put forth faith to suffer martyrdoms, not for the +contest's sake, but for its own benefit, ought it not to have had +some store of hope, for which it might restrain its own desire +<pb n='168'/><anchor id='Pg168'/> +and suspend its wish, that it might strive to mount up, seeing +that they, also, who strive to discharge earthly functions are +eager for promotion? Or how will there be many mansions +in the Father's house, if not for a diversity of deserts? How, +also, will one star differ from another star in glory, unless in +virtue of a disparity of their rays? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_39_f"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Ad Uxorem</hi>, I, 3; +II, 8-10. (MSL, 1:1390, 1415.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 181.</head> + +<p> +I, 3. There is no place at all where we read that marriages +are prohibited; of course as a <q>good thing.</q> What, however, +is better than this <q>good,</q> we learn from the Apostle in that +he permits marriage, indeed, but prefers abstinence; the +former on account of the insidiousness of temptations, the +latter on account of the straits of the times (I Cor. 7:26). +Now by examining the reason for each statement it is easily +seen that the permission to marry is conceded us as a necessity; +but whatever necessity grants, she herself deprecates. +In fact, inasmuch as it is written, <q>It is better to marry than +to burn</q> (I Cor. 7:9), what sort of <q>good</q> is this which is +only commended by comparison with <q>evil,</q> so that the +reason why <q>marrying</q> is better is merely that <q>burning</q> +is worse? Nay; but how much better is it neither to marry +nor to burn? +</p> + +<p> +II, 8. Whence are we to find adequate words to tell fully +of the happiness of that marriage which the Church cements +and the oblation<note place="foot">Here, as elsewhere in Tertullian, the oblation, +or sacrifice, or offering, is the prayers of the faithful, and not the eucharist.</note> +confirms, and the benediction seals; which +the angels announce, and the Father holds for ratified? For +even on earth children do not rightly and lawfully wed without +their father's consent. What kind of yoke is that of two +believers of one hope, one discipline, and the same service? +The two are brethren, the two are fellow-servants; no difference +of spirit or flesh; nay, truly, two in one flesh; where there +is one flesh the spirit is one. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='169'/><anchor id='Pg169'/> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_39_g"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Monogamia</hi>, 9, 10. +(MSL, 2:991 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This work was written after Tertullian became a Montanist, and +with other Montanists repudiated second marriage, to which reference +is made in both passages. But the teaching of the Church regarding +remarriage after divorce was as Tertullian here speaks. +The reference to offering at the end of ch. 10 does not refer to the +eucharist, but to prayers. See above, <hi rend='italic'>Ad Uxorem</hi>, ch. II, 8. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 9. So far is it true that divorce <q>was not from the +beginning</q> [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Matt. 19:8] that among the Romans it is +not till after the six hundredth year after the foundation of +the city that this kind of hardness of heart is recorded to +have been committed. But they not only repudiate, but +commit promiscuous adultery; to us, even if we do divorce, +it will not be lawful to marry. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 10. I ask the woman herself, <q>Tell me, sister, have +you sent your husband before in peace?</q> What will she +answer? In discord? In that case she is bound the more to +him with whom she has a cause to plead at the bar of God. +She is bound to another, she who has not departed from him. +But if she say, <q>In peace,</q> then she must necessarily persevere +in that peace with him whom she will be no longer +able to divorce; not that she would marry, even if she had +been able to divorce him. Indeed, she prays for his soul, +and requests refreshment for him meanwhile, and fellowship +in the first resurrection; and she offers on the anniversary +of his falling asleep. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_39_h"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>De Opere et Eleemosynis</hi>, +1, 2, 5. (MSL, 4:625.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (249-258), was the most important +theologian and ecclesiastic between Tertullian and Augustine. He +developed the theology of the former especially in its ecclesiastical +lines, and his idea of the Church was accepted by the latter as a +matter beyond dispute. His most important contributions to the +development of the Church were his hierarchical conceptions, which +became generally accepted as the basis of the episcopal organization +of the Church (see below, §§ <ref target="Section_46">46</ref>, +<ref target="Section_50">50</ref>, <ref target="Section_51">51</ref>). +His writings, which are of +great importance in the history of the Church, consist only of epistles +and brief tracts. His influence did much to determine the lines of +development of the Western Church, and especially the church of +North Africa. With the following <hi rend='italic'>cf. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_16">§ 16</ref>. +</quote> + +<pb n='170'/><anchor id='Pg170'/> + +<p> +Ch. 1. Many and great, beloved brethren, are the divine +benefits wherewith the large and abundant mercy of God +the Father and of Christ both has labored and is always laboring +for our salvation: because the Father sent the Son to preserve +us and give us life, that He might restore us; and the +Son was willing to be sent and to become the son of man, that +He might make us the sons of God. He humbled Himself +that He might raise up the people who before were prostrate; +He was wounded that He might heal our wounds; He served +that He might draw to liberty those who were in bondage; +He underwent death, that He might set forth immortality to +mortals. These are many and great boons of compassion. +But, moreover, what a providence, and how great the clemency, +that by a plan of salvation it is provided for us that +more abundant care should be taken for preserving man +who has been redeemed! For when the Lord, coming to us, +had cured those wounds which Adam had borne, and had +healed the old poisons of the serpent, He gave a law to the +sound man, and bade him sin no more lest a worse thing +should befall the sinner. We had been limited and shut up +in a narrow space by the commandment of innocence. Nor +should the infirmity and weakness of human frailty have +anything it might do, unless the divine mercy, coming again +in aid, should open some way of securing salvation by pointing +out works of justice and mercy, so that by almsgiving we +may wash away whatever foulness we subsequently contract. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 2. The Holy Spirit speaks in the sacred Scriptures +saying, <q>By almsgiving and faith sins are purged</q> [Prov. +16:6]. Not, of course, those sins which had been previously +contracted, for these are purged by the blood and sanctification +of Christ. Moreover, He says again, <q>As water extinguishes +fire, so almsgiving quencheth sin</q> [Eccles. 3:30]. +Here, also, is shown and proved that as by the laver of the +saving water the fire of Gehenna is extinguished, so, also, by +almsgiving and works of righteousness the flame of sin is +subdued. And because in baptism remission of sins is granted +<pb n='171'/><anchor id='Pg171'/> +once and for all, constant and ceaseless labor, following the +likeness of baptism, once again bestows the mercy of God.… +The Lord also teaches this in the Gospel.… The Merciful +One teaches and warns that works of mercy be performed; +because He seeks to save those who at great cost He has +redeemed, it is proper that those who after the grace of +baptism have become foul can once more be cleansed. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 5. The remedies for propitiating God are given in +the words of God himself. The divine instructions have taught +sinners what they ought to do; that by works of righteousness +God is satisfied, and with the merits of mercy sins are +cleansed.… He [the angel Raphael, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Tobit. 12:8, 9] +shows that our prayers and fastings are of little avail unless +they are aided by almsgiving; that entreaties alone are of +little force to obtain what they seek, unless they be made +sufficient by the addition of deeds and good works. The +angel reveals and manifests and certifies that our petitions +become efficacious by almsgiving, that life is redeemed from +dangers by almsgiving, that souls are delivered from death +by almsgiving. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_40"/> +<head>§ 40. The Monarchian Controversies</head> + +<p> +Monarchianism is a general term used to include all the +unsuccessful attempts of teachers within the Church to explain +the divine element in Christ without doing violence to the +doctrine of the unity of God, and yet without employing the +Logos christology. These attempts were made chiefly between +the latter part of the second century and the +end of the third. They fall into classes accordingly as +they regard the divine element in Christ as personal or +impersonal. One class makes the divine element to be an +impersonal power (Greek, dynamis) sent from God into the +man Jesus; hence the term <q>Dynamistic Monarchians.</q> +The other class makes the divine element a person, without, +however, making any personal distinction between Father +and Son, only a difference in the mode in which the one +<pb n='172'/><anchor id='Pg172'/> +divine person manifests Himself; hence the term <q>Modalistic +Monarchians.</q> By some the Dynamistic Monarchians have +been called Adoptionists, because they generally taught that +the man Jesus ultimately became the Son of God, not being +such by nature but by <q>adoption.</q> The name Adoptionist +has been so long applied to a heresy of the eighth century, +chiefly in Spain, that it leads to confusion to use the term in +connection with Monarchianism. Furthermore, to speak of +them as Dynamistic Monarchians groups them with other +Monarchians, which is desirable. The most important school +of Modalistic Monarchians was that of Sabellius, in which +the Modalistic principle was developed so as to include the +three persons of the Trinity. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +The sources may be found collected and annotated in Hilgenfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Ketsergeschichte</hi>. +</quote> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>(A) Dynamistic Monarchianism</head> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refut.</hi>, VII, 35, +36. (MSG, 16:3342.)</head> + +<p> +Ch. 35. A certain Theodotus, a native of Byzantium, +introduced a novel heresy, saying some things concerning the +origin of the universe partly in keeping with the doctrines of +the true Church, in so far as he admits that all things were +created by God. Forcibly appropriating, however, his idea +of Christ from the Gnostics and from Cerinthus and Ebion, he +alleges that He appeared somewhat as follows: that Jesus +was a man, born of a virgin, according to the counsel of the +Father, and that after He had lived in a way common to all +men, and had become pre-eminently religious, He afterward +at His baptism in Jordan received Christ, who came from +above and descended upon Him. Therefore miraculous powers +did not operate within Him prior to the manifestation of that +Spirit which descended and proclaimed Him as the Christ. +But some [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, among the followers of Theodotus] are disposed +to think that this man never was God, even at the +descent of the Spirit; whereas others maintain that He was +made God after the resurrection from the dead. +</p> + +<pb n='173'/><anchor id='Pg173'/> + +<p> +Ch. 36. While, however, different questions have arisen +among them, a certain one named Theodotus, by trade a +money-changer [to be distinguished from the other Theodotus, +who is commonly spoken of as Theodotus, the leather-worker], +attempted to establish the doctrine that a certain Melchizedek +is the greatest power, and that this one is greater than +Christ. And they allege that Christ happens to be according +to the likeness of this one. And they themselves, similarly +with those who have been previously spoken of as adherents +of Theodotus, assert that Jesus is a mere man, and that in +conformity with the same account, Christ descended upon +Him. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>The Little Labyrinth</hi>, in +Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 28. (MSG, 20:511.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The author of <hi rend='italic'>The Little Labyrinth</hi>, a work from which Eusebius +quotes at considerable length, is uncertain. It has been attributed +to Hippolytus. +</quote> + +<p> +The Artemonites say that all early teachers and the Apostles +themselves received and taught what they now declare, +and that the truth of the preaching [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the Gospel] was +preserved until the time of Victor, who was the thirteenth +bishop in Rome after Peter, and that since his successor, +Zephyrinus, the truth has been corrupted. What they say +might be credible if first of all the divine Scriptures did not +contradict them. And there are writings of certain brethren +which are older than the times of Victor, and which they +wrote in behalf of the truth against the heathen and against +heresies of their time. I refer to Justin, Miltiades, Tatian, +Clement, and others. In all of their works Christ is spoken +of as God. For who does not know the works of Irenæus and +of Melito and of others, which teach that Christ is God and +man? And how many psalms and hymns, written by the +faithful brethren from the beginning, celebrate Christ as the +Word of God, speaking of Him as divine? How, then, since +the Church's present opinion has been preached for so many +<pb n='174'/><anchor id='Pg174'/> +years, can its preaching have been delayed, as they affirm, +until the times of Victor? And how is it that they are not +ashamed to speak thus falsely of Victor, knowing well that +he cut off from communion Theodotus, the leather-worker, +the leader and father of this God-denying apostasy, and the +first to declare that Christ is mere man. +</p> + +<p> +There was a certain confessor, Natalius, not long ago, but +in our day. This man was deceived at one time by Asclepiodotus +and another Theodotus, a certain money-changer. +Both of them were disciples of Theodotus, the leather-worker, +who, as I said, was the first person excommunicated +by Victor, bishop at that time, on account of this senseless +sentiment or, rather, senselessness. Natalius was persuaded +by them to allow himself to be chosen bishop of this heresy +with a salary, so that he was to receive from them one hundred +and fifty <hi rend='italic'>denarii</hi> a month. +</p> + +<p> +They have treated the divine Scriptures recklessly and +without fear; they have set aside the rule of ancient faith; +and Christ they have not known, not endeavoring to learn +what the divine Scriptures declare, but striving laboriously +after any form of syllogism which may be found to suit their +impiety. And if any one brings before them a passage of +divine Scripture, they see whether a conjunctive or a disjunctive +form of syllogism can be made from it. And as +being of the earth and speaking of the earth and as ignorant +of Him that cometh from above, they devote themselves to +geometry and forsake the holy writings of God. Euclid is +at least laboriously measured by some of them; Aristotle +and Theophrastus admired; and Galen, perhaps, by some is +even worshipped. But that those who use the arts of unbelievers +for their heretical opinion and adulterate the simple +faith of the divine Scriptures by the craft of the godless are +not near the faith, what need is there to say? Therefore, they +have laid their hands boldly upon the divine Scriptures, +alleging that they have corrected them. That I am not +speaking falsely of them in this matter, whoever wishes can +<pb n='175'/><anchor id='Pg175'/> +learn. For if any one will collect their respective copies and +compare them with one another, he will find that they differ +greatly. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_40_b"/> +<head>(B) Modalistic Monarchianism</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Adversus Noetum, +Refutatio</hi>, IX, 7 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, X, 27; Tertullian, +<hi rend='italic'>Adversus Praxean</hi>; Basil, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 207, 210. +(PNF, ser. II, vol. VIII.) +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refut.</hi>, X, 27. (MSG, +16:3440.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passages from the great work of Hippolytus give +the earlier form of Modalistic Monarchianism. They are also of +importance as being a part of the foundation for the statement of +Harnack and others, that this heresy was the official Roman doctrine +for some years. See also IX, 12, of which the text may be found in +Kirch, nn. 201-206. The whole question as to the position of Callistus, +or Calixtus, as bishop of Rome and his relations to the Church +as a whole is difficult and full of obscurity, due to a large extent to +the fact that the principal source for his history is the work of Hippolytus, +who, as may easily be seen, was bitterly opposed to him. +</quote> + +<p> +Noetus, a Smyrnæan by birth, a reckless babbler and trickster, +introduced this heresy, which originated with Epigonus, +and was adopted by Cleomenes, and has thus continued to +this day among his successors. Noetus asserts that there is +one Father and God of the universe, and that He who had +made all things was, when He wished, invisible to those who +existed, and when He wished He became visible; that He is +invisible when He is not seen and visible when He is seen; +that the Father is unbegotten when He is not generated, +but begotten when He is born of a virgin; that He is not +subject to suffering and is immortal when He does not suffer +and die, but when His passion came upon Him Noetus +admits that the Father suffers and dies. The Noetians think +that the Father is called the Son according to events at +different times. +</p> + +<p> +Callistus supported the heresy of these Noetians, but we +have carefully described his life [see above, <ref +target="Section_19_c">§ 19, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>]. And +Callistus himself likewise produced a heresy, taking his +<pb n='176'/><anchor id='Pg176'/> +starting-point from these Noetians. And he acknowledges +that there is one Father and God, and that He is the Creator +of the universe, and that He is called and regarded as Son by +name, yet that in substance He is one.<note place="foot">The word substance +as used here in connection with the nature of the +Trinity has not taken its later meaning and use.</note> +For the Spirit as Deity +is not, he says, any being different from the Logos, or the +Logos from Deity; therefore, this one person is divided by +name, but not according to substance. He supposes this +one Logos to be God and he says that He became flesh. He +is disposed to maintain that He who was seen in the flesh and +crucified is Son, but it is the Father who dwells in Him. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refut.</hi>, IX, 7, +11 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> (MSG, 16:3369.)</head> + +<p> +Ch. 7. There has appeared a certain one, Noetus by name, +by birth a Smyrnæan. This person introduced from the tenets +of Heraclitus a heresy. Now a certain Epigonus became +his minister and pupil, and this person during his sojourn in +Rome spread his godless opinion.… But Zephyrinus himself +was in course of time enticed away and hurried headlong +into the same opinion; and he had Callistus as his adviser +and fellow-champion of these wicked tenets.… The school +of these heretics continued in a succession of teachers to +acquire strength and to grow because Zephyrinus and Callistus +helped them to prevail. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 11. Now that Noetus affirms that the Son and the +Father are the same, no one is ignorant. But he makes a +statement as follows: <q>When, indeed, at the time the Father +was not yet born, He was justly styled the Father; and when +it pleased Him to undergo generation and to be begotten, He +himself became His own Son, not another's.</q> For in this +manner he thinks he establishes the Monarchy, alleging that +the Father and the Son, so called, are not from one another, +but are one and the same, Himself from Himself, and that He +is styled by the names Father and Son, according to the +changes of times. +</p> + +<pb n='177'/><anchor id='Pg177'/> + +<p> +Ch. 12. Now Callistus brought forward Zephyrinus himself +and induced him to avow publicly the following opinions: +<q>I know that there is one God, Jesus Christ; and that excepting +Him I do not know another begotten and capable +of suffering.</q> When he said, <q>The Father did not die but +the Son,</q> he would in this way continue to keep up ceaseless +disturbance among the people. And we [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Hippolytus], +becoming aware of his opinions, did not give place +to him, but reproved him and withstood him for the truth's +sake. He rushed into folly because all consented to his hypocrisy; +we, however, did not do so, and he called us worshippers +of two gods, disgorging freely the venom lurking +within him. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Adversus Noetum</hi>. +(MSG, 10:804.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following is from a fragment which seems to be the conclusion +of an extended work against various heresies. +</quote> + +<p> +Some others are secretly introducing another doctrine who +have become the disciples of a certain Noetus, who was a +native of Smyrna, and lived not very long ago. This man +was greatly puffed up with pride, being inspired by the conceit +of a strange spirit. He alleged that Christ was the Father +himself, and that the Father himself was born and suffered +and died.… When the blessed presbyters heard these +things they summoned him before the Church and examined +him. But he denied at first that he held such opinions. +Afterward, taking shelter among some and gathering round +him some others who had been deceived in the same way, +he wished to maintain his doctrine openly. And the blessed +presbyters summoned him and examined him. But he +resisted, saying, <q>What evil, then, do I commit when I +glorify Christ?</q> And the presbyters replied to him, <q>We, +too, know in truth one God; we know Christ; we know +that the Son suffered even as He suffered, and died even as +He died, and rose again on the third day, and is at the right +hand of the Father, and cometh to judge the living and the +<pb n='178'/><anchor id='Pg178'/> +dead. And these things which we have learned we assert.</q> +Then, after refuting him, they expelled him from the Church. +And he was carried to such a pitch of pride that he established +a school. +</p> + +<p> +Now they seek to exhibit the foundation of their dogma, +alleging that it is said in the Law, <q>I am the God of your +fathers; ye shall have no other gods beside me</q> [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, of +Moses, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ex. 3:6, 13; 20:3]; and again in another passage, <q>I +am the first and the last and besides me there is none other</q> +[<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Is. 44:6]. Thus they assert that God is one. And then +they answer in this manner: <q>If therefore I acknowledge +Christ to be God, He is the Father himself, if He is indeed +God; and Christ suffered, being Himself God, and consequently +the Father suffered, for He was the Father himself.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Adv. Praxean</hi>, 1, +2, 27, 29. (MSL, 2:177 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, 214.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Tertullian is especially bitter against Praxeas, because he prevented +the recognition of the Montanists at Rome when it seemed likely that +they would be treated favorably. The work <hi rend='italic'>Adversus Praxean</hi> is +the most important work of Western theology on the Trinity before +the time of Augustine. It was corrected in some important points by +Novatian, but its clear formulæ remained in Western theology permanently. +The work belongs to the late Montanistic period of Tertullian. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 1. In various ways has the devil rivalled the truth. +Sometimes his aim has been to destroy it by defending it. +He maintains that there is one only Lord, the Almighty +Creator of the world, that of this doctrine of the unity he +may fabricate a heresy. He says that the Father himself +came down into the Virgin, was Himself born of her, Himself +suffered, indeed, was Himself Jesus Christ.… He [Praxeas] +was the first to import into Rome this sort of perversity, a +man of restless disposition in other respects, and above all +inflated with the pride of martyrdom [confessorship] simply +and solely because of a short annoyance in prison; when, +even if he had given his body to be burned, it would have +<pb n='179'/><anchor id='Pg179'/> +profited him nothing, not having the love of God, whose +very gifts he resisted and destroyed. For after the Bishop +of Rome had acknowledged the prophetic gifts of Montanus, +Priscilla, and Maximilla, and in consequence of the acknowledgment +had bestowed his peace on the churches of +Asia and Phrygia, Praxeas, by importunately urging false +accusations against the prophets themselves and their churches, +and insisting on the authority of the bishop's predecessors in +the see, compelled him to recall the letter of peace which he +had issued, as well as to desist from his purpose of acknowledging +the said gifts. Thus Praxeas did two pieces of the +devil's work in Rome: he drove out prophecy and he brought +in heresy; he put to flight the Paraclete and he crucified +the Father. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 2. After a time, then, the Father was born, and the +Father suffered—God himself, the Almighty, is preached as +Jesus Christ. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 27. For, confuted on all sides by the distinction between +the Father and the Son, which we make while their inseparable +union remains as [by the examples] of the sun and the +ray, and the fountain and the river—yet by help of their conceit +of an indivisible number [with issues] of two and three, +they endeavor to interpret this distinction in a way which shall +nevertheless agree with their own opinions; so that, all in one +person, they distinguish two—Father and Son—understanding +the Son to be the flesh, that is the man, that is Jesus; and +the Father to be the Spirit, that is God, that is Christ. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 29. Since we<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, the followers of +Praxeas, who are here introduced as speaking.</note> +teach in precisely the same terms that +the Father died as you say the Son died, we are not guilty +of blasphemy against the Lord God, for we do not say that +He died after the divine nature, but only after the human.… +They [the heretics], indeed, fearing to incur blasphemy against +the Father, hope to diminish it in this way, admitting that +the Father and the Son are two; but if the Son, indeed, +suffers, the Father is His fellow-sufferer. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='180'/><anchor id='Pg180'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Formula Macrostichos</hi>, in +Socrates. <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, II, 19. (MSG, 67:229.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In the Arian controversy several councils were held at Antioch in +the endeavor to bring about a reconciliation of the parties. At the +third council of Antioch, A. D. 345, the elaborate <hi rend='italic'>Formula +Macrostichos</hi> was put forth, in which the council attempted to steer a middle +course between the Sabellians, who identified the Father and the Son, +and the extreme Arians, who made the Son a creature. +Text may also be found in Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, § 159. +</quote> + +<p> +Those who say that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are +the same person, impiously understanding the three names +to refer to one and the same person, we expel with good +reason from the Church, because by the incarnation they +subject the Father, who is infinite and incapable of suffering, +to finitude and suffering in the incarnation. Such are +those called Patripassianists by the Romans and Sabellians +by us. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>Orationes contra +Arianos</hi>, IV, 9, 25. (MSG, 26:480, 505.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_65_c">§ 65, +<hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>. Of the four <hi rend='italic'>Orations against the +Arians</hi>, attributed to Athanasius and placed between the years 356 +and 362, doubts have been raised against the genuineness of the fourth. +The following quotations are, in any case, valuable as setting forth +the Sabellian position. But the case against the fourth oration has +not been conclusively proved. In the passage from ch. 25 the statement +is that of the Sabellians, not of Athanasius. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 9. If, again, the One have two names, this is the expedient +of Sabellius, who said that Son and Father were the +same and did away with both, the Father when there is a +Son, and the Son when there is a Father.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 25. <q>As there are diversities of gifts but the same +Spirit, so also the Father is the same, but is dilated into Son +and Spirit.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>Expositio fidei</hi>. +(MSG, 25:204.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For the critical questions regarding this little work of uncertain date +see PNF, ser. II, vol. VI, p. 83. +</quote> + +<pb n='181'/><anchor id='Pg181'/> + +<p> +For neither do we hold a Son-father, as do the Sabellians, +calling Him of one but not of the same essence, and thus +destroying the existence of the Son. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Basil the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi>, +210:3. (MSG, 32:772, 776.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Basil the Great, Bishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, was one of the +more important ecclesiastics of the fourth century, and the leader of +the New-Nicene party in the Arian controversy. <hi rend='italic'>V. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_66_c">§ 66, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +Sabellianism is Judaism imported into the preaching of +the Gospel under the guise of Christianity. For if a man +calls Father, Son, and Holy Spirit one, but manifold as to +person [prosopon], and makes one hypostasis of the three, +what else does he do than deny the everlasting pre-existence +of the Only begotten?… +</p> + +<p> +Now Sabellius did not even deprecate the formation of the +persons without the hypostasis, saying, as he did, that the +same God, being one in substance,<note place="foot">Not οὐσία, but ὑποκειμένω.</note> +was metamorphosed as +the need of the moment required and spoken of now as Father, +now as the Son, and now as Holy Spirit. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_41"/> +<head>§ 41. Later Montanism and the Consequences of its Exclusion from the Church</head> + +<p> +In the West Montanism rapidly discarded the extravagant +chiliasm of Montanus and his immediate followers; it laid +nearly all the stress upon the continued work of the Holy Spirit +in the Church and the need of a stricter moral discipline among +Christians. This rigoristic discipline or morality was not acceptable +to the bulk of Christians, and along with the Montanists +was driven out of the Church, except in the case of the +clergy, to whom a stricter morality was regarded as applicable. +In this way a distinctive morality and mode of life +came to be assigned to the clergy, and the separation between +clergy and laity, or <hi rend='italic'>ordo</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>plebs</hi>, +which was becoming +<pb n='182'/><anchor id='Pg182'/> +established about the time of Tertullian, at least in the West, +was permanently fixed. (See <ref target="Section_42_d">§ 42, +<hi rend='italic'>d</hi></ref>.) +</p> + +<div> +<head>Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Exhortatione Castitatis</hi>, 7. +(MSL, 2:971.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +As a Montanist, Tertullian rejected second marriage, and in this treatise, +addressed to a friend who had recently lost his wife, he treated +it as the foulest adultery. This work belongs to the later years of +Tertullian's life and incidentally reveals that a sharp distinction between +clergy and laity was becoming fixed in the main body of the +Church. +</quote> + +<p> +We should be foolish if we thought that what is unlawful +for priests<note place="foot"><foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">Sacerdotes</foreign>, and so throughout.</note> +is lawful for laics. Are not even we laics priests? +It is written: <q>He has made us kings also, and priests to +God and his Father.</q> The authority of the Church has made +the difference between order [<foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">ordinem</foreign>] and the laity +[<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">plebem</foreign>], +and the honor has been sanctified by the bestowal of the +order. Therefore, where there has been no bestowal of +ecclesiastical order, you both offer and baptize and are a +priest to yourself alone. But where there are three, there is +the Church, though they are laics.… Therefore, if, when +there is necessity, you have the right of a priest in yourself, +you ought also to have the discipline of a priest where there +is necessity that you have the right of a priest. As a +digamist,<note place="foot">A person married a second time, +<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, after the death of his first wife.</note> +do you baptize? As a digamist, do you offer? How much +more capital a crime it is for a digamist laic to act as a priest, +when the priest, if he turn digamist, is deprived of the power +of acting as a priest?… God wills that at all times we be +so conditioned as to be fitted at all times and in all places to +undertake His sacraments. There is one God, one faith, one +discipline as well. So truly is this the case that unless the +laics well observe the rules which are to guide the choice of +presbyters, how will there be presbyters at all who are chosen +from among the laics? +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='183'/><anchor id='Pg183'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_42"/> +<head>§ 42. The Penitential Discipline</head> + +<p> +In baptism the convert received remission of all former +sins, and, what was equivalent, admission to the Church. +If he sinned gravely after baptism, could he again obtain +remission? In the first age of the Church the practice as +to this question inclined toward rigorism, and the man who +sinned after baptism was in many places permanently excluded +from the Church (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Heb. 10:26, 27), or the community +of those whose sins had been forgiven and were +certain of heaven. By the middle of the second century the +practice at Rome tended toward permitting one readmission +after suitable penance (<ref target="Section_42_a"><hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>). +After this the penitential discipline +developed rapidly and became an important part of the +business of the local congregation +(<ref target="Section_42_b"><hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>). The sinner, by a long +course of self-mortification and prayer, obtained the desired +readmission (<ref target="Section_42_c"><hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>). +The Montanists, however, in accord with +their general rigorism, would make it extremely hard, if not +impossible, to obtain readmission or forgiveness. The body +of the Church, and certainly the Roman church under the +lead of its bishop, who relied upon Matt. 16:18, adopted a +more liberal policy and granted forgiveness on relatively easy +terms to even the worst offenders +(<ref target="Section_42_d"><hi rend='italic'>d</hi></ref>). The discipline grew +less severe, because martyrs or confessors, according to Matt. +10:20, were regarded as having the Spirit, and therefore +competent to speak for God and announce the divine +forgiveness. These were accustomed to give <q>letters of peace,</q> +which were commonly regarded as sufficient to procure the +immediate readmission of the offender +(<ref target="Section_42_e"><hi rend='italic'>e</hi></ref>), a practice which +led to great abuse. One of the effects of the development +of the penitential discipline was the establishment of a distinction +between mortal and venial sins +(<ref target="Section_42_f"><hi rend='italic'>f</hi></ref>), the former of +which were, in general, acts involving unchastity, shedding of +blood, and apostasy, according to the current interpretation +of Acts 15:29. +</p> + +<pb n='184'/><anchor id='Pg184'/> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_42_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Hermas, <hi rend='italic'>Pastor</hi>, Man. IV, +3:1.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For Hermas and the <hi rend='italic'>Pastor</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_15">§ 15</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +I heard some teachers maintain, sir, that there is no other +repentance than that which takes place when we descend +into the waters and receive remission of our former sins. +He said to me, That was sound doctrine which you heard; +for that is really the case. For he who has received remission +of his sins ought not to sin any more, but to live in purity.… +The Lord, therefore, being merciful, has had mercy on the +work of His hands, and has set repentance for them; and He +has intrusted to me the power over this repentance. And +therefore I say unto you that if any one is tempted by the +devil, and sins after that great and holy calling in which the +Lord has called His people to everlasting life, he has opportunity +to repent but once. But if he should sin frequently +after this, and then repent, to such a man his repentance will +be of no avail, for with difficulty will he live. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_42_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Tertullian. <hi rend='italic'>Apology</hi>, 39. +(MSL, 1:532.)</head> + +<p> +We meet together as an assembly and congregation that, +offering up prayer to God, with united force we may wrestle +with Him in our prayers.… In the same place, also, +exhortations are made, rebukes and sacred censures are administered. +For with a great gravity is the work of judging +carried on among us, as befits those who feel assured that +they are in the sight of God; and you have the most notable +example of judgment to come when any one has so sinned +as to be severed from common union with us in prayer, in +the congregation, and in all sacred intercourse. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_42_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Pœnitentia</hi>, +4, 9. (MSL, 2:1343, 1354.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +According to Bardenhewer, § 50:5, this work belongs to the Catholic +period of Tertullian's literary activity. Text in part in Kirch, +nn. 175 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 4. As I live, saith the Lord, I prefer penance rather +than death [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ezek. 33:11]. Repentance, then, is life, +<pb n='185'/><anchor id='Pg185'/> +since it is preferred to death. That repentance, O sinner +like myself (nay, rather, less a sinner than myself, for I +acknowledge my pre-eminence in sins), do you hasten to embrace +as a shipwrecked man embraces the protection of some +plank. This will draw you forth when sunk in the waves +of sin, and it will bear you forward into the port of divine +clemency. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 9. The narrower the sphere of action of this, the second +and only remaining repentance, the more laborious is +its probation; that it may not be exhibited in the conscience +alone, but may likewise be performed in some act. This act, +which is more usually expressed and commonly spoken of +under the Greek name, exomologesis, whereby we confess our +sins to the Lord, not indeed to Him as ignorant of them, +but inasmuch as by confession a satisfaction is made; of confession +repentance is born; by repentance God is appeased. +And thus exomologesis is a discipline for man's prostration and +humiliation, enjoining a demeanor calculated to move mercy. +With regard, also, to the very dress and food, it commands +one to lie in sackcloth and ashes, to cover the body as in +mourning, to lay the spirit low in sorrow, to exchange for +severe treatment the sins which he has committed; furthermore, +to permit as food and drink only what is plain—not +for the stomach's sake, but for the soul's; for the most part, +however, to feed prayers on fastings, to groan, to weep, and +make outcries unto the Lord our God; to fall prostrate +before the presbyters and to kneel to God's dear ones; to +enjoin on all the brethren to be ambassadors to bear his +deprecatory supplication before God. All this exomologesis +does, that it may enhance repentance, that it may honor the +Lord by fear of danger, may, by itself, in pronouncing against +the sinner stand in place of God's indignation, and by temporal +mortification (I will not say frustrate, but rather) +expunge eternal punishments. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_42_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Pudicitia</hi>, +1, 21, 22. (MSL, 2:1032, 1078.)</head> + +<pb n='186'/><anchor id='Pg186'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Callistus, to whom reference is made in the first chapter, was bishop +of Rome 217 to 222. The work, therefore, belongs to the latest period +of Tertullian's life. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 1. I hear that there has been an edict set forth, and, +indeed, a peremptory one; namely, that the Pontifex Maximus, +the bishop of bishops, issues an edict: <q>I remit to such as +have performed penance, the sins both of adultery and fornication.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 21. <q>But,</q> you say, <q>the Church has the power of +forgiving sins.</q> This I acknowledge and adjudge more, I, +who have the Paraclete himself in the person of the new +prophets, saying: <q>The Church has the power to forgive +sins, but I will not do it, lest they commit still others.</q>… +I now inquire into your opinion, to discover from what +source you usurp this power to the Church. +</p> + +<p> +If, because the Lord said to Peter, <q>Upon this rock I will +build My Church [Matt. 16:18].… To Thee I have given +the keys of the kingdom of heaven,</q> or <q>Whatsoever thou +shalt bind or loose on earth, shall be bound or loosed in +heaven,</q> you therefore presume that the power of binding +and loosing has descended to you, that is, to every church +akin to Peter; what sort of man, then, are you, subverting +and wholly changing the manifest intention of the Lord, who +conferred the gift personally upon Peter? <q>On Thee,</q> He +says, <q>I will build my Church,</q> and <q>I will give thee the +keys,</q> not to the Church; and <q>whatsoever thou shalt +have loosed or bound,</q> not what they shall have loosed or +bound. For so the result actually teaches. In him (Peter) +the Church was reared, that is, through him (Peter) himself; +he himself tried the key; you see what key: <q>Men of Israel, let +what I say sink into your ears; Jesus, the Nazarene, a man +appointed of God for you,</q><note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +Acts 2:22.</note> and so forth. Peter himself, +therefore, was the first to unbar, in Christ's baptism, the +entrance to the kingdom of heaven, in which are loosed the +sins that aforetime were bound.… +</p> + +<pb n='187'/><anchor id='Pg187'/> + +<p> +What, now, has this to do with the Church and your +Church, indeed, O Psychic? For in accordance with the person +of Peter, it is to spiritual men that this power will correspondingly +belong, either to an Apostle or else to a prophet.… +And accordingly the <q>Church,</q> it is true, will forgive +sins; but it will be the Church of the Spirit, by a spiritual +man; not the Church which consists of a number of bishops. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 22. But you go so far as to lavish this power upon +martyrs indeed; so that no sooner has any one, acting on a +preconceived arrangement, put on soft bonds in the nominal +custody now in vogue, than adulterers beset him, fornicators +gain access to him; instantly prayers resound about him; +instantly pools of tears of the polluted surround him; nor are +there any who are more diligent in purchasing entrance to the +prison than they who have lost the fellowship of the Church.… +Whatever authority, whatever reason, restores ecclesiastical +peace to the adulterer and the fornicator, the same +will be bound to come to the aid of the murderer and the +idolater in their repentance. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_42_e"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>Ad Martyres</hi>, +1. (MSL, 1:693.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following extract from Tertullian's little work addressed to +martyrs in prison, written about 197, shows that in his earlier life as +a Catholic Christian he did not disapprove of the practice of giving +<hi rend='italic'>libelli pacis</hi> by the confessors, a custom which in his +more rigoristic period under the influence of Montanism he denounced most vehemently; +see preceding extract from <hi rend='italic'>De Pudicitia</hi>, ch. 22. The reference +to some discord among the martyrs is not elsewhere explained. For +<hi rend='italic'>libelli pacis</hi>, see Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. 10</hi> +(=<hi rend='italic'>Ep. 15</hi>), 22 (=21). +</quote> + +<p> +O blessed ones, grieve not the Holy Spirit, who has entered +with you into the prison; for if He had not gone with you +there, you would not be there to-day. Therefore endeavor +to cause Him to remain with you there; so that He may lead +you thence to the Lord. The prison, truly, is the devil's +house as well, wherein he keeps his family.… Let him +not be successful in his own kingdom by setting you at +variance with one another, but let him find you armed and +<pb n='188'/><anchor id='Pg188'/> +fortified with concord; for your peace is war with him. +Some, not able to find peace in the Church, have been accustomed +to seek it from the imprisoned martyrs. Therefore +you ought to have it dwelling with you, and to cherish it and +guard it, that you may be able, perchance, to bestow it upon +others. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_42_f"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Pudicitia</hi>, +19. (MSL, 2:1073.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The distinction between mortal and venial sins became of great +importance in the administration of penance and remained as a feature +of ecclesiastical discipline from the time of Tertullian. The origin of +the distinction was still earlier. See above, an extract from the same +work. +</quote> + +<p> +We ourselves do not forget the distinction between sins, +which was the starting-point of our discussion. And this, too, +for John has sanctioned it [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> I John 5:16], because there +are some sins of daily committal to which we are all liable; +for who is free from the accident of being angry unjustly and +after sunset; or even of using bodily violence; or easily +speaking evil; or rashly swearing; or forfeiting his plighted +word; or lying from bashfulness or necessity? In business, in +official duties, in trade, in food, in sight, in hearing, by how +great temptations are we assailed! So that if there were no +pardon for such simple sins as these, salvation would be unattainable +by any. Of these, then, there will be pardon +through the successful Intercessor with the Father, Christ. +But there are other sins wholly different from these, graver +and more destructive, such as are incapable of pardon—murder, +idolatry, fraud, apostasy, blasphemy, and, of course, +adultery and fornication and whatever other violation of the +temple of God there may be. For these Christ will no more +be the successful Intercessor; these will not at all be committed +by any one who has been born of God, for he will +cease to be the son of God if he commit them. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='189'/><anchor id='Pg189'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_43"/> +<head>§ 43. The Catechetical School of Alexandria: Clement and Origen</head> + +<p> +Three types of theology developed in the ante-Nicene +Church: the Asia Minor school, best represented by Irenæus +(<hi rend='italic'>v.</hi> <ref target="Section_33">§ 33</ref>); the North +African, represented by Tertullian and Cyprian +(<hi rend='italic'>v.</hi> <ref target="Section_39">§ 39</ref>); and the +Alexandrian, in the Catechetical +School of which Clement and Origen were the most distinguished +members. In the Alexandrian theology the tradition +of the apologists (<hi rend='italic'>v.</hi> <ref target="Section_32">§ 32</ref>) +that Christianity was a revealed philosophy was continued, especially by Clement. Origen, +following the bent of his genius, developed other sides of +Christian thought as well, bringing it all into a more systematic +form than had ever before been attempted. The +Catechetical School of Alexandria was the most celebrated of +all the educational institutions of Christian antiquity. It +aimed to give a general secular and religious training. It +appears to have been in existence well before the end of the +second century, having been founded, it is thought, by Pantænus. +Clement assisted in the instruction from 190, and +from about 200 was head of the school for a few years. In +202 or 203 he was forced by persecution under Septimius +Severus to flee from the city. He died before 215. Of his +works, the most important is his three-part treatise composed +of his <hi rend='italic'>Protrepticus</hi>, an apologetic work addressed to the Greeks; +his <hi rend='italic'>Pædegogus</hi>, a treatise on Christian morality; and his +<hi rend='italic'>Stromata</hi>, or miscellanies. Origen became head of the Catechetical +School in 203, when but eighteen years old, and +remained in that position until 232, when, having been irregularly +ordained priest outside his own diocese and being suspected +of heresy, he was deposed. But he removed to Cæsarea +in Palestine, where he continued his work with the greatest +success and was held in the highest honor by the Church in +Palestine and parts other than Egypt. He died 254 or 255 at +Tyre, having previously suffered severely in the Decian persecution. +<pb n='190'/><anchor id='Pg190'/> +His works are of the highest importance in various +fields of theology. <hi rend='italic'>De Principiis</hi> is the first attempt to present +in connected form the whole range of Christian theology. +His commentaries cover nearly the entire Bible. His <hi rend='italic'>Contra +Celsum</hi> is the greatest of all early apologies. The <hi rend='italic'>Hexapla</hi> +was the most elaborate piece of text-criticism of antiquity. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Eusebius. <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, deals at +length with Origen; Gregory Thaumaturgus, <hi rend='italic'>Panegyric on Origen</hi>, +in ANF. VI. +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_43_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Stromata</hi>, +I, 5. (MSG, 8:717.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Clement's view of the relation of Greek philosophy to Christian +revelation is almost identical with that of the apologists, as are also +many of his fundamental concepts. +</quote> + +<p> +Before the advent of the Lord philosophy was necessary +to the Greeks for righteousness. And now it becomes useful +to piety, being a kind of preparatory training to those who +attain to faith through demonstration. <q>For thy foot,</q> it is +said, <q>will not stumble</q> if thou refer what is good, whether +belonging to the Greeks or to us, to Providence. For God is +the cause of all good things; but of some primarily, as of +the Old and the New Testament, and of others by consequence, +as philosophy. Perchance, too, philosophy was given +to the Greeks directly till the Lord should call the Greeks +also. For this was a schoolmaster to bring the Hellenic mind +to Christ, as was the law to bring the Hebrews. Philosophy, +therefore, was a preparation, paving the way for him who is +perfected in Christ. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Now,</q> says Solomon, <q>defend wisdom, and it will exalt +thee, and it will shield thee with a crown of pleasure.</q><note place="foot">Proverbs +4:8, 9.</note> For +when thou hast strengthened wisdom with a breastwork by +philosophy, and with expenditure, thou wilt preserve her +unassailable by sophists. The way of truth is therefore one. +But into it, as into a perennial river, streams flow from every +side. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='191'/><anchor id='Pg191'/> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_43_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Stromata</hi>, +VII, 10. (MSG, 9:47.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +See Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>VIIth Book of the Stromateis</hi>, ed. +by Hort and Mayor, London, 1902. In making faith suffice for salvation, +Clement clearly distinguishes his position from that of the Gnostics, +though he uses the term <q>gnostic</q> as applicable to Christians. See +next passage. +</quote> + +<p> +Knowledge [gnosis], so to speak, is a perfecting of man as +man, which is brought about by acquaintance with divine +things; in character, life, and word harmonious and consistent +with itself and the divine Word. For by it faith is +made perfect, inasmuch as it is solely by it that the man of +faith becomes perfect. Faith is an internal good, and without +searching for God confesses His existence and glorifies Him +as existent. Hence by starting with this faith, and being +developed by it, through the grace of God, the knowledge +respecting Him is to be acquired as far as possible.… +</p> + +<p> +But it is not doubting, in reference to God, but believing, +that is the foundation of knowledge. But Christ is both the +foundation and the superstructure, by whom are both the +beginning and the end. And the extreme points, the beginning +and the end, I mean faith and love, are not taught. +But knowledge, which is conveyed from communication +through the grace of God as a deposit, is intrusted to those +who show themselves worthy of it; and from it the worth +of love beams forth from light to light. For it is said, <q>To +him that hath shall be given</q> [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Matt. 13:12]—to faith, +knowledge; and to knowledge, love; and to love, the inheritance.… +</p> + +<p> +Faith then is, so to speak, a compendious knowledge of the +essentials; but knowledge is the sure and firm demonstration +of what is received by faith, built upon faith by the Lord's +teaching, conveying us on to unshaken conviction and certainty. +And, as it seems to me, the first saving change is that +from heathenism to faith, as I said before; and the second, +that from faith to knowledge. And this latter passing on to +<pb n='192'/><anchor id='Pg192'/> +love, thereafter gives a mutual friendship between that which +knows and that which is known. And perhaps he who has +already arrived at this stage has attained equality with the +angels. At any rate, after he has reached the final ascent in +the flesh, he still continues to advance, as is fit, and presses +on through the holy Hebdomad into the Father's house, to +that which is indeed the Lord's abode. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Stromata</hi>, +V, 11. (MSG, 9:102, 106.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The piety of the Christian Gnostic. +</quote> + +<p> +The sacrifice acceptable with God is unchanging alienation +from the body and its passions. This is the really true piety. +And is not philosophy, therefore, rightly called by Socrates +the meditation on death? For he who neither employs his +eyes in the exercise of thought nor draws from his other +senses, but with pure mind applies himself to objects, practises +the true philosophy.… +</p> + +<p> +It is not without reason, therefore, that in the mysteries +which are to be found among the Greeks lustrations hold +the first place; as also the laver among the barbarians. +After these are the minor mysteries, which have some foundation +for instruction and preparation for what is to follow. +In the great mysteries concerning the universe nothing +remains to be learned, but only to contemplate and comprehend +with the mind nature and things. We shall understand +the more of purification by confession, and of contemplation +by analysis, advancing by analysis to the first notion, +beginning with the properties underlying it; abstracting from +the body its physical properties, taking away the dimension of +depth, then of breadth, and then of length. For the point +which remains is a unit, so to speak, having position; from +which, if we abstract position, there is the conception of unity. +</p> + +<p> +If, then, we abstract all that belongs to bodies and things +called incorporeal, we cast ourselves into the greatness of +Christ, and thence advancing into immensity by holiness, we +<pb n='193'/><anchor id='Pg193'/> +may reach somehow to the conception of the Almighty, knowing +not what He is, but knowing what He is not. And form +and motion, or standing, or a throne or place, or right hand or +left, are not at all to be conceived as belonging to the Father +of the universe, although it is so written. For what each of +these signifies will be shown in the proper place. The First +Cause is not then in space, but above time and space and +name and conception. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>De Principiis</hi>, I, 2:2. +(MSG, 11:130.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Origen's doctrine of the <q>eternal generation of the Son</q> was of +primary importance in all subsequent discussions on the Trinity. +</quote> + +<p> +Let no one imagine that we mean anything unsubstantial +when we call Him the Wisdom of God; or suppose, for example, +that we understand Him to be, not a living being endowed +with wisdom, but something which makes men wise, +giving itself to, and implanting itself in, the minds of those +who are made capable of receiving its virtues and intelligence. +If, then, it is once rightly understood that the only +begotten Son of God is His Wisdom hypostatically [substantialiter] +existing, I know not whether our mind ought to +advance beyond this or entertain any suspicion that the +hypostasis or substantia contains anything of a bodily nature, +since everything corporeal is distinguished either by form, or +color, or magnitude. And who in his sound senses ever +sought for form, or color, or size, in wisdom, in respect of its +being wisdom? And who that is capable of entertaining reverential +thoughts or feelings regarding God can suppose or +believe that God the Father ever existed, even for a moment of +time, without having generated this Wisdom? For in that +case he must say either that God was unable to generate +Wisdom before He produced her, so that He afterward +called into being that which formerly did not exist, or that +He could, but—what is impious to say of God—was unwilling +to generate; both of which suppositions, it is patent to all, +are alike absurd and impious: for they amount to this, +<pb n='194'/><anchor id='Pg194'/> +either that God advanced from a condition of inability to one +of ability, or that, although possessed of the power, He +concealed it, and delayed the generation of Wisdom. Therefore +we have always held that God is the Father of His only +begotten Son, who was born indeed of Him, and derives from +Him, what He is, but without any beginning, not only such +as may be measured by any divisions of time, but even that +which the mind alone contemplates within itself, or beholds, +so to speak, with the naked soul and understanding. And +therefore we must believe that Wisdom was generated before +any beginning that can be either comprehended or expressed. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>De Principiis</hi>, I, 2:10. +(MSG, 11:138.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Origen's doctrine of <q>eternal creation</q> was based upon reasoning +similar to that employed to show the eternal generation of the Son, +but it was rejected by the Church, and figures among the heresies +known as Origenism. See below, §§ <ref target="Section_87">87</ref>, +<ref target="Section_93">93</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +As no one can be a father without having a son, nor a +master without possessing a servant, so even God cannot +be called omnipotent<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, having +rule over all, not merely able to do all, and so throughout.</note> +unless there exists those over whom +He may exercise His power; and therefore, that God may +be shown to be almighty it is necessary that all things +should exist. For if any one assumes that some ages or +portions of time, or whatever else he likes to call them, have +passed away, while those things which have been made did +not yet exist, he would undoubtedly show that during those +ages or periods God was not omnipotent but became omnipotent +afterward: viz., from the time that He began to have +those over whom He exercised power; and in this way He +will appear to have received a certain increase, and to have +risen from a lower to a higher condition; since there can be +no doubt that it is better for Him to be omnipotent than not +to be so. And, now, how can it appear otherwise than absurd, +that when God possessed none of those things which it was +befitting for Him to possess, He should afterward, by a kind +<pb n='195'/><anchor id='Pg195'/> +of progress, come to have them? But if there never was a +time when He was not omnipotent,<note place="foot">The Greek is preserved +here and throws light on the reasoning. The Latin +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">omnipotens</foreign> stands for +παντοκράτωρ.</note> of necessity those things +by which He receives that title must also exist; and He must +always have had those over whom He exercised power, and +which were governed by Him either as king or prince, of which +we shall speak more fully when we come to discuss the subject +of creatures. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>De Principiis</hi>, II, +9:6. (MSG, 11:230.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The theory of pre-existence and the pretemporal fall of each soul +was the basis of Origen's theodicy. It caused great offence in after +years when theology became more stereotyped, and it has retained no +place in the Church's thought, for the idea ran too clearly counter to +the biblical account of the Fall of Adam. +</quote> + +<p> +We have frequently shown by those statements which we +are able to adduce from the divine Scriptures that God, the +Creator of all things, is good, and just, and all-powerful. +When in the beginning He created all those beings whom He +desired to create, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, rational natures, He had no other +reason for creating them than on account of Himself, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +His goodness. As He himself, then, was the cause of the +existence of those things which were to be created, in whom +there was neither any variation nor change nor want of power, +He created all whom He made equal and alike, because there +was no reason for Him to produce variety and diversity. +But since those rational creatures themselves, as we have +frequently shown and will yet show in the proper place, were +endowed with the power of free choice, this freedom of his +will incited each one either to progress by imitation of God or +induced him to failure through negligence. And this, as we +have already stated, is the cause of the diversity among +rational creatures, deriving its origin not from the will or +judgment of the Creator, but from the freedom of the individual +will. God, however, who deemed it just to arrange +His creatures according to merit, brought down these differences +<pb n='196'/><anchor id='Pg196'/> +of understanding into the harmony of one world, that +He might adorn, as it were, one dwelling, in which there +ought to be not only vessels of gold and silver, but also of +wood and clay and some, indeed, to honor and others to dishonor, +with those different vessels, or souls, or understandings. +And these are the causes, in my opinion, why that +world presents the aspect of diversity, while Divine Providence +continues to regulate each individual according to the variety +of his movements or of his feelings and purpose. On which +account the Creator will neither appear to be unjust in distributing +(for the causes already mentioned) to every one +according to his merits; nor will the happiness or unhappiness +of each one's birth, or whatever be the condition that +falls to his lot, be deemed accidental; nor will different creators, +or souls of different natures, be believed to exist. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>Homil. in Exod.</hi>, +VI, 9. (MSG, 12:338.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In the following passage from Origen's <hi rend='italic'>Commentary on Exodus</hi> +and the four following passages are stated the essential points of +Origen's theory of redemption. In this theory there are two elements +which have been famous in the history of Christian thought: the relation +of the death of Christ to the devil, and the ultimate salvation of +every soul. The theory that Christ's death was a ransom paid to the +devil was developed by Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory the Great, +and reappeared constantly in theology down to the scholastic period, +when it was overthrown by Anselm and the greater scholastics. +Universal redemption or salvation, especially when it included Satan +himself, was never taken up by Church theologians to any extent, +and was one of the positions condemned as Origenism. See +<ref target="Section_93">§ 93</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +It is certain, they say, that one does not buy that which +is his own. But the Apostle says: <q>Ye are bought with a +price.</q> But hear what the prophet says: <q>You have been +sold as slaves to your sins, and for your iniquities I have +put away your mother.</q> Thou seest, therefore, that we are +the creatures of God, but each one has been sold to his sins, +and has fallen from his Creator. Therefore we belong to God, +inasmuch as we have been created by Him, but we have +become the servants of the devil, inasmuch as we have been +<pb n='197'/><anchor id='Pg197'/> +sold to our sins. But Christ came to redeem us when we were +servants to that master to whom we had sold ourselves by +sinning. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>Contra Celsum</hi>, VII, +17. (MSG, 11:1445.)</head> + +<p> +If we consider Jesus in relation to the divinity that was in +Him, the things which He did in this capacity are holy and do +not offend our idea of God; and if we consider Him as a man, +distinguished beyond all others by an intimate communion +with the very Word, with Absolute Wisdom, He suffered as +one who was wise and perfect whatever it behooved Him to +suffer, who did all for the good of the human race, yea, even +for the good of all intelligent beings. And there is nothing +absurd in the fact that a man died, and that his death was not +only an example of death endured for the sake of piety, but +also the first blow in the conflict which is to overthrow the +power of the evil spirit of the devil, who had obtained dominion +over the whole world. For there are signs of the destruction +of his empire; namely, those who through the coming of +Christ are everywhere escaping from the power of demons, +and who after their deliverance from this bondage in which +they were held consecrate themselves to God, and according +to their ability devote themselves day by day to advancement +in a life of piety. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>i</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>Homil. in Matt.</hi>, XVI, +8. (MSG, 13:1398.)</head> + +<p> +He did this in service of our salvation so far that He gave +His soul a ransom for many who believed on Him. If all +had believed on Him, He would have given His soul as a +ransom for all. To whom did He give His soul as a ransom +for many? Certainly not to God. Then was it not to the +Evil One? For that one reigned over us until the soul of +Jesus was given as a ransom for us. This he had especially +demanded, deceived by the imagination that he could rule +over it, and he was not mindful of the fact that he could not +endure the torment connected with holding it fast. Therefore +<pb n='198'/><anchor id='Pg198'/> +death, which appeared to reign over Him, did not reign +over Him, since He was <q>free among the dead</q> and stronger +than the power of death. He is, indeed, so far superior to it +that all who from among those overcome by death will +follow Him can follow Him, as death is unable to do anything +against them.… We are therefore redeemed with the +precious blood of Jesus. As a ransom for us the soul of the +Son of God has been given (not His spirit, for this, according +to Luke [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Luke 23:46] He had previously given to His +Father, saying: <q>Father, into Thy hands I commit my spirit</q>); +also, not His body, for concerning this we find nothing mentioned. +And when He had given His soul as a ransom for +many, He did not remain in the power of him to whom the ransom +was given for many, because it says in the sixteenth +psalm [Psalm 16:10]: <q>Thou wilt not leave my soul in hell.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>j</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>De Principiis</hi>, I, +6:3. (MSG, 11:168.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following states in brief the theory of universal salvation. +</quote> + +<p> +It is to be borne in mind, however, that certain beings +who fell away from that one beginning of which we have +spoken, have given themselves to such wickedness and malice +as to be deemed altogether undeserving of that training and +instruction by which the human race while in the flesh are +trained and instructed with the assistance of the heavenly +powers: they continue, on the contrary, in a state of enmity +and opposition to those who are receiving this instruction +and teaching. And hence it is that the whole life of mortals +is full of certain struggles and trials, caused by the opposition +and enmity against us of those who fell from a better condition +without at all looking back, and who are called the +devil and his angels, and other orders of evil, which the Apostle +classed among the opposing powers. But whether any of +these orders, who act under the government of the devil +and obey his wicked commands, will be able in a future world +to be converted to righteousness because of their possessing +the faculty of freedom of will, or whether persistent and +<pb n='199'/><anchor id='Pg199'/> +inveterate wickedness may be changed by habit into a kind +of nature, you, reader, may decide; yet so that neither in +those things which are seen and temporal nor in those which +are unseen and eternal one portion is to differ wholly from +the final unity and fitness of things. But in the meantime, +both in those temporal worlds which are seen, and in those +eternal worlds which are invisible, all those beings are +arranged according to a regular plan, in the order and degree +of merit; so that some of them in the first, others in the +second, some even in the last times, after having undergone +heavier and severer punishments, endured for a lengthened +period and for many ages, so to speak, improved by this stern +method of training, and restored at first by the instruction +of angels and subsequently advanced by powers of a higher +grade, and thus advancing through each stage to a better +condition, reach even to that which is invisible and eternal, +having travelled by a kind of training through every single +office of the heavenly powers. From which, I think, this will +follow as an inference—that every rational nature can, in +passing from one order to another, go through each to all, +and advance from all to each, while made the subject of various +degrees of proficiency and failure, according to its own actions +and endeavors, put forth in the enjoyment of its power of +freedom of will. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_43_k"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>k</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>De Principiis</hi>, IV, +9-15. (MSG, 11:360, 363, 373.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Allegorism. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The method of exegesis known as allegorism, whereby the speculations +of the Christian theologians were provided with an apparently +scriptural basis, was taken over from the Jewish and Greek philosophers +and theologians who employed it in the study of their sacred +books. Origen, it should be added, contributed not a little to a sound +grammatical interpretation as well. For Porphyry's criticism of +Origen's methods of exegesis see Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 19. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 9. Now the cause, in all the points previously enumerated, +of the false opinions and of the impious statements +<pb n='200'/><anchor id='Pg200'/> +or ignorant assertions about God appears to be nothing else +than that the Scriptures are not understood according to +their spiritual meaning, but are interpreted according to the +mere letter. And therefore to those who believe that the +sacred books are not the compositions of men, but were composed +by the inspirations of the Holy Spirit, according to +the will of the Father of all things through Jesus Christ, and +that they have come down to us, we must point out the modes +of interpretation which appear correct to us, who cling to +the standard of the heavenly Church according to the succession +of the Apostles of Jesus Christ. Now that there are +certain mystical economies made known in the Holy Scriptures, +all, even the most simple of those who adhere to the +word, have believed; but what these are, the candid and +modest confess they know not. If, then, one were to be perplexed +about the incest of Lot with his daughters, and about +the two wives of Abraham, and the two sisters married to +Jacob, and the two handmaids who bore him children, they +can return no other answer than this—that these are mysteries +not understood by us.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 11. The way, then, as it seems to me, in which we ought +to deal with the Scriptures and extract from them their +meaning is the following, which has been ascertained from +the sayings [of the Scriptures] themselves. By Solomon in +the Proverbs we find some rule as this enjoined respecting +the teaching of the divine writings, <q>And do thou portray +them in a threefold manner, in counsel and knowledge, to +answer words of truth to them who propose them to thee</q> +[<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Prov. 22:20 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, LXX]. +One ought, then, to portray +the ideas of Holy Scripture in a threefold manner upon his +soul, in order that the simple man may be edified by the +<q>flesh,</q> as it were, of Scripture, for so we name the obvious +sense; while he who has ascended a certain way may be edified +by the <q>soul,</q> as it were. The perfect man, and he who +resembles those spoken of by the Apostle, when he says, +<q>We speak wisdom among them that are perfect, but not +<pb n='201'/><anchor id='Pg201'/> +the wisdom of the world, nor of the rulers of this world, who +come to nought; but we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, +the hidden wisdom, which God hath ordained before +the ages unto our glory</q> [I Cor. 2:6, 7], may receive edification +from the spiritual law, which was a shadow of things +to come. For as man consists of body and soul and spirit, +so in the same way does the Scripture consist, which has +been arranged by God for the salvation of men. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 12. But as there are certain passages which do not +contain at all the <q>corporeal</q> sense, as we shall show in the +following, there are also places where we must seek only for +the <q>soul,</q> as it were, and <q>spirit</q> of Scripture. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 15. But since, if the usefulness of the legislation and +the sequence and beauty of the history were universally +evident, we should not believe that any other thing could +be understood in the Scriptures save what was obvious, the +Word of God has arranged that certain stumbling-blocks, +and offences, and impossibilities, should be introduced into +the midst of the law and the history, in order that we may not, +through being drawn away in all directions by the merely +attractive nature of the language, either altogether fall away +from the true doctrines, as learning nothing worthy of God, +or, by not departing from the letter, come to the knowledge +of nothing more divine. And this, also, we must know: that, +since the principal aim is to announce the <q>spiritual</q> connection +in those things that are done and that ought to be done +where the Word found that things done according to the +history could be adapted to these mystic senses, He made use +of them, concealing from the multitude the deeper meaning; +but where in the narrative of the development of super-sensual +things there did not follow the performance of those +certain events which was already indicated by the mystical +meaning the Scripture interwove in the history the account +of some event that did not take place, sometimes what +could not have happened; sometimes what could, but did +not happen.… And at other times impossibilities are +<pb n='202'/><anchor id='Pg202'/> +recorded for the sake of the more skilful and inquisitive, +in order that they may give themselves to the toil of investigation +of what is written, and thus attain to a becoming +conviction of the manner in which a meaning worthy of God +must be sought out in such subjects. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_44"/> +<head>§ 44. Neo-Platonism</head> + +<p> +The last phase of Hellenic philosophy was religious. It +aimed to combine the principles of many schools of the earlier +period and to present a metaphysical system that would at +once give a theory of being and also furnish a philosophical +basis for the new religious life. This final philosophy of the +antique world was Neo-Platonism. It was thoroughly eclectic +in its treatment of earlier systems, but under Plotinus +attained no small degree of consistency. The emphasis was +laid especially upon the religious problems, and in the system +it may be fairly said that the religious aspirations of heathenism +found their highest and purest expression. Because it +was in close touch with current culture and in its metaphysical +principles was closely akin to the philosophy of the Church +teachers, we find Neo-Platonism sometimes a bitter rival of +Christianity, at other times a preparation for the Christian +faith, as in the case of Augustine and Victorinus. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: <hi rend='italic'>Select Works of Plotinus</hi>, translated +by Thomas Taylor, ed. G. R. S. Mead, London, 1909 (contains bibliography +of other translations of Plotinus, including those in French and +German together with a select list of works bearing on Neo-Platonism); +<hi rend='italic'>Select Works of Porphyry</hi>, trans. by Thomas Taylor, London, 1823; +Taylor translated much from all the Neo-Platonists, but his other +books are very scarce. Porphyry's <hi rend='italic'>Epistula ad Marcellam</hi>, trans. by +Alice Zimmern, London, 1896. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>Porphyry, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Marcellam</hi>, 16-19. +<hi rend='italic'>Porphyrii philosophi Platonici opuscula tria</hi>, rec. A. Nauck, +Leipsic, 1860.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The letter is addressed to Marcella by her husband, the philosopher +Porphyry. It gives a good idea of the religious and ethical character +of Neo-Platonism. For the metaphysical aspects see Plotinus, translated +by T. Taylor. Porphyry was, after Plotinus, the greatest of +<pb n='203'/><anchor id='Pg203'/> +the Neo-Platonists, and brought out most clearly those religious +elements which were rivals to Christianity. His attack upon Christianity +was keen and bitter, and he was consequently especially hated +by the Christians. He died at Rome 304. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 16. You will honor God best when you form your +soul to resemble him. This likeness is only by virtue; for +only virtue draws the soul upward toward its own kind. +There is nothing greater with God than virtue; but God is +greater than virtue. But God strengthens him who does what +is good; but of evil deeds a wicked demon is the instigator. +Therefore the wicked soul flees from God and wishes that the +foreknowledge of God did not exist; and from the divine law +which punishes all wickedness it shrinks away completely. +But a wise man's soul is in harmony with God, ever sees Him, +ever is with Him. But if that which rules takes pleasure in +that which is ruled, then God cares for the wise and provides +for him; and therefore is the wise man blessed, because he is +under the protection of God. It is not the discourses of the +wise man which are honorable before God, but his works; for +the wise man, even when he keeps silence, honors God, but +the ignorant man, even in praying and sacrificing, dishonors +the Divinity. So the wise man alone is a priest, alone is +dear to God, alone knows how to pray. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 17. He who practises wisdom practises the knowledge +of God; though not always in prayer and sacrifice, practising +piety toward God by his works. For a man is not +rendered agreeable to God by ruling himself according to the +prejudices of men and the vain declamations of the sophists. +It is the man himself who, by his own works, renders himself +agreeable to God, and is deified by the conforming of his own +soul to the incorruptible blessed One. And it is he himself +who makes himself impious and displeasing to God, not +suffering evil from God, for the Divinity does only what is +good. It is the man himself who causes his evils by his false +beliefs in regard to God. The impious is not so much he +who does not honor the statues of the gods as he who mixes +<pb n='204'/><anchor id='Pg204'/> +up with the idea of God the superstitions of the vulgar. As +for thyself, do not hold any unworthy idea of God, of his +blessedness or of his incorruptibility. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 18. The greatest fruit of piety is this—to honor the +Deity according to our fatherland; not that He has need of +anything, but His holy and happy Majesty invites us to +offer Him our homage. Altars consecrated to God do no harm, +and when neglected they render no help. But he who honors +God as needing anything declares, without knowing it, that +he is superior to God. Therefore it is not angering God +that harms us, but not knowing God, for wrath is alien to +God, because it is the product of the involuntary, and there +is nothing involuntary in God. Do not then dishonor the +Divinity by human false opinions, for thou wilt not thereby +injure the Being enjoying eternal blessedness, from whose +incorruptible nature every injury is repelled. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 19. But thou shouldest not think that I say these +things when I exhort to the worship of God; for he who +exhorts to this would be ridiculous; as if it were possible to +doubt concerning this; and we do not worship Him aright +doing this thing or thinking that about +God.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, it is not certain rites +nor certain beliefs that give merit to our worship.</note> Neither +tears nor supplications turn God from His purpose; nor do +sacrifices honor God, nor the multitude of offerings glorify +God, but the godlike mind well governed enters into union +with God. For like is of necessity joined to like. But the +victims of the senseless crowd are food for the flames, and +their offerings are the supplies for a licentious life to the +plunderers of temples. But, as I have said to thee, let the +mind within thee be the temple of God. This must be +tended and adorned to become a fit dwelling for God. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='205'/><anchor id='Pg205'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter III. The First General Persecution And Its Consequences</head> + +<p> +On account of various principles of the Roman law, Christians +were always liable to severe penalties, and parts of the +Church occasionally suffered fearfully. But it was only in +exceptional cases and sporadically that the laws were enforced. +There was, accordingly, no prolonged and systematic +effort made to put down Christianity everywhere until the +reign of Decius (249-251). The renewed interest in heathen +religions and the revived patriotism in some circles occasioned +in 248 by the celebration of the thousandth anniversary of +the founding of Rome may have contributed to a renewal of +hostilities against the Church. Decius undertook the military +defence of the frontier. His colleague, Valerian, had +charge of the internal affairs of the Empire and was the +author of the measures against the Christians. Because the +Church included many who had embraced the faith in the +long period when the Church rarely felt the severity of the +laws, many were unable to endure the persecution, and so +apostatized or <q>fell.</q> The persecution continued only for a +short time in full intensity, but it was not abandoned for a +number of years. It became violent once more when Valerian +became Emperor (253-260). One result of the persecutions +was the rise of serious disputes, and even schisms, from differences +regarding the administration of discipline by the bishops. +In the case of the Novatians at Rome, a dissenting Church +which spread rapidly over the Empire came into existence +and lasted for more than two centuries. +</p> + +<pb n='206'/><anchor id='Pg206'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_45"/> +<head>§ 45. The Decian-Valerian Persecution</head> + +<p> +The first persecution which may fairly be said to have been +general in purpose and effect was that falling in the reigns +of Decius (249-251) and Valerian (253-260). Of the course +of the persecution we have information bearing directly upon +Carthage, Alexandria, and Asia Minor. But it probably was +felt very generally throughout the Church. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>De Lapsis</hi>, Epp. 14, 22, 43; +Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 39-45, VII, 11, 15, 30: for original +texts see Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, §§ 16, 17; also R. Knopf, +<hi rend='italic'>Ausgewählte Märtyreracten</hi> (of these the most reliable are the +martyrdom of Pionius and of Cyprian). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>Contra Celsum</hi>, III, +15. (MSG, 11:937.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Origen, writing about 248, observes the probable approach of a period +of persecution for the Church. +</quote> + +<p> +That it is not the fear of external enemies which strengthens +our union is plain from the fact that this cause, by God's +will, has already ceased for a considerable time. And it is +probable that the secure existence, so far as this life is concerned, +which is enjoyed by believers at present will come +to an end, since those who in every way calumniate the +Word [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Christianity] are again attributing the frequency +of rebellion to the multitude of believers and to their not +being persecuted by the authorities, as in former times. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>De Mortibus +Persecutorum</hi>, 3, 4. (MSL, 7:200.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Lucius Cælius Firminianus Lactantius was of African birth. Having +obtained some local fame as a teacher of rhetoric, he was appointed +by Diocletian professor of that subject in his new capital of Nicomedia. +This position Lactantius lost during the Diocletian persecution. +He was afterward tutor of Crispus, the son of Constantine. His +work <hi rend='italic'>On the Death of the Persecutors</hi> is written in a +bitter spirit, but +excellent style. Although in some circles it has been customary to +impeach the veracity of Lactantius, no intentional departure from +historical truthfulness, apart from rhetorical coloring, which was +<pb n='207'/><anchor id='Pg207'/> +inevitable, has been proved against him. Of late there has been some +doubt as to the authorship of <hi rend='italic'>De Mortibus Persecutorum</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 3. … This long peace, however, was afterward +interrupted. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 4. For after many years there appeared in the world +an accursed wild beast, Decius by name, who should afflict +the Church. And who but a bad man would persecute +righteousness? As if for this end he had been raised up to +sovereign eminence, he began at once to rage against God, +and at once to fall. For having undertaken an expedition +against the Carpi, who had then occupied Dacia and Mœsia, +he was suddenly surrounded by the barbarians, and slain, together +with a great part of his army; nor could he be honored +with the rights of sepulture, but, stripped and naked, he lay as +food for wild beasts and birds, as became the enemy of God. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 39. +(MSG, 20:660.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Decian persecution and the sufferings of Origen. +</quote> + +<p> +Decius succeeded Philip, who had reigned seven years. +On account of his hatred of Philip, Decius commenced a persecution +of the churches, in which Fabianus suffered martyrdom +at Rome, and Cornelius succeeded him in the episcopate. +In Palestine, Alexander, bishop of the church of Jerusalem, +was brought again on Christ's account before the governor's +judgment seat in Cæsarea, and having acquitted himself nobly +in a second confession, was cast into prison, crowned with the +hoary locks of venerable age. And after his honorable and +illustrious confession at the tribunal of the governor, he fell +asleep in prison, and Mazabanes became his successor in the +bishopric of Jerusalem. Babylas in Antioch having, like +Alexander, passed away in prison after his confession, Fabius +presided over that church. +</p> + +<p> +But how many and how great things came upon Origen +in the persecution, and what was their final result—as the +evil demon marshalled all his forces and fought against the +man with his utmost craft and power, assaulting him beyond +<pb n='208'/><anchor id='Pg208'/> +all others against whom he contended at that time; and +what and how many things the man endured for the word +of Christ—bonds and bodily tortures and torments under the +iron collar and in the dungeon; and how for many days with +his feet stretched four spaces of the stocks he bore patiently +the threats of fire and whatever other things were inflicted +by his enemies; and how his sufferings terminated, as his +judge strove eagerly with all his might not to end his life; +and what words he left after these things full of comfort to +those needing aid, a great many of his epistles show with +truth and accuracy. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>De Lapsis</hi>, 8-10. +(MSL, 4:486.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The many cases of apostasy in the Decian persecution shocked +the Church inexpressibly. In peace discipline had been relaxed and +Christian zeal had grown weak. The same phenomena appeared in +the next great persecution, under Diocletian, after a long period of +peace. <hi rend='italic'>De Lapsis</hi> was written in the spring of +251, just after the end +of the severity of the Decian persecution and Cyprian's return to +Carthage. Text in part in Kirch, nn. 227 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 8. From some, alas, all these things have fallen away, +and have passed from memory. They indeed did not even +wait, that, having been apprehended, they should go up, or, +having been interrogated, they might deny. Many were +conquered before the battle, prostrated without an attack. +Nor did they even leave it to be said for them that they seemed +to sacrifice to idols unwillingly. They ran to the forum of +their own accord; freely they hastened to death, as if they +had formerly wished it, as if they would embrace an opportunity +now given which they had always desired. How +many were put off by the magistrates at that time, when +evening was coming on! How many even asked that their +destruction might not be delayed! What violence can such +a one plead, how can he purge his crime, when it was he himself +who rather used force that he might perish? When they +came voluntarily to the capitol—when they freely approached +to the obedience of the terrible wickedness—did not their +<pb n='209'/><anchor id='Pg209'/> +tread falter, did not their sight darken, their hearts tremble, +their arms fall helplessly down, their senses become dull, +their tongues cleave to their mouths, their speech fail? Could +the servant of God stand there, he who had already renounced +the devil and the world, and speak and renounce Christ? +Was not that altar, whither he drew near to die, to him a +funeral pile? Ought he not to shudder at, and flee from, +the altar of the devil, which he had seen to smoke and to be +redolent of a foul stench, as it were, a funeral and sepulchre +of his life? Why bring with you, O wretched man, a sacrifice? +Why immolate a victim? You yourself have come to the +altar an offering, yourself a victim; there you have immolated +your salvation, your hope; there you have burned up your +faith in those deadly fires. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 9. But to many their own destruction was not sufficient. +With mutual exhortations the people were urged to their ruin; +death was pledged by turns in the deadly cup. And that +nothing might be wanting to aggravate the crime, infants, also, +in the arms of their parents, being either carried or conducted, +lost, while yet little ones, what in the very beginning of their +nativity they had gained. Will not they, when the day of +judgment comes, say: <q>We have done nothing; nor have we +forsaken the Lord's bread and cup to hasten freely to a +profane contract.…</q> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 10. Nor is there, alas, any just and weighty reason +which excuses such a crime. One's country was to be left, +and loss of one's estate was to be suffered. Yet to whom +that is born and dies is there not a necessity at some time +to leave his country and to suffer loss of his estate? But let +not Christ be forsaken, so that the loss of salvation and of +an eternal home should be feared. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>De Lapsis</hi>, 28. +(MSL, 4:501.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Those who did not actually sacrifice in the tests that were applied +to Christians, but by bribery had procured certificates that they +had sacrificed, were known as <hi rend='italic'>libellatici</hi>. +It was to the credit of the +Christian moral feeling that this subterfuge was not admitted. +</quote> + +<pb n='210'/><anchor id='Pg210'/> + +<p> +Nor let those persons flatter themselves that they need +repent the less who, although they have not polluted their +hands with abominable sacrifices, yet have defiled their +consciences with certificates. That profession of one who +denies is the testimony of a Christian disowning what he +has been. He says he has done what another has actually +committed, and although it is written, <q>Ye cannot serve +two masters</q> [Matt. 6:24], he has served an earthly master +in that he has obeyed his edict; he has been more obedient +to human authority than to God. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>A Libellus.</hi> From a papyrus +found at Fayum.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The text may be found in Kirch, n. 207. This is the actual certificate +which a man suspected of being a Christian obtained from the +commission appointed to carry out the edict of persecution. It has +been preserved these many centuries in the dry Egyptian climate, +and is with some others, which are less perfect, among the most interesting +relics of the ancient Church. +</quote> + +<p> +Presented to the Commission for the Sacrifices in the village +of Alexander Island, by Aurelius Diogenes, the son of +Satabus, of the village of Alexander Island, about seventy-two +years of age, with a scar on the right eyebrow. +</p> + +<p> +I have at other times always offered to the gods as well as +also now in your presence, and according to the regulations +have offered, sacrificed, and partaken of the sacrificial meal; +and I pray you to attest this. Farewell. I, Aurelius Diogenes, +have presented this. +</p> + +<p> +[In a second hand.] +</p> + +<p> +I, Aurelius Syrus, testify as being present that Diogenes +sacrificed with us. +</p> + +<p> +[First hand.] +</p> + +<p> +First year of the Emperor Cæsar Gaius Messius Quintus +Trajanus Decius, pious, happy, Augustus, 2d day of Epiphus. +[June 25, 250.] +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula 80</hi> (=82). +(MSL, 4:442.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The date of this epistle is 257-258, at the outbreak of the Valerian +persecution, a revival of the Decian. It was therefore shortly before +Cyprian's death. +</quote> + +<pb n='211'/><anchor id='Pg211'/> + +<p> +Cyprian to his brother Successus, greeting. The reason why +I write to you at once, dearest brother, is that all the clergy +are placed in the heat of the contest and are unable in any +way to depart hence, for all of them are prepared, in accordance +with the devotion of their mind, for divine and heavenly +glory. But you should know that those have come back +whom I sent to Rome to find out and bring us the truth +concerning what had in any manner been decreed respecting +us. For many, various, and uncertain things are currently +reported. But the truth concerning them is as follows: +Valerian has sent a rescript to the Senate, to the effect that +bishops, presbyters, and deacons should be immediately +punished; but that senators, men of rank, and Roman +knights should lose their dignity and be deprived of their +property; and if, when their property has been taken away, +they should persist in being Christians, that they should +then also lose their heads; but that matrons should be deprived +of their property and banished. Moreover, people +of Cæsar's household, who had either confessed before or +should now confess, should have their property confiscated, +and be sent in chains and assigned to Cæsar's estates. The +Emperor Valerian also added to his address a copy of the +letters he prepared for the presidents of the provinces coercing +us. These letters we are daily hoping will come, and we are +waiting, according to the strength of our faith, for the endurance +of suffering and expecting from the help and mercy of +the Lord the crown of eternal life. But know that Sixtus +was punished [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, martyred] in the cemetery on the eighth +day of the ides of August, and with him four deacons. The +prefects of the city, furthermore, are daily urging on this +persecution; so that if any are presented to them they are +punished and their property confiscated. +</p> + +<p> +I beg that these things be made known by you to the rest +of our colleagues, that everywhere by their exhortations the +brotherhood may be strengthened and prepared for the +spiritual conflict, that every one may think less of death than +<pb n='212'/><anchor id='Pg212'/> +of immortality, and dedicated to the Lord with full faith and +courage, they may rejoice rather than fear in this confession, +wherein they know that the soldiers of God and Christ are +not slain, but crowned. I bid you, dearest brother, ever +farewell in the Lord. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_46"/> +<head>§ 46. Effects of the Persecution upon the Inner Life +of the Church</head> + +<p> +The persecution developed the popular opinion of the +superior sanctity of martyrdom. This was itself no new +idea, having grown up in the Church from the time of Ignatius +of Antioch, but it now received new applications and developments +(<ref target="Section_46_a"><hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>, +<ref target="Section_46_b"><hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>). See also +<ref target="Section_42_d">§ 42, <hi rend='italic'>d</hi></ref>, and below for problems +arising from the place the martyrs attempted to take in the +organization of the Church and the administration of discipline. +This claim of the martyrs was successfully overcome +by the bishops, especially under Cyprian's leadership and +example. But in the administration of discipline there were +sure to arise difficulties and questions, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, +Was there a distinction to be made in favor of those who had escaped without +actually sacrificing? (<ref target="Section_46_c"><hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>). +No matter what policy was followed +by the bishop, there was the liability of the rise of a party +in opposition to him. If he was strict, a party advocating +laxity appeared, as in the case of Felicissimus at Carthage; +if he was milder in policy, a party would call for greater rigor, +as in the case of Novatian at Rome +(<ref target="Section_46_e"><hi rend='italic'>e</hi></ref>). +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 39-45, 51 (ANF, V); +Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 43, 45. +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_46_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>Exhortatio ad +Martyrium</hi>, 30, 50. (MSG, 11:601, 636.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +An estimate of the importance and value of martyrdom. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <hi rend='italic'>Exhortation to Martyrdom</hi> was addressed by Origen to his +friend and patron Ambrosius, and to Protoctetus, a presbyter of +Cæsarea, who were in great danger during the persecution undertaken +by Maximinus Thrax (235-238). It was probably written in the reign +of that Emperor. +</quote> + +<pb n='213'/><anchor id='Pg213'/> + +<p> +Ch. 30. We must remember that we have sinned and that +it is impossible to obtain forgiveness of sins without baptism, +and that according to the evangelical laws it is impossible +to be baptized a second time with water and the Spirit for +the forgiveness of sins, and therefore the baptism of martyrdom +is given us. For thus it has been called, as may be +clearly gathered from the passage: <q>Can ye drink of the +cup that I drink of, and be baptized with the baptism that +I am baptized with?</q> [Mark 10:38]. And in another place +it is said: <q>But I have a baptism to be baptized with; and +how am I straightened until it be accomplished!</q> [Luke 12:50]. +For be sure that just as the expiation of the cross was +for the whole world, it (the baptism of martyrdom) is for the +cure of many who are thereby cleansed. For as according to +the law of Moses those placed near the altar are seen to +minister forgiveness of sins to others through the blood of +bulls and goats, so the souls of those who have suffered on +account of the testimony of Jesus are not in vain near that +altar in heaven [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Rev. 6:9 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>], but minister forgiveness of +sins to those who pray. And at the same time we know that +just as the high priest, Jesus Christ, offered himself as a +sacrifice, so the priests, of whom He is the high priest, offer +themselves as sacrifices, and on account of this sacrifice they +are at the altar as in their proper place. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 50. Just as we have been redeemed with the precious +blood of Christ, who received the name that is above every +name, so by the precious blood of the martyrs will others be +redeemed. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_46_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Origen, <hi rend='italic'>Homil. ad Num.</hi>, X, 2. +(MSG, 12:658.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Of Origen's homilies on the Pentateuch only a few fragments of +the Greek text remain. We have them, however, in a Latin translation +or paraphrase made by Rufinus. The twenty-eight homilies on +Numbers were written after A. D. 244. +</quote> + +<p> +Concerning the martyrs, the Apostle John writes in the +Apocalypse that the souls of those who have been slain for +<pb n='214'/><anchor id='Pg214'/> +the name of the Lord Jesus are present at the altar; but he +who is present at the altar is shown to perform the duties +of priest. But the duty of a priest is to make intercession +for the sins of the people. Wherefore I fear, lest, perchance, +inasmuch as there are made no martyrs, and sacrifices of saints +are not offered for our sins, we will not receive remission of +our sins. And therefore I fear, lest our sins remaining in us, +it may happen to us what the Jews said of themselves, that +not having an altar, nor a temple, nor priesthood, and therefore +not offering sacrifices, our sins remain in us, and so no forgiveness +is obtained.… And therefore the devil, knowing that +remission of sins is obtained by the passion of martyrdom, +is not willing to raise public persecutions against us by the +heathen. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_46_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula 55</hi>, 14 +(=51). (MSL, 3:805.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The opinion of the Church as to the <hi rend='italic'>libellatici</hi>. The date is 251 +or 252. +</quote> + +<p> +Since there is much difference between those who have +sacrificed, what a want of mercy it is, and how bitter is +the hardship, to associate those who have received certificates +with those who have sacrificed, when he who has received +the certificate may say, <q>I had previously read and had been +informed by the discourse of the bishop that we ought not +to sacrifice to idols, that the servant of God ought not to +worship images; and therefore that I might not do this +which is not lawful, when the opportunity of receiving a +certificate was offered (and I would not have received it, if +the opportunity had not been offered) I either went or charged +some one other person going to the magistrate to say that +I am a Christian, that I am not allowed to sacrifice, that I +cannot come to the devil's altars, and that I will pay a +price for this purpose, that I may not do what is not lawful +for me to do</q>! Now, however, even he who is stained by a +certificate, after he has learned from our admonitions that +he ought not to have done even this, and though his hand is +<pb n='215'/><anchor id='Pg215'/> +pure, and no contact of deadly food has polluted his lips, yet +his conscience is nevertheless polluted, weeps when he hears +us, and laments, and is now admonished for the things +wherein he has sinned, and having been deceived, not so much +by guilt as by error, bears witness that for another time he +is instructed and prepared. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Epistula pacis</hi>, Cyprian, +<hi rend='italic'>Epistula 16</hi>. (MSL, 4:268.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. +241.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This brief Letter of Peace is a specimen of the forms that were being +issued by the confessors, and which a party in the Church regarded as +mandatory upon the bishops. These Cyprian strenuously and successfully +resisted. See also Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. 21</hi>, in ANF, V, 299. +</quote> + +<p> +All the confessors to Cyprian, pope,<note place="foot">The term +<hi rend='italic'>papa</hi> is applied to Cyprian several times in the +extant epistles addressed to him.</note> greeting. Know that +we all have given peace to those concerning whom an account +has been rendered you as to what they have done since they +committed their sin; and we wish to make this rescript +known through you to the other bishops. We desire you to +have peace with the holy martyrs. Lucianus has written this, +there being present of the clergy an exorcist and a lector. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_46_e"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula 43</hi>, 2, +3. (MSL, 4:342.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The schism of Felicissimus was occasioned by the position taken +by Cyprian in regard to the admission of the <hi rend='italic'>lapsi</hi> in the Decian +persecution. But it was at the same time the outcome of an opposition +to Cyprian of longer standing, on account of jealousy, as he had +only recently become a Christian when he was made bishop of Carthage. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. It has appeared whence came the faction of Felicissimus, +on what root and by what strength it stood. These +men supplied in a former time encouragements and exhortations +to confessors, not to agree with their bishop, not to +maintain the ecclesiastical discipline faithfully and quietly, +according to the Lord's precepts, not to keep the glory of +their confession with an uncorrupt and unspotted mode of +life. And lest it should have been too little to have corrupted +<pb n='216'/><anchor id='Pg216'/> +the minds of certain confessors and to have wished to arm a +portion of our broken fraternity against God's priesthood, +they have now applied themselves with their envenomed +deceitfulness to the ruin of the lapsed, to turn away from +the healing of their wound the sick and the wounded, and +those who, by the misfortune of their fall, are less fit and less +able to take stronger counsels; and having left off prayers and +supplications, whereby with long and continued satisfaction +the Lord is to be appeased, they invite them by the deceit of +a fallacious peace to a fatal rashness. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. But I pray you, brethren, watch against the snares +of the devil, and being careful for your own salvation, guard +diligently against this deadly deceit. This is another persecution +and another temptation. Those five presbyters are +none other than the five leaders who were lately associated +with the magistrates in an edict that they might overthrow +our faith, that they might turn away the feeble hearts of the +brethren to their deadly nets by the perversion of the truth. +Now the same scheme, the same overturning, is again brought +about by the five presbyters, linked with Felicissimus, to the +destruction of salvation, that God should not be besought, +and that he who has denied Christ should not appeal for +mercy to the same Christ whom he has denied; that after +the fault of the crime repentance also should be taken away; +and that satisfaction should not be made through bishops +and priests, but, the Lord's priests being forsaken, a new +tradition of sacrilegious appointment should arise contrary +to the evangelical discipline. And although it was once arranged +as well by us as by the confessors and the clergy of +the city,<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, Rome. There +was a vacancy at that time, A. D. 250. in the episcopate +of Rome and the clergy administered the affairs of that church +<hi rend='italic'>sede vacante</hi>.</note> likewise by all +the bishops located either in our province or beyond the sea +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Italy], that there should be +no innovations regarding the case of the lapsed unless we all +assembled in one place, and when our counsels had been +compared we should then decide upon some moderate sentence, +<pb n='217'/><anchor id='Pg217'/> +tempered alike with discipline and with mercy; +against this, our counsel, they have rebelled and all priestly +authority has been destroyed by factious conspiracies. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec</hi>., VI, 43. +(MSG, 20:616.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The schism of Novatian at Rome was occasioned by the question +of discipline of the lapsed. While the schism of Felicissimus was +in favor of more lenient treatment of those who had fallen, the schism +of Novatian was in favor of greater strictness. The sect of Novatians, +named after the founder, Novatus or Novatianus, lasted for more +than two centuries. +</quote> + +<p> +Novatus [Novatianus], a presbyter at Rome, being lifted up +with arrogance against these persons, as if there was no longer +for them a hope of salvation, not even if they should do all +things pertaining to a pure and genuine conversion, became +the leader of the heresy of those who in the pride of their +imagination style themselves Cathari.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +the pure ones.</note> Thereupon a very +large synod assembled at Rome, of bishops in number sixty, +and a great many more presbyters and deacons; and likewise +the pastors of the remaining provinces deliberated in their +places by themselves concerning what ought to be done. A +decree, accordingly, was confirmed by all that Novatus and +those who joined with him, and those who adopted his +brother-hating and inhuman opinion, should be considered +by the Church as strangers; but that they should heal such +of the brethren as had fallen into misfortune, and should minister +to them with the medicines of repentance. There have +come down to us epistles of Cornelius, bishop of Rome, to +Fabius, of the church at Antioch, which show what was done +at the synod at Rome, and what seemed best to all those in +Italy and Africa and the regions thereabout. Also other +epistles, written in the Latin language, of Cyprian and those +with him in Africa, by which it is shown that they agreed as +to the necessity of succoring those who had been tempted, +and of cutting off from the Catholic Church the leader of +the heresy and all that joined him. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='218'/><anchor id='Pg218'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter IV. The Period Of Peace For The Church: A. D. 260 To A. D. 303</head> + +<p> +After the Decian-Valerian persecution (250-260) the Church +enjoyed a long peace, rarely interrupted anywhere by hostile +measures, until the outbreak of the second great general persecution, +under Diocletian (303-313), a space of over forty +years. In this period the Church cast off the chiliasm +which had lingered as a part of a primitive Jewish conception +of Christianity (<ref target="Section_47">§ 47</ref>), and adapted itself to the actual +condition of this present world. Under the influence of +scientific theology, especially that of the Alexandrian school, +the earlier forms of Monarchianism disappeared from the +Church, and the discussion began to narrow down to the +position which it eventually assumed in the Arian controversy +(<ref target="Section_48">§ 48</ref>). Corresponding to the development of the +theology went that of the cultus of the Church, and already +in the West abiding characteristics appeared (<ref target="Section_49">§ 49</ref>). +The cultus and the disciplinary work of the bishops advanced in +turn the hierarchical organization of the Church and the place +of the bishops (<ref target="Section_50">§ 50</ref>), but the theory of +local episcopal autonomy and the universalistic tendencies of the see of Rome +soon came into sharp conflict (<ref target="Section_51">§ 51</ref>), especially over the +validity of baptism administered by heretics (<ref target="Section_52">§ 52</ref>). In +this discussion the North African Church assumed a position +which subsequently became the occasion of the most serious +schism of the ancient Church, or Donatism. In this period, +also, is to be set the rise of Christian Monasticism as distinguished +from ordinary Christian asceticism (<ref target="Section_53">§ 53</ref>). At the +same time, a dangerous rival of Christianity appeared in +the East, in the form of Manichæanism, in which were absorbed +nearly all the remnants of earlier Gnosticism (<ref target="Section_54">§ 54</ref>). +</p> + +<pb n='219'/><anchor id='Pg219'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_47"/> +<head>§ 47. The Chiliastic Controversy</head> + +<p> +During the third century the belief in chiliasm as a part +of the Church's faith died out in nearly all parts of the +Church. It did not seem called for by the condition of the +Church, which was rapidly adjusting itself to the world in +which it found itself. The scientific theology, especially that +of Alexandria, found no place in its system for such an article +as chiliasm. The belief lingered, however, in country +places, and with it went no little opposition to the <q>scientific</q> +exegesis which by means of allegory explained away the promises +of a millennial kingdom. The only account we have of +this so-called <q>Chiliastic Controversy</q> is found in connection +with the history of the schism of Nepos in Egypt given by +Eusebius, But it may be safely assumed that the condition +of things here described was not peculiar to any one part of +the Church, though an open schism resulting from the conflict +of the old and new ideas is not found elsewhere. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Origen, <hi rend='italic'>De Principiis</hi>, II, 11 +(ANF, IV); Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>Divini Institutiones</hi>, VII, 14-26 +(ANF, VII); Methodius, <hi rend='italic'>Symposium</hi>, IX, 5 (ANF, VI); +<hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_48">§ 48</ref>. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VII, 24. (MSG, 20:693.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Dionysius was bishop of Alexandria 248-265, after serving as the +head of the Catechetical School, a position which he does not seem +to have resigned on being advanced to the episcopate. His work +<hi rend='italic'>On the Promises</hi> has, with the exception of fragments preserved +by Eusebius, perished, as has also the work of Nepos, <hi rend='italic'>Against the +Allegorists</hi>. The date of the work of Nepos is not known. That of the +work of Dionysius is placed conjecturally at 255. The <q>Allegorists,</q> +against whom Nepos wrote, were probably Origen and his school, who +developed more consistently and scientifically the allegorical method +of exegesis; see above, <ref target="Section_43_k">§ 43, <hi rend='italic'>k</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<pb n='220'/><anchor id='Pg220'/> + +<p> +Besides all these, the two books <hi rend='italic'>On the Promises</hi> were prepared +by him [Dionysius]. The occasion of these was Nepos, +a bishop in Egypt, who taught that the promises made to +the holy men in the divine Scriptures should be understood +in a more Jewish manner, and that there would be a certain +millennium of bodily luxury upon this earth. As he thought +that he could establish his private opinion by the Revelation +of John, he wrote a book on this subject, entitled <hi rend='italic'>Refutation +of Allegorists</hi>. Dionysius opposes this in his books <hi rend='italic'>On the +Promises</hi>. In the first he gives his own opinion of the dogma; +and in the second he treats of the Revelation of John,<note place="foot">In +the next chapter of Eusebius (= VII, 25) there are the critical reasons +against the apostolic authorship of the Revelation of St. John, based upon a +critical comparison with the Fourth Gospel and the Epistles of St. John, reasons +which are still current in radical critical circles.</note> +and, mentioning Nepos at the beginning, writes of him as +follows: +</p> + +<p> +<q>But since they bring forward a certain work of Nepos, on +which they rely confidently, as if it proved beyond dispute +that there will be a reign of Christ upon earth, I confess +that in many other respects I approve and love Nepos for +his faith and industry and his diligence in the Scriptures, +and for his extensive psalmody with which many of the +brethren are still delighted; and I hold the man in the more +reverence because he has gone before us to rest.… But +as some think his work very plausible, and as certain teachers +regard the law and the prophets as of no consequence, and +do not follow the Gospels, and treat lightly the apostolic +epistles, while they make promises as to the teaching of this +work as if it were some great hidden mystery, and do not +permit our simpler brethren to have any sublime and lofty +thoughts concerning the glorious and truly divine appearing +of our Lord and our resurrection from the dead, and our being +gathered together unto Him, and made like Him, but, on the +contrary, lead them to a hope for small things and mortal +things in the kingdom of God, and for things such as exist +now—since this is the case, it is necessary that we should +<pb n='221'/><anchor id='Pg221'/> +dispute with our brother Nepos as if he were present.</q> Farther +on he says: +</p> + +<p> +<q>When I was in the district of Arsinoe, where, as you know, +this doctrine has prevailed for a long time, so that schisms +and apostasies of entire churches have resulted, I called together +the presbyters and teachers of the brethren in the +villages—such brethren as wished being present—and I exhorted +them to make a public examination of this question. +Accordingly when they brought me this book, as if it were a +weapon and fortress impregnable, sitting with them from +morning till evening for three successive days, I endeavored +to correct what was written in it.… And finally the +author and mover of this teaching, who was called Coracion, +in the hearing of all the brethren present acknowledged and +testified to us that he would no longer hold this opinion, nor +discuss it, nor mention it, nor teach it, as he was fully convinced +by the arguments against it.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_48"/> +<head>§ 48. Theology of the Second Half of the Third +Century under the Influence of Origen</head> + +<p> +By the second half of the third century theology had become +a speculative and highly technical science +(<ref target="Section_48_a"><hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>), and under the +influence of Origen, the Logos theology, as opposed to various +forms of Monarchianism (<ref target="Section_48_b"><hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>), +had become universal. Under this influence, Paul of Samosata, reviving Dynamistic +Monarchianism, +modified it by combining with it elements of the +Logos theology (<hi rend='italic'>c-e</hi>). At the same time there was in +various parts of the Church a continuation of the Asia Minor +theological tradition, such as had found expression in +Irenæus. A representative of this theology was Methodius +of Olympus (<ref target="Section_48_f"><hi rend='italic'>f</hi></ref>). +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>De Sent. Dionysii</hi> (PNF, +ser. II, vol. IV). +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_48_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Gregory Thaumaturgus, <hi rend='italic'>Confession of +Faith</hi>. (MSG, 46:912)</head> + +<pb n='222'/><anchor id='Pg222'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Gregory Thaumaturgus, or the Wonder-worker, was born about 213 +in Neo-Cæsarea in Pontus. He studied under Origen at Cæsarea in +Palestine from 233 to 235, and became one of the leading representatives +of the Origenistic theology, representing the orthodox development +of that school, as distinguished from Paul of Samosata and Lucian. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following Confession of Faith is found only in the <hi rend='italic'>Life of Gregory +Thaumaturgus</hi>, by Gregory of Nyssa. (MSG, 46: 909 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>) Its +genuineness is now generally admitted; see Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, § 185. +According to a legend, it was communicated to Gregory in a vision by St. +John on the request of the Blessed Virgin. It represents the speculative +tendency of Origenism and current theology after the rise of +the Alexandrian school. It should be noted that it differs markedly +from other confessions of faith in not employing biblical language. +</quote> + +<p> +There is one God, the Father of the living Word, His substantive +Wisdom, Power, and Eternal Image, the perfect +Begetter of the perfect One, the Father of the Only begotten +Son. +</p> + +<p> +There is one Lord, only One from only One, God from God, +the image and likeness of the Godhead, the active Word, +The Wisdom which comprehends the constitution of all things, +and the Power which produced all creation; the true Son of +the true Father, Invisible of Invisible, and Incorruptible of +Incorruptible, and Immortal of Immortal, and Everlasting +of Everlasting. +</p> + +<p> +And there is one Holy Spirit having His existence from +God, and manifested by the Son [namely, to men],<note place="foot">The +bracketed phrases are doubtful.</note> the +perfect likeness of the perfect Son, Life and Cause of the +living [the sacred Fount], Sanctity, Leader of sanctification, in +whom is revealed God the Father, who is over all and in all, +and God the Son, who is through all; a perfect Trinity<note place="foot">Gregory +uses the term Trias for Trinity here and throughout.</note> +not divided nor differing in glory and eternity and sovereignty. +</p> + +<p> +There is, therefore, nothing created or subservient in the +Trinity, nor introduced as if not there before, but coming +afterward; for there never was a time when the Son was +lacking to the Father, nor the Spirit to the Son, but the same +Trinity is ever unvarying and unchangeable. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='223'/><anchor id='Pg223'/> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_48_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>De Sent. Dionysii</hi>, +4, 5, 6, 13-15. (MSG, 25:484 f., 497 f.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +What has been called the <q>Controversy of the two Dionysii</q> was +in reality no controversy. Dionysius of Alexandria [<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_48">§ 48</ref>] +wrote a letter to the Sabellians near Cyrene, pointing out the distinction +of the Father and the Son. In it he used language which was, to +say the least, indiscreet. Complaint was made to Dionysius, bishop +of Rome, that the bishop of Alexandria did not hold the right view +of the relation of the Son to the Father and of the divinity of the Son. +Thereupon, Dionysius of Rome wrote to Dionysius of Alexandria. +In reply, Dionysius of Alexandria pointed out at length, in a +<hi rend='italic'>Refutation and Defence</hi>, his actual opinion on the matter as a +whole, rather than as merely opposed to Modalistic Monarchianism or Sabellianism. +The course of the discussion is sufficiently clear from the extracts. +Athanasius is writing in answer to the Arians, who had appealed +to the letter of Dionysius in support of their opinion that the Son +was a creature, and that there was when He was not [<hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_63">§ 63</ref>]. +His work, from which the following extracts are taken, was written +between 350 and 354. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 4. They (the Arians) say, then, that in a letter the +blessed Dionysius has said: <q>The Son of God is a creature +and made, and not His own by nature, but in essence alien +from the Father, just as the husbandman is from the vine, or +the shipbuilder is from the boat; for that, being a creature, +He was not before He came to be.</q> Yes. He wrote it, and +we, too, admit that such was his letter. But as he wrote this, +so also he wrote very many other epistles, which ought to +be read by them, so that from all and not from one merely +the faith of the man might be discovered. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 5. At that time [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, when Dionysius wrote against +the Sabellians] certain of the bishops of Pentapolis in Upper +Libya were of the opinion of Sabellius. And they were so +successful with their opinion that the Son of God was scarcely +preached any longer in the churches. Dionysius heard of +this, as he had charge of those churches (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Canon 6, Nicæa, +325; see below, <ref target="Section_72">§ 72</ref>), and sent men to counsel the guilty +ones to cease from their false doctrine. As they did not cease but +waxed more shameless in their impiety, he was compelled to +meet their shameless conduct by writing the said letter and +<pb n='224'/><anchor id='Pg224'/> +to define from the Gospels the human nature of the Saviour, +in order that, since those men waxed bolder in denying the +Son and in ascribing His human actions to the Father, he +accordingly, by demonstrating that it was not the Father +but the Son that was made man for us, might persuade the +ignorant persons that the Father is not the Son, and so by +degrees lead them to the true godhead of the Son and the +knowledge of the Father. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 6. … If in his writings he is inconsistent, let them +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the Arians] not draw him +to their side, for on this assumption +he is not worthy of credit. But if, when he had written +his letter to Ammonius, and fallen under suspicion, he made +his defence, bettering what he had said previously, defending +himself, but not changing, it must be evident that he wrote +what fell under suspicion by way of <q>accommodation.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 13. The following is the occasion of his writing the +other letters. When Bishop Dionysius had heard of the +affairs in Pentapolis and had written in zeal for religion, as +I have said, his letter to Euphranor and Ammonius against +the heresy of Sabellius, some of the brethren belonging to +the Church, who held a right opinion, but did not ask him so +as to learn from himself what he had written, went up to +Rome and spake against him in the presence of his namesake, +Dionysius, bishop of Rome. And the latter, upon hearing +it, wrote simultaneously against the adherents of Sabellius +and against those who held the same opinions for uttering +which Arius was cast out of the Church; and he called it an +equal and opposite impiety to hold with Sabellius or with +those who say that the Word of God is a creature, framed +and originated. And he wrote also to Dionysius [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, of +Alexandria] to inform him of what they had said about him. +And the latter straightway wrote back and inscribed a book +entitled <hi rend='italic'>A Refutation and a Defence</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 14. … In answer to these charges he writes, after +certain prefatory matter in the first book of the work entitled +<hi rend='italic'>A Refutation and a Defence</hi>, in the following terms: +</p> + +<pb n='225'/><anchor id='Pg225'/> + +<p> +Ch. 15. <q>For never was there a time when God was not a +Father.</q> And this he acknowledges in what follows, <q>that +Christ is forever, being Word and Wisdom and Power. For +it is not to be supposed that God, having at first no issue, +afterward begat a Son. But the Son has his being not of +Himself, but of the Father.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_48_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VII, 27, +29, 30. (MSG, 25:705.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The deposition of Paul of Samosata. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The controversy concerning Paul's doctrinal views is sufficiently +set forth in the extract from Eusebius given below. Paul was bishop +of Antioch from about 260 to 268. His works have perished, with +the exception of a few fragments. The importance of Paul is that in +his teaching is to be found an attempt to combine the Logos theology +of Origen with Dynamistic Monarchianism, with results that appeared +later in Arianism, on the one hand, and Nestorianism, it is thought, +on the other. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 27. After Sixtus had presided over the church of +Rome eleven years, Dionysius, namesake of him of Alexandria, +succeeded him. About that time Demetrianus died in +Antioch, and Paul of Samosata received that episcopate. +As he held low and degraded views of Christ, contrary to the +teaching of the Church, namely, that in his nature He was +a common man, Dionysius of Alexandria was entreated to +come to the synod. But being unable to come on account of +age and physical weakness, he gave his opinion on the subject +under consideration by a letter. But the other pastors of the +churches assembled from all directions, as against a despoiler +of the flock of Christ, all making haste to reach Antioch. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 29. During his [Aurelian's, 270-275] reign a final synod +composed of a great many bishops was held, and the leader +of heresy in Antioch was detected and his false doctrine +clearly shown before all, and he was excommunicated from +the Catholic Church under heaven. Malchion especially +drew him out from his hiding-place and refuted him. He was +a man learned also in other matters, and principal of the +sophist school of Grecian learning in Antioch; yet on account +of the superior nobility of his faith in Christ he had been made +<pb n='226'/><anchor id='Pg226'/> +a presbyter of that parish [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, diocese]. This man, having +conducted a discussion with him, which was taken down +by stenographers, and which we know is still extant, was +alone able to detect the man who dissembled and deceived +others. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 30. The pastors who had assembled about this matter +prepared by common consent an epistle addressed to Dionysius, +bishop of Rome, and Maximus of Alexandria, and sent +it to all the provinces.… +</p> + +<p> +After other things they describe as follows the manner of +life which he led: <q>Whereas he has departed from the rule +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, of faith], and has turned aside after base and spurious +teachings, it is not necessary—since he is without—that we +should pass judgment upon his practices: as for instance … +in that he is haughty and is puffed up, and assumes +worldly dignities, preferring to be called ducenarius rather +than bishop; and struts in the market-places, reading letters +and reciting them as he walks in public, attended by a bodyguard, +with a multitude preceding and following him, so that +the faith is envied and hated on account of his pride and +haughtiness of heart, … or that he violently and coarsely +assails in public the expounders of the Word that have +departed this life, and magnifies himself, not as bishop, but +as a sophist and juggler, and stops the psalms to our Lord +Jesus Christ as being novelties and the productions of modern +men, and trains women to sing psalms to himself in the +midst of the church on the great day of the passover.… +He is unwilling to acknowledge that the Son of God came +down from heaven. (And this is no mere assertion, but is +abundantly proved from the records which we have sent you; +and not least where he says, <q>Jesus Christ is from below.</q>)… +And there are the women, the <q><hi rend='italic'>subintroductæ</hi>,</q> as the +people of Antioch call them, belonging to him and to the +presbyters and deacons with him. Although he knows and +has convicted these men, yet he connives at this and their +incurable sins, in order that they may be bound to him, and +<pb n='227'/><anchor id='Pg227'/> +through fear for themselves may not dare to accuse him for +his wicked words and deeds.…</q> +</p> + +<p> +As Paul had fallen from the episcopate, as well as from the +orthodox faith, Domnus, as has been said, succeeded to the +service of the church at Antioch [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, became bishop]. But +as Paul refused to surrender the church building, the Emperor +Aurelian was petitioned; and he decided the matter most +equitably, ordering the building to be given to those to whom +the bishops of Italy and of the city of Rome should adjudge +it. Thus this man was driven out of the Church, with extreme +disgrace, by the worldly power. +</p> + +<p> +Such was Aurelian's attitude toward us at that time; but +in the course of time he changed his mind in regard to us, and +was moved by certain advisers to institute a persecution +against us. And there was great talk about it everywhere. +But as he was about to do it, and was, so to speak, in the +very act of signing the decrees against us, the divine judgment +came upon him and restrained him at the very verge +of his undertaking. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_48_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Malchion of Antioch, <hi rend='italic'>Disputation +with Paul</hi>. (MSG, 10:247-260.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The doctrine of Paul of Samosata. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following fragments are from the disputation of Malchion +with Paul at the Council of Antioch, 268 [see extract from Eusebius, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VII, 27, 29, 30; see above +(<ref target="Section_48_c"><hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>)], which Malchion is said to +have revised and published. The passages may be found also in +Routh, <hi rend='italic'>Reliquiæ Sacræ</hi>, second ed., III, 300 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> Fragments I-III are from the work of the Emperor Justinian, +<hi rend='italic'>Contra Monophysitas</hi>; fragment IV is from the work of Leontius +of Byzantium, <hi rend='italic'>Adversus Nestorianos et Eutychianos</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +I. The Logos became united with Him who was born of +David, who is Jesus, who was begotten of the Holy Ghost. +And Him the Virgin bore by the Holy Spirit; but God generated +that Logos without the Virgin or any one else than +God, and thus the Logos exists. +</p> + +<p> +II. The Logos was greater than Christ. Christ became +<pb n='228'/><anchor id='Pg228'/> +greater through Wisdom, that we might not overthrow the +dignity of Wisdom. +</p> + +<p> +III. In order that the Anointed, who was from David, +might not be a stranger to Wisdom, and that Wisdom might +not dwell so largely in another. For it was in the prophets, +and more in Moses, and in many the Lord was, but more +also in Christ as in a temple. For Jesus Christ was one and +the Logos was another. +</p> + +<p> +IV. He who appeared was not Wisdom, for He could not +be found in an outward form, neither in the appearance of +a man; for He is greater than all things visible. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_48_e"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Paul of Samosata, <hi rend='italic'>Orationes ad +Sabinum</hi>, Routh, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, III, 329.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The doctrine of Paul. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Paul's work addressed to Sabinus has perished with the exception +of a few fragments. See Routh, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +I. Thou shouldest not wonder that the Saviour had one +will with God; for just as nature shows us a substance becoming +one and the same out of many things, so the nature +of love makes one and the same will out of many through a +manifest preference. +</p> + +<p> +II. He who was born holy and righteous, having by His +struggle and sufferings overcome the sin of our progenitors, +and having succeeded in all things, was united in character +to God, since He had preserved one and the same effort and +aim as He for the promotion of things that are good; and +since He has preserved this inviolate, His name is called that +above every name, the prize of love having been freely +bestowed upon Him. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_48_f"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Epiphanius, <hi rend='italic'>Panarion</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Hær.</hi> LXV. (MSG, 42:12.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The doctrine of Paul of Samosata. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Epiphanius was bishop of Salamis, 367-403. His works are chiefly +polemical and devoted to the refutation of all heresies, of which he +gives accounts at some length. He is a valuable, though not always +<pb n='229'/><anchor id='Pg229'/> +reliable, source for many otherwise unknown heresies. In the present +case we have passages from Paul's own writings that confirm and +supplement the statements of the hereseologist. +</quote> + +<p> +He [Paul of Samosata] says that God the Father and the +Son and the Holy Spirit are one God, that in God is always +His Word and His Spirit, as in a man's heart is his own reason; +that the Son of God does not exist in a hypostasis, but +in God himself.… That the Logos came and dwelt in Jesus, +who was a man. And thus he says God is one, neither is the +Father the Father, nor the Son the Son, nor the Holy Spirit +the Holy Spirit, but rather the one God is Father and in Him +is his Son, as the reason is in a man.… But he did not +say with Noetus that the Father suffered, but only, said he, +the Logos came and energized and went back to the Father. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Methodius of Olympus, <hi rend='italic'>Symposium</hi>, +III, 4, 8. (MSG, 18:65, 73.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The theology of Origen was not suffered to go without being challenged +by those who could not accept some of his extreme statements. +Among those opposed to him were Peter, bishop of Alexandria, and +Methodius, bishop of Olympus. Both were strongly influenced by +Origen, but the denial of a bodily resurrection and the eternity of +the creation were too offensive. The more important of the two is +Methodius, who combined a strong anti-Origenistic position on these +two points with that <q>recapitulation</q> theory of redemption which +has been called the Asia Minor type of theology and is represented +also by Irenæus; see above, <ref target="Section_27">§ 27</ref>. He +has been called the author of the <q>theology of the future,</q> +with reference to his relation to Athanasius, +in that he laid the foundation for a doctrine of redemption +which superseded that of the old Alexandrian school, and became established +in the East under the lead of Athanasius and the Nicene +divines generally. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Methodius was bishop of Olympus, in Lycia. The statements that +he also held other sees are unreliable. He died in 311 as a martyr. +Nothing else is known with certainty as to his life. Of his numerous +and well-written works, only one, <hi rend='italic'>The Banquet</hi>, +or <hi rend='italic'>Symposium</hi>, has been preserved entire. +His work <hi rend='italic'>On the Resurrection</hi> is most strongly +opposed to Origen and his denial of the bodily resurrection. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 4. For let us consider how rightly he [Paul] compared +Adam to Christ, not only considering him to be the type and +<pb n='230'/><anchor id='Pg230'/> +image, but also that Christ Himself became the very same +thing, because the Eternal Word fell upon Him. For it was +fitting that the first-born of God, the first shoot, the Only +begotten, even the Wisdom [of God], should be joined to the +first-formed man, and first and first-born of men, and should +become incarnate. And this was Christ, a man filled with +the pure and perfect Godhead, and God received into man. +For it was most suitable that the oldest of the Æons and the +first of the archangels, when about to hold communion with +men, should dwell in the oldest and first of men, even Adam. +And thus, renovating those things which were from the +beginning, and forming them again of the Virgin by the Spirit, +He frames the same just as at the beginning. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 8. The Church could not conceive believers and give +them new birth by the laver of regeneration unless Christ, +emptying Himself for their sakes, that He might be contained +by them, as I said, through the recapitulation of His passion, +should die again, coming down from heaven, and, being <q>joined +to His wife,</q> the Church, should provide that a certain +power be taken from His side, so that all who are built up in +Him should grow up, even those who are born again by the +laver, receiving of His bones and of His flesh; that is, of His +holiness and of His glory. For he who says that the bones +and flesh of Wisdom are understanding and virtue, says most +rightly; and that the side [rib] is the Spirit of truth, the +Paraclete, of whom the illuminated [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, baptized], receiving, +are fitly born again to incorruption. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Methodius of Olympus, <hi rend='italic'>De +Resurrect.</hi>, I, 13. (MSG, 18:284.)</head> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>De Resur.</hi>, I, 13.<note place="foot">On the whole +passage, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> I Cor. 15:42 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></note> +If any one were to think that the earthly +image is the flesh itself, but the heavenly image is some other +spiritual body besides the flesh, let him first consider that +Christ, the heavenly man, when He appeared, bore the same +form of limbs and the same image of flesh as ours, through +<pb n='231'/><anchor id='Pg231'/> +which, also, He, who was not man, became man, that, <q>as in +Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive.</q> For +if it was not that he might set the flesh free and raise it up +that He bore flesh, why did He bear flesh superfluously, as +He purposed neither to save it nor to raise it up? But the +Son of God does nothing superfluous. He did not take, then, +the form of a servant uselessly, but to raise it up and save it. +For He was truly made man, and died, and not in appearance, +but that He might truly be shown to be the first begotten +from the dead, changing the earthly into the heavenly, and +the mortal into the immortal. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_49"/> +<head>§ 49. The Development of the Cultus</head> + +<p> +The Church's cultus and sacramental system developed +rapidly in the third century. The beginnings of the administration +of the sacraments according to prescribed forms are +to be traced to the Didache and Justin Martyr (see above, +§§ <ref target="Section_13">13</ref>, <ref target="Section_14">14</ref>). +At the beginning of the third century baptism +was already accompanied by a series of subsidiary rites, and +the eucharist was regarded as a sacrifice, the benefit of which +might be directed toward specific ends. The further development +was chiefly in connection with the eucharist, which effected +in turn the conception of the hierarchy (see below, +<ref target="Section_50">§ 50</ref>). Baptism was regarded +as conferring complete remission of previous sins; +subsequent sins were atoned for in the penitential discipline +(see above, <ref target="Section_42">§ 42</ref>). As for the eucharist, the +conception of the sacrifice which appears in the Didache, an +offering of praise and thanksgiving, gradually gives place to +a sacrifice which in some way partakes of the nature of +Christ's sacrificial death upon the cross. At the same time, +the elements are more and more completely identified with the +body and blood of Christ, and the nature of the presence of +Christ is conceived under quasi-physical categories. As representatives +of the lines of development, Tertullian, at the +beginning of the century, and Cyprian, at the middle, may +<pb n='232'/><anchor id='Pg232'/> +be taken. That a similar development took place in the East +is evident, not only from the references to the same in the +writings of Origen and others, but also from the appearance in +the next century of elaborate services, or liturgies, as well as +the doctrinal statements of writers generally. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Corona</hi>, 3. +(MSL, 2:98.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The ceremonies connected with baptism. +</quote> + +<p> +And how long shall we draw the saw to and fro through +this line when we have an ancient practice which by anticipation +has settled the state of the question? If no passage of +Scripture has prescribed it, assuredly custom, which without +doubt flowed from tradition, has confirmed it. For how can +anything come into use if it has not first been handed down? +Even in pleading tradition written authority, you say, must +be demanded. Let us inquire, therefore, whether tradition, +unless it be written, should not be admitted. Certainly we +shall say that it ought not to be admitted if no cases of +other practices which, without any written instrument, we +maintain on the ground of tradition alone, and the countenance +thereafter of custom, affords us any precedent. To +deal with this matter briefly, I shall begin with baptism. +When we are going to enter the water, but a little before, +in the church and under the hand of the president, we solemnly +profess that we renounce the devil, and his pomp, and +his angels. Hereupon we are thrice immersed, making a +somewhat ampler pledge than the Lord has appointed in +the Gospel. Then, when we are taken up (as new-born children), +we taste first of all a mixture of milk and honey; and +from that day we refrain from the daily bath for a whole +week. We take also in congregations, before daybreak, and +from the hands of none but the presidents, the sacrament of +the eucharist, which the Lord both commanded to be eaten +at meal-times, and by all. On the anniversary day we make +offerings for the dead as birthday honors. We consider fasting +on the Lord's Day to be unlawful, as also to worship +<pb n='233'/><anchor id='Pg233'/> +kneeling. We rejoice in the same privilege from Easter to +Pentecost. We feel pained should any wine or bread, even +though our own, be cast upon the ground. At every forward +step and movement, at every going in and going out, when +we put on our shoes, at the bath, at table, on lighting the +lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily +life, we trace upon the forehead the sign [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, of the cross]. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Baptismo</hi>, +5-8. (MSL, 1:1314.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The whole passage should be read as showing clearly that Tertullian +recognized the similarity between Christian baptism and +heathen purifying washings, but referred the effects of the heathen +rites to evil powers, quite in harmony with the Christian admission +of the reality of heathen divinities as evil powers and heathen exorcisms +as wrought by the aid of evil spirits. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 5. … Thus man will be restored by God to His +likeness, for he formerly had been after the image of God; +the image is counted being in His form [<foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">in effigie</foreign>], the likeness +in His eternity [<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">in æternitate</foreign>]. +For he receives that Spirit of +God which he had then received from His afflatus, but afterward +lost through sin. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 6. Not that in the waters we obtain the Holy Spirit, +but in the water, under (the witness of angels) we are cleansed +and prepared for the Holy Spirit.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 7. After this, when we have issued from the font, we +are thoroughly anointed with a blessed unction according to +the ancient discipline, wherein on entering the priesthood +men were accustomed to be anointed with oil from a horn, +wherefore Aaron was anointed by Moses.… Thus, too, +in our case the unction runs carnally, but profits spiritually; +in the same way as the act of baptism itself is carnal, in that +we are plunged in the water, but the effect spiritual, in that +we are freed from sins. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 8. In the next place, the hand is laid upon us, invoking +and inviting the Holy Spirit through benediction.… But +this, as well as the former, is derived from the old sacramental +rite in which Jacob blessed his grandsons born of Joseph, +<pb n='234'/><anchor id='Pg234'/> +Ephraim, and Manasses; with his hands laid on them and +interchanged, and indeed so transversely slanted the one over +the other that, by delineating Christ, they even portended the +future benediction in Christ. [<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Gen. 48:13 +<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>] +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Cæcilium, Ep. +63</hi>, 13-17. (MSL, 4:395.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The eucharist. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus, bishop of Carthage, was born about +200, and became bishop in 248 or 249. His doctrinal position is a +development of that of Tertullian, beside whom he may be placed +as one of the founders of the characteristic theology of North Africa. +His discussion of the place and authority of the bishop in the ecclesiastical +system was of fundamental importance in the development of +the theory of the hierarchy, though it may be questioned whether +his particular theory of the relation of the bishops to each other ever +was realized in the Church. For his course during the Decian persecution +see §§ <ref target="Section_45">45</ref>, <ref target="Section_46">46</ref>. +He died about 258, in the persecution under Valerian. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +In the epistle from which the following extract is taken Cyprian +writes to Cæcilius to point out that it is wrong to use merely water in +the eucharist, and that wine mixed with water should be used, for in +all respects we do exactly what Christ did at the Last Supper when he +instituted the eucharist. In the course of the letter, which is of some +length, Cyprian takes occasion to set forth his conception of the +eucharistic sacrifice, which is a distinct advance upon Tertullian. +The date of the letter is about 253. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 13. Because Christ bore us all, in that He also bore +our sins, we see that in the water is understood the people, +but in the wine is showed the blood of Christ. But when +in the cup the water is mingled with the wine the people is +made one with Christ, and the assembly of believers is associated +and conjoined with Him on whom it believes; which +association and conjunction of water and wine is so mingled +in the Lord's cup that that mixture cannot be separated +any more. Whence, moreover, nothing can separate the +Church—that is, the people established in the Church, +faithfully and firmly continuing in that in which they have +believed—from Christ in such a way as to prevent their +undivided love from always abiding and adhering. Thus, +<pb n='235'/><anchor id='Pg235'/> +therefore, in consecrating the cup water alone should not +be offered to the Lord, even as wine alone should not be +offered. For if wine only is offered, the blood of Christ +begins to be without us.<note place="foot"><foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">Sanguis Christi incipit esse sine nobis.</foreign> +Paschasius Radbertus quotes this. <hi rend='italic'>De corpore et +sanguine Domini</hi>, ch. II, MSL, 120:1308.</note> +But if the water alone be offered, +the people begin to be without Christ, but when both are +mingled and are joined to each other by an intermixed union, +then the spiritual and heavenly sacrament is completed. +Thus the cup of the Lord is not, indeed, water alone, nor +wine alone, nor unless each be mingled with the other; just +as, on the other hand, the body of the Lord cannot be flour +alone or water alone, nor unless both should be united and +joined together and compacted into the mass of one bread: +in which sacrament our people are shown to be one; so that +in like manner as many grains are collected and ground +and mixed together into one mass and made one bread, +so in Christ, who is the heavenly bread, we may know that +there is one body with which our number is joined and +united. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 14. There is, then, no reason, dearest brother, for any +one to think that the custom of certain persons is to be followed, +who in times past have thought that water alone +should be offered in the cup of the Lord. For we must inquire +whom they themselves have followed. For if in the sacrifice +which Christ offered none is to be followed but Christ, we +ought certainly to obey and do what Christ did, and what He +commanded to be done, since He himself says in the Gospel: +<q>If ye do whatsoever I command you, henceforth I call you +not servants, but friends</q> [John 15:14 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>].… If Jesus +Christ, our Lord and God, is Himself the chief priest of God +the Father, and has first offered Himself a sacrifice to the +Father, and has commanded this to be done in commemoration +of Himself, certainly that priest truly acts in the place of +Christ who imitates what Christ did; and he then offers a +true and full sacrifice in the Church of God to God the Father +<pb n='236'/><anchor id='Pg236'/> +when he proceeds to offer it according to what he sees Christ +himself to have offered. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 15. But the discipline of all religion and truth is overturned +unless what is spiritually prescribed be faithfully +observed; unless, indeed, any one should fear in the morning +sacrifices lest the taste of wine should be redolent of the blood +of Christ.<note place="foot">Reference to the possibility of detecting +Christians in times of persecution by the odor of wine which they had +received in the eucharist early in the morning.</note> +Therefore, thus the brotherhood is beginning to +be kept back from the passion of Christ in persecutions by +learning in the offerings to be disturbed concerning His blood +and His blood-shedding.… But how can we shed our blood +for Christ who blush to drink the blood of Christ? +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 16. Does any one perchance flatter himself with this +reflection—that, although in the morning water alone is seen +to be offered, yet when we come to supper we offer the mingled +cup? But when we sup, we cannot call the people together +for our banquet that we may celebrate the truth of +the sacrament in the presence of the entire brotherhood. +But still it was not in the morning, but after supper that the +Lord offered the mingled cup. Ought we, then, to celebrate +the Lord's cup after supper, that so by continual repetition +of the Lord's Supper we may offer the mingled cup? It was +necessary that Christ should offer about the evening of the +day, that the very hour of sacrifice might show the setting +and the evening of the world as it is written in Exodus: +<q>And all the people of the synagogue of the children of +Israel shall kill it in the evening.</q><note place="foot">Ex. 12:6.</note> +And again in the Psalms: <q>Let the lifting up of my hands be +an evening sacrifice.</q><note place="foot">Psalm. 141:2.</note> +But we celebrate the resurrection of the Lord in the morning. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 17. And because we make mention of His passion in +all sacrifices (for the Lord's passion is the sacrifice which we +offer), we ought to do nothing else than what He did. For +the Scripture says: <q>For as often as ye eat this bread and +<pb n='237'/><anchor id='Pg237'/> +drink this cup, ye do show forth the Lord's death till He +come.</q><note place="foot">I Cor. 11:26.</note> +As often, therefore, as we offer the cup in commemoration +of the Lord and His passion, let us do what it is +known the Lord did. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_50"/> +<head>§ 50. The Episcopate in the Church</head> + +<p> +The greatest name connected with the development of the +hierarchical conception of the Church in the third century +is without question Cyprian (see <ref target="Section_49">§ 49</ref>). He developed the +conception of the episcopate beyond the point it had reached +in the hands of Tertullian, to whom the institution was +important primarily as a guardian of the deposit of faith and +a pledge of the continuity of the Church. In the hands of +Cyprian the episcopate became the essential foundation of +the Church. According to his theory of the office, every +bishop was the peer of every other bishop and had the same +duties to his diocese and to the Church as a whole as every +other bishop. No bishop had any more than a moral authority +over any other. Only the whole body of bishops, or +the council, could bring anything more than moral authority +to bear upon an offending prelate. The constitution of the +council was not as yet defined. In several points the ecclesiastical +theories of Cyprian were not followed by the Church +as a whole, notably his opinion regarding heretical baptism +(see <ref target="Section_47">§ 47</ref>), but his main contention as to +the importance of the episcopate for the very existence (<foreign +lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">esse</foreign>), and not the mere +welfare (<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">bene esse</foreign>), of +the Church was universally accepted. +His theory of the equality of all bishops was a survival of +an earlier period, and represented little more than his personal +ideal. The following sections should also be consulted +in this connection. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Cyprian deals with the hierarchical +constitution in almost every epistle; see, however, especially the following: +26:1 [33:1], 51:24 [55:24], 54:5 [59:5], 64:3 [3:3], +<pb n='238'/><anchor id='Pg238'/> +72:21 [73:21], 74:16 [75:16] (important for the testimony of Firmilian +as to the hierarchical ideas in the East). <hi rend='italic'>Serapion's Prayer +Book</hi>, trans. by J. Wordsworth, 1899. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula 68</hi>, 8 [=66]. +(MSL, 4:418.)</head> + +<p> +Although a rebellious and arrogant multitude of those who +will not obey depart, yet the Church does not depart from +Christ; and they are the Church who are a people united to +the priest, and the flock which adheres to its pastor. Whence +you ought to know that the bishop is in the Church and the +Church in the bishop; and that if any one be not with the +bishop, he is not in the Church, and that those flatter themselves +in vain who creep in, not having peace with God's +priests, and think that they communicate secretly with some; +while the Church, which is Catholic and one, is not cut nor +divided, but is indeed connected and bound together by the +cement of the priests who cohere with one another. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Council of Carthage, A. D. 256. (MSL, 3:1092.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The council of Carthage, in 256, was held, under the presidency of +Cyprian, to act on the question of baptism by heretics. +See <ref target="Section_52">§ 52</ref>. +Eighty-seven bishops were present. The full report of proceedings is +to be found in the works of Cyprian. See ANF, V, 565, and Hefele, +§ 6. The theory of Cyprian which is here expressed is that all +bishops are equal and independent, as opposed to the Roman position +taken by Stephen, and that the individual bishop is responsible +only to God. +</quote> + +<p> +Cyprian said: … It remains that upon this matter each +of us should bring forward what he thinks, judging no man, +nor rejecting from the right of communion, if he should think +differently. For neither does any one of us set himself up +as a bishop of bishops, nor by tyrannical terrors does any one +compel his colleagues to the necessity of obedience; since +every bishop, according to the allowance of his liberty and +power, has his own proper right of judgment, and can no +more be judged by another than he himself can judge another. +But let us all wait for the judgment of our Lord Jesus Christ, +<pb n='239'/><anchor id='Pg239'/> +who alone has the power of advancing us in the government +of His Church, and of judging us in our conduct here. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 67:5. (MSL, +3:1064.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following epistle was written to clergy and people in Spain, +<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, at Leon, Astorga, and +Merida, in regard to the ordination of two +bishops, Sabinus and Felix, in place of Basilides and Martial, who +had lapsed in the persecution and had been deprived of their sees. +The passage illustrates the methods of election and ordination of +bishops, and the failure of Cyprian, with his theory of the episcopate, +to recognize in the see of Rome any jurisdiction over other bishops. +Its date appears to be about 257. +</quote> + +<p> +You must diligently observe and keep the practice delivered +from divine tradition and apostolic observance, which is +also maintained among us, and throughout almost all the +provinces: that for the proper celebration of ordinations all +the neighboring bishops of the same province should assemble +with that people for which a prelate is ordained. And the +bishops should be chosen in the presence of the people, who +have most fully known the life of each one, and have looked +into the doings of each one as respects his manner of life. +And this also, we see, was done by you in the ordination of our +colleague Sabinus; so that, by the suffrage of the whole brotherhood, +and by the sentence of the bishops who had assembled +in their presence, and who had written letters to you concerning +him, the episcopate was conferred upon him, and +hands were imposed on him in the place of Basilides. Neither +can an ordination properly completed be annulled, so that +Basilides, after his crimes had been discovered and his conscience +made bare, even by his own confession, might go to +Rome and deceive Stephen, our colleague, who was placed +at a distance and was ignorant of what had been done, so as +to bring it about that he might be replaced unjustly in the +episcopate from which he had been justly deposed. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='240'/><anchor id='Pg240'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_51"/> +<head>§ 51. The Unity of the Church and the See of Rome</head> + +<p> +In the middle of the third century there were in sharp conflict +two distinct and opposed theories of Church unity: +the theory that the unity was based upon adherence to and +conformity with the see of Peter; and the theory that the +episcopate was itself one, and that each bishop shared equally +in it. The unity was either in one see or in the less tangible +unity of an order of the hierarchy. The former was the +theory of the Roman bishops; the latter, the theory of Cyprian +of Carthage, and possibly of a number of other ecclesiastics +in North Africa and Asia Minor. Formerly polemical theology +made the study of this point difficult, at least with +anything like impartiality. In the passage given below from +Cyprian's treatise <hi rend='italic'>On the Unity of the Catholic Church</hi> the +text of the Jesuit Father Kirch is followed in the most difficult +and interpolated chapter 4. As Father Kirch gives the text +it is perfectly consistent with the theory of Cyprian as he has +elsewhere stated it, and that the interpolated text is not. +See, however, P. Battifol, <hi rend='italic'>Primitive Catholicism</hi>, Lond., +1911, Excursus E. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: <hi rend='italic'>V. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_27">§ 27</ref>; also Mirbt, §§ 56-69. +The little treatise <hi rend='italic'>De Aleatoribus</hi> (MSL, 4: 827), from which Mirbt +gives an extract (n. 71), might be cited in this connection, but its force +depends upon its origin. It is wholly uncertain that it was written +either by a bishop of Rome or in Italy. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Bardenhewer. Kirch +also gives the text in part, n. 276; for other references, see Kirch. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>De Catholicæ Ecclesiæ +Unitate</hi>, 4, 5. (MSL, 4:513.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The tract entitled <hi rend='italic'>On the Unity of the Catholic Church</hi> is the +most famous of Cyprian's works. As the theory there developed is opposed +to that which became dominant, and as Cyprian was regarded as the +great upholder of the Church's constitution, interpolations were early +made in the text which seriously distort the sense. These interpolations +are to-day abandoned by all scholars. The best critical edition of the +works of Cyprian is by W. von Hartel in the CSEL, but critical texts +of the following passage with references to literature and indication of +interpolations may be found in Mirbt (Prot.), n. 52, and in Kirch +(R. C.), n. 234 (chapter 4 only). +</quote> + +<pb n='241'/><anchor id='Pg241'/> + +<p> +Ch. 4. The Lord speaks to Peter, saying: <q>I say unto +thee, that thou art Peter; and upon this rock I will build +my Church and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. +I will give thee the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven; and +whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound also in +heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be +loosed also in heaven</q> (Matt. 16:18, 19). [To the same +He says after His resurrection: <q>Feed my sheep</q> (John +21:15). Upon him He builds His Church, and to him He +commits His sheep to be fed, and although. <hi rend='italic'>Interpolation.</hi>] +Upon one he builds the Church, although also to all the +Apostles after His resurrection He gives an equal power and +says, <q>As the Father has sent me, I also send you: receive +ye the Holy Ghost: whosesoever sins ye retain, they shall +be retained</q> (John 20:21); yet, that He might show the +unity, [He founded one see. <hi rend='italic'>Interpolation.</hi>] He arranged by +His authority the origin of that unity as beginning from one. +Assuredly the rest of the Apostles were also what Peter was, +with a like partnership both of honor and power; but the +beginning proceeds from unity [and the primacy is given to +Peter. <hi rend='italic'>Interpolation.</hi>], that there might be shown to be one +Church of Christ [and one see. And they are all shepherds, +but the flock is shown to be one which is fed by the Apostles +with unanimous consent. <hi rend='italic'>Interpolation.</hi>]. Which one Church +the Holy Spirit also in the Song of Songs designates in the +person of the Lord and says: <q>My dove, my spotless one, is +but one. She is the only one of her mother, chosen of her +that bare her</q> (Cant. 6:9). Does he who does not hold +this unity of the Church [unity of Peter. <hi rend='italic'>Corrupt reading.</hi>] +think that he holds the faith? Does he who strives against +and resists the Church [who deserts the chair of Peter. +<hi rend='italic'>Interpolation.</hi>] +trust that he is in the Church, when, moreover, the +blessed Apostle Paul teaches the same things and sets forth +the sacrament of unity, saying, <q>There is one body and one +spirit, one hope of your calling, one Lord, one faith, one +baptism, one God</q>? (Eph. 4:4.) +</p> + +<pb n='242'/><anchor id='Pg242'/> + +<p> +Ch. 5. And this unity we ought to hold firmly and assert, +especially we bishops who preside in the Church, that we may +prove the episcopate itself to be one and undivided. Let +no one deceive the brotherhood by a falsehood; let no one +corrupt the truth by a perfidious prevarication. The episcopate +is one, each part of which is held by each one in its +entirety. The Church, also, is one which is spread abroad +far and wide into a multitude by an increase of fruitfulness. +As there are many rays of the sun, but one light, and many +branches of a tree, but one strength based upon its tenacious +root, and since from one spring flow many streams, although +the multiplicity seems diffused in the liberality of an overflowing +abundance, yet the unity is still preserved in its source. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_51_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Firmilian of Cæesarea, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Cyprianum</hi>, in Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. 74</hi> [=75]. (MSL, 3:1024.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The matter in dispute was the rebaptism of those heretics who +had received baptism before they conformed to the Church. See +<ref target="Section_52">§ 52</ref>. +It was the burning question after the rise of the Novatian sect. Stephen, +bishop of Rome (254-257), had excommunicated a number of +churches and bishops, among them probably Cyprian himself. See +the epistle of Dionysius to Sixtus of Rome, the successor of Stephen, +in Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VII, 5. <q>He</q> (Stephen) therefore had +written previously concerning Helenus and Firmilianus and all those +in Cilicia, Cappadocia, Galatia, and the neighboring countries, saying +that he would not communicate with them for this same cause: +namely, that they rebaptized heretics. This attitude of Stephen +roused no little resentment in the East, as is shown by the indignant +tone of Firmilian, who recognizes no authority in Rome. The text +may be found in Mirbt, n. 74, and in part in Kirch, n. 274. The +epistle of Firmilian is to be found among the epistles of Cyprian, to +whom it was written. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. We may in this matter give thanks to Stephen that +it has now happened through his unkindness [inhumanity] +that we receive proof of your faith and wisdom. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. But let these things which were done by Stephen be +passed by for the present, lest, while we remember his audacity +and pride, we bring a more lasting sadness on ourselves +from the things he has wickedly done. +</p> + +<pb n='243'/><anchor id='Pg243'/> + +<p> +Ch. 6. That they who are at Rome do not observe those +things in all cases which have been handed down from the +beginning, and vainly pretend the authority of the Apostles, +any one may know; also, from the fact that concerning the +celebration of the day of Easter, and concerning many other +sacraments of divine matters, one may see that there are some +diversities among them, and that all things are not observed +there alike which are observed at Jerusalem; just as in very +many other provinces also many things are varied because +of the difference of places and names, yet on this account +there is no departure at all from the peace and unity of the +Catholic Church. And this departure Stephen has now +dared to make; breaking the peace against you, which his +predecessors have always kept with you in mutual love and +honor, even herein defaming Peter and Paul, the blessed +Apostles, as if the very men delivered this who in their epistles +execrated heretics and warned us to avoid them. Whence +it appears that this tradition is human which maintains heretics, +and asserts that they have baptism, which belongs to +the Church alone. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 17. And in this respect I am justly indignant at this so +open and manifest folly of Stephen, that he who so boasts of +the place of his episcopate and contends that he holds the +succession of Peter, on whom the foundation of the Church +was laid, should introduce many other rocks and establish +new buildings of many churches, maintaining that there is a +baptism in them by his authority; for those who are baptized, +without doubt, make up the number of the Church.… +Stephen, who announces that he holds by succession the +throne of Peter, is stirred with no zeal against heretics, when +he concedes to them, not a moderate, but the very greatest +power of grace. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 19. This, indeed, you Africans are able to say against +Stephen, that when you knew the truth you forsook the +error of custom. But we join custom to truth, and to the +Romans' custom we oppose custom, but the custom of +<pb n='244'/><anchor id='Pg244'/> +truth, holding from the beginning that which was delivered +by Christ and the Apostles. Nor do we remember that this +at any time began among us, since it has always been observed +here, that we have known none but one Church of God, and +have accounted no baptism holy except that of the holy +Church. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 24. Consider with what want of judgment you dare to +blame those who strive for the truth against falsehood.<note place="foot">This +whole passage is supposed to be addressed to Stephen. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +the opening words of <ref target="Section_25">§ 25</ref>.</note> … +For how many strifes and dissensions have you stirred up +throughout the churches of the whole world! Moreover, how +great sin have you heaped up for yourself, when you cut yourself +off from so many flocks! For it is yourself that you have +cut off. Do not deceive yourself, since he is really the schismatic +who has made himself an apostate from the communion +of ecclesiastical unity. For while you think that all may +be excommunicated by you, you have alone excommunicated +yourself from all; and not even the precepts of an Apostle +have been able to mould you to the rule of truth and peace.<note place="foot">Eph. +4:1-6 follows.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 25. How carefully has Stephen fulfilled these salutary +commands and warnings of the Apostle, keeping in the first +place lowliness of mind and meekness! For what is more +lowly or meek than to have disagreed with so many bishops +throughout the whole world, breaking peace with each one +of them in various kinds of discord: at one time with the +Easterns, as we are sure is not unknown to you; at another +time with you who are in the south, from whom he received +bishops as messengers sufficiently patiently and meekly as +not to receive them even to the speech of common conference; +and, even more, so unmindful of love and charity as to command +the whole brotherhood that no one should receive +them into his house, so that not only peace and communion, +but also a shelter and entertainment were denied to them +when they came. This is to have kept the unity of the Spirit +<pb n='245'/><anchor id='Pg245'/> +in the bond of peace, to cut himself off from the unity of love, +and to make himself a stranger in all things to his brethren, +and to rebel against the sacrament and the faith with the madness +of contumacious discord.… Stephen is not ashamed +to afford patronage to such a position in the Church, and for +the sake of maintaining heretics to divide the brotherhood; +and, in addition, to call Cyprian a false Christ, and a false +Apostle, and a deceitful worker, and he, conscious that all +these characters are for himself, has been in advance of you +by falsely objecting to another those things which he himself +ought to bear. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_52"/> +<head>§ 52. Controversy over Baptism by Heretics</head> + +<p> +In the great persecutions schisms arose in connection with +the administration of discipline (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +<ref target="Section_46">§ 46</ref>). The schismatics +held in general the same faith as the main body of Christians. +Were the sacraments they administered to be regarded, then, +as valid in such a sense that when they conformed to the +Catholic Church, which they frequently did, they need not +be baptized, having once been validly baptized; or should +their schismatic baptism be regarded as invalid and they be +required to receive baptism on conforming if they had not +previously been baptized within the Church? Was baptism +outside the unity of the Church valid? Rome answered in +the affirmative, admitting conforming schismatics without +distinguishing as to where they had been baptized; North +Africa answered in the negative and required not, indeed, a +second baptism, but claimed that the Church's baptism was +alone valid, and that if the person conforming had been baptized +in schism he had not been baptized at all. This view +was shared by at least some churches in Asia Minor (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +<ref target="Section_51_b">§ 51, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>), +and possibly elsewhere. It became the basis of the Donatist position +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> <ref target="Section_62">§ 62</ref>), +which schism shared with the Novatian schism the opinion, +generally rejected by the Church, that the validity of a sacrament +depended upon the +<pb n='246'/><anchor id='Pg246'/> +spiritual condition of the minister of the sacrament, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, +whether he was in schism or not. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Seventh Council of Carthage (ANF, +vol. V); Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VII, 7:4-6; Augustine, +<hi rend='italic'>De Baptismo contra Donatistas</hi>, Bk. III (PNF, ser. I, vol. IV). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Jubianum</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 73, 7 [=72]. (MSL, 3:1159, 168.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +A portion of this epistle may be found in Mirbt, n. 70. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 7. It is manifest where and by whom the remission of +sins can be given, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, that remission which is given by +baptism. For first of all the Lord gave the power to Peter, +upon whom He built the Church, and whence he appointed +and showed the source of unity, the power, namely, that +that should be loosed in heaven which he loosed on earth +[John 20:21 quoted]. When we perceive that only they who +are set over the Church and established in the Gospel law and +in the ordinance of the Lord are allowed to baptize and to +give remission of sins, we see that outside of the Church +nothing can be bound or loosed, for there there is no one +who can either bind or loose anything. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 21. Can the power of baptism be greater or of more +avail than confession, than suffering when one confesses Christ +before men, and is baptized in his own blood? And yet, even +this baptism does not benefit a heretic, although he has confessed +Christ and been put to death outside the Church, +unless the patrons and advocates of heretics [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, those whom +Cyprian is opposing] declare that the heretics who are slain +in a false confession of Christ are martyrs, and assign to them +the glory and the crown of martyrdom contrary to the testimony +of the Apostle, who says that it will profit them +nothing although they are burned and slain. But if not even +the baptism of a public confession and blood can profit a +heretic to salvation, because there is no salvation outside of +the Church, how much less shall it benefit him if, in a hiding-place +and a cave of robbers stained with the contagion of +<pb n='247'/><anchor id='Pg247'/> +adulterous waters, he has not only not put off his old sins, +but rather heaped up still newer and greater ones! Wherefore +baptism cannot be common to us and to heretics, to whom +neither God the Father nor Christ the Son, nor the Holy +Ghost, nor the faith, nor the Church itself is common. And +wherefore they ought to be baptized who come from heresy +to the Church, so that they who are prepared and receive the +lawful and true and only baptism of the holy Church, by +divine regeneration for the kingdom of God may be born of +both sacraments, because it is written: <q>Except a man be +born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom +of God</q> [John 3:5]. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 26. These things, dearest brother, we have briefly +written to you according to our modest abilities, prescribing +to none and prejudging none, so as to prevent any one of the +bishops doing what he thinks well, and having the free exercise +of his judgment. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Cyprian, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Magnum</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 75 [=69]. (MSL, 3:1183.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, +n. 67.</head> + +<p> +With your usual diligence you have consulted my poor +intelligence, dearest son, as to whether, among other heretics, +they also who come from Novatian ought, after his profane +washing, to be baptized and sanctified in the Catholic Church, +with the lawful, true, and only baptism of the Church. In +answer to this question, as much as the capacity of my faith +and the sanctity and truth of the divine Scriptures suggest, +I say that no heretics and schismatics at all have any right +to power. For which reason Novatian, since he is without +the Church and is acting in opposition to the peace and love +of Christ, neither ought to be, nor can be, omitted from being +counted among the adversaries and antichrists. For our +Lord Jesus Christ, when He declared in His Gospel that those +who were not with Him were His adversaries, did not point +out any species of heresy, but showed that all who were not +with Him, and who were not gathering with Him, were +<pb n='248'/><anchor id='Pg248'/> +scattering His flock, and were His adversaries, saying: <q>He +that is not with me is against me, and he that gathereth not +with me scattereth</q> [Luke 11:23]. Moreover, the blessed +Apostle John distinguished no heresy or schism, neither did +he set down any specially separated, but he called all who +had gone out from the Church, and who acted in opposition +to the Church, antichrists, saying, <q>Ye have heard that Antichrist +cometh, and even now are come many antichrists; +wherefore we know that this is the last time. They went +out from us, but they were not of us, for if they had been of +us, they would have continued with us</q> [I John 2:18 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>]. +Whence it appears that all are adversaries of the Lord and are +antichrists who are known to have departed from the charity +and from the unity of the Catholic Church. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_53"/> +<head>§ 53. The Beginnings of Monasticism</head> + +<p> +Asceticism in some form is common to almost all religions. +It was practised extensively in early Christianity and ascetics +of both sexes were numerous. This asceticism, in addition to +a life largely devoted to prayer and fasting, was marked by +refraining from marriage. But these ascetics lived in close +relations with those who were non-ascetics. Monasticism is +an advance upon this earlier asceticism in that it attempts to +create, apart from non-ascetics, a social order composed only +of ascetics in which the ascetic ideals may be more successfully +realized. The transition was made by the hermit life +in which the ascetic lived alone in deserts and other solitudes. +This became monasticism by the union of ascetics for mutual +spiritual aid. This advance is associated with St. Anthony. +See also Pachomius, in <ref target="Section_77">§ 77</ref>. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Pseudo-Clement. <hi rend='italic'>De Virginitate</hi> (ANF, +VIII, 53); Methodius, <hi rend='italic'>Symposium</hi> (ANF, VI, 309); the +<hi rend='italic'>Lausiac History of Palladius</hi>, E. C. Butler, +<hi rend='italic'>Texts and Studies</hi>, Cambridge, 1898; <hi rend='italic'>Paradise, +or Garden of the Holy Fathers</hi>, trans. by E. A. W. Budge, London, 1907. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>Vita S. Antonii</hi>, 2-4, 44. (MSG, 26:844, +908.)</head> + +<pb n='249'/><anchor id='Pg249'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Anthony, although not the first hermit, gave such an impetus to +the ascetic life and did so much to bring about some union of ascetics +that he has been popularly regarded as the founder of monasticism. +He died 356, at the age of one hundred and five. His <hi rend='italic'>Life</hi>, by St. +Athanasius, although formerly attacked, is a genuine, and, on the +whole, trustworthy account of this remarkable man. It was written +either 357 or 365, and was translated into Latin by Evagrius of +Antioch (died 393). Everywhere it roused the greatest enthusiasm for +monasticism. The <hi rend='italic'>Life of St. Paul of Thebes</hi>, by St. Jerome, is of +very different character, and of no historical value. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. After the death of his parents, Anthony was left +alone with one little sister. He was about eighteen or twenty +years old, and on him rested the care of both the home and +his sister. Now it happened not six months after the death of +his parents, and when he was going, according to custom, +into the Lord's house, and was communing with himself, that +he reflected as he walked how the Apostles left all and followed +the Saviour, and how, in the Acts, men sold their possessions +and brought and laid them at the Apostles' feet for +distribution to the needy, and what and how great a hope +was laid up for them in heaven. While he was reflecting on +these things he entered the church, and it happened that at +that time the Gospel was being read, and he heard the Lord +say to the rich man: <q>If thou wouldest be perfect, go and sell +that thou hast and give to the poor; and come and follow +me and thou shalt have treasure in heaven.</q> Anthony, as +though God had put him in mind of the saints and the passage +had been read on his account, went out straightway from +the Lord's house, and gave the possessions which he had +from his forefathers to the villagers—they were three hundred +acres, productive and very fair—that they should be no more +a clog upon himself and his sister. And all the rest that +was movable he sold, and, having got together much money, +he gave it to the poor, reserving a little, however, for his sister's +sake. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. And again as he went into the Lord's house, and +hearing the Lord say in the Gospel, <q>Be not anxious for the +<pb n='250'/><anchor id='Pg250'/> +morrow,</q> he could stay no longer, but went and gave also +those things to the poor. He then committed his sister to +known and faithful virgins, putting her in a convent +[<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">parthenon</foreign>], +to be brought up, and henceforth he devoted himself +outside his house to ascetic discipline, taking heed to himself +and training himself patiently. For there were not yet many +monasteries in Egypt, and no monk at all knew of the distant +desert; but every one of those who wished to give heed to +themselves practised the ascetic discipline in solitude near +his own village. Now there was in the next village an old +man who had lived from his youth the life of a hermit. +Anthony, after he had seen this man, imitated him in piety. +And at first he began to abide in places outside the village. +Then, if he heard of any good man anywhere, like the prudent +bee, he went forth and sought him, nor did he turn back to +his own place until he had seen him; and he returned, having +got from the good man supplies, as it were, for his journey +in the way of virtue. So dwelling there at first, he steadfastly +held to his purpose not to return to the abode of his parents or +to the remembrance of his kinsfolk; but to keep all his desire +and energy for the perfecting of his discipline. He worked, +however, with his hands, having heard that <q>he who is idle, +let him not eat,</q> and part he spent on bread and part he gave +to the needy. And he prayed constantly, because he had +learned that a man ought to pray in secret unceasingly. +For he had given such heed to what was read that none of +those things that were written fell from him to the ground; +for he remembered all, and afterward his memory served him +for books. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 4. Thus conducting himself, Anthony was beloved by +all. He subjected himself in sincerity to the good men he +visited, and learned thoroughly wherein each surpassed him +in zeal and discipline. He observed the graciousness of one, +the unceasing prayer of another; he took knowledge of one's +freedom from anger, and another's kindliness; he gave heed +to one as he watched, to another as he studied; one he admired +<pb n='251'/><anchor id='Pg251'/> +for his endurance, another for his fasting and sleeping +on the ground; he watched the meekness of one, and the long-suffering +of another; and at the same time he noted the piety +toward Christ and the mutual love which animated all. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Athanasius describes Anthony's removal to the desert and the +coming of disciples to him, and weaves into his narrative, in the form +of a speech, a long account of the discipline laid down, probably by +Anthony himself, chs. 16-43. It is to this long speech that the opening +words of the following section refers. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 44. While Anthony was thus speaking all rejoiced; +in some the love of virtue increased, in others carelessness was +thrown aside, the self-conceit of others was stopped; and +all were persuaded to despise the assaults of the Evil One, +and marvelled at the grace given Anthony from the Lord for +the discerning of spirits. So their cells were in the mountains, +like tabernacles filled with holy bands of men who sang psalms, +loved reading, fasted, prayed, rejoiced in the hope of things +to come, labored in almsgiving, and maintained love and +harmony with one another. And truly it was possible to +behold a land, as it were, set by itself, filled with piety and +justice. For then there was neither the evil-doer nor the +injured, nor the reproaches of the tax-gatherer; but instead +a multitude of ascetics, and the one purpose of all was to +aim at virtue. So that one beholding the cells again and +seeing such good order among the monks would lift up his +voice and say: <q>How goodly are thy dwellings, O Jacob, +and thy tents, O Israel; as shady glens and as a garden by a +river; as tents which the Lord has pitched, and like cedars +near the waters</q> [Num. 24:5, 6]. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 45. Anthony, however, returned, according to his custom, +alone to his cell, increased his discipline, and sighed +daily as he thought of the mansions of heaven, having his +desire fixed on them and pondering over the shortness of +man's life. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='252'/><anchor id='Pg252'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_54"/> +<head>§ 54. Manichæanism</head> + +<p> +The last great rival religion to Christianity was Manichæanism, +the last of the important syncretistic religions which +drew from Persian and allied sources. Its connection with +Christianity was at first slight and its affinities were with +Eastern Gnosticism. After 280 it began to spread within +the Empire, and was soon opposed by the Roman authorities. +Yet it flourished, and, like other Gnostic religions, with which +it is to be classed, it assimilated more and more of Christianity, +until in the time of Augustine it seemed to many as merely a +form of Christianity. On account of its general character, it +absorbed for the most part what remained of the earlier +Gnostic systems and schools. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: The most important accessible works +are the so-called <hi rend='italic'>Acta Archelai</hi> (ANF, V, 175-235), +the anti-Manichæan writings of Augustine (PNF, ser. I, vol. IV), and Alexander of +Lycopolis, <hi rend='italic'>On the Manichæans</hi> (ANF, VI, 239). On Alexander of +Lycopolis, see DCB. In the opinion of Bardenhewer, Alexander was +probably neither a bishop nor a Christian at all, but a heathen and a +Platonist. Roman edict against Manichæanism in Kirch, n. 294. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>An Nadim, <hi rend='italic'>Fihrist</hi>. (Translation after Kessler, +<hi rend='italic'>Mani</hi>, 1889.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <hi rend='italic'>Fihrist</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +Catalogue, is a sort of history of literature made +in the eleventh century by the Moslem historian An Nadim. In spite +of its late date, it is the most important authority for the original +doctrines of Mani and the facts of his life, as it is largely made up +from citations from ancient authors and writings of Mani and his +original disciples. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) The Life of Mani.</head> + +<p> +Mohammed ibn Isak says: Mani was the son of Fatak,<note place="foot">Or. Fonnak.</note> +of the family of the Chaskanier. Ecbatana is said to have been +the original home of his father, from which he emigrated to the +province of Babylon. He took up his residence in Al Madain, +in a portion of the city known as Ctesiphon. In that place +was an idol's temple, and Fatak was accustomed to go into +it, as did also the other people of the place. It happened one +<pb n='253'/><anchor id='Pg253'/> +day that a voice sounded forth from the sacred interior of +the temple, saying to him: <q>Fatak, eat no flesh, drink no +wine and refrain from carnal intercourse.</q> This was repeated +to him several times on three days. When Fatak perceived +this, he joined a society of people in the neighborhood of +Dastumaisan which were known under the name of Al-Mogtasilah, +<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, those who wash themselves, baptists, and +of whom remnants are to be found in these parts and in the +marshy districts at the present time. These belonged to that +mode of life which Fatak had been commanded to follow. +His wife was at that time pregnant with Mani, and when she +had given him birth she had, as they say, glorious visions +regarding him, and even when she was awake she saw him +taken by some one unseen, who bore him aloft into the air, +and then brought him down again; sometimes he remained +even a day or two before he came down again. Thereupon his +father sent for him and had him brought to the place where +he was, and so he was brought up with him in his religion. +Mani, in spite of his youthful age, spake words of wisdom. +After he had completed his twelfth year there came to him, +according to his statement, a revelation from the King of the +Paradise of Light, who is God the Exalted, as he said. The +angel which brought him the revelation was called Eltawan; +this name means <q>the Companion.</q> He spoke to Mani, and +said: <q>Separate thyself from this sort of faith, for thou belongest +not among its adherents, and it is obligatory upon you to +practise continence and to forsake the fleshly desires, yet on +account of thy youth the time has not come for thee to take +up thy public work.</q> But when he was twenty-four years +old, Eltawan appeared to him and said: <q>Hail, Mani, from +me and from the Lord who has sent me to thee and has +chosen thee to be his prophet. He commands thee now to +proclaim thy truth and on my announcement to proclaim the +truth which is from him and to throw thyself into this calling +with all thy zeal.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The Manichæans say: He first openly entered upon his +<pb n='254'/><anchor id='Pg254'/> +work on the day when Sapor, the son of Ardaschir, entered +upon his reign, and placed the crown upon his head; and this +was Sunday, the first day of Nisan (March 20, 241), when +the sun stood in the sign Aries. He was accompanied by two +men, who had already attached themselves to his religion; +one was called Simeon, the other Zakwa; besides these, his +father accompanied him, to see how his affairs would turn +out. +</p> + +<p> +Mani said he was the Paraclete, whom Jesus, of blessed +memory,<note place="foot">The author is a Moslem, and therefore +speaks of Jesus with great respect; Mani regarded Jesus as evil.</note> +had previously announced. Mani took the elements +of his doctrine from the religion of the Magi and Christianity.… +Before he met Sapor Mani had spent about +forty years in foreign lands.<note place="foot">This is undoubtedly a mistake.</note> +Afterward he converted Peroz, +the brother of Sapor, and Peroz procured him an audience +with his brother Sapor. The Manichæans relate: He thereupon +entered where he was and on his shoulders were shining, +as it were, two candles. When Sapor perceived him, he was +filled with reverence for him, and he appeared great in his +eyes; although he previously had determined to seize him +and put him to death. After he had met him, therefore, the +fear of him filled him, he rejoiced over him and asked him why +he had come and promised to become his disciple. Mani requested +of him a number of things, among them that his +followers might be unmolested in the capital and in the other +territories of the Persian Empire, and that they might extend +themselves whither they wished in the provinces. Sapor +granted him all he asked. +</p> + +<p> +Mani had already preached in India, China, and among the +inhabitants of Turkestan, and in every land he left behind +him disciples.<note place="foot">Important material has been recently +recovered from Turfan in Chinese Turkestan, reported by Messrs. Stein, +Le Coq, and F. K. W. Müller, in <hi rend='italic'>Sitzungsberichte +der Berliner Academie</hi>, for 1904, p. 348; for 1905, p. 1077; for +1908, p. 398; for 1909, p. 1202; for 1910, pp. 293, 307.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='255'/><anchor id='Pg255'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) The Teaching of Mani.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following extract from the same work gives but the beginning +of an extended statement of Mani's teaching. But it is hoped +that enough is given to show the mythological character of his speculation. +The bulk of his doctrine was Persian and late Babylonian, +and the Christian element was very slight. It is clear from the writings +of St. Augustine that the doctrine changed much in later years in the +West. +</quote> + +<p> +The doctrine of Mani, especially his dogmas of the Eternal, +to whom be praise and glory, of the creation of the world and +the contest between Light and Darkness: Mani put at the +beginning of the world two eternal principles. Of these one +is Light, the other Darkness. They are separated from each +other. As to the Light, this is the First, the Mighty One, and +the Infinite. He is the Deity, the King of the Paradise of +Light. He has five members or attributes, namely, gentleness, +wisdom, understanding, discretion, and insight; and +further five members or attributes, namely, love, faith, truth, +bravery, and wisdom. He asserts that God was from all +eternity with these attributes. Together with the Light-God +there are two other things from eternity, the air and the earth. +</p> + +<p> +Mani teaches further: The members of the air, or the Light-Ether, +are five: gentleness, wisdom, understanding, discretion, +and insight. The members of the Light-Earth are the +soft gentle breath, the wind, the light, the water, and the +fire. As to the other Original Being, the Darkness, its members +are also five: the vapor, the burning heat, the fiery wind, +the poison, and the darkness. +</p> + +<p> +This bright shining Primal Being was in immediate proximity +with the dark Primal Being, so that no wall of partition +was between them and the Light touched the Darkness on its +broad side. The Light is unlimited in its height, and also to +the right hand and to the left; the Darkness, however, is unlimited +in its depth, and also to the right hand and to the left. +</p> + +<p> +From this Dark-Earth rose Satan, not so that he himself +was without beginning, although his parts were in their elements +<pb n='256'/><anchor id='Pg256'/> +without beginning. These parts joined themselves +together from the elements and formed themselves into Satan. +His head was like that of a lion, his trunk like that of a dragon, +his wings as those of a bird, his tail like that of a great fish, +and his four feet like the feet of creeping things. When this +Satan had been formed from the Darkness—his name is the +First Devil—then he began to devour and to swallow up and +to ruin, to move about to the right and to the left, and to get +down into the deep, so that he continually brought ruin and +destruction to every one who attempted to overmaster him. +Next he hastened up on high and perceived the rays of light, +but felt an aversion to them. Then when he saw how these +rays by reciprocal influence and contact were increased in +brilliancy, he became afraid and crept together into himself, +member by member, and withdrew for union and strengthening +back to his original constituent parts. Now once more +he hastened back into the height, and the Light-Earth noticed +the action of Satan and his purpose to seize and to attack and +to destroy. But when she perceived this thereupon the world +æon of Insight perceived it, then the æon of Wisdom, the +æon of Discretion, the æon of the Understanding, and then +the æon of Gentleness. Thereupon the King of the Paradise +of Light perceived it and reflected on means to gain the mastery +over him. His armies were indeed mighty enough to +overcome him; he had the wish, however, to accomplish this +himself. Therefore he begat with the spirit of his right hand, +with the five æons, and with his twelve elements a creature, +and that was the Primal Man, and him he sent to the conquest +of Darkness.<note place="foot">By primal man is not meant the +first of mankind on earth, but a supernatural being.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter V. The Last Great Persecution</head> + +<p> +The last of the persecutions was closely connected with the +increased efficiency of the imperial administration after a +<pb n='257'/><anchor id='Pg257'/> +period of anarchy, and was more effective because of the +greater centralization of the government which Diocletian had +introduced (<ref target="Section_55">§ 55</ref>). It was preceded by a number of minor +persecuting regulations, but broke forth in its full fury in 303, +raging for nearly ten years (<ref target="Section_56">§ 56</ref>). It was by far the most +severe of all persecutions, in extent and duration and severity +surpassing that of Decius and Valerian. As in that persecution, +very many suffered severely, still more lapsed, unprepared +for suffering, as many were in the previous persecution, +and the Church was again rent with dissensions and schisms +arising over the question of the administration of discipline. +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_55"/> +<head>§ 55. The Reorganization of the Empire by Diocletian</head> + +<p> +After a period of anarchy Diocletian (284-305) undertook a +reorganization of the Empire for the sake of greater efficiency. +Following a precedent of earlier successful emperors, he +shared (285) the imperial authority with a colleague, Maximianus, +who in 286 became Augustus of the West. As the +greatest danger seemed to lie in the East, Diocletian retained +the Eastern part of the Empire, and having already abandoned +Rome as the imperial residence (284), he settled in Nicomedia +in Bithynia. To provide for a succession to the throne more +efficient than the chance succession of natural heirs, two +Cæsars were appointed in 293, Constantius Chlorus for the +West, and Galerius, the son-in-law of Diocletian, for the East. +Constantius at once became the son-in-law of Maximianus. +These Cæsars were to ascend the throne when the <hi rend='italic'>Augusti</hi> +resigned after twenty years' reign. The scheme worked temporarily +for greater efficiency, but ended in civil war as the +claims of natural heirs were set aside in favor of an artificial +dynasty. At the same time the system bore heavily +<pb n='258'/><anchor id='Pg258'/> +upon the people and the prosperity of the Empire rapidly declined. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Bibliography in <hi rend='italic'>Cambridge Medieval History</hi>, London and New +York, 1911, vol. I. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>De Mortibus Persecutorum</hi>, 7. (MSL, +7:204.)</head> + +<p> +When Diocletian, the author of crimes and deviser of evils, +was ruining all things, not even from against God could he +withhold his hand. This man, partly by avarice and partly +by timidity, overturned the world. For he made three persons +sharers with him in the government. The Empire was +divided into four parts, and armies were multiplied, since each +of the four princes strove to have a much larger military force +than any emperor had had when one emperor alone carried +on the government. There began to be a greater number of +those who received taxes than of those who paid them; so +that the means of the husbandmen were exhausted by enormous +impositions, the fields were abandoned, and cultivated +grounds became woodlands, and universal dismay prevailed. +Besides, the provinces were divided into minute portions and +many presidents and prefects lay heavy on each territory, and +almost on every city. There were many stewards and masters +and deputy presidents, before whom very few civil causes +came, but only condemnations and frequent forfeitures, and +exactions of numberless commodities, and I will not say often +repeated, but perpetual and intolerable, wrongs in the exacting +of them. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_56"/> +<head>§ 56. The Diocletian Persecution</head> + +<p> +The last great persecution was preceded by a number of +laws aimed to annoy the Christians. On March 12, 295, +all soldiers in the army were ordered to offer sacrifice. In +296 sacred books of the Christians were sought for and burnt +at Alexandria. In 297 or 298 Christian persecutions began +in the army, but the great persecution itself broke out in +303, as described below. Among other reasons for energetic +<pb n='259'/><anchor id='Pg259'/> +measures in which Galerius took the lead, appears to have +been that prince's desire to establish the unity of the Empire +upon a religious basis, which is borne out by his attempts to +reorganize the heathen worship immediately after the cessation +of the persecution. In April, 311, the edict of Galerius, +known as the Edict of the Three Emperors, put an official +end to the persecution. In parts of the Empire, however, +small persecutions took place and the authorities attempted +to attack Christianity without actually carrying on persecutions, +as in the wide-spread dissemination of the infamous +<q>Acts of Pilate,</q> which were posted on walls and spread +through the schools. In the territories of Constantius Chlorus +the persecution had been very light, and there was none +under Constantine who favored Christians from the first. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VIII, and IX, +9; his little work <hi rend='italic'>On the Martyrs of Palestine</hi> will be found +after the eighth book. Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>De Mortibus Persecutorum</hi>. +The principal texts will be found in Preuschen's <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, +I, §§ 20, 21; see also R. Knopf, <hi rend='italic'>Ausgewählte Märtyreracten</hi>. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Lactantius. <hi rend='italic'>De Mortibus +Persecutorum</hi>, 12 <hi rend='italic'>ff</hi>. (MSL. 7:213.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The outbreak of the persecution. +</quote> + +<p> +A fit and auspicious day was sought for the accomplishment +of this undertaking [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the persecution of the Christians]; +and the festival of the great god Terminus, celebrated +on the seventh calends of March [Feb. 23], was chosen, to +put an end, as it were, to this religion, +</p> + +<lg> +<l><q>That day the first of death, was first of evil's cause</q> (Vergil),</l> +</lg> + +<p> +and cause of evils which befell not only the Christians but +the whole world. When that day dawned, in the eighth +consulship of Diocletian and seventh of Maximianus, suddenly, +while it was hardly light, the prefect, together with +the chief commanders, tribunes, and officers of the treasury, +came to the church [in Nicomedia], and when the gates had +<pb n='260'/><anchor id='Pg260'/> +been forced open they sought for an image of God. The +books of the Holy Scriptures were found and burnt; the spoil +was given to all. Rapine, confusion, and tumult reigned. +Since the church was situated on rising ground, and was +visible from the palace, Diocletian and Galerius stood there +as if on a watch-tower and disputed long together whether it +ought to be set on fire. The opinion of Diocletian prevailed, +for he feared lest, when so great a fire should once be started, +the city might be burnt; for many and large buildings surrounded +the church on all sides. Then the prætorian guard, +in battle array, came with axes and other iron instruments, +and having been let loose everywhere, in a few hours they +levelled that very lofty building to the ground. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 13. Next day the edict was published ordaining that +men of the Christian religion should be deprived of all honors +and dignities; and also that they should be subjected to torture, +of whatsoever rank or position they might be; and that +every suit of law should be entertained against them; but they, +on the other hand, could not bring any suit for any wrong, +adultery, or theft; and finally, that they should have neither +freedom nor the right of suffrage. A certain person, although +not properly, yet with a brave soul, tore down this +edict and cut it up, saying in derision: <q>These are the triumphs +of Goths and Samaritans.</q> Having been brought to judgment, +he was not only tortured, but was burnt in the legal +manner, and with admirable patience he was consumed to +ashes. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 14. But Galerius was not satisfied with the terms of +the edict, and sought another way to gain over the Emperor. +That he might urge him to excess of cruelty in persecution, +he employed private agents to set the palace on fire; and +when some part of it had been burnt the Christians were +accused as public enemies, and the very appellation of +Christian grew odious on account of its connection with the +fire in the palace. It was said that the Christians, in concert +with the eunuchs, had plotted to destroy the princes, +<pb n='261'/><anchor id='Pg261'/> +and that both the emperors had well-nigh been burnt alive +in their own palace. Diocletian, who always wanted to +appear shrewd and intelligent, suspecting nothing of the +deception, but inflamed with anger, began immediately to +torture all his domestics. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VIII, 2; +6: 8. (MSG, 20:753.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The edicts of Diocletian. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The first passage occurs, with slight variations, in the introduction +to the work <hi rend='italic'>On the Martyrs of Palestine.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. It was in the nineteenth year of the reign of Diocletian, +in the month Dystus, called March by the Romans, +when the feast of the Saviour's passion was near at hand, that +royal edicts were published everywhere commanding that +the churches be levelled to the ground, the Scriptures be +destroyed by fire, and all holding places of honor be branded +with infamy, and that the household servants, if they persisted +in the profession of Christianity, be deprived of their +freedom. +</p> + +<p> +Such was the original edict against us. But not long after +other decrees were issued, commanding that all the rulers of +the churches everywhere should be first thrown into prison, +and afterward compelled by every means to sacrifice. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 6:8. Such things occurred in Nicomedia at the +beginning of the persecution. But not long after, as persons +in the country called Melitina and others throughout +Syria attempted to usurp the government, a royal edict commanded +that the rulers of the churches everywhere be thrown +into prison and bonds. What was to be seen after this +exceeds all description. A vast multitude were imprisoned +in every place; and the prisons everywhere, which had long +before been prepared for murderers and grave-robbers, were +filled with bishops, presbyters and deacons, readers and +exorcists, so that room was no longer left in them for those +condemned for crimes. And as other decrees followed the +first, directing that those in prison, if they sacrificed, should +<pb n='262'/><anchor id='Pg262'/> +be permitted to depart from the prison in freedom, but that +those who refused should be harassed with many tortures, +how could any one again number the multitude of martyrs in +every province, and especially those in Africa and Mauretania, +and Thebais and Egypt? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Edict of Galerius, A.D. 311. Eusebius, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VIII. 17. (MSG, 20:792.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, I, § 21:5.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This may also be found in Lactantius. <hi rend='italic'>De Mortibus Persecutorum</hi>, +ch. 34. It is known as the <q>Edict of Three Emperors,</q> as it was issued +from Nicomedia in the name of Galerius, Constantine, and Licinius. +The date is April 30, 311. By it the persecution was not wholly ended. +Galerius died in the next month, but Maximinus Daza resumed the +persecution. There was for six months, however, some mitigation of +the persecutions in the East, granted at the request of Constantine. +</quote> + +<p> +Amongst our other measures, which we are always making +for the use and profit of the commonwealth, we have hitherto +endeavored to bring all things into conformity with the +ancient laws and public order of the Romans, and to bring +it about also that the Christians, who have abandoned the +religion of their ancestors, should return to sound reason. +For in some way such wilfulness has seized the Christians +and such folly possessed them that they do not follow those +constitutions of the ancients, which peradventure their own +ancestors first established, but entirely according to their +own judgment and as it pleased them they were making such +laws for themselves as they would observe, and in different +places were assembling various sorts of people. In short, +when our command was issued that they were to betake +themselves to the institutions of the ancients, many of them +were subdued by danger, many also were ruined. Yet when +great numbers of them held to their determination, and we +saw that they neither gave worship and due reverence to the +gods nor yet regarded the God of the Christians, we therefore, +mindful of our most mild clemency and of the unbroken +custom whereby we are accustomed to grant pardon to all +men, have thought that in this case also speediest indulgence +<pb n='263'/><anchor id='Pg263'/> +ought to be granted to them, that the Christians might exist +again and might establish their gatherings, yet so that they +do nothing contrary to good order. By another letter we +shall signify to magistrates how they are to proceed. Wherefore, +in accordance with this our indulgence, they ought to +pray their God for our good estate, for that of the commonwealth, +and for their own, that the commonwealth may endure +on every side unharmed and that they may be able to live +securely in their own homes. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Constantine, <hi rend='italic'>Edict of Milan</hi>, +A. D. 313, in Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>De Mortibus Persecutorum</hi>, 48. (MSL, +7:267.) See also Eusebius. <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, X, 5:2. (MSG, +20:880.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The so-called Edict of Milan, granting toleration to the Christians, +is not the actual edict, but a letter addressed to a prefect and referring +to the edict, which probably was much briefer. The following passage +is translated from the emended text of Lactantius, as given in +Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, I, § 22:4. +</quote> + +<p> +When I, Constantine Augustus, and I, Licinius Augustus, +had happily met together at Milan, and were having under +consideration all things which concern the advantage and +security of the State, we thought that, among other things +which seemed likely to profit men generally, we ought, in the +very first place, to set in order the conditions of the reverence +paid to the Divinity by giving to the Christians and all +others full permission to follow whatever worship any man +had chosen; whereby whatever divinity there is in heaven +may be benevolent and propitious to us, and to all placed +under our authority. Therefore we thought we ought, with +sound counsel and very right reason, to lay down this law, +that we should in no way refuse to any man any legal right +who has given up his mind either to the observance of Christianity +or to that worship which he personally feels best suited +to himself; to the end that the Supreme Divinity, whose +worship we freely follow, may continue in all things to grant +us his accustomed favor and good-will. Wherefore your +devotion should know that it is our pleasure that all provisions +<pb n='264'/><anchor id='Pg264'/> +whatsoever which have appeared in documents hitherto +directed to your office regarding Christians and which appeared +utterly improper and opposed to our clemency should +be abolished, and that every one of those men who have the +same wish to observe Christian worship may now freely and +unconditionally endeavor to observe the same without any +annoyance or molestation. These things we thought it well +to signify in the fullest manner to your carefulness, that you +might know that we have given free and absolute permission +to the said Christians to practise their worship. And when +you perceive that we have granted this to the said Christians, +your devotion understands that to others also a similarly +full and free permission for their own worship and observance +is granted, for the quiet of our times, so that every man may +have freedom in the practice of whatever worship he has +chosen. And these things were done by us that nothing be +taken away from any honor or form of worship. Moreover, +in regard to the Christians, we have thought fit to ordain +this also, that if any appear to have bought, either from our +exchequer or from others, the places in which they were +accustomed formerly to assemble, and concerning which definite +orders have been given before now, and that by letters +sent to your office, the same be restored to the Christians, +setting aside all delay and dispute, without payment or demand +of price. Those also who have obtained them by gift +shall restore them in like manner without delay to the said +Christians; and those, moreover, who have bought them, +as well as those who have obtained them by gift, if they +request anything of our benevolence, they shall apply to the +deputy that order may be taken for them too by our clemency. +All these must be delivered over at once and without delay +by your intervention to the corporation of the Christians. +And since the same Christians are known to have possessed +not only the places where they are accustomed to assemble, +but also others belonging to their corporation, namely, to the +churches and not to individuals, all these by the law which +<pb n='265'/><anchor id='Pg265'/> +we have described above you will order to be restored without +any doubtfulness or dispute to the said Christians—that is, to +their said corporations and assemblies; provided always, as +aforesaid, that those who restore them without price, as we +said, shall expect a compensation from our benevolence. In +all these things you must give the aforesaid Christians your +most effective intervention, that our command may be fulfilled +as soon as may be, and that in this matter also order +may be taken by our clemency for the public quiet. And +may it be, as already said, that the divine favor which we +have already experienced in so many affairs, shall continue +for all time to give us prosperity and successes, together with +happiness for the State. But that it may be possible for +the nature of this decree and of our benevolence to come +to the knowledge of all men, it will be your duty by a proclamation +of your own to publish everywhere and bring to +the notice of all men this present document when it reaches +you, that the decree of this our benevolence may not be +hidden. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_57"/> +<head>§ 57. Rise of Schisms in Consequence of the Diocletian Persecution</head> + +<p> +The Diocletian persecution and its various continuations, +on account of the severity of the persecution and its great +extent, seriously strained the organization of the Church for +a time, and in at least three important Church centres gave +rise to schisms, of which two were of some duration. The +causes for these schisms, as in the case of the schisms connected +with the Decian persecution, are to be found in the +confusion caused by the enforced absence of bishops from +their sees and in the administration of discipline. In the +latter point the activity of the confessors no longer plays +any part, as the authority of the bishops in the various communities +is now undisputed by rival. It was a question of +greater or less rigor in readmitting the lapsed to the communion +<pb n='266'/><anchor id='Pg266'/> +of the Church. For the canons of discipline in force +in Alexandria, see the <hi rend='italic'>Canonical Epistle of Peter of Alexandria</hi>, +ANF, VI, 269 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> (MSG, 18:467.) They were regarded +by the rigorist party in Alexandria as too lax. Of the three +schisms known to have arisen from the Diocletian persecution, +that in Alexandria is known as the Meletian schism, +and three selections are given bearing on it. For the proposals +of the Council of Nicæa to bring about a settlement +and union, see the <hi rend='italic'>Epistle of the Synod of Nicæa</hi>, Socrates, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 9 (given below, <ref target="Section_61">§ 61, +<hi rend='italic'>II</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>). The schism continued +until the fifth century. The schism at Rome, known as the +schism of Heraclius, was much less important. It was caused +by the party advocating greater laxity in discipline, and was +for a time difficult to deal with on account of long vacancies +in the Roman episcopate. The duration of the schism could +not have been long, but the solution of the questions raised +by it is unknown. In fact, the history of the Roman church +is exceedingly obscure in the half-century preceding the +Council of Nicæa. The third schism, that of the Donatists +in North Africa, which broke out in Carthage, was the most +considerable in the Church before the schisms arising from +the christological controversies. For the Donatist schism, +see §§ <ref target="Section_61">61</ref>, <ref target="Section_67">67</ref>, +<ref target="Section_72">72</ref>. +</p> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_57_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Epistle of Hesychius, Pachomius, +Theodorus, and Phileas to Meletius</hi>. (MSG, 10:1565.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Meletian schism. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following epistle was written in the name of these four bishops, +probably by Phileas, bishop of Thmuis, one of the number, to Meletius, +bishop of Lycopolis. The four were in prison when it was written. +It is the most important document bearing on the schism, and is +important as setting forth the generally accepted legal opinion of the +time regarding ordination and the authority of bishops. The document +exists only in a Latin translation from a Greek original, and +appears to form, with the two following fragments, a continuous narrative, +possibly a history of the Church, but nothing further is known +of it. For an account of the Meletian schism see Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Ec.</hi>, 1, 6 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> The text of these selections bearing on +the Meletian schism is to be found in Routh, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, IV, +91 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<pb n='267'/><anchor id='Pg267'/> + +<p> +Hesychius, Pachomius, Theodorus, and Phileas to Meletius, +our friend and fellow-minister in the Lord, greeting. In +simple faith, regarding as uncertain the things which have been +heard concerning thee, since some have come to us and certain +things are reported foreign to divine order and ecclesiastical +rule which are being attempted, yea, rather, which are +being done by thee, we were not willing to credit them when +we thought of the audacity implied by their magnitude, and +we thought that they were uncertain attempts. But since +so many coming to us at the present time have lent some +credibility to these reports, and have not hesitated to attest +them as facts, we, greatly astonished, have been compelled +to write this letter to thee. And what agitation and sadness +have been caused to us all in common and to each of us +individually by the ordination performed by thee in parishes +not pertaining to thee, we are unable sufficiently to express. +We have not delayed, however, by a short statement, to prove +thy practice wrong. +</p> + +<p> +In the law of our fathers and forefathers, of which thou also +art not thyself ignorant, it is established, according to the +divine and ecclesiastical order (for it is all for the good pleasure +of God and the zealous regard for better things), that it +has been determined and settled by them that it is not lawful +for any bishop to perform ordinations in other parishes +than his own. This law is exceedingly important and wisely +devised. For, in the first place, it is but right that the conversation +and life of those who are ordained should be examined +with great care; and, in the second place, that all +confusion and turbulence should be done away with. For +every one shall have enough to do in managing his own parish, +and in finding, with great care and many anxieties, suitable +subordinates among those with whom he has passed his whole +life, and who have been trained under his hands. But thou, +considering none of these things, nor regarding the future, +nor considering the law of our holy Fathers and those who +have put on Christ in long succession, nor the honor of our +<pb n='268'/><anchor id='Pg268'/> +great bishop and father, Peter,<note place="foot">Bishop of Alexandria.</note> +on whom we all depend in +the hope which we have in the Lord Jesus Christ, nor softened +by our imprisonments and trials, and daily and multiplied +reproaches, nor the oppressions and distress of all, hast ventured +on subverting all things at once. And what means +will be left for thee for justifying thyself with respect to these +things? +</p> + +<p> +But perhaps thou wilt say, I did this to prevent many from +being drawn away with the unbelief of many, because the +flocks were in need and forsaken, there being no pastor with +them. Well, but it is most certain that they were in no such +destitution; in the first place, because there were many going +among them and able to visit them; and, in the second place, +even it there were some things neglected by them, representation +should have come from the people, and we should +have duly considered the matter. But they knew that they +were in no want of ministers, and therefore they did not come +to seek thee. They knew that either we were wont to warn +them from such complaint or there was done, with all carefulness, +what seemed profitable; for it was done under correction +and all was considered with well-approved honesty. +Thou, however, giving such careful attention to the deceits +of certain men and their vain words,<note place="foot">See next selection.</note> +hast, as it were, stealthily +leaped forward to the performance of ordinations. For if, +indeed, those accompanying thee constrained thee to this +and compelled thee and were ignorant of the ecclesiastical +order, thou oughtest to have followed the rule and have informed +us by letter; and in that way what seemed expedient +would have been done. And if perchance some persuaded +thee to credit their story, who said to thee that it was all over +with us—a matter which could not have been unknown to +thee, because there were many passing and repassing by us +who might visit thee—even if this had been so, yet oughtest +thou to have waited for the judgment of the superior father +and his allowance of this thing. But thinking nothing of +<pb n='269'/><anchor id='Pg269'/> +these matters, and hoping something different, or rather +having no care for us, thou hast provided certain rulers for +the people. For now we learn that there are also divisions, +because thy unwarrantable ordination displeased many. +</p> + +<p> +And thou wert not readily persuaded to delay such procedure +or restrain thy purpose, no, not even by the word of +the Apostle Paul, the most blessed seer and the man who put +on Christ, the Apostle of us all; for he, in writing to his dearly +loved Timothy, says: <q>Lay hands suddenly on no man, +neither be partaker of other men's sins.</q> [I Tim. 5:22.] +And thus he at once shows his own consideration of him, and +gives his example and exhibits the law according to which, +with all carefulness and caution, candidates are chosen for +the honor of ordination. We make this declaration to thee, +that in the future thou mayest study to keep within the safe +and salutary limits of the law. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Fragment on the Meletian +Schism</hi>. (MSG, 10:1567.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For the connection of the Meletians with Arianism, see Socrates, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 6. Text in Routh, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi>, IV, 94. +</quote> + +<p> +Meletius received and read this epistle, and he neither +wrote a reply, nor repaired to them in prison, nor went to the +blessed Peter [bishop of Alexandria]. But when all these +bishops, presbyters, and deacons had suffered in the prison,<note place="foot">Diocletian +persecution, A. D. 306.</note> he at once entered Alexandria. Now in that city there +was a certain person, Isidorus by name, turbulent in character, +and possessed with the ambition of being a teacher. +And there was also a certain Arius, who wore the habit of +piety and was in like manner possessed with the ambition +of being a teacher. And when they discovered the object of +Meletius's passion and what it was he sought, hastening to +him and regarding with malice the episcopal authority of the +blessed Peter, that the aim and desire of Meletius might be +made manifest, they discovered to Meletius certain presbyters, +then in hiding, to whom the blessed Peter had given +<pb n='270'/><anchor id='Pg270'/> +authority to act as diocesan visitors for Alexandria. And +Meletius, recommending them to improve the opportunity +given them for rectifying their error, suspended them for a +time, and by his authority ordained two persons in their +places, one of whom was in prison and the other in the mines. +On learning these things, the blessed Peter, with much endurance, +wrote to the people of Alexandria in the following +terms. [See next selection.] +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Peter of Alexandria. <hi rend='italic'>Epistle to +the Church in Alexandria.</hi> (MSG, 18:510.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For Peter of Alexandria, see DCB. Peter was in hiding when he +wrote the following to the Alexandrian church in 306. He died 312 +as a martyr. +</quote> + +<p> +Peter to the brethren in the Lord, beloved and established +in the faith of God, peace. Since I have discovered that +Meletius acts in no way for the common good, for he does +not approve the letter of the most holy bishops and martyrs, +and invading my parish, has assumed so much to himself as +to endeavor to separate from my authority the priests and +those who had been intrusted with visiting the needy, and, +giving proof of his desire for pre-eminence, has ordained in +the prison several unto himself; now take ye heed to this +and hold no communion with him, until I meet him in company +with some wise men, and see what designs they are +which he has thought upon. Fare ye well. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Epitaph of Eusebius, Bishop of +Rome.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 534.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Schism of Heraclius. +</quote> + +<p> +The following epitaph was placed on the tomb of Eusebius, bishop +of Rome (April 18 to August 17, 310 A. D.), by Damasus, bishop of +Rome (366-384.) +</p> + +<lg> +<l>I, Damasus, have made this:</l> +<l>Heraclius forbade the fallen to lament their sin,</l> +<l>Eusebius taught the wretched ones to weep for their crimes.</l> +<l>The people was divided into parties by the increasing madness.</l> +<pb n='271'/><anchor id='Pg271'/> +<l>Sedition, bloodshed, war, discord, strife arose.</l> +<l>At once they were equally smitten by the ferocity of the +tyrant.<note place="foot">Maxentius.</note></l> +<l>Although the guide of the Church<note place="foot">Eusebius.</note> +maintained intact the bonds of peace.</l> +<l>He endured exile joyful under the Lord as judge,</l> +<l>And gave up this earthly life on the Trinacrian +shore.<note place="foot">Sicily.</note></l> +</lg> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='272'/><anchor id='Pg272'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>The Second Division Of Ancient Christianity: The Church Under The +Christian Empire: From 312 To Circa 750</head> + +<p> +The second division of the history of ancient Christianity, +or Christianity under the influence of the Græco-Roman type +of culture, begins with the sole rule of Constantine, A. D. 324, +or his sole reign in the West, A. D. 312, and extends to the +beginning of the Middle Ages, or that period in which the +Germanic nations assumed the leading rôle in the political +life of western Europe. The end of this division of Church +history may be placed, at the latest, about the middle of the +eighth century, as the time when the authority of the Eastern +Empire ceased to affect materially the fortunes of the West. +But it is impossible to name any year or reign or political +event as of such outstanding importance as to make it a +<hi rend='italic'>terminus ad quem</hi> for the division which will command the +suffrages of all as the boundary between the ancient and the +mediæval epochs of history. +</p> + +<p> +The second division of ancient Christianity may be subdivided +into three periods: +</p> + +<p> +I. The Imperial State Church of the Undivided Empire, or +until the Death of Theodosius the Great, or to 395. +</p> + +<p> +II. The Church in the Divided Empire until the Collapse of +the Western Empire and the Schism between the +East and the West arising out of the Monophysite +Controversies, or to circa 500. +</p> + +<p> +III. The Dissolution of the Imperial Church of the West +and the Transition to the Middle Ages. +</p> + +<pb n='273'/><anchor id='Pg273'/> + +<p> +In the third period are to be placed the beginnings of the +Middle Ages, as the German invaders had long before 500 +established their kingdoms and had begun to dominate the +affairs of the West. But the connection of the Church of +the West, or rather of Italy, with the East was long so close +that the condition of the Church is more that of a dissolution +of the ancient imperial State Church than of a building up +of the mediæval Church. At the same time, the transition +to the Middle Ages, so far as the Church is concerned at least, +takes place under the influence of the ancient tradition, and +institutions are established in which the leading elements, +taken from ancient life, are not yet transformed by Germanic +ideas. The East knew no Middle Age. For a history of the +Eastern Church other divisions would have to be made, but +in a history in which, for practical reasons, the development +is traced in Western Christianity, the affairs of the Eastern +Church must be treated as subordinate to those of Western +Christianity. +</p> + +<p> +For the second division of the history of ancient Christianity, +the principal sources available in English are the +translations in <hi rend='italic'>A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene +Fathers of the Christian Church</hi>. Edited by Ph. Schaff and H. +Wace. The <hi rend='italic'>First Series</hi> of this collection (PNF, ser. I) contains +the principal works of Augustine and Chrysostom. +The <hi rend='italic'>Second Series</hi> (PNF, ser. II) is for historical study even +more valuable, and gives, generally with very able introductions +and excellent bibliographies, the most important works +of many of the leading patristic writers, including the principal +ecclesiastical historians, as well as Athanasius, Gregory +of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, Basil the Great, Cyril of +Jerusalem, Hilary of Poitiers, Jerome, Rufinus, Cassian, Vincent +of Lérins, Leo the Great, Gregory the Great, and others. +These translations are in part fresh versions, and in part +older versions but slightly, if at all, revised, taken from the +<hi rend='italic'>Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church anterior to +the Division of the East and West</hi>, Oxford, 1838, <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi> +</p> + +<pb n='274'/><anchor id='Pg274'/> + +<p> +For the period before the outbreak of the great christological +controversies, the ecclesiastical historians are of great +value. There are no less than four continuations of the +<hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical History</hi> of Eusebius accessible: the ecclesiastical +histories of Socrates, 324-439 (ed. R. Hussey, Oxford, +1853); of Sozomen, 324-425 (ed. R. Hussey, Oxford, 1860); +of Rufinus, 324-395, which is appended to a Latin version or +rather revised and <q>edited</q> Latin version of Eusebius; of +Theodoret, 323-428 (ed. Gaisford, Oxford, 1854). Fragments +of the <hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical History</hi> of the Arian Philostorgius, from +the appearance of Arius as a teacher until 423, have been translated +and are to be found in Bohn's <hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical Library</hi>. +For the period after the Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431, there +is no such abundance, but Evagrius, of whose history (ed. +Parmentier and Bidez, London, 1898) there is a translation +in Bohn's <hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical Library</hi>, though not in PNF, is of +great value as he gives many original documents; and a portion +of the <hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical History</hi> of John of Ephesus (trans. by +R. P. Smith, Oxford, 1860) carries the history to about 600. +There are also works devoted to the history of the West by +Gregory of Tours, the Venerable Bede, and Paulus Diaconus, +and others of the greatest value for the third period of this +division. They will be mentioned in their place. +</p> + +<p> +As the series of the great church councils begins with the +Christian Empire, the <hi rend='italic'>History of the Councils</hi>, by Hefele, +becomes indispensable to the student of ecclesiastical history, +not only for its narrative but for the sources epitomized or +given in full. It has been translated into English as far as +the close of the eighth century, or well into the beginnings +of the history of the mediæval Church. The new French +translation should be used if possible as it contains valuable +additional notes. In connection with Hefele may be +used: +</p> + +<p> +Percival, <hi rend='italic'>The Seven Ecumenical Councils</hi>, in PNF, ser. II, +vol. XIV. +</p> + +<p> +Wm. Bright, <hi rend='italic'>Notes on the Canons of the First Four General +<pb n='275'/><anchor id='Pg275'/> +Councils</hi>, 1882, should be consulted for this period. Bruns, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, and Lauchert, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, +give texts only. +</p> + +<p> +The two great collections of secular laws are: +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, ed. Mommsen and Meyer, Berlin, 1905. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Corpus Juris Civilis</hi>, ed. Krüger, Mommsen, Schoell, and +Knoll, Berlin, 1899-1902. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>The Cambridge Medieval History</hi>, vol. I, 1912, covers the +period beginning with Constantine and extending to the beginning +of the fifth century. It contains valuable bibliographies +of a more discriminating character than those in the +<hi rend='italic'>Cambridge Modern History</hi>, and render bibliographical +references unnecessary. To this the student is accordingly +referred for such matters. The second volume of this work +will cover the period 500-850. +</p> + +<pb n='276'/><anchor id='Pg276'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Period I: The Imperial State Church Of The Undivided Empire, Or Until The +Death Of Theodosius The Great, 395</head> + +<p> +The history of the Church in the first period of the second +division of the history of ancient Christianity has to deal +primarily with three lines of development, viz.: first, the +relation of the Church to the imperial authority and the +religious forces of the times, whereby the Church became +established as the sole authorized religion of the Empire, and +heathenism and heresy were prohibited by law; secondly, +the development of the doctrinal system of the Church until +the end of the Arian controversy, whereby the full and eternal +deity of the Son was established as the Catholic faith; thirdly, +the development of the constitution, the fixation of the leading +ecclesiastical conceptions, and the adaptation of the system +of the Church to the practical needs of the times. The +entire period may be divided into two main parts by the +reign of Julian the Apostate (361-363); and the reign of Constantine +as Emperor of the West (312-324) may be regarded +as a prelude to the main part of the history. On the death +of Theodosius the Great in 395, the Empire became permanently +divided, and though in the second period the courses +of the Church in the East and in the West may be treated to +some extent together, yet the fortunes, interests, and problems +of the two divisions of the Church begin to diverge. +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter I. The Church And Empire Under Constantine</head> + +<p> +Constantine was the heir to the political system of Diocletian. +The same line of development was followed by him +<pb n='277'/><anchor id='Pg277'/> +and his sons, and with increasing severity the burden pressed +upon the people. But the Church, which had been fiercely +persecuted by Diocletian and Galerius, became the object +of imperial favor under Constantine. At the same time in +many parts of the Empire, especially in the West, the heathen +religion was rooted in the affections of the people and everywhere +it was bound up with the forms of state. The new +problems that confronted Constantine on his accession to +sole authority in the West, and still more when he became +sole Emperor, were of an ecclesiastical rather than a civil +character. In the administration of the Empire he followed +the lines laid down by Diocletian (<ref target="Section_58">§ 58</ref>). But in favoring +the Church he had to avoid alienating the heathen majority. +This he did by gradually and cautiously extending to the +Church privileges which the heathen religion had enjoyed +(<ref target="Section_59">§ 59</ref>), and with the utmost caution repressing those +elements in heathenism which might be plausibly construed as inimical +to the new order in the state (<ref target="Section_60">§ 60</ref>). At the same time, +Constantine found in the application of his policy to actual +conditions that he could not favor every religious sect that +assumed the name of Christian. He must distinguish between +claimants of his bounty. He must also bring about a +unity in the Church where it had been threatened (<ref target="Section_61">§ 61</ref>), +and repress what might lead to schism. Accordingly he +found himself, immediately after his accession to sole authority, +engaged in ecclesiastical discussions and adjudicating by +councils ecclesiastical cases (<ref target="Section_62">§ 62</ref>). +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_58"/> +<head>§ 58. The Empire under Constantine and His Sons</head> + +<p> +Constantine became sole Emperor of the West, 312, and by +the defeat of Licinius, July 23, 324, sole ruler of the entire +Roman Empire. On his death, May 22, 337, his three sons +divided between them the imperial dignity: Constantine II +(337-340), taking Gaul, Spain, and Britain; Constans +(337-350), Italy, Africa, and Illyria, and in 340 receiving the share +<pb n='278'/><anchor id='Pg278'/> +of Constantine II; Constantius (337-361), taking the East, +including Egypt. Of these three the ablest was Constantius +who, after the renewed Persian war (337-350), became, on +the death of Constans, sole Emperor. Although the imperial +authority was divided and the ecclesiastical policy of each +Emperor followed the religious condition and theological complexion +of his respective portion of the Empire, the social conditions +were everywhere much the same. There were under +Constantine and also under his sons the continuation of that +centralization which had already been carried far by Diocletian, +the same court ceremonial and all that went with it, +and the development of the bureaucratic system of administration. +The economic conditions steadily declined as the +imperial system became constantly more burdensome (<hi rend='italic'>v. +supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_55">§ 55</ref>), and +the changes in the distribution of wealth and the +administration of landed property affected disastrously +large sections of the populace. A characteristic feature +of Roman society, which affected the position of the +Church not a little, was the tendency to regard callings and +trades as hereditary, and by the fourth century this was +enforced by law. The aim of this legislation was to provide +workmen to care for the great public undertakings for the +support of the populace of the cities and for the maintenance +of the public business. This policy affected both the humble +artisan and the citizen of curial rank. The former, although +given various privileges, was crushed down by being obliged +to continue in what was often an unprofitable occupation; +the latter was made responsible for the taxes and various +public burdens which custom, gradually becoming law, laid +upon him. Constant attempt was made by great numbers +to escape these burdens and disabilities by recourse to other +occupations, and especially to the Christian ministry with +its immunities (see <ref target="Section_59_c">§ 59, +<hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>). Constant legislation endeavored +to prevent this and restore men to their hereditary places. +The following extracts from the Theodosian Code are enactments +of Constantine, and are intended to illustrate the condition, +<pb n='279'/><anchor id='Pg279'/> +under that Emperor, of the law as to hereditary occupations +and guilds, and the position of the curiales, so as to +explain the law as to admission to the priesthood. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XIII, +5, 1; A. D. 314.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Theodosian Code was a collection of law made at the command +of Theodosius II, A. D. 438. See <ref target="Section_80">§ 80</ref>. +It was intended to comprise +all the laws of general application made since the accession of +Constantine and arranged under appropriate titles. +</quote> + +<p> +If a shipman shall have been originally a lighterman, none +the less he shall remain permanently among those among +whom it shall appear that his parents had been. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XIII, 5, +3; A. D. 319.</head> + +<p> +If any shipman shall have obtained surreptitiously or in +any other way immunity, it is our will that he be not at all +admitted to plead any exemption. But also if any one possess +a patrimony liable to the duties of a shipman, although +he may be of higher dignity, the privileges of honor shall be +of no avail to him in this matter, but let him be held to this +duty either by the whole or in proportion. For it is not just +that when a patrimony liable to this public duty has been +excused all should not bear the common burden in proportion +to ability. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XIV, +4, 1; A. D. 334.</head> + +<p> +Because the guild of swineherds has fallen off to but few, +we command that they plead in the presence of the Roman +people, for the defence should be made to them for whom the +burden was established.… Therefore let them know that +the personal property of the swineherds is liable to public +burdens and let them choose one of two courses: either let them +retain the property which is liable to the functions of swineherd, +and let themselves be held to the duty of swineherd, or +let them name some suitable person whom they will, who shall +satisfy the same requirement. For we suffer no one to be +exempt from the obligation of this thing, but whether they +<pb n='280'/><anchor id='Pg280'/> +have advanced in honors, or by some fraud have escaped, we +command that they be brought back and the same thing performed, +the Roman people being present and witnessing, and +we are to be consulted, that we may take note of those who +make use of these shifts; as for further avoidance of public +duties, it is by no means to be granted any, but he who shall +have been able to escape shall run danger of his safety, the +privilege having been taken away from him. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XII, 1, +11; A. D. 325.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following laws illustrate the attempts of the curiales to escape +their burdens. +</quote> + +<p> +Because some have forsaken the curiæ and have fled to the +camps of the soldiery, we prescribe that all who shall be found +not yet indebted to the chief centurion, are to be dismissed +from the soldiery and returned to the same curiæ; those only +are to remain among the soldiery who are retained on account +of the necessities of the place or the troop. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XII, +1, 12; A. D. 325.</head> + +<p> +If any one belongs in a larger or smaller town and desiring +to avoid the same, betakes himself to another for the sake of +dwelling there, and shall have attempted to make petitions +concerning this or shall have relied upon any sort of fraud that +he may escape the birth from his own city, let him bear the +burden of the decurionate of both cities, of one because it was +his choice, of the other because of his birth. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_58_f"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 2, +3, cf. XVI, 2, 6; A. D. 326.</head> + +<p> +Since a constitution that has been issued prescribes that +thereafter no decurion nor child of a decurion or person with +suitable wealth and able to support the public burdens shall +have recourse to the name and duties of the clergy, but only +those shall be called to the place of the deceased who are of +small fortune and are not held liable to civil burdens, we have +learned that some have been molested, who before the promulgation +<pb n='281'/><anchor id='Pg281'/> +of the said law had joined themselves to the company +of the priests. Therefore we decree that these shall be +free from all annoyance, but those who after the promulgation +of the law, to avoid their public duties took recourse to the +number of the clergy, shall be separated from that body and +restored to their curial rank and made liable for their civil +duties. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_59"/> +<head>§ 59. Favor Shown the Church by Constantine</head> + +<p> +Neither on his conversion nor on his attainment of the sole +rule of the Empire did Constantine establish the Church as +the one official religion of the State. The ruler himself professed +the Christian religion and neither abolished the former +religion of the State nor disestablished it. But he granted to +his own religion favors similar to those enjoyed by the heathen +religious systems (<hi rend='italic'>a-d</hi>), though these privileges were only +for the Catholic Church, and not for heretics +(<ref target="Section_59_e"><hi rend='italic'>e</hi></ref>); and he passed +such laws as would make it possible for Christians to carry out +their religious practices, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, that Christians should not be +compelled to sacrifice when the laws prescribed sacrifices +(<ref target="Section_59_f"><hi rend='italic'>f</hi></ref>), +that Sunday be observed (<ref target="Section_59_g"><hi rend='italic'>g</hi></ref>), +and that celibacy might be practised +(<ref target="Section_59_h"><hi rend='italic'>h</hi></ref>). +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Constantini</hi> (PNF, ser. +II, vol. I), II, 24-42. 46; IV, 18-28. Sozomen, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi> (PNF, +ser. II, vol. II), I, 9. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Constantine, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Cæcilianum</hi>, in Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, X, 6. (MSG, +20:892.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The probable date of this epistle is A. D. 313, though there is uncertainty. +Text in Kirch, nn. 323 <hi rend='italic'>f</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +Constantine Augustus to Cæcilianus, Bishop of Carthage. +Since it is our pleasure that something should be granted in +all the provinces, namely, Africa and Numidia and Mauritania, +to certain ministers of the legitimate and most holy +Catholic religion, to defray their expenses, I have given written +<pb n='282'/><anchor id='Pg282'/> +instructions to Ursus, the illustrious finance minister of +Africa, and have directed him to make provision to pay to thy +firmness three thousand folles.<note place="foot">A folle was a sum +of money, possibly 208 denarii.</note> Do thou, therefore, when thou +hast received the above sum of money, command that it be distributed +among all those mentioned above, according to the +brief sent unto thee by Hosius. But if thou shouldest find that +anything is wanting for the fulfilment of this my purpose in +regard to all of them, thou shalt demand without hesitation +from Heracleides, our treasurer, whatever thou findest to be +necessary. For I commanded him, when he was present, that +if thy firmness should ask him for any money, he should see +to it that it be paid without any delay. And since I have +learned that some men of unsettled mind wish to turn the +people from the most holy and Catholic Church by a certain +method of shameful corruption, do thou know that I gave +command to Anulinus, the proconsul, and also to Patricius, +vicar of the prefects, when they were present, that they +should give proper attention not only to other matters, but +also, above all, to this, and that they should not overlook +such a thing when it happened. Wherefore if thou shouldest +see any such men continuing in this madness, do thou without +delay go to the above-mentioned judges and report the +matter to them; that they may correct them as I commanded +them when they were present. The divinity of the great God +preserve thee many years. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Constantine, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Anulinum</hi>, +in Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, X, 7. (MSG, 20:893.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following epistle, of the same year as the preceding to Cæcilianus, +is the basis of exemptions of the clergy from public duties. The extension +of these exemptions was made by the decree of 319, given below. +Text in Kirch, n. 325. +</quote> + +<p> +Greeting to thee, our most esteemed Anulinus. Since it +appears from many circumstances that when that religion is +despised in which is preserved the chief reverence for the most +<pb n='283'/><anchor id='Pg283'/> +celestial Power, great dangers are brought upon public affairs; +but that when legally adopted and observed it affords most +signal prosperity to the Roman name and remarkable felicity +to all the affairs of men, through the divine beneficence, it +seemed good to me, most esteemed Anulinus, that those men +who give their services with due sanctity and with constant +observance of this law to the worship of the divine religion +should receive recompense for their labors. Wherefore it is +my will that those within the province intrusted to thee, in +the Catholic Church over which Cæcilianus presides, who give +their services to this holy religion, and who are commonly +called clergymen, be entirely exempted from all public duties, +that by any error or sacrilegious negligence they may not be +drawn away from the service due to the Deity, but may devote +themselves without any hindrance to their own law. +For it seems that when they show greatest reverence to the +Deity the greatest benefits accrue to the State. Farewell, our +most esteemed and beloved Anulinus. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_59_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, +2, 2; A. D. 319.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +By the following law the exemption of the clergy from public burdens +was made universal. As many availed themselves of the clerical +immunities to escape their burdens as curiales, a law was soon afterward +passed limiting access to the ministry to those in humbler social +position. <hi rend='italic'>V. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_58_f">§ 58 +<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></ref> +</quote> + +<p> +Those who in divine worship perform the services of religion—that +is, those who are called clergy—are altogether +exempt from public obligations, so that they may not be +called away from their sacred duties by the sacrilegious +malice of certain persons. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 2, +4; A. D. 321.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Church is hereby permitted to receive legacies. This was a +recognition of its corporate character in the law, and indirectly its act +of incorporation. +</quote> + +<p> +Every one has permission to leave when he is dying whatsoever +goods he wishes to the most holy Catholic Church.… +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='284'/><anchor id='Pg284'/> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_59_e"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 5, +1; A. D. 326.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Privileges were granted only to the clergy of the Catholic or great +Church as distinguished from heretics and schismatics. The State +was, accordingly, forced by its exemptions and privileges granted the +Church to take up a position as to heresy and schism. See for Constantine's +policy toward heresy, Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Constantini</hi>, III. 64 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> (PNF, ser. II, vol. I.) +</quote> + +<p> +Privileges which have been bestowed in consideration of +religion ought to be of advantage only to those who observe +the Catholic law. It is our will that heathen and schismatics +be not only without the privileges but bound by, and subject +to, various political burdens. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_59_f"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 2, +5; A. D. 323.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This and the following laws were passed to enable the Christians to +escape from disadvantages in the carrying out of their religion. This +law, that Christians should not be compelled to sacrifice, was enacted +just before the final encounter with Licinius. +</quote> + +<p> +Because we have heard that ecclesiastics and others belonging +to the Catholic religion are compelled by men of different +religions to celebrate the sacrifices of the lustrum, we, by this +decree, do ordain that if any one believes that those who observe +the most sacred law ought to be compelled to take part +in the rites of a strange superstition, let him, if his condition +permits, be beaten with staves, but if his rank exempts him +from such rigor, let him endure the condemnation of a very +heavy fine, which shall fall to the State. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_59_g"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Justinianus</hi>; III, +12, 3; A. D. 321. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 748.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Sunday is to be observed. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +For the Justinian Code see below, <ref target="Section_94">§ 94</ref>, Introduction. +</quote> + +<p> +All judges and city people and the craftsmen shall rest upon +the venerable Day of the Sun. Country people, however, may +freely attend to the cultivation of the fields, because it frequently +happens that no other days are better adapted for +<pb n='285'/><anchor id='Pg285'/> +planting the grain in the furrows or the vines in trenches. +So that the advantage given by heavenly providence may not +for the occasion of a short time perish. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_59_h"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>. VIII, +16, 1. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 750.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Celibacy was favored by the Church. By the <hi rend='italic'>Lex Julia et Papia +Poppea</hi> it had been forbidden under a fine and loss of rights under +wills. Childless marriages also rendered the parties liable to disabilities. +</quote> + +<p> +Those who are held as celibates by the ancient law are freed +from the threatened terrors of the laws, and let them so live +as if by the compact of marriage they were among the number +of married men, and let all have an equal standing as to taking +what each one deserves. Neither let any one be held childless; +and let them not suffer the penalties set for this. The +same thing we hold regarding women, and freely to all we +loose from their necks the commands which the law placed +upon them as a certain yoke. But there is no application of +this benefit to husbands and wives as regards each other, +whose deceitful wiles are often scarcely restrained by the appointed +rigor of the law, but let the pristine authority of the +law continue between such persons. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_60"/> +<head>§ 60. The Repression of Heathenism under Constantine</head> + +<p> +Constantine's religious policy in respect to heathenism may +have been from the first to establish Christianity as the sole +religion of the Empire and to put down heathenism. If so, +in the execution of that policy he proceeded with great caution, +especially in the period before his victory over Licinius. +It looks at times as if for a while he aimed at a parity of religions. +Certain is the fact that only as conditions became more +favorable to active measures of repression he increased the +severity of his laws against what was of doubtful legality +in heathenism, though he was statesman enough to recognize +the difference in the religious conditions between the East and +the West, especially as to the hold which Christianity had +upon the mass of the people. While his measures in the East +<pb n='286'/><anchor id='Pg286'/> +became constantly harsher, in the West he tolerated heathenism. +The commonly received theory is that Constantine +changed his policy. All the facts can be as easily understood +on the hypothesis that as a statesman he had constant regard +to the advisability of drastic execution of a policy which he in +theory accepted and would have carried out in its entirety +everywhere if he had been able. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Constantini</hi> (PNF), +II. 44 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, 47 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, 54 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, IX, 16, +2; A. D. 319.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Private sacrifices forbidden. +</quote> + +<p> +Haruspices and priests and those accustomed to serve this +rite we forbid to enter any private house, or under the pretence +of friendship to cross the threshold of another, under +the penalty established against them if they contemn the +law.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, as to offering sacrifices.</note> +But those of you who regard this rite, approach the +public altars and shrines and celebrate the solemnities of +your custom; for we do not indeed prohibit the duties of +the old usage to be performed in broad daylight. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 10, +1; A. D. 320-321.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Haruspicia in certain circumstances to be observed. +</quote> + +<p> +If any part of our palace or other public buildings should +be struck by lightning let the custom be retained of the ancient +observance as to what it signifies, and let it be examined +by the haruspices and very carefully written down, collected, +and brought to our attention; to others also the permission +of practising this custom is conceded, provided they refrain +from domestic sacrifices, which are expressly forbidden. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>. XV, 1, +3; A. D. 326.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Unfinished heathen temples need not be completed. +</quote> + +<p> +We direct that the judges of the provinces be warned not to +give orders for any new work before they complete the buildings +<pb n='287'/><anchor id='Pg287'/> +left incomplete by their predecessors, the erection of +temples only being excepted. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_61"/> +<head>§ 61. The Donatist Schism under Constantine</head> + +<p> +The Donatist schism arose in connection with the Diocletian +persecution, in part over the policy of Mensurius of +Carthage regarding the fanatical desire for martyrdom and +the delivery of the sacred books according to the edict of persecution. +Combined with this were the personal ambitions +of the Archdeacon Cæcilianus, the offended dignity of the +Primas of Numidia, Bishop Secundus of Tigisi, and the +pique of a wealthy female devotee, Lucilla. It was mixed up +with the customs of the North African church, whereby the +Primas of Numidia exercised a leading authority in the conduct +of the election of the bishop of Carthage, and also with +the notion prevalent in the same church, for which also Cyprian +contended in the controversy on the baptism of heretics +[see <ref target="Section_52">§ 52</ref>], that the +validity of a sacrament depended in some +way upon the personal character of the minister of that sacrament. +It was asserted by the partisans of Secundus, who +elected Majorinus bishop of Carthage, that Felix of Aptunga, +the consecrator of Cæcilianus, who had been elected by the +other party, had delivered the sacred books to the heathen +officials, and was therefore guilty as a traditor. A schism, +accordingly, arose in Carthage which spread rapidly throughout +North Africa. The party of Majorinus soon came under +the lead of Donatus the Great, his successor in the schismatical +see of Carthage. The Donatist schism became of importance +almost at once, and as it was inconsistent with Constantine's +religious policy, which called for Church unity,<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>V. +infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_62">§ 62</ref>, Introduction.</note> it +presented an immediate difficulty in the execution of laws +granting favors to the Catholic Church.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>V. +supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_59">§§ 59 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></ref></note> +On account of the +interests involved, the schism was of long duration, lasting +after the conquest of North Africa by the Vandals, and +<pb n='288'/><anchor id='Pg288'/> +even to the Saracen conquest, though long since of no importance. +</p> + +<div> +<head>Anulinus. <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Constantinum</hi>, in Augustine, +<hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 88. (MSG, 33:303.)</head> + +<p> +To Constantine Augustus from Anulinus, a man of proconsular +rank, proconsul of Africa. +</p> + +<p> +The welcome and adored celestial writings sent by your +Majesty to Cæcilianus, and those who act under him and are +called clergy, I have devoutly taken care to record in the +archives of my humility, and have exhorted those parties +that when unity has been made by the consent of all, since +they are seen to be exempt from all other burdens by your +Majesty's clemency, and having preserved the Catholic unity, +they should devote themselves to their duties with the reverence +due the sanctity of the law and to divine things. After +a few days, however, there arose some, to whom a crowd of +people joined themselves, who thought that proceedings +should be taken against Cæcilianus and presented me a sealed +packet wrapped in leather and a small document without +seal, and earnestly requested that I should transmit them to +the sacred and venerable court of your divinity, which your +Majesty's most humble servant has taken care to do, Cæcilianus +continuing meanwhile as he was. The acts pertaining +to the case have been subjoined, in order that your +Majesty may be able to make a decision concerning the whole +matter. I have sent two documents, one in a leathern envelope +entitled <q>A Document of the Catholic Church, the Charges +against Cæcilianus, Furnished by the Party of Majorinus</q>; +the other attached without a seal to the same leathern envelope. +Given on the 17th day before the calends of May, in +the third consulship of our Lord Constantine Augustus [April +15, 313]. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='289'/><anchor id='Pg289'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_62"/> +<head>§ 62. Constantine's Endeavors to Bring about the +Unity of the Church by Means of General Synods: +The Councils of Arles and Nicæa</head> + +<p> +One of the intentions of Constantine in his support of Christianity +seems to have been the employment of the Christian +religion as a basis for imperial unity. The policy of several +earlier emperors in reviving heathenism, and Galerius in his +persecution of the Christians, seems likewise to have been to +use religion as a basis of unity. One of the first tasks Constantine +encountered after he became sole ruler of the West +was to restore the unity of the Church in Africa, which had +been endangered by the disputes culminating in the Donatist +schism; and when he became sole ruler of the Empire a new +task of a similar character was to restore unity to the Church +of the East, endangered by the Meletian schism in Egypt [<hi rend='italic'>v. +supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_57_a">§ 57, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>], +the Arian controversy in its first stage [<hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_63">§ 63</ref>], and the estrangement of the Asia +Minor churches, due to the Easter controversy [<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_38">§ 38</ref>]. It was a master-stroke +of policy on the part of Constantine to use the Church's +conciliar system on an enlarged scale to bring about this unity. +The Church was made to feel that the decision was its own +and to be obeyed for religious reasons; at the same time the +Emperor was able to direct the thought and action of the +assembly in matters of consequence and to give to conciliar +action legal and coercive effect. The two great assemblies +summoned to meet the problems of the West and of the East +were respectively the Councils of Arles, A. D. 314, and of +Nicæa, A. D. 325. +</p> + +<div> +<head>I. The Council of Arles A. D. 314</head> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_62_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Constantine, <hi rend='italic'>Convocatio concilii +Arelatensis</hi>, in Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, X, 5. (MSG, 20 :888.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. 321 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>; +Mirbt, nn. 89, 93-97.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For the Council of Arles, see Hefele, §§ 14, 15. +</quote> + +<pb n='290'/><anchor id='Pg290'/> + +<p> +Constantine Augustus to Chrestus, Bishop of Syracuse. +When some began wickedly and perversely to disagree among +themselves in regard to the holy worship and the celestial +power and Catholic doctrine, I, wishing to put an end to such +disputes among them, formerly gave command that certain +bishops should be sent from Gaul, and that the opposing +parties, who were contending persistently and incessantly with +each other, should be summoned from Africa; that in their +presence and in the presence of the bishop of Rome the matter +which appeared to be causing the disturbance might be +examined and decided with all care. But since, as it happens, +some, forgetful both of their own salvation and of the +reverence due to the most holy religion, do not even yet bring +hostilities to an end, and are unwilling to conform to the judgment +already passed, and assert that those who expressed +their opinions and decisions were few, or that they had been +too hasty and precipitate in giving judgment, before all the +things which ought to have been accurately investigated had +been examined—on account of all this it has happened that +those very ones who ought to hold brotherly and harmonious +relations toward each other are shamefully, or rather abominably, +divided among themselves, and give occasion for ridicule +to those men whose souls are alien as to this most holy +religion. Wherefore it has seemed necessary to me to provide +that this dissension, which ought to have ceased after +the judgment had been already given, by their own voluntary +agreement, should now, if possible, be brought to an end by +the presence of many. Since, therefore, we have commanded +a number of bishops from a great many different places to +assemble in the city of Arles, before the calends of August, +we have thought proper to write to thee also that thou +shouldest secure from the most illustrious Latronianus, Corrector +of Sicily, a public vehicle, and that thou shouldest take +with thee two others of the second rank whom thou thyself +shalt choose, together with three servants, who may serve you +on the way, and betake thyself to the above-mentioned place +before the appointed day; that by thy firmness and by the +<pb n='291'/><anchor id='Pg291'/> +wise unanimity and harmony of the others present, this dispute, +which has disgracefully continued until the present +time, in consequence of certain shameful strifes, after all has +been heard, which those have to say who are now at variance +with one another, and whom we have likewise commanded +to be present, may be settled in accordance with the proper +faith, and that brotherly harmony, though it be but gradual, +may be restored. May Almighty God preserve thee in +health many years. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_62_i_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Synodal Epistle addressed to +Sylvester, Bishop of Rome</hi>, Bruns, II, 107. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, +nn. 330-337.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following extracts give the canons of most importance in the +history of the times. The exact wording of the canons has not been +retained in the letter, which is the only record extant of the action of +the council. The text from which the following is translated is that +given by the monks of St. Maur in their <hi rend='italic'>Collectio Conciliorum +Galliæ</hi>, reprinted by Hefele, § 15, and Bruns, <hi rend='italic'>Canones +Apostolorum et Conciliorum</hi>, II, 107 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> It is to +be preferred to the text of Mansi and the older collections. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The first canon settled for the West the long-standing question as +to the date of Easter. The Roman custom as to the day of the week +and computation of the time of year should be followed everywhere; +the same decision was reached at Nicæa for the East (<hi rend='italic'>v. +<ref target="Section_62_ii_a">§ 62, II, a</ref></hi>). +As a matter of fact, however, the computation customary at Alexandria +eventually prevailed as the more accurate. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The eighth and thirteenth canons touch upon North African disputes. +The former overrules the contention of Cyprian and his colleagues, +that heretical or schismatical baptisms were invalid. It also +laid down a principle by which Novatianism stood condemned. The +thirteenth applied a similar principle to ordination; the crimes of the +bishop who gave the ordination should not invalidate the ordination +of a suitable person, as was claimed in the case of the ordination of +Cæcilianus by Felix of Aptunga, accused as a <hi rend='italic'>traditor</hi>; +further it ruled out the complaints against Felix until more substantial proof be +brought, the official documents that he had made the tradition required +by the edict of persecution. +</quote> + +<p> +Marinus and the assembly of bishops, who have come +together in the town of Arles, to the most holy lord and brother +Sylvester. What we have decreed with general consent we +signify to your charity that all may know what ought to be +observed in the future. +</p> + +<pb n='292'/><anchor id='Pg292'/> + +<p> +1. In the first place, concerning the observation of the +Lord's Easter, we have determined that it be observed on one +day and at one time throughout the world by us, and that +you send letters according to custom to all. +</p> + +<p> +8. Concerning the Africans, because they make use of +their own law, to the effect that they rebaptize, we have determined +that if any one should come from heresy to the +Church they should ask him the creed; and if they should +perceive that he had been baptized in the name of the Father +and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, hands only should be +laid upon him that he might receive the Holy Ghost. That +if when asked he should not reply this Trinity, let him be +baptized. +</p> + +<p> +9. Concerning those who bring letters of the confessors, it +pleased us that these letters having been taken away, they +should receive other letters of communion. +</p> + +<p> +13. Concerning those who are said to have given up the +Holy Scriptures or the vessels of the Lord or the name of +their brethren, it has pleased us whoever of them shall have +been convicted by public documents and not by mere words, +should be removed from the clerical order; though if the +same have been found to have ordained any, and those whom +they have ordained are worthy, it shall not render their ordination +invalid. And because there are many who are seen +to oppose the law of the Church and think that they ought +to be admitted to bring accusation by hired witnesses, they +are by no means to be admitted, except, as we have said +above, they can prove their accusations by public documents. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>II. The Council of Nicæa</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For the Council of Nicæa, see Hefele, §§ 18-44. All church histories +give large space to the Council of Nicæa. <hi rend='italic'>V. infra, +§§ <ref target="Section_63">63</ref> ff., <ref target="Section_72_a">72, a</ref></hi>. +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_62_ii_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Council of Nicæa, 325. <hi rend='italic'>Synodical +Letter</hi>, Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi> I, 9. (MSG, 67 :77.) Text +in Kirch, nn. 369 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>; Mirbt, n. 107.</head> + +<pb n='293'/><anchor id='Pg293'/> + +<p> +To the holy and, by the grace of God, great Church of the +Alexandrians, and to our beloved brethren throughout Egypt, +Libya, and Pentapolis, the bishops assembled at Nicæa constituting +the great and holy synod, send greetings in the Lord. +</p> + +<p> +Since by the grace of God, a great and holy synod has been +convened at Nicæa, our most pious sovereign Constantine +having summoned us out of various cities and provinces for +that purpose, it appeared to us indispensably necessary that +a letter should be written also to you on the part of the sacred +synod; in order that you may know what subjects were +brought under consideration, what rigidly investigated, and +also what was eventually determined on and decreed. In +the first place, the impiety and guilt of Arius and his adherents +were examined into, in the presence of our most +pious Emperor Constantine: and it was unanimously decided +that his impious opinion be anathematized, with all the blasphemous +expressions and terms he has blasphemously uttered, +affirming that the Son of God sprang from nothing, and that +there was a time when He was not; saying, moreover, that the +Son of God was possessed of a free will, so as to be capable +either of vice or virtue; and calling Him a creature and a +work. All these the holy synod has anathematized, having +scarcely patience to endure the hearing of such an impious +or, rather, bewildered opinion, and such abominable blasphemies. +But the conclusion of our proceedings against him +you must either have heard or will hear; for we would not +seem to trample on a man who has received the chastisement +which his crime deserved. Yet so strong is his impiety as to +involve Theonas, Bishop of Marmarica, and Secundus of +Ptolemais; for they have suffered the same condemnation +as himself. But the grace of God freed us from this false +doctrine, impiety, and blasphemy, and from those persons who +have dared to cause discord and division among the people +previously at peace; and there still remained the contumacy +of Meletius to be dealt with, and those who had been +ordained by him; and we shall now state to you, beloved +<pb n='294'/><anchor id='Pg294'/> +brethren, what resolution the synod came to on this point. +Acting with more clemency toward Meletius, although, strictly +speaking, he was wholly undeserving of favor, the council +permitted him to remain in his own city, but decreed that he +should exercise no authority either to ordain or nominate for +ordination; and that he should appear in no other district +or city on this pretence, but simply retain a nominal dignity; +that those who had received appointments from him, after +having been confirmed by a more legitimate ordination, +should be admitted to communion on these conditions: that +they should continue to hold their rank and ministry, but +regard themselves as inferior in every respect to all those who +had been previously ordained and established in each place +and church by our most honored fellow-minister Alexander. +In addition to these things, they shall have no authority to +propose or nominate whom they please, or to do anything at +all without the concurrence of a bishop of the Catholic +Church, who is one of Alexander's suffragans. Let such as +by the grace of God and your prayers have been found in no +schism, but have continued in the Catholic Church blameless, +have authority to nominate and ordain those who are worthy +of the sacred office, and to act in all things according to ecclesiastical +law and usage. Whenever it may happen that any +of those placed in the Church die, then let such as have been +recently admitted into orders be advanced to the dignity of +the deceased, provided that they appear worthy, and that +the people should elect them, and the bishop of Alexandria +confirm their choice. This is conceded to all the others, +indeed, but as for Meletius personally we by no means grant +the same, on account of his formerly disorderly conduct; and +because of the rashness and levity of his character he is +deprived of all authority and jurisdiction, as a man liable +again to create similar disturbances. These are things which +specially affect Egypt and the most holy Church of the Alexandrians; +and if any other canon or ordinance should be +established, our lord and most honored fellow-minister and +<pb n='295'/><anchor id='Pg295'/> +brother Alexander being present with us, will on his return +to you enter into more minute details, inasmuch as he is not +only a participator in whatever is transacted, but has the +principal direction of it. We have also to announce the good +news to you concerning the unanimity as to the holy feast of +Easter: that this by your prayers has been settled so that all +the brethren in the East, who have hitherto kept this festival +with the Jews, will henceforth conform to the Romans and +to us, and to all who from the earliest times have observed our +period of celebrating Easter. Rejoicing, therefore, on account +of a favorable termination of matters and in the extirpation +of all heresy, receive with the greater honor and more +abundant love our fellow-minister and your bishop, Alexander, +who has greatly delighted us by his presence, and +even at his advanced age has undergone extraordinary exertions +in order that peace might be re-established among you. +Pray on behalf of us all, that the decisions to which we have +so justly come may be inviolably maintained through Almighty +God and our Lord Jesus Christ, together with the Holy Spirit +to whom be glory forever. Amen. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Council of Nicæa, Canon 8, <hi rend='italic'>On +the Novatians</hi>, Bruns. I, 8.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Church recognized the substantial orthodoxy of the Novatians, +and according to the principles laid down at Arles (cc. 8, 13, +<ref target="Section_62_i_b">§ 62 <hi rend='italic'>I, b</hi></ref>) the +ordination of the Novatians was regarded as valid. The following +canon, although a generous concession on the part of the Church, +did not bring about a healing of the schism which lasted several centuries. +The last mention of the Novatians is contained in the 95th +canon of the second Trullan Council, known as the Quinisext, A. D. 692. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 8. Concerning those who call themselves Cathari, +who come over to the Catholic and Apostolic Church, the +great and holy synod decrees that they who are ordained shall +continue as they are among the clergy. But before all things +it is necessary that they should profess in writing that they +will observe and follow the teachings of the Catholic and +Apostolic Church; that is, that they will communicate with +<pb n='296'/><anchor id='Pg296'/> +those who have been twice married and with those who have +lapsed during the persecution, and upon whom a period of +penance has been laid and a time for restoration fixed; so +that in all things they will follow the teachings of the Catholic +Church. Wheresoever, then, whether in villages or in cities, +only these are found who have been ordained, let them remain +as found among the clergy and in the same rank. But +if any come over where there is a bishop or presbyter of the +Catholic Church, it is manifest that the bishop of the Church +must have the dignity of a bishop, and he who was named +bishop by those who are called Cathari shall have the honor of +a presbyter, unless it seem fit to the bishop to share with him +the honor of the title. But if this should not seem good to +him, then shall the bishop provide for him a place as chorepiscopus, +or as presbyter, in order that he may be evidently +seen to be of the clergy, and that in one city there may not +be two bishops. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 5, +2; A. D. 326.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +With the generous treatment of the Novatians by the Council of +Nicæa should be compared the mild and generous treatment of Constantine, +who distinguished them from other heretics. +</quote> + +<p> +We have not learned that the Novatians have been so condemned +that we believe that to them should not be granted +what they claim. Therefore we prescribe as to the buildings +of their churches and places suitable for burial that they are to +possess, without any molestation, those buildings and lands, +namely, which on ground of long possession or from purchase +or claim for any sound reason they may have. It will be well +looked out for that they attempt to claim nothing for themselves +of those things which before their secession belonged +evidently to the churches of perpetual sanctity. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='297'/><anchor id='Pg297'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter II. The Arian Controversy Until The +Extinction Of The Dynasty Of Constantine</head> + +<p> +The Arian controversy may be divided into four periods +or stadia: +</p> + +<p> +1. From the outbreak of the Arian controversy to the +Council of Nicæa (318-325). In this stadium the positions +of the parties are defined, and the position of the West, in +substantial agreement with that of Alexander and Athanasius, +forced through by Constantine and Hosius at Nicæa +(<ref target="Section_63">§ 63</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +2. From the Council of Nicæa to the death of Constantine +(325-337). In this stadium, without the setting aside of the +formula of Nicæa, an attempt is made to reconcile those who +in fact dissented. In this period Constantine, now living in +the East, inclines toward a position more in harmony with +Arianism and more acceptable in the East than was the doctrine +of Athanasius. This is the period of the Eusebian +reaction (<ref target="Section_64">§ 64</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +3. From the death of Constantine to the death of Constantius +(337-361). In this stadium the anti-Nicæan party +is victorious in the East (<ref target="Section_65">§ 65</ref>), +but as it included all those +who for any reason were opposed to the definition of Nicæa, +it fell apart on attaining the annulment of the decision of +Nicæa. There arose, on the one hand, an extreme Arian +party and, on the other, a homoiousian party which approximated +closely to the Athanasian position but feared the +Nicene terminology. +</p> + +<p> +4. From the accession of Julian to the council of Constantinople +(361-381). Under the pressure brought against +Christianity by Julian (<ref target="Section_68">§ 68</ref>), +parties but little removed from each other came closer together +(<ref target="Section_70">§ 70</ref>). A new generation +of theologians took the lead, with an interpretation of the +Nicene formula which made it acceptable to those who had +previously regarded it as Sabellian. And under the lead of +these men, backed by the Emperor Theodosius, the reaffirmation +<pb n='298'/><anchor id='Pg298'/> +of the Nicene formula at Constantinople, 381, was +accepted by the East (<ref target="Section_71">§ 71</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +In the period in which the Arian controversy is by far the +most important series of events in Church history, the attitude +of the sons of Constantine toward heathenism and +Donatism was of secondary importance, but it should be +noticed as throwing light on the ecclesiastical policy which +made the Arian controversy so momentous. In their policy +toward heathenism and dissent, the policy of Constantine +was carried to its logical completion in the establishment of +Christianity as the only lawful religion of the Empire +(<ref target="Section_67">§ 67</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +Arianism may be regarded as the last attempt of Dynamistic +Monarchianism (<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_40">§ 40</ref>) +to explain the divinity of Jesus Christ without admitting His eternity. It was derived +in part from the teaching of Paul of Samosata through Lucian +of Antioch. Paul of Samosata had admitted the existence +of an eternal but impersonal Logos in God which dwelt in the +man Jesus. Arianism distinguished between a Logos uncreated, +an eternal impersonal reason in God, and a personal +Logos created in time, making the latter, the personal Logos, +only in a secondary sense God. This latter Logos, neither +eternal nor uncreated, became incarnate in Jesus, taking the +place in the human personality of the rational soul or logos. +To guard against the worship of a being created and temporal, +and to avoid the assertion of two eternal existences, the anti-Arian +or Athanasian position, already formulated by Alexander, +made the personal Logos of one essence or substance +with the Father, eternal as the Father, and thereby distinguishing +between begetting, or the imparting of subsistence, +and creating, or the calling into being from nothing, a distinction +which Arianism failed to make; and thus allowing +for the eternity and deity of the Son without detracting from +the monotheism which was universally regarded as the fundamental +doctrine of Christianity as a body of theology. In +this controversy the party of Alexander and Athanasius was +animated, at least in the earlier stages of the controversy, +<pb n='299'/><anchor id='Pg299'/> +not so much by speculative interests as by religious motives, +the relation of Jesus to redemption, and they were strongly +influenced by Irenæus. The party of Arius, on the other hand, +was influenced by metaphysical interests as to the relation +of being to creation and the contrast between the finite and +the infinite. It may be said, in general, that until the council +of Chalcedon, and possibly even after that, the main interest +that kept alive theological discussion was intimately +connected with vital problems of religious life of the times. +After that the scholastic period began to set in and metaphysical +discussions were based upon the formulæ of the +councils. +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_63"/> +<head>§ 63. The Outbreak of the Arian Controversy and +the Council of Nicæa, A. D. 325</head> + +<p> +The Arian controversy began in Alexandria about 318, as +related by Socrates (<ref target="Section_63_a"><hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>). +The positions of the two parties were +defined from the beginning both by Alexander, bishop of +Alexandria (<ref target="Section_63_b"><hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>), +and Arius himself (<ref target="Section_63_c"><hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>), +who by appealing to Eusebius of Nicomedia, his fellow-student in the school of +Lucian of Antioch, enlisted the support of that able ecclesiastical +politician and courtier and at once extended the area of +the controversy throughout the East. By means of poems +of a somewhat popular character entitled the <hi rend='italic'>Thalia</hi>, about +322 (<ref target="Section_63_d"><hi rend='italic'>d</hi></ref>), +Arius spread his doctrines still further, involving +others than the trained professional theologian. In the meanwhile +Arius and some other clergy sympathizing with him in +Egypt were deposed about 320 (<ref target="Section_63_e"><hi rend='italic'>e</hi></ref>). +Constantine endeavored to end the dispute by a letter, and, failing in this, sent Hosius +of Cordova, his adviser in ecclesiastical matters, to Alexandria +in 324. On the advice of Hosius, a synod was called +to meet at Nicæa in the next year, after the pattern of the +earlier synod for the West at Arles in 314. Here the basis +for a definition of faith was a non-committal creed presented +by Eusebius of Cæsarea, the Church historian +(<ref target="Section_63_f"><hi rend='italic'>f</hi></ref>). This +<pb n='300'/><anchor id='Pg300'/> +was modified, probably under the influence of Hosius, so as +to be in harmony at once with the tenets of the party of +Alexander and Athanasius, and with the characteristic theology +of the West (<ref target="Section_63_g"><hi rend='italic'>g</hi></ref>). +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: J. Chrystal, <hi rend='italic'>Authoritative +Christianity</hi>, Jersey City, 1891, vol. I; <hi rend='italic'>The Council of Nicæa: +The Genuine Remains</hi>; H. R. Percival, <hi rend='italic'>The Seven Ecumenical +Councils</hi> (PNF, ser. II, vol. XIV); Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>On the +Incarnation</hi> (PNF, ser. II, vol. IV). +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_63_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Socrates. <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 5. +(MSG, 67:41.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The outbreak of the controversy at Alexandria circa 318. +</quote> + +<p> +After Peter, who was bishop of Alexandria, had suffered +martyrdom under Diocletian, Achillas succeeded to the episcopal +office, and after Achillas, Alexander succeeded in the +period of peace above referred to. Conducting himself fearlessly, +he united the Church. By chance, one day, in the presence +of the presbyters and the rest of his clergy, he was discussing +too ambitiously the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, +teaching that there was a unity in the Trinity. But Arius, +one of the presbyters under his jurisdiction, a man of no +inconsiderable logical acumen, imagining that the bishop was +subtly introducing the doctrine of Sabellius the Libyan, from +the love of controversy took the opposite opinion to that of +the Libyan, and, as he thought, vigorously responded to the +things said by the bishop. <q>If,</q> said he, <q>the Father begat +the Son, He that was begotten had a beginning of existence; +and from this it is evident that there was a time when the +Son was not. It follows necessarily that He had His subsistence +[hypostasis] from nothing.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_63_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Alexander of Alexandria. <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Alexandrum</hi>, in Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 3. (MSG, +88:904.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +A statement of the position of Alexander made to Alexander, bishop +of Constantinople. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This extract is to be found at the end of the letter; it is evidently +based upon the creed which is reproduced with somewhat free glosses. +The omissions in the extract are of the less important glosses and proof-texts. +<pb n='301'/><anchor id='Pg301'/> +For the position of Alexander the letter of Arius to Eusebius +of Nicomedia given below (<ref target="Section_63_c"><hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>) +should also be examined. +</quote> + +<p> +We believe as the Apostolic Church teaches, In one unbegotten +Father, who of His being has no cause, immutable +and invariable, and who subsists always in one state of being, +admitting neither of progression nor diminution; who gave the +law and the prophets and the Gospel; of patriarchs and +Apostles and all saints, Lord; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, +the only begotten Son of God, begotten not out of that which +is not, but of the Father, who is; yet not after the manner of +material bodies, by severance or emanation, as Sabellius +and Valentinus taught, but in an inexpressible and inexplicable +manner.… We have learned that the Son is immutable +and unchangeable, all-sufficient and perfect, like the Father, +lacking only His <q>unbegottenness.</q> He is the exact and precisely +similar image of His Father.… And in accordance +with this we believe that the Son always existed of the Father.… +Therefore His own individual dignity must be reserved +to the Father as the Unbegotten One, no one being called the +cause of His existence: to the Son, likewise, must be given +the honor which befits Him, there being to Him a generation +from the Father which has no beginning.… And in addition +to this pious belief respecting the Father and the Son, +we confess as the sacred Scriptures teach us, one Holy Spirit, +who moved the saints of the Old Testament, and the divine +teachers of that which is called the New. We believe in one +and only Catholic and Apostolic Church, which can never +be destroyed even though all the world were to take counsel +to fight against it, and which gains the victory over all the +impious attacks of the heterodox.… After this we receive +the resurrection from the dead, of which Jesus Christ our +Lord became the first-fruits; who bore a body, in truth, not +in semblance, derived from Mary, the mother of God [theotokos] +in the fulness of time sojourning among the race, for +the remission of sins: who was crucified and died, yet for all +this suffered no diminution of His Godhead. He rose from +<pb n='302'/><anchor id='Pg302'/> +the dead, was taken into heaven, and sat down on the right +hand of the Majesty on high. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_63_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Arius, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Eusebium</hi>, in +Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 4. (MSG, 88:909.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +A statement in the words of Arius of his own position and that of +Alexander addressed to Eusebius of Nicomedia. +</quote> + +<p> +To his very dear lord, the man of God, the faithful and +orthodox Eusebius, Arius unjustly persecuted by Alexander +the Pope, on account of that all-conquering truth of which +you are also the champion, sendeth greeting in the Lord. +</p> + +<p> +… Alexander has driven us out of the city as atheists, +because we do not concur in what he publicly preaches; +namely, <q>God is always, the Son is always; as the Father so +the Son; the Son coexists unbegotten with God; He is everlastingly +begotten; He is the unbegotten begotten; neither +by thought nor by any interval does God precede the Son; +always God, always the Son; the Son is of God himself.</q>… +To these impieties we cannot listen even though heretics +threaten us with a thousand deaths. But we say and believe +and have taught and do teach, that the Son is not unbegotten, +nor in any way part of the Unbegotten; nor from any +substance [hypokeimenon],<note place="foot">ὑποκείμενον.</note> +but that of His own will and +counsel He has subsisted before time and before ages, as perfect +God only begotten and unchangeable, and that before +He was begotten or created or purposed or established He +was not. For He was not unbegotten. We are persecuted +because we say that the Son has a beginning, but that God +is without beginning. This is the cause of our persecution, +and likewise because we say that He is of that which is not.<note +place="foot">ἐξ οὐκ ὄντων, the phrase which was afterward the foundation of the Arian +sect of the Exoukontians.</note> +And this we say because He is neither part of God, nor of +any substance [hypokeimenon]. For this we are persecuted; +the rest you know. I bid thee farewell in the Lord, remembering +<pb n='303'/><anchor id='Pg303'/> +our afflictions, my fellow-Lucianist and true Eusebius +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, pious]. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_63_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Arius, <hi rend='italic'>Thalia</hi>, in Athanasius, +<hi rend='italic'>Orat. contra Arianos</hi>, I, 2. (MSG, 26:21.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following extracts from the <hi rend='italic'>Thalia</hi>, although given by +Athanasius, the opponent of Arius, are so in harmony with what Arius and +his followers asserted repeatedly that they may be regarded as correctly +representing the work from which they profess to be taken. +</quote> + +<p> +God was not always Father; but there was when God +was alone and was not yet Father; afterward He became a +Father. The Son was not always; for since all things have +come into existence from nothing, and all things are creatures +and have been made, so also the Logos of God himself came +into existence from nothing and there was a time when He was +not; and that before He came into existence He was not; +but He also had a beginning of His being created. For God, +he says, was alone and not yet was there the Logos and Wisdom. +Afterward He willed to create us, then He made a +certain one and named Him Logos and Wisdom and Son, in +order that by Him He might create us. He says, therefore, +that there are two wisdoms, one proper to, and existing together +with, God; but the Son came into existence by that wisdom, +and was made a partaker of it and was only named Wisdom +and Logos. For Wisdom existed by wisdom and the will of +God's wisdom. So, he says, that there is another Logos +besides the Son in God, and the Son partaking of that Logos +is again named Logos and Son by grace.… There are many +powers; and there is one which is by nature proper to God +and eternal; but Christ, again, is not the true power of God, +but is one of those which are called powers, of whom also the +locust and the caterpillar are called not only a power but a +great power [Joel 2:2], and there are many other things like to +the Son, concerning whom David says in the Psalms: <q>The +Lord of Powers</q>;<note place="foot">Psalm 24:10; Hebrew, +The Lord of Hosts; LXX, The Lord of Powers.</note> +likewise the Logos is mutable, as are all +<pb n='304'/><anchor id='Pg304'/> +things, and by His own free choice, so far as He wills, remains +good; because when He wills He is able to change, as also +we are, since His nature is subject to change. Then, says +he, God foreseeing that He would be good, gave by anticipation +to Him that glory, which as a man He afterward had +from His virtue; so that on account of His works, which God +foresaw, God made Him to become such as He is now. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_63_e"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Council of Alexandria, A. D. 320, +<hi rend='italic'>Epistula encyclica</hi>, in Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Ec.</hi>, I, 6. (MSG, 67:45.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. +353 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The encyclical of the Council of Alexandria under Alexander, in +which Arius and his sympathizers were deposed, was possibly composed +by Athanasius. It is commonly found in his works, entitled <hi rend='italic'>Depositio +Arii</hi>. It is also found in the <hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical History</hi> +of Socrates. For council, see Hefele, § 20. +</quote> + +<p> +Those who became apostates were Arius, Achillas, Æithales, +Carpones, another Arius, and Sarmates, who were then presbyters; +Euzoius, Lucius, Julianus, Menas, Helladius, and +Gaius, who were then deacons; and with them Secundus and +Theonas, then called bishops. And the novelties which they +have invented and put forth contrary to the Scriptures are +the following: God was not always a Father, but there was a +time when He was not a Father. The Logos of God was not +always, but came into existence from things that were not; +wherefore there was a time when He was not; for the Son +is a creature and a work. Neither is He like in essence to +the Father. Neither is He truly by nature the Logos of the +Father; neither is He His true Wisdom; but He is one of the +things made and created, and is called the Logos and Wisdom +by an abuse of terms, since He himself originated by God's +own logos and by the wisdom that is in God, by which God +has made not only all things but Him also. Wherefore He is +in His nature subject to change and variation as are all rational +creatures. And the Logos is foreign, is alien and separated +from the being [<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">ousia</foreign>] +of God. And the Father cannot be<note place="foot">Some texts +insert <q>seen nor.</q></note> +<pb n='305'/><anchor id='Pg305'/> +described by the Son, for the Logos does not know the Father +perfectly and accurately, neither can He see Him perfectly. +Moreover, the Son knows not His own essence as it really is; +for He was made on account of us, that God might create us +by Him as by an instrument; and He would not have existed +had not God willed to create us. Accordingly some one asked +them whether the Logos of God is able to change as the +devil changed, and they were not afraid to say that He can +change; for being something made and created, His nature +is subject to change. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_63_f"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Eusebius of Cæsarea, <hi rend='italic'>Creed</hi>, +in Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 8. (MSG, 67:69.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hahn, § 188.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This creed was presented at the Council of Nicæa by the historian +Eusebius, who took the lead of the middle party at the council. He +stated that it had long been in use in his church. +</quote> + +<p> +We believe in one God, Father Almighty, the maker of +all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, +the Logos of God, God of God, Light of Light, Life of Life, +only begotten Son, the first-born of all creation, begotten of +His Father before all ages, by whom, also, all things were made, +who for our salvation became flesh, who lived among men, +and suffered and rose again on the third day, and ascended to +the Father, and will come again in glory to judge the living +and the dead. We believe also in one Holy Spirit. We believe +that each of these [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, three] is and +subsists;<note place="foot">ὑπάρχειν.</note> the Father +truly Father, the Son truly Son; the Holy Spirit truly Holy +Spirit; as our Lord also said, when He sent His disciples to +preach: <q>Go teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of +the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit</q> [Matt. +28:19]. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_63_g"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Council of Nicæa A. D. 325, +<hi rend='italic'>Creed</hi>, in Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 8. +(MSG, 67:68.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hahn, § 142.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The creed of Nicæa is to be carefully distinguished from what is +commonly called the Nicene creed. The actual creed put forth at the +<pb n='306'/><anchor id='Pg306'/> +council is as follows. The discussion by Loofs, +<hi rend='italic'>Dogmengeschichte</hi>, § 32, +is brief but especially important, as he shows that the creed was drawn +up under the influence of the Western formulæ. +</quote> + +<p> +We believe in one God, Father Almighty, maker of all things +visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son +of God, begotten of His Father, only begotten, that is of the +<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">ousia</foreign> +of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, true God of +true God; begotten, not made, of one substance<note place="foot">Homoousios.</note> +with the Father, by whom all things were made, both things in heaven +and things in earth, who for us men and for our salvation, +came down from heaven and was made [became] flesh and +was made [became] man, suffered and rose again on the third +day, ascended into the heavens and comes to judge living +and dead. And in the Holy Ghost. +</p> + +<p> +But those who say there was when He was not, and before +being begotten He was not, and He was made out of things +that were not<note place="foot">ἐξ οὐκ ὄντων.</note> +or those who say that the Son of God was from +a different substance [hypostasis] or being +[<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">ousia</foreign>] or a creature, +or capable of change or alteration, these the Catholic +Church anathematizes. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_64"/> +<head>§ 64. The Beginnings of the Eusebian Reaction under +Constantine</head> + +<p> +Shortly after the Council of Nicæa, Constantine seems to +have become aware of the fact that the decision at that council +was not acceptable in the East as a whole, representing, as +it did, what was generally felt to be an extreme position. In +coming to this opinion he was much influenced by Eusebius +of Nicomedia who, by powerful court interest, was soon recalled +from exile and even became the leading ecclesiastical +adviser of Constantine. The policy of this bishop was to +prepare the way for the revocation of the decree of Nicæa by +a preliminary rehabilitation of Arius +(<ref target="Section_64_a"><hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>), and by attacking the +leaders of the opposite party +(<ref target="Section_64_b"><hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>). Constantine, however, +never consented to the abrogation of the creed of Nicæa. +</p> + +<pb n='307'/><anchor id='Pg307'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 8 +(letter of Eusebius to his diocese), 14, 28 ff. <hi rend='italic'>Eusebius, Vita +Constantini</hi>, III, 23; Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>Historia Arianorum</hi>, §§ 4-7. +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_64_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Arius, <hi rend='italic'>Confession of Faith</hi>, +in Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 26. (MSG, 67:149.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +As a part of the process whereby Arius should be rehabilitated by +being received back into the Church he was invited by Constantine +to appear at the court. He was there presented to the Emperor and +produced a confession of faith purposely vague and general in statement, +but intended to give the impression that he held the essentials +of the received orthodoxy. The text is that given by Hahn, § 187. +</quote> + +<p> +Arius and Euzoius to our most religious and pious Lord, +the Emperor Constantine. +</p> + +<p> +In accordance with the command of your devout piety, +sovereign lord, we declare our faith, and before God we profess +in writing that we and our adherents believe as follows: +</p> + +<p> +We believe in one God, the Father Almighty; and in the +Lord Jesus Christ His Son, who was made by Him before all +ages, God the Word, through whom all things were made, +both those which are in heaven and those upon earth; who +descended, and became incarnate, and suffered, and rose +again, ascended into the heavens, and will again come to +judge the living and the dead. Also in the Holy Spirit, and +in the resurrection of the flesh, and in the life of the coming +age, and in the kingdom of the heavens, and in one Catholic +Church of God, extending from one end of the earth to the +other. +</p> + +<p> +This faith we have received from the holy gospels, the Lord +therein saying to His disciples: <q>Go teach all nations, baptizing +them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of +the Holy Spirit.</q> If we do not so believe and truly receive +the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, as the whole Catholic Church +and the Holy Scriptures teach (in which we believe in every +respect) God is our judge both now and in the coming judgment. +Wherefore we beseech your piety, most devout Emperor, +that we who are persons consecrated to the ministry, +<pb n='308'/><anchor id='Pg308'/> +and holding the faith and sentiments of the Church and of +the Holy Scriptures, may by your pacific and devoted piety be +reunited to our mother, the Church, all superfluous questions +and disputings being avoided; that so both we and the whole +Church may be at peace and in common offer our accustomed +prayers for your tranquil reign and on behalf of your whole +family. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_64_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 23. +(MSG, 67:140.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The attack of the Arians upon Athanasius and his party. +</quote> + +<p> +The partisans of Eusebius and Theognis having returned +from their exile, they received again their churches, having +expelled, as we observed, those who had been ordained in +their stead. Moreover they came into great consideration +with the Emperor, who honored them exceedingly, as those +who had returned from error to the orthodox faith. They, +however, abused the license granted them by exciting commotions +in the world greater than before; being instigated +to this by two causes—on the one hand, the Arian heresy +with which they had been previously infected, and on the +other hand, by animosity against Athanasius because in the +synod he had so vigorously withstood them in the discussion +of the articles of the faith. And in the first place they objected +to the ordination of Athanasius, not only as of one unworthy +of the episcopate, but also as of one not elected by qualified +persons. But when he had shown himself superior to this +calumny (for having assumed direction of the Church of the +Alexandrians, he ardently contended for the Nicene creed), +then the adherents of Eusebius exerted themselves to cause +the removal of Athanasius and to bring Arius back to Alexandria; +for thus only did they think they should be able to +cast out the doctrine of consubstantiality and introduce +Arianism. Eusebius therefore wrote to Athanasius to receive +Arius and his adherents; and when he wrote he not only entreated +him, but he openly threatened him. When Athanasius +would by no means accede to this he endeavored to persuade +<pb n='309'/><anchor id='Pg309'/> +the Emperor to receive Arius in audience and then permit +him to return to Alexandria; and how he accomplished these +things I shall tell in its proper place. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile, before this, another commotion was raised in +the Church. In fact those of the household of the Church +again disturbed her peace. Eusebius Pamphilius says that +immediately after the synod Egypt became agitated by intestine +divisions; but he does not give the reason for this. +From this he has gained the reputation of being disingenuous +and of avoiding the specification of the causes of these dissensions +from a determination on his part not to give his sanction +to the proceedings at Nicæa. Yet as we ourselves have +discovered from various letters which the bishops wrote to +one another after the synod, the term homoousios troubled +some of them. So that while they occupied themselves about +it, investigating it very minutely, they roused the strife against +each other. It seemed not unlike a contest in the dark; for +neither party appeared to understand distinctly the grounds +on which they calumniated one another. Those who objected +to the word homoousios conceived that those who approved +it favored the opinion of Sabellius and Montanus; they therefore +called them blasphemers, as subverting the existence of +the Son of God. And again those who defended the term, +charging their opponents with polytheism, inveighed against +them as introducers of heathen superstitions. Eustathius, +bishop of Antioch, accuses Eusebius Pamphilius of perverting +the Nicene creed; Eusebius again denies that he violates +that exposition of the faith, and accuses Eustathius of introducing +the opinion of Sabellius. Therefore each of them +wrote as if contending against adversaries; but both sides +admitted that the Son of God has a distinct person and existence, +confessing that there is one God in three persons +(hypostases) yet they were unable to agree, for what cause I +do not know, and could in no way be at peace. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='310'/><anchor id='Pg310'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_65"/> +<head>§ 65. The Victory of the Anti-Nicene Party in the East</head> + +<p> +When Constantine died in 337 the party of Eusebius of +Nicomedia was completely in the ascendant in the East. A +council at Antioch, 339, deposed Athanasius, and he was +expelled from Alexandria, and Gregory of Cappadocia was +consecrated in his place. Athanasius, with Marcellus of +Ancyra and other supporters of the Nicene faith, repaired to +Rome where they were supported by Julius, bishop of Rome, +at a well-attended local council in 340 +(<hi rend='italic'><ref target="Section_65_a">a</ref>, +<ref target="Section_65_b">b</ref></hi>). In the East +numerous attempts were made to formulate a confession of +faith which might take the place of the Nicene creed and prove +acceptable to all parties. The most important of these were +produced at the Council of Antioch, 341, at which no less than +four creeds were formulated +(<hi rend='italic'><ref target="Section_65_c">c</ref>, +<ref target="Section_65_d">d</ref></hi>). +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Percival, <hi rend='italic'>The Seven Ecumenical +Councils</hi> (PNF, ser. II, vol. XIV); Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi> +(PNF, ser. II, vol. II), II, 19 (Formula Macrostichos); Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>De +Synodis</hi> (PNF, ser. II, vol. IV). +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_65_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>Apologia contra +Arianos</hi>, 20. (MSG, 25:280.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Athanasius and his allies in exile in the West are exonerated at Rome. +</quote> + +<p> +The Eusebians wrote also to Julius, thinking to frighten +me, requesting him to call a council, and Julius himself to be +the judge if he pleased. When, therefore, I went up to Rome, +Julius wrote to the Eusebians, as was suitable, and sent moreover +two of his presbyters, Elpidius and Philoxenus. But +when they heard of me they became confused, because they +did not expect that we would come up; and they declined, +alleging absurd reasons for so doing, but in truth fearing lest +the things should be proved against them which Valens and +Ursacius afterward confessed. However, more than fifty +bishops assembled in the place where the presbyter Vito held +<pb n='311'/><anchor id='Pg311'/> +his congregation, and they acknowledged my defence and +gave me the confirmation both of their communion and their +love. On the other hand, they expressed great indignation +against the Eusebians and requested that Julius write to the +following effect to them who had written to him. And he +wrote and sent it by Count Gabienus. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_65_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Julius of Rome, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi>, in +Athanasius. <hi rend='italic'>Apologia contra Arianos</hi>, §§ 26 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> (MSG, 25:292.)</head> + +<p> +Julius to his dearly beloved brethren, Danius, Flacillus, +Narcissus, Eusebius, and Matis, Macedonius, Theodorus, and +their friends, who have written him from Antioch, sends +health in the Lord. +</p> + +<p> +§ 26. … It is necessary for me to inform you that although +I alone wrote, yet it was not my opinion only, but of +all the bishops throughout Italy and in these parts. I, indeed, +was unwilling to cause them all to write, lest they might have +weight by mere numbers. The bishops, however, assembled +on the appointed day, and agreed in these opinions, which I +again write to signify to you; so that, dearly beloved, although +I alone address you, yet you may know it is the opinion +of all.… +</p> + +<p> +§ 27. That we have not admitted to our communion our +fellow-bishops Athanasius and Marcellus either hastily or unjustly, +although sufficiently shown above, it is but fair to +set briefly before you. The Eusebians first wrote against +Athanasius and his fellows, and you have also written now; +but many bishops out of Egypt and other provinces wrote in +his favor. Now in the first place, your letters against him +contradict each other, and the second have no sort of agreement +with the first, but in many instances the former are +refuted by the latter, and the latter are impeached by the +former.… +</p> + +<p> +§ 29. Now when these things were thus represented, and +so many witnesses appeared in his behalf, and so much advanced +by him in his own justification, what did it become +<pb n='312'/><anchor id='Pg312'/> +us to do? Or what did the rule of the Church require except +that we should not condemn the man, but rather receive him +and hold him as a bishop as we have done.… +</p> + +<p> +§ 32. With respect to Marcellus, forasmuch as you have +written concerning him also as impious in respect to Christ, +I am anxious to inform you that, when he was here, he positively +declared that what you had written concerning him +was not true; but, being nevertheless requested by us to give +an account of his faith, he answered in his own person with +the utmost boldness, so that we recognize that he maintains +nothing outside of the truth. He confessed that he piously +held the same doctrine concerning our Lord and Saviour +Jesus Christ as the Catholic Church holds; and he affirmed +that he had held these opinions not merely now but for a very +long time since; as indeed our presbyters, who were at a +former time at the Council of Nicæa, testified to his orthodoxy, +for he maintained both then and now his opposition to +the heresy of Arius; on which point it is right to admonish +you, that none of you admit such heresy, but instead abominate +it as alien from the wholesome doctrine. Since he professed +orthodox opinions and offered testimony to his orthodoxy, +what again ought we in his case to have done except +to treat him as a bishop, as we did, and not reject him from +our communion?… +</p> + +<p> +§ 33. For not only the bishops Athanasius and Marcellus +and their fellows came here and complained of the injustice +that had been done them, but many other bishops, also, from +Thrace, from Cœle-Syria, from Phœnicia, and Palestine; and +presbyters, not a few, and others from Alexandria and from +other parts were present at the council here and, in addition +to their own statements, lamented bitterly before all the +assembled bishops the violence and injustice which the +churches had suffered; and they affirmed that outrages similar +to those which had been committed in Alexandria had +occurred not in word only but in deed in their own churches +and in others also. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='313'/><anchor id='Pg313'/> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_65_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Second Creed of Antioch</hi>, A. D. +341, in Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>De Synodis Arimini et Seleuciæ</hi>, ch. 23. +(MSG, 26:721.) Also in Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, II, 10. (MSG, +67:201.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hahn, § 154.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Council of Antioch in 341 was gathered ostensibly to dedicate +the great church of that city, in reality to act against the Nicene party. +It was attended by ninety or more bishops of whom thirty-six were +Arians. The others seem to have been chiefly members of the middle +party. The dogmatic definitions of this council have never been +accepted by the Church; on the other hand, the canons on discipline +have always enjoyed a very high place in the esteem of later generations. +The following creed, the second of the Antiochian creeds, is +traditionally regarded as having been composed originally by Lucian +of Antioch, the master of Arius. Hence it is known as the creed of +Lucian. +</quote> + +<p> +We believe in accordance with evangelic and apostolic +tradition in one God the Father Almighty, the creator, the +maker and provider of all things. And in one Lord Jesus +Christ, His only begotten Son, God, through whom are all +things, who was begotten of His Father before all ages, God +of God, whole of whole, only one of only one, perfect of perfect, +king of king, lord of lord, the living word, living wisdom, +true light, way, truth, resurrection, shepherd, door, unchangeable, +unalterable, and immutable, the unchangeable likeness of +the Godhead, both of the substance, and will and power and +glory of the Father, the first-born of all creation, who was in +the beginning with God, God Logos, according to what is said +in the Gospel: <q>and the word was God,</q> through whom all +things were made, and <q>in whom all things consist,</q> who in +the last days came down from above, and was born of a virgin, +according to the Scriptures, and became man, the mediator +between God and man, and the apostle of our faith, and +the prince of life; as He says, <q>I have come down from +heaven, not to do mine own will, but the will of Him that +sent me</q>; who suffered for us, and rose the third day and +ascended into heaven and sitteth on the right hand of the +Father, and comes again with glory and power to judge the +<pb n='314'/><anchor id='Pg314'/> +living and the dead. And in the Holy Spirit given for consolation +and sanctification and perfection to those who believe; +as also our Lord Jesus Christ commanded his disciples, +saying, <q>Go ye, teach all nations, baptizing them in the name +of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit,</q> clearly +of the Father who is really a Father, and of the Son who is +really a Son, and of the Holy Spirit who is really a Holy +Spirit; these names being assigned not vaguely nor idly, but +indicating accurately the special subsistence [hypostasis], +order, glory of those named, so that in subsistence they are +three, but in harmony one. +</p> + +<p> +Having then this faith from the beginning and holding it +to the end, before God and Christ we anathematize all heretical +false doctrines. And if any one contrary to the right +faith of the Holy Scriptures, teaches and says that there has +been a time, a season, or age, or being or becoming, before +the Son of God was begotten, let him be accursed. And if +any one says that the Son is a creature as one of the creatures, +or generated as one of the things generated, or made as one +of the things made, and not as the divine Scriptures have +handed down each of the forenamed statements; or if a man +teaches or preaches anything else contrary to what we have +received, let him be accursed. For we truly and clearly both +believe and follow all things from the Holy Scriptures that +have been transmitted to us by the prophets and Apostles. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_65_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Fourth Creed of Antioch</hi>, +Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist.</hi> Ec., II, 18. (MSG, 67:221.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hahn, § 156.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This creed is an approximation to the Nicene creed but without the +use of the word of especial importance, homoousios. Valuable critical +notes on the text of this and the preceding creed are to be found in +Hahn; as these creeds are to be found both in the work of Athanasius +on the councils of synods of Ariminum and Seleucia, in the ecclesiastical +history of Socrates and elsewhere, there is a variety of readings, but +of minor significance so far as the essential features are concerned. +</quote> + +<p> +We believe in one God, Father Almighty, the creator and +maker of all things, of whom the whole family in heaven and +<pb n='315'/><anchor id='Pg315'/> +upon earth is named; and in his only begotten Son, our Lord +Jesus Christ, who was begotten of the Father before all ages; +God of God, light of light, through whom all things in the +heavens and upon earth, both visible and invisible were +made: who is the word, and wisdom, and power, and life, +and true light: who in the last days for our sake was made +[became] man, and was born of the holy Virgin; was crucified, +and died; was buried, arose again from the dead on the third +day, and ascended into heaven, is seated at the right hand +of the Father, and is coming at the consummation of the age +to judge the living and the dead, and to render to each according +to his works: whose kingdom, being perpetual, shall continue +to infinite ages (for He shall sit at the right hand of the +Father, not only in this age, but also in that which is to come). +And in the Holy Spirit; that is, in the comforter, whom the +Lord, according to His promise, sent to His Apostles after +His ascension into the heavens, to teach and bring all things +to their remembrance: by whom, also, the souls of those who +have sincerely believed in Him shall be sanctified; and those +who assert that the Son was made of things which are not, +or of another subsistence [hypostasis], and not of God, or that +there was a time or age when He did not exist the holy Catholic +Church accounts as aliens. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_66"/> +<head>§ 66. Collapse of the Anti-Nicene Middle Party; +the Renewal of Arianism; the Rise of the Homoousian +Party</head> + +<p> +When Constantius became sole Emperor, on the death of +his brother Constans in 350, there was no further need of +considering the interests of the Nicene party. Only the +necessity of establishing his authority in the West against +usurpers engaged his attention until 356, when a series of +councils began, designed to put an end to the Nicene faith. +Of the numerous confessions of faith put forth, the second +creed of Sirmium of 357 is important as attempting to abolish +<pb n='316'/><anchor id='Pg316'/> +in connection with the discussion the use of the term +<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">ousia</foreign> +and likewise <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">homoousios</foreign> +and <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">homoiousios</foreign> +(<ref target="Section_66_a"><hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>). At Nice in +Thrace a still greater departure from Nicæa was attempted +in 359, and a creed was put forth +(<ref target="Section_66_b"><hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>), +which is of special significance as containing the first reference in a creed to the +<hi rend='italic'>descensus ad inferos</hi> and to the fact that it was subscribed by +the deputies of the West including Bishop Liberius of Rome. +For the discussion of this act of Liberius, see J. Barmby, art. +<q>Liberius</q> in DCB; see also <hi rend='italic'>Catholic Encyclopædia</hi>, art. +<q>Liberius.</q> It was also received in the synod of Seleucia in +the East. On these councils see Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>De Synodis</hi> +(PNF). It was in reference to this acceptance of the creed +of Nice that Jerome wrote <q>The whole world groaned and +was astonished that it was Arian.</q> See Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Contra +Luciferianos</hi>, §§ 18 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> (PNF. ser. II, vol. VI). +</p> + +<p> +Inasmuch as the anti-Nicene opposition party was a coalition +of all parties opposed to the wording of the Nicene creed, +as soon as that creed was abolished the bond that held them +together was broken. At once there arose an extreme Arianism +which had remained in the background. On the other +hand, those who were opposed to Arianism sought to draw +nearer the Nicene party. These were the Homoiousians, who +objected to the term homoousios as savoring of Sabellianism, +and yet admitted the essential point implied by it. That this +was so was pointed out by Hilary of Poitiers +(<ref target="Section_66_c"><hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>) who contended +that what the West meant by homoousios the East +meant by homoiousios. The Homoiousian party of the East +split on the question of the deity of the Holy Spirit. Those of +them who denied the deity of the Spirit remained Semi-Arians. +</p> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_66_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Second Creed of Sirmium</hi>, +in Hilary of Poitiers, <hi rend='italic'>De Synodis</hi>, ch. 11. (MSL, 10:487.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hahn, § 161.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Council of Sirmium in 357 was the second in that city. It was +attended entirely by bishops from the West. But among them were +Ursacius, Valens, and Germinius, leaders of the opposition to the +Nicene creed. Hosius under compulsion signed the following; see +Hilary, <hi rend='italic'>loc cit.</hi> The Latin original is given by Hilary. +</quote> + +<pb n='317'/><anchor id='Pg317'/> + +<p> +It is evident that there is one God, the Father Almighty, +according as it is believed throughout the whole world; and +His only Son Jesus Christ our Saviour, begotten of Him before +the ages. But we cannot and ought not to say there +are two Gods.… +</p> + +<p> +But since some or many persons were disturbed by questions +as to substance, called in Greek <foreign lang="el" +rend="font-style: italic">ousia</foreign>, that is, to make +it understood more exactly, as to <foreign lang="el" +rend="font-style: italic">homoousios</foreign> or what is +called <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">homoiousios</foreign>, +there ought to be no mention of these at all, nor +ought any one to state them; for the reason and +consideration that they are not contained in the divine Scriptures, +and that they are above man's understanding, nor can +any man declare the birth of the Son, of whom it is written: +<q>Who shall declare His generation?</q> For it is plain that +only the Father knows how He begat the Son, and the Son +how He was begotten of the Father. There is no question +that the Father is greater. No one can doubt that the +Father is greater than the Son, in honor, dignity, splendor, +majesty and in the very name Father, the Son himself testifying, +He that sent Me is greater than I. And no one is +ignorant that it is Catholic doctrine that there are two persons +of Father and Son; and that the Father is greater, and +that the Son is subordinated to the Father, together with all +things which the Father hath subordinated to Him; and +that the Father has no beginning and is invisible, immortal, +and impassible, but that the Son has been begotten of the +Father, God of God, light of light, and of this Son the generation, +as is aforesaid, no one knows but His Father. And +that the Son of God himself, our Lord and God, as we read, +took flesh or a body, that is, man of the womb of the Virgin +Mary, as the angel announced. And as all the Scriptures +teach, and especially the doctor of the Gentiles himself. He +took of Mary the Virgin, man, through whom He suffered. +And the whole faith is summed up and secured in this, that +the Trinity must always be preserved, as we read in the +Gospel: <q>Go ye and baptize all nations in the name of the +<pb n='318'/><anchor id='Pg318'/> +Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.</q> Complete +and perfect is the number of the Trinity. Now the Paraclete, +or the Spirit, is through the Son: who was sent and came according +to His promise in order to instruct, teach, and sanctify +the Apostles and all believers. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_66_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Creed of Nice</hi> A. D. 359, +Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, II, 16. (MSG, 82:1049.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hahn, § 164.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The deputies from the Council of Ariminum were sent to Nice, a +small town in Thrace, where they met the heads of the Arian party. +A creed, strongly Arian in tendency, was given them and they were +sent back to Ariminum to have it accepted. See Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>loc. +cit.</hi>, and Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>De Synodis</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +We believe in one and only true God, Father Almighty, +of whom are all things. And in the only begotten Son of God, +who before all ages and before every beginning was begotten +of God, through whom all things were made, both visible and +invisible; begotten, only begotten, alone of the Father alone, +God of God, like the Father that begat Him, according to the +Scriptures, whose generation no one knoweth except only +the Father that begat Him. This only begotten Son of God, +sent by His Father, we know to have come down from heaven, +as it is written, for the destruction of sin and death; begotten +of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, as it is written, according +to the flesh. Who companied with His disciples, +and when the whole dispensation was fulfilled, according to +the Father's will, was crucified, dead and buried, and descended +to the world below, at whom hell itself trembled; +on the third day He rose from the dead and companied with +His disciples, and when forty days were completed He was +taken up into the heavens, and sitteth on the right hand of +His Father, and is coming at the last day of the resurrection, +in His Father's glory, to render to every one according to his +works. And in the Holy Ghost, which the only begotten Son +of God, Jesus Christ, both God and Lord, promised to send +to the race of men, the comforter, as it is written, the spirit +of truth, and this Spirit He himself sent after He had ascended +<pb n='319'/><anchor id='Pg319'/> +into the heavens and sat at the right hand of the +Father, from thence He is coming to judge both the quick and +the dead. +</p> + +<p> +But the word <q>substance,</q> which was simply inserted by +the Fathers and not being understood was a cause of scandal +to the people because it was not found in the Scriptures, +it hath seemed good to us to remove, and that for the future +no mention whatever be permitted of <q>substance,</q> because +the sacred Scriptures nowhere make any mention of the +<q>substance</q> of the Father and the Son. Nor must one +<q>subsistence</q> [hypostasis] be named in relation to the person +[prosopon] of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. And we call the +Son like the Father, as the Holy Scriptures call Him and +teach. But all heresies, both those already condemned, and +any, if such there be, which have arisen against the document +thus put forth, let them be anathema. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_66_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Hilary of Poitiers. <hi rend='italic'>De +Synodis</hi>, §§ 88, 89, 91. (MSL, 10:540.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +That the Homoiousian party meant substantially the same by their +term homoiousios as did the Homoousians or the Nicene party, by +their term homoousios. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Hilary was of great importance in the Arian controversy in bringing +the Homoiousian party of the East and the Nicene party of the West +to an agreement. The Eastern theologians, who hesitated to accept +the Nicene term, were eventually induced to accept, understanding by +the term homoousios the same as homoiousios. See below, +<ref target="Section_70">§ 70</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 88. Holy brethren, I understand by homoousios God +of God, not of an unlike essence, not divided, but born; and +that the Son has a birth that is unique, of the substance of +the unknown God, that He is begotten yet co-eternal and +wholly like the Father. The word homoousios greatly helped +me already believing this. Why do you condemn my faith +in the homoousios, which you cannot disapprove by the +confession of the homoiousios? For you condemn my faith, +or rather your own, when you condemn its verbal equivalent. +Does somebody else misunderstand it? Let us together condemn +<pb n='320'/><anchor id='Pg320'/> +the misunderstanding, but not take away the security +of your faith. Do you think that one must subscribe to the +Samosetene Council, so that no one may make use of homoousios +in the sense of Paul of Samosata? Then let us subscribe +to the Council of Nicæa, so that the Arians may not +impugn the word homoousios. Have we to fear that homoiousios +does not imply the same belief as homoousios? Let us +decree that there is no difference between being of one and +being of a similar substance. But may not the word homoousios +be understood in a wrong sense? Let it be proved that +it can be understood in a good sense. We hold one and the +same sacred truth. I beseech you that the one and the same +truth which we hold, we should regard as sacred among us. +Forgive me, brethren, as I have so often asked you to do. +You are not Arians; why, then, by denying the homoousios, +should you be thought to be Arians? +</p> + +<p> +§ 89. … True likeness belongs to a true natural connection. +But when the true natural connection exists, the +homoousios is implied. It is likeness according to essence +when one piece of metal is like another and not plated.… +Nothing can be like gold but gold, or like milk that does not +belong to that species. +</p> + +<p> +§ 91. I do not know the word homoousios or understand +it unless it confesses a similarity of essence. I call God of +heaven and earth to witness, that when I heard neither word, +my belief was always such that I should have interpreted +homoiousios by homoousios. That is I believed that nothing +could be similar according to nature unless it was of the +same nature. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_67"/> +<head>§ 67. The Policy of the Sons of Constantine Toward +Heathenism and Donatism</head> + +<p> +Under the sons of Constantine a harsher policy toward +heathenism was adopted. Laws were passed forbidding +heathen sacrifices (<hi rend='italic'><ref target="Section_67_a">a</ref>, +<ref target="Section_67_b">b</ref></hi>), and although these were not carried +<pb n='321'/><anchor id='Pg321'/> +out vigorously in the West, where there were many heathen +members of the leading families, they were more generally +enforced in the East, and heathenism was thereby much reduced, +at least in outward manifestations. As to heresy, +the action of the emperors and especially Constantius in his +constant endeavor to set aside the Nicene faith involved +harsh measures against all who differed from the approved +theology of the court. Donatism called for special treatment. +A policy of conciliation was attempted, but on account of +the failure to win over the Donatists and their alliance +with fierce revolutionary fanatics, the Circumcellions, violent +measures were taken against them which nearly extirpated +the sect. +</p> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_67_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 10, +2; A. D. 341.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This edict of Constantius is of importance here as it seems to imply +that Constantine did more toward repressing heathen sacrifices than +to forbid those celebrated in private. It is, however, the only evidence +of his prohibiting sacrifice, and it might have been due to misunderstanding +that his example is here cited. +</quote> + +<p> +Let superstition cease; let the madness of sacrifices be abolished. +For whoever, against the law of the divine prince, +our parent [Constantine] and this command of our clemency, +shall celebrate sacrifices, let a punishment appropriate to +him and this present decision be issued. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_67_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 10, +3; A. D. 342.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In the West Constans did not enforce the law against sacrifices with +great severity, but tolerated the existence and even use of certain +temples without the walls. +</quote> + +<p> +Although all superstition is to be entirely destroyed, yet +we will that the temple buildings, which are situated without +the walls, remain intact and uninjured. For since from some +have arisen various sports, races, and contests, it is not proper +that they should be destroyed, from which the solemnity of +ancient enjoyments are furnished to the Roman people. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_67_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 10, +4; A. D. 346.</head> + +<pb n='322'/><anchor id='Pg322'/> + +<p> +It is our pleasure that in all places and in all cities the temples +be henceforth closed, and access having been forbidden +to all, freedom to sin be denied the wicked. We will that all +abstain from sacrifices; that if any one should commit any +such act, let him fall before the vengeance of the sword. +Their goods, we decree, shall be taken away entirely and recovered +to the fisc, and likewise rectors of provinces are to +be punished if they neglect to punish for these crimes. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_67_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Optatus, <hi rend='italic'>De schismate +Donatistarum</hi>, III, §§ 3, 4. (MSL, 11:999.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The principal historical writer treating the schism of the Donatists +is Optatus, Bishop of Mileve. His work on this sect was written about +370 and revised and enlarged in 385. It is of primary importance not +merely for the history but for the dogmatic discussions on the doctrine +of the Church, Bk. II, the doctrine of the sacraments, the idea +of <hi rend='italic'>opus operatum</hi> as applied to them, +Bk. V; in all of which he laid the +foundation upon which Augustine built. In addition to the passage +from Optatus given here, Epistles 88 and 185 by Augustine are accessible +in translations and will be found of assistance in filling in the account +of the Circumcellions. The latter is known as <hi rend='italic'>De correctione +Donatistarum</hi> and is published in the anti-Donatist writings of Augustine +in PNF, ser. I, vol. IV; the most important passages are §§ +15 and 25. It is probable that the party of the Circumcellions was +originally due to a revolt against intolerable agrarian conditions and +that their association with the Donatists was at first slight. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 3. … The Emperor Constans did not send Paulus and +Macarius primarily to bring about unity, but with alms, +that, assisted by them, the poor of the various churches might +be relieved, clothed, and fed. When they came to Donatus, +your father, and showed him why they had come, he was +seized with his accustomed furious anger and broke forth +with these words: <q>What has the Emperor to do with the +Church.</q>… +</p> + +<p> +§ 4. If anything, therefore, has been done harshly in +bringing about unity,<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +in forcing the Donatists to return to the Church.</note> +you see, brother Parmenianus, to +whom it ought to be attributed. Do you say that the military +was sought by us Catholics; if so, then why did no one +<pb n='323'/><anchor id='Pg323'/> +see the military in arms in the proconsular province? Paulus +and Macarius came, everywhere to consider the poor and to +exhort individuals to unity; and when they approached +Bagaja, then another Donatus, bishop of that city, desiring +to place an obstacle in the way of unity and hinder the work +of those coming, whom we have mentioned, sent messengers +throughout the neighboring places and all markets, and summoned +the Circumcellions, calling them Agonistici, to come +to the said place. And at that time the gathering of these +was desired, whose madness a little before had been seen by +the bishops themselves to have been impiously inspired. For +when men of this sort before the unity<note place="foot">The +temporary defeat of the Donatist party which was celebrated at the +Council of Carthage in 348-349. See Hefele, § 70.</note> wandered through +various places, when Axido and Fasir were called by the same +mad ones the leaders of the saints, no one could be secure in +his possessions; written evidences of indebtedness lost their +force; no creditor was at liberty at that time to demand anything. +All were terrified by the letters of those who boasted +that they were the leaders of the saints, and if there was any +delay in fulfilling their commands, suddenly a furious multitude +hurried up and, terror going on before, creditors were +surrounded with a wall of dangers, so that those who ought +to have been asked for their protection were by fear of death +compelled to use humble prayers. Each one hastened to +abandon his most important duties; and profit was thought +to have come from these outrages. Even the roads were no +longer at all safe, because masters, turned out of their carriages, +ran humbly before their slaves sitting in the places of +their masters. By the judgment and rule of these the order +of rank between masters and servants was changed. Therefore +when there arose complaint against the bishops of your +party, they are said to have written to Count Taurinus, that +such men could not be corrected in the Church, and they +demanded that they should receive discipline from the said +count. Then Taurinus, in response to their letters, commanded +<pb n='324'/><anchor id='Pg324'/> +an armed body of soldiers to go through the markets +where the Circumcellions were accustomed to wander. In +Octavum very many were killed, many were beheaded and +their bodies, even to the present day, can be counted by the +white altars or tables.<note place="foot">Tombs built in the +shape of altars which were table-shaped.</note> When first some of their number +were buried in the basilicas, Clarus, a presbyter in Subbulum, +was compelled by his bishop to disinter those buried. Whence +it is reported that what was done had been commanded to be +done, when it is admitted that sepulture in the house of +God is not granted. Afterward the multitude of these people +increased. In this way Donatus of Bagaja found whence +he might lead against Macarius a raging mob. Of that sort +were those who were to their own ruin murderers of themselves +in their desire for a false martyrdom. Of these, also, +were those who rushed headlong and threw themselves down +from the summits of lofty mountains. Behold from what +numbers the second Bishop Donatus formed his cohorts! +Those who were bearing treasure which they had obtained +for the poor were held back by fear. They decided in so +great a predicament to demand from Count Sylvester armed +soldiery, not that by these they should do violence to any one, +but that they might stop the force drawn up by the aforesaid +Bishop Donatus. Thus it happened that an armed soldiery +was seen. Now, as to what followed, see to whom it ought or +can be ascribed. They had there an infinite number of those +summoned, and it is certain that a supply of provisions for a +year had been provided. Of the basilicas they made a sort +of public granary, and awaited the coming of those against +whom they might expend their fury, if the presence of armed +soldiery had not prevented them. For when, before the +soldiers came, the metatores,<note place="foot">The metatores were +those who were sent ahead of a troop of soldiers to provide +for quartering them upon the inhabitants.</note> as was the custom, were sent, +they were not properly received, contrary to the apostolic precept, +<q>honor to whom honor, custom to whom custom, tribute +to whom tribute, owe no man anything.</q> For those who +<pb n='325'/><anchor id='Pg325'/> +had been sent with their horses were smitten by those whose +names you have made public with malicious intent. They +were the authors of their own wrong; and what they could +suffer they themselves taught by these outrages. The soldiers +who had been maltreated returned to their fellows, and +for what two or three suffered, all grieved. All were roused, +and their officers could not restrain the angered soldiers. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_68"/> +<head>§ 68. Julian the Apostate</head> + +<p> +The reign of Julian the Apostate (361-363) is important +in the history of the Christian Church, in the first place, as +indicating the slight hold which heathenism had retained as +a system upon the bulk of the people and the impossibility +of reviving it in any form in which it might compete with the +Church. Julian attempted to inject into a purified heathenism +those elements in the Christian Church which he was +forced to admire. The result was a fantastic mixture of rites +and measures with which the heathen would have nothing to +do. In the second place, in the development of the Church's +doctrinal system, and especially in the Arian controversy, the +reign of Julian gave the contestants, who were obliged to +stand together against a common enemy, reason for examining +in a new way the points they had in common, and enabled +them to see that some at least differed more over the expression +than over the content of their faith. The character +of Julian has long been a favorite subject of study and especially +the motives that induced him to abandon Christianity +for the Neo-Platonic revival of heathenism. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III: Ammianus +Marcellinus, <hi rend='italic'>Roman History</hi>, XVI-XXV, translated by C. D. Yonge +(Bohn's Classical Library); <hi rend='italic'>Select Works of Julian</hi>, translated by +C. W. King (Bohn). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Socrates. <hi rend='italic'>Hist Ec.</hi> III. 1. +(MSG, 67:368.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Emperor Julian. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The account of the Emperor Julian as given by Socrates is probably +the best we have. It is, on the whole, a model of a fair statement, +<pb n='326'/><anchor id='Pg326'/> +such as is characteristic of the history of Socrates in nearly all its +parts. In spite of its length it is worthy of a place in its entirety, as +it explains the antecedents of a character which the world has had +difficulty in understanding. +</quote> + +<p> +Constantine, who gave Byzantium his own name, had two +brothers born of the same father but by a different mother, +of these one was named Dalmatius, the other Constantius. +Dalmatius had a son of the same name as his own; Constantius +had two sons, Gallus and Julian. Now, as on the +death of Constantine, the founder of Constantinople, the soldiery +had put the younger brother Constantius to death, the +lives of his two orphaned children were also endangered; +but a disease, apparently fatal, preserved Gallus from the +violence of his father's murderers; and as to Julian, his age—for +he was only eight years old at the time—protected him. +The Emperor's jealousy toward them having been subdued, +Gallus attended schools at Ephesus in Ionia, in which country +considerable possessions had been left them by their +parents. Julian, however, when he was grown up pursued +his studies at Constantinople, going constantly to the palace, +where the schools then were, in simple attire and under +the care of the eunuch Mardonius. In grammar, Nicocles, +the Lacedæmonian, was his instructor; and Ecbolius, the +sophist, who was at that time a Christian, taught him rhetoric; +for the Emperor Constantius had made provision that +he should have no pagan masters, lest he should be seduced +to pagan superstitions; for Julian was a Christian at the beginning. +Since he made great progress in literature, the +report began to spread that he was capable of ruling the +Roman Empire; and this popular rumor becoming generally +spread abroad, greatly disquieted the Emperor. Therefore +he removed him from the great city to Nicomedia, forbidding +him at the same time to frequent the school of Libanius the +Syrian sophist. For Libanius, having been driven away by +the teachers of Constantinople, had opened a school at Nicomedia. +Here he gave vent to his indignation against the +<pb n='327'/><anchor id='Pg327'/> +teachers in his treatise composed against them. Julian, however, +was interdicted from being his auditor, because Libanius +was a pagan in religion; nevertheless because he admired +his orations, he procured them and read them secretly and +diligently. As he was becoming very expert in the rhetorical +art, Maximus the philosopher arrived in Nicomedia, not the +Byzantine, Euclid's father, but the Ephesian whom the Emperor +Valentinian afterward caused to be executed as a practicer +of magic. This took place later; at that time the only +thing that attracted him to Nicomedia was the fame of Julian. +Having obtained from him a taste for the principles of philosophy, +Julian began to imitate the religion of his teacher, +who had instilled into his mind a desire for the Empire. When +these things reached the ears of the Emperor, wavering between +hope and fear, Julian became very anxious to lull the +suspicion that had been awakened, and he who was at first +truly a Christian then became one in pretence. Shaved to +the very skin, he pretended to live the monastic life; and +while in private he pursued philosophical studies, in public +he read the sacred writings of the Christian Church. Moreover, +he was appointed reader of the church in Nicomedia. +Thus by these pretexts he escaped the Emperor's displeasure. +Now he did all this from fear, but he by no means abandoned +his hope; telling many of his friends that times would +be happier when he should possess all. While his affairs were +in this condition his brother Gallus, who had been created +Cæsar, when he was on his way to the East came to Nicomedia +to see him. But when Gallus was slain shortly after, Julian +was immediately suspected by the Emperor; therefore the +latter directed that he should be kept under guard; he soon +found means, however, of escaping from his guards, and fleeing +from place to place he managed to be in safety. At last +Eusebia, the wife of the Emperor, having discovered him in +his retreat, persuaded the Emperor to do him no harm, and +to permit him to go to Athens to study philosophy. From +thence—to be brief—the Emperor recalled him and afterward +<pb n='328'/><anchor id='Pg328'/> +created him Cæsar, and having given him his own sister +Helen in marriage, he sent him to Gaul against the +barbarians. For the barbarians whom the Emperor Constantius +had hired as auxiliary forces against Magnentius, being +of no use against that usurper, were pillaging the Roman +cities. Inasmuch as he was young he ordered him to undertake +nothing without consulting the other military chiefs.… +Julian's complaint to the Emperor of the inertness of +his military officers procured for him a coadjutor in the command +more in sympathy with his ardor; and by their combined +efforts an assault was made upon the barbarians. But +they sent him an embassy, assuring him that they had been +ordered by letters of the Emperor to march into Roman territories, +and they showed him the letters. But he cast the +ambassadors into prison, vigorously attacked the forces of +the enemy and totally defeated them; and having taken their +king prisoner, he sent him to Constantius. After these successes +he was proclaimed Emperor by the soldiers; and inasmuch +as there was no imperial crown at hand, one of the +guards took the chain which he wore around his own neck and +placed it upon Julian's head. Thus Julian became Emperor; +but whether he subsequently conducted himself as a philosopher, +let my readers determine. For he neither sent an embassy +to Constantius, nor paid him the least homage in acknowledgment +of past favors; but conducted everything +just as it pleased him. He changed the rulers of the provinces, +and he sought to bring Constantius into contempt by +reciting publicly in every city the letters which Constantius +had written to the barbarians. For this reason the cities +revolted from Constantius and attached themselves to him. +Then he openly put off the pretence of being a Christian; +going about to the various cities, he opened the pagan temples, +offering sacrifices to the idols, and designating himself +<q>Pontifex Maximus</q>; and the heathen celebrated their pagan +festivals with pagan rites. By doing these things he excited +a civil war against Constantius; and thus as far as he was +<pb n='329'/><anchor id='Pg329'/> +concerned all the evils involved in war happened. For this +philosopher's desire could not have been fulfilled without +much bloodshed. But God, who is the judge of His own +counsels, checked the fury of these antagonists without detriment +to the State by the removal of one of them. For when +Julian arrived among the Thracians, it was announced that +Constantius was dead. And thus did the Roman Empire +at that time escape the intestine strife. Julian entered Constantinople +and at once considered how he might conciliate +the masses and secure popular favor. Accordingly, he had +recourse to the following measures: he knew that Constantius +was hated by all the people who held the homoousian +faith and had driven them from the churches and had proscribed +and exiled their bishops. He was aware, also, that the +pagans were extremely discontented because they had been +forbidden to sacrifice to their gods, and were anxious to get +their temples opened and to be at liberty to offer sacrifices +to their idols. Thus he knew that both classes secretly entertained +hostile feelings toward his predecessor, and at the +same time the people in general were exceedingly exasperated +by the violence of the eunuchs, and especially by the rapacity +of Eusebius, the chief officer of the imperial bed-chamber. +Therefore he treated all with craftiness. With some he dissembled; +others he attached to himself by conferring obligations +upon them, led by a desire for vainglory; but to all he +manifested how he stood toward the heathen religion. And +first, in order to slander Constantius and condemn him as +cruel toward his subjects among the people generally, he recalled +the exiled bishops and restored to them their confiscated +estates. He next commanded suitable agents to open the +pagan temples without delay. Then he directed that those +who had been treated unjustly by the eunuchs should receive +back the property of which they had been plundered. Eusebius, +the chief officer of the imperial bed-chamber, he punished +with death, not only on account of the injuries he had inflicted +on others, but because he was assured that it was +<pb n='330'/><anchor id='Pg330'/> +through his machinations his brother Gallus had been killed. +The body of Constantius he honored with an imperial funeral, +but he expelled the eunuchs, the barbers, and cooks from the +palace.… At night, remaining awake, he wrote orations +which he afterward delivered in the Senate, going thither from +the palace, though in fact he was the first and only Emperor +since the time of Julius Cæsar who made speeches in that +assembly. He honored those who were eminent for literary +attainments, and especially those who taught philosophy; +in consequence of which an abundance of pretenders to learning +of this sort resorted to the palace from all quarters, men +who wore their palliums and were more conspicuous for their +costume than for their erudition. These impostors, who invariably +adopted the religious sentiments of their prince, +were inimical to the welfare of the Christians; but since +Julian himself was overcome by excessive vanity he derided +all his predecessors in a book which he wrote, entitled <q>The +Cæsars.</q> Led by the same haughty disposition, he composed +treatises against the Christians as well. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Sozomenus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 3. +(MSG, 67:1217.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Julian's restoration of heathenism. +</quote> + +<p> +When Julian was placed in sole possession of the Empire he +commanded all the temples throughout the East to be reopened; +and he also commanded that those which had been +neglected to be repaired, those which had fallen into ruins to +be rebuilt, and the altars to be restored. He assigned considerable +money for this purpose. He restored the customs +of antiquity and the ancestral ceremonies in the cities and the +sacrifices. He himself offered libations openly and sacrificed +publicly; and held in honor those who were zealous in these +things. He restored to their ancient privileges the initiators +and the priests, the hierophants and the servants of the temples, +and confirmed the legislation of former emperors in their +favor. He granted them exemption from duties and other +burdens as they had previously had had such exemption. +<pb n='331'/><anchor id='Pg331'/> +He restored to the temple guardians the provisions which +had been abolished. He commanded them to be pure from +meats, and to abstain from whatever, according to pagan +opinion, was not befitting him who had announced his purpose +of leading a pure life. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Sozomenus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 5. +(MSG, 67:1225.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Julian's measures against the Christians. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Among those who benefited by the recall of those who had been +banished for their religious beliefs were not only the orthodox Christians +who suffered under Constantius, but also the Donatists and +others who had been expelled from their homes by the previous emperors. +</quote> + +<p> +Julian recalled all who, during the reign of Constantius, had +been banished on account of their religious beliefs, and restored +to them their property which had been confiscated by law. +He charged the people not to commit any act of injustice +against any of the Christians, not to insult them and not to +constrain them to sacrifice unwillingly.… He deprived the +clergy, however, of their immunities, honors, and provisions +which Constantine had conferred, repealed the laws which +had been enacted in their favor, and reinforced their statutory +liabilities. He even compelled the virgins and widows, +who on account of their poverty were reckoned among the +clergy, to refund the provision which had been assigned them +from the public treasury.… In the intensity of his hatred +of the faith, he seized every opportunity to ruin the Church. +He deprived it of its property, votive offerings, and sacred +vessels, and condemned those who had demolished temples +during the reign of Constantine and Constantius to rebuild +them or to defray the expense of re-erection. On this ground, +since they were unable to repay the sum and also on account +of the search after sacred money, many of the priests, clergy, +and other Christians were cruelly tortured and cast into prison.… +He recalled the priests who had been banished by the +Emperor Constantius; but it is said that he issued this order in +their behalf, not out of mercy, but that through contention +<pb n='332'/><anchor id='Pg332'/> +among themselves the churches might be involved in fraternal +strife and might fall away from their law, or because +he wished to asperse the memory of Constantius. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_68_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Julian, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 49, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Arsacium</hi>; Julian, Imp., <hi rend='italic'>Epistulæ</hi>, ed. +Hertlein. Leipsic, 1875 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>; also in Sozomenus, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 16. (MSG, 67:1260.)</head> + +<p> +To Arsacius, High Priest of Galatia. Hellenism<note place="foot">The +religion of the pagans.</note> does not +flourish as we would have it, because of its votaries. The +worship of the gods, however, is grand and magnificent beyond +all our prayers and hopes. Let our Adrastea be propitious +to these words. No one a little while ago could have +dared to look for such and so great a change in a short time. +But do we think that these things are enough, and not rather +consider that humanity shown strangers, the reverent diligence +shown in burying the dead, and the false holiness as +to their lives have principally advanced +atheism?<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, Christianity.</note> +Each of these things is needful, I think, to be faithfully practised +among us. It is not sufficient that you alone should be such, +but in general all the priests, as many as there are throughout +Galatia, whom you must either shame or persuade to be +zealous, or else deprive them of their priestly office, if they +do not come with their wives, children, and servants to the +temples of the gods, or if they support servants, sons, or +wives who are impious toward the gods and prefer atheism to +piety. Then exhort the priests not to frequent the theatres, +not to drink in taverns, nor to practise any art or business +which is shameful or menial. Honor those who comply, +expel those who disobey. Establish hostelries in every city, +so that strangers, or whoever has need of money, may enjoy +our philanthropy, not merely those of our own, but also those +of other religions. I have meanwhile made plans by which +you will be able to meet the expense. I have commanded +that throughout the whole of Galatia annually thirty thousand +bushels of corn and sixty thousand measures of wine be given, +<pb n='333'/><anchor id='Pg333'/> +of which the fifth part I order to be devoted to the support +of the poor who attend upon the priests; and the rest is to be +distributed by us among strangers and beggars. For if there +is not one among the Jews who begs, and even the impious +Galileans, in addition to their own, support also ours, it is +shameful that our poor should be wanting our aid. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Sozomenus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 16. +(MSG, 67:1260.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Measures taken by Julian for the restoration of heathenism. +</quote> + +<p> +The Emperor, who had long since been eager that Hellenism +should prevail through the Empire, was bitterly grieved seeing +it excelled by Christianity. The temples, however, were +kept open; the sacrifices and the ancient festivals appeared +to him in all the cities to come from his will. He grieved that +when he considered that if they should be deprived of his care +they would experience a speedy change. He was particularly +chagrined on discovering that the wives, children, and +servants of many pagan priests professed Christianity. On +reflecting that the Christian religion had a support in the life +and behavior of those professing it, he determined to introduce +into the pagan temples everywhere the order and discipline +of the Christian religion: by orders and degrees of the +ministry, by teachers and readers to give instruction in pagan +doctrines and exhortations, by appointed prayers on certain +days and at stated hours, by monasteries both for men and +for women who desired to live in philosophical retirement, +likewise hospitals for the relief of strangers and of the poor, +and by other philanthropy toward the poor to glorify the +Hellenic doctrine. He commanded that a suitable correction +be appointed by way of penance after the Christian tradition +for voluntary and involuntary transgressions. He is +said to have admired especially the letters of recommendation +of the bishops by which they commended travellers to other +bishops, so that coming from anywhere they might go to any +one and be hospitably received as known and as friends, and +be cared for kindly on the evidence of these testimonials. +<pb n='334'/><anchor id='Pg334'/> +Considering also these things, he endeavored to accustom the +pagans to Christian practices. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Sozomenus. <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 18. +(MSG, 67:1269.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 16. +</quote> + +<p> +Julian forbade the children of Christians to be instructed +in the writings of the Greek poets and authors, and to frequent +the public schools.… He did not permit Christians to be +educated in the learning of the Greeks, since he considered +that only from them the power of persuasion was gained. +Apollinaris,<note place="foot">See DCB, art. <q>Apollinaris the Elder.</q></note> +therefore, at that time employed his great learning +and ingenuity in the production of a heroic epic on the +antiquities of the Hebrews to the reign of Saul as a substitute +for the poem of Homer.… He also wrote comedies in imitation +of Menander, and imitated the tragedies of Euripides +and the odes of Pindar.… Were it not that men were +accustomed to venerate antiquity and to love that to +which they are accustomed, the works of Apollinaris would +be equally praised and taught. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Julian, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 42.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Edict against Christian teachers of the classics. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This is the famous decree prohibiting Christians from teaching the +Greek classics, and was quite generally understood by Christians as +preventing them from studying the same. +</quote> + +<p> +I think true culture consists not in proficiency in words and +speech, but in a condition of mind which has sound intentions +and right opinions concerning good and evil, the honorable +and the base. Whoever, therefore, thinks one thing and +teaches those about him another appears to be as wanting in +culture as in honor. If in trifles there is a difference between +thought and speech, it is nevertheless an evil in some way +to be endured; but if in important matters any one thinks +one thing and teaches in opposition to what he thinks, this +is the trick of charlatans, the act not of good men, but of +<pb n='335'/><anchor id='Pg335'/> +those who are thoroughly depraved, especially in the case +of those who teach what they regard as most worthless, deceiving +and enticing by flattery into evil those whom they +wish to use for their own purposes. All those who undertake +to teach anything should be upright in life and not cherish +in their minds ideas which are in opposition to those commonly +received; most of all I think that such they ought to be who +converse with the young on learning, or who explain the writings +of the ancients, whether they are teachers of eloquence +or of rhetoric, and still more if they are sophists. For they +aim to be not merely teachers of words but of morals as well, +and claim instruction in political science as belonging to their +field. Whether this be true, I will leave undetermined. But +praising them as those who thus strive for fine professions, +I would praise them still more if they neither lied nor contradicted +themselves, thinking one thing and teaching their +pupils another. Homer, Hesiod, Demosthenes, Herodotus, +Thucydides, Isocrates, and Lysias were indebted to the gods +for all their science. Did they not think that they were +under the protection of Hermes and of the Muses? It seems +to me, therefore, absurd that those who explain their writings +should despise the gods they honored. But when I think it +is absurd, I do not say that, on account of their pupils, they +should alter their opinions; but I give them the choice, either +not to teach what they do not hold as good, or, if they prefer +to teach, first to convince their pupils that Homer, Hesiod, +or any of those whom they explain and condemn, is not so +godless and foolish in respect to the gods as they represent +him to be. For since they draw their support and make gain +from what these have written, they confess themselves most +sordidly greedy of gain, willing to do anything for a few +drachmas. Hitherto there were many causes for the lack of +attendance upon the temples, and overhanging fear gave an +excuse for keeping secret the right teaching concerning the +gods. Now, however, since the gods have granted us freedom, +it seems to me absurd that men should teach what they +<pb n='336'/><anchor id='Pg336'/> +do not regard as good. If they believe that all those men are +wise whose writings they expound and as whose prophets +they sit, let them first imitate their piety toward the gods; +but if they think that these writers erred concerning the most +honored gods, let them go into the churches of the Galileans +and expound Matthew and Luke, believing whom you forbid +attendance upon the sacrifices. I would that your ears +and tongues were born again, as you would say, of those things +in which I always take part, and whoever loves me thinks and +does. This law is to apply to teachers and instructors generally. +Whoever among the youth wishes to make use of +their instruction is not forbidden. For it would not be fair +in the case of those who are yet youths and do not know +which way to turn, to forbid the best way, and through fear +to compel them to remain unwillingly by their ancestral +institutions. Although it would be right to cure such people +against their wills as being insane, yet it is permitted all to +suffer under this disease. For it is my opinion that the ignorant +should be instructed, not punished. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter III. The Triumph Of The New Nicene Orthodoxy Over Heterodoxy And +Heathenism</head> + +<p> +The Arian controversy was the most important series of +events in the internal history of the Christian Church in the +fourth century, without reference to the truth or error of the +positions taken or the rightful place of dogma within the +Church. It roused more difficulties, problems, and disputes, +led to more persecutions, ended in greater party triumphs +than any other ecclesiastical or religious movement. It +entered upon its last important phase about the time of the +accession of the Emperor Julian. From that time the parties +began to recognize their real affiliations and sought a +basis of union in a common principle. The effect was that +on the accession of Christian emperors the Church was able +to advance rapidly toward a definitive statement. Of the +<pb n='337'/><anchor id='Pg337'/> +emperors that followed Julian, Valentinian I (364-375), who +ruled in the West, took a moderate and tolerant position in +the question regarding the existence of heathenism alongside +of the Church and heretical parties within the Church, though +afterward harsher measures were taken by his son and successor +(<ref target="Section_69">§ 69</ref>). In the East his colleague Valens (364-378) +supported the extreme Arian party and persecuted the other +parties, at the same time tolerating heathenism. This only +brought the anti-Arians more closely together as a new party +on the basis of a new interpretation of the Nicene formula +(<ref target="Section_70">§ 70</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +<ref target="Section_66_c">§ 66, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>). +On the death of Valens at Adrianople, +378, an opportunity was given this new party, which it has +become customary to call the New Nicene party, to support +Theodosius (379-395) in his work of putting through the +orthodox formula at the Council of Constantinople, 381 +(<ref target="Section_71">§ 71</ref>). +</p> + + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_69"/> +<head>§ 69. The Emperors from Jovian to Theodosius and +Their Policy toward Heathenism and Arianism</head> + +<p> +The reign of Jovian lasted so short a time, June, 363, to +February, 364, that he had no time to develop a policy, and +the assertion of Theodoret that he extinguished the heathen +sacrificial fires is doubtful. On the death of Jovian, Valentinian +was elected Emperor, who soon associated with himself +his brother Valens as his colleague for the East. The +two were tolerant toward heathenism, but Valens took an +active part in favor of Arianism, while Valentinian held aloof +from doctrinal controversy. On the death of Valentinian I, +his sons Gratian (murdered at Lyons, 383) and Valentinian +II (murdered at Vienne by Arbogast, 392), succeeded to +<pb n='338'/><anchor id='Pg338'/> +the Empire. Under them the policy of toleration ceased, +heathenism was proscribed. In the East under Theodosius, +appointed colleague of Gratian in 379, the same policy was +enforced. Arianism was now put down with a strong hand +in both parts of the Empire. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Ammianus Marcellinus, <hi rend='italic'>Roman +History</hi>, XXX, 9, § 5.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The religious policy of Valentinian I. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Ammianus Marcellinus is probably the best of the later Roman historians, +and is the chief authority for much of the secular history from +353 to 378, in which period he is a source of the first rank, writing from +personal observation and first-hand information. Ammianus was himself +a heathen, but he seems not to have been embittered by the persecution +to which his faith had been subjected. He was a man of a +calm and judicial mind, and his judgment is rarely biassed, even when +he touches upon ecclesiastical matters which, however, he rarely does. +</quote> + +<p> +Valentinian was especially remarkable during his reign for +his moderation in this particular—that he kept a middle course +between the different sects of religion, and never troubled +any one, nor issued any orders in favor of one kind of worship +rather than another; nor did he promulgate any threatening +edicts to bow down the necks of his subjects to the form of +worship to which he himself was inclined; but he left these +parties just as he found them, without making any alterations. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XII, 1, +75; A. D. 371.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In this edict Valentinian I confirms the immunities of the heathen +priesthood which had been restored by Julian. The heathen priesthood +is here shown to continue as still open to aspirants after political +honors and conferring immunities upon those who attained it. The +curial had to pass through the various offices in fixed order before he +attained release from burdens which had been laid upon him by the +State's system of taxation. +</quote> + +<p> +Let those be held as enjoying immunity who, advancing +by the various grades and in due order, have performed their +various obligations and have attained by their labor and approved +actions to the priesthood of a province or to the honor +<pb n='339'/><anchor id='Pg339'/> +of a chief magistracy, gaining this position not by favor and +votes obtained by begging for them, but with the favorable +report of the citizens and commendation of the public as a +whole, and let them enjoy the repose which they shall have +deserved by their long labor, and let them not be subject to +those acts of bodily severity in punishment which it is not +seemly that <hi rend='italic'>honorati</hi> should undergo. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Theodoret. <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV, 21; +V, 20. (MSG, 82:1181.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following statement of Theodoret might seem to have been inspired +by the general hatred which was felt for the violent persecutor +and pronounced Arian, Valens. Nevertheless the statement is supported +by references to the conditions under Valens made by Libanius +in his <hi rend='italic'>Oratio pro Templis</hi>, addressed to the Emperor Theodosius. +</quote> + +<p> +IV, 21. At Antioch Valens spent considerable time, and +gave complete license to all who under cover of the Christian +name, pagans, Jews, and the rest preached doctrines contrary +to those of the Gospel. The slaves of this error even went so +far as to perform pagan rites, and thus the deceitful fire which +after Julian had been quenched by Jovian, was now rekindled +by permission of Valens. The rites of the Jews, of Dionysus +and Demeter were no longer performed in a corner as +they would have been in a pious reign, but by revellers running +wild in the forum. Valens was a foe to none but to +them that held the apostolic doctrine. +</p> + +<p> +V, 20. Against the champions of the apostolic decrees +alone he persisted in waging war. Accordingly, during the +whole period of his reign the altar fire was lit, libations and +sacrifices were offered to idols, public feasts were celebrated +in the forum, and votaries initiated in the orgies of Dionysus +ran about in goatskins, mangling dogs in Bacchic frenzy. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Symmachus, <hi rend='italic'>Memorial to +Valentinian II</hi>; Ambrose, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 17. (MSL, 16:1007.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +A petition for the restoration of the altar of Victory in the Senate +House at Rome. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Symmachus, prefect of the city, had previously appealed to Gratian +<pb n='340'/><anchor id='Pg340'/> +to restore the altar which had been removed. The following petition, +of which the more impressive parts are given, was made in 384, two +years after the first petition. The opening paragraph refers to the +former petition. The memorial is found among the Epistles of Ambrose, +who replies to it. +</quote> + +<p> +1. As soon as the most honorable Senate, always devoted +to you, knew what crimes were made amenable to law, and +saw that the reputation of late times was being purified by +pious princes, following the example of a favorable time, it +gave utterance to its long-suppressed grief and bade me be +once again the delegate to utter its complaints. But through +wicked men audience was refused me by the divine Emperor, +otherwise justice would not have been wanting, my lords and +emperors of great renown, Valentinian, Theodosius, and Arcadius, +victorious, triumphant, and ever august. +</p> + +<p> +3. It is our task to watch on behalf of your clemency. +For by what is it more suitable that we defend the institutions +of our ancestors, and the rights and destiny of our country, +than by the glory of these times, which is all the greater when +you understand that you may not do anything contrary to +the custom of your ancestors? We request, then, the restoration +of that condition of religious affairs which was so long of +advantage to the State. Let the rulers of each sect and of +each opinion be counted up; a late one [Julian] practised the +ceremonies of his ancestors, a later [Valentinian I], did not +abolish them. If the religion of old times does not make a +precedent, let the connivance of the last [Valentinian and +Valens] do so. +</p> + +<p> +4. Who is so friendly with the barbarians as not to require +an altar of Victory?… +</p> + +<p> +5. But even if the avoidance of such an omen<note place="foot">As +the destruction of the altar of Victory.</note> +were not sufficient, it would at least have been seemly to abstain from +injuring the ornaments of the Senate House. Allow us, we +beseech you, as old men to leave to posterity what we received +as boys. The love of custom is great. Justly did the act of +<pb n='341'/><anchor id='Pg341'/> +the divine Constantius last for a short time. All precedents +ought to be avoided by you, which you know were soon +abolished.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, by Julian and +Valentinian.</note> +</p> + +<p> +6. Where shall we swear to obey your laws and commands? +By what religious sanctions shall the false mind be +terrified, so as not to lie in bearing witness? All things are, +indeed, filled with God, and no place is safe for the perjured, +but to be bound in the very presence of religious forms has +great power in producing a fear of sinning. That altar preserves +the concord of all; that altar appeals to the good faith +of each; and nothing gives more authority to our decrees than +that our order issues every decree as if we were under the +sanction of an oath. So that a place will be opened to perjury, +and my illustrious princes, who are defended by a public oath, +will deem this to be such. +</p> + +<p> +7. But the divine Constantius is said to have done the +same. Let us rather imitate the other actions of that prince +[Valentinian I], who would have undertaken nothing of the +kind, if any one else had committed such an error before him. +For the fall of the earlier sets his successor right, and amendment +results from the censure of a previous example. It was +pardonable for your clemency's ancestor in so novel a matter +not to guard against blame. Can the same excuse avail us, +if we imitate what we know to have been disapproved? +</p> + +<p> +8. Will your majesties listen to other actions of this same +prince, which you may more worthily imitate? He diminished +none of the privileges of the sacred virgins, he filled the +priestly offices with nobles. He did not refuse the cost of +the Roman ceremonies, and following the rejoicing Senate +through all the streets of the Eternal City, he beheld the +shrines with unmoved countenance, he read the names of the +gods inscribed on the pediments, he inquired about the origin +of the temples, and expressed admiration for their founders. +Although he himself followed another religion, he maintained +these for the Empire, for every one has his own customs, +<pb n='342'/><anchor id='Pg342'/> +every one his own rites. The divine Mind has distributed +different guardians and different cults to different cities. As +souls are separately given to infants as they are born, so to +a people is given the genius of its destiny. Here comes in +the proof from advantage, which most of all vouches to man +for the gods. For, since our reason is wholly clouded, whence +does the knowledge of the gods more rightly come to us, than +from the memory and records of successful affairs? Now if +a long period gives authority to religious customs, faith ought +to be kept with so many centuries, and our ancestors ought +to be followed by us as they happily followed theirs. +</p> + +<p> +9. Let us now suppose that we are present at Rome and +that she addresses you in these words: <q>Excellent princes, +fathers of your country, respect my years to which pious +rites have brought me. Let me use the ancestral ceremonies, +for I do not repent of them. Let me live after my own fashion, +for I am free. This worship subdued the world to my +laws, these sacred rites repelled Hannibal from the walls, +and the Senones from the capitol. Have I been reserved for +this, that when aged I should be blamed? I will consider +what it is thought should be set in order, but tardy and discreditable +is the reformation of old age.</q> +</p> + +<p> +10. We ask, therefore, peace for the gods of our fathers +and of our country. It is just that what all worship be considered +one. We look on the same stars, the sky is common, +the same world surrounds us. What difference does it make +by what paths each seeks the truth? We cannot attain to +so great a secret by one road; but this discussion is rather +for persons at ease; we offer now prayers, not conflict.<note place="foot">The +rest of the petition is taken up chiefly with a protest against the confiscation +of the endowments for the vestal virgins.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Ambrose, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 18. (MSL, +16:1013.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Reply of Ambrose to the Memorial of Symmachus. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Immediately after the receipt of the Memorial of Symmachus by +Valentinian II, a copy was sent to Ambrose, who wrote a reply or letter +of advice to Valentinian, which might be regarded as a counter-petition. +<pb n='343'/><anchor id='Pg343'/> +In it he enters upon the arguments of Symmachus. Although +he could not present the same pathetic figure of an old man +pleading for the religion of his ancestors, his arguments are not unjust, +and dispose satisfactorily of the leading points made by Symmachus. +The line of reasoning represents the best Christian opinion of the times +on the matter of the relation of the State to heathenism. +</quote> + +<p> +3. The illustrious prefect of the city has in a memorial +set forth three propositions which he considers of force—that +Rome, he says, asks for her rites again, that pay be given to +her priests and vestal virgins, and that a general famine followed +upon the refusal of the priests' stipends.… +</p> + +<p> +7. Let the invidious complaints of the Roman people +come to an end. Rome has given no such charge. She +speaks other words. <q>Why do you daily stain me with the +useless blood of the harmless herd? Trophies of victory depend +not upon the entrails of the flock, but on the strength +of those who fight. I subdued the world by a different discipline. +Camillus was my soldier who slew those who had +taken the Tarpeian rock, and brought back to the capitol the +standards taken away; valor laid low those whom religion +had not driven off.… Why do you bring forward the rites +of our ancestors? I hate the rites of Neros. Why should +I speak of emperors of two months,<note place="foot">Allusion +to the very brief reign of several.</note> and the ends of rulers +closely joined to their commencements. Or is it, perchance, +a new thing for barbarians to cross their boundaries? Were +they, too, Christians whose wretched and unprecedented +cases, the one a captive emperor<note place="foot">Valerian +taken captive by Sapor.</note> and under the other<note place="foot">Galienus.</note> +the captive world,<note place="foot">Reference to the <q>thirty +tyrants.</q></note> made manifest that their rites which promised +victory were false? Was there then no altar of Victory?…</q> +</p> + +<p> +8. By one road, says he, one cannot attain to so great a +secret. What you know not, that we know by the voice of +God. And what you seek by fancies we have found out from +<pb n='344'/><anchor id='Pg344'/> +the very wisdom and truth of God. Your ways, therefore, +do not agree with ours. You implore peace for your gods +from the Emperor, we ask peace for our emperors themselves +from Christ.… +</p> + +<p> +10. But, says he, let the ancient altars be restored to their +images, and their ornaments to the shrines. Let this demand +be made of one who shares in their superstitions; a Christian +emperor has learned to honor the altar of Christ alone.… +Has any heathen emperor raised an altar to Christ? While +they demand the restoration of things which have been, by +their own example they show us how great reverence Christian +emperors ought to pay to the religion which they follow, +since heathen ones offered all to their superstitions. +</p> + +<p> +We began long since, and now they follow those whom they +excluded. We glory in yielding our blood, an expense moves +them.… We have increased through loss, through want, +through punishment; they do not believe that their rites +can continue without contribution. +</p> + +<p> +11. Let the vestal virgins, he says, retain their privileges. +Let those speak thus who are unable to believe that virginity +can exist without reward, let those who do not trust virtue, +encourage it by gain. But how many virgins have their promised +rewards gained for them? Hardly are seven vestal virgins +received. See the whole number whom the fillet and +chaplets for the head, the robes of purple dye, the pomp of +the litter surrounded by a company of attendants, the greatest +privileges, immense profits, and a prescribed time for virginity +have gathered together. +</p> + +<p> +12. Let them lift up the eyes of soul and body, let them +look upon a people of modesty, a people of purity, an assembly +of virginity. Not fillets are the ornament of their heads, +but a veil common in use but ennobled by chastity; the enticement +of beauty not sought out, but laid aside; none of +those purple insignia, no delicious luxuries, but the practice +of fasts; no privileges, no gains; all other things, in fine, of +such a kind that one would think them restrained from desire +<pb n='345'/><anchor id='Pg345'/> +whilst practising their duties. But whilst the duty is being +practised the desire for it is aroused. Chastity is increased +by its own sacrifice. That is not virginity which is bought +with a price, and not kept through a desire for virtue; that +is not purity which is bought by auction for money or which +is bid for a time. +</p> + +<p> +16. No one has denied gifts to shrines and legacies to +soothsayers; their land only has been taken away, because +they did not use religiously that which they claimed in right +of religion. Why did not they who allege our example practise +what we did? The Church has no possessions of her +own except the faith. Hence are her returns, her increase. +The possessions of the Church are the maintenance of the +poor. Let them count up how many captives the temples +have ransomed, what food they have contributed for the +poor, to what exiles they have supplied the means of living. +Their lands, then, have been taken away, but not their rights. +</p> + +<p> +23. He says the rites of our ancestors ought to be retained. +But why, seeing that all things have made a progress toward +what is better?… The day shines not at the beginning, +but as time proceeds it is bright with increase of light and +grows warm with increase of heat. +</p> + +<p> +27. We, too, inexperienced in age, have an infancy of our +senses, but, changing as years go by, lay aside the rudimentary +conditions of our faculties. +</p> + +<p> +28. Let them say, then, that all things ought to have remained +in their first dark beginnings; that the world covered +with darkness is now displeasing because it has brightened +with the rising of the sun. And how much more pleasant +is it to have dispelled the darkness of the mind than that of +the body, and that the rays of faith should have shone than +that of the sun. So, then, the primeval state of the world, as +of all things, has passed away that the venerable old age of +hoary faith might follow.… +</p> + +<p> +30. If the old rites pleased, why did Rome also take up +foreign ones? I pass over the ground hidden with costly +<pb n='346'/><anchor id='Pg346'/> +buildings, and shepherds' cottages glittering with degenerate +gold. Why, that I may reply to the very matter which they +complain of, have they eagerly received the images of captured +cities, and conquered gods, and the foreign rites of alien +superstition? Whence, then, is the pattern of Cybele washing +her chariots in a stream counterfeiting the Almo? Whence +were the Phrygian prophets and the deities of unjust Carthage, +always hateful to the Romans? And he whom the Africans +worship as Celestis, the Persians as Mithra, and the greater +number as Venus, according to a difference of name, not a +variety of deities? +</p> + +<p> +31. They ask to have her altar erected in the Senate House +of the city of Rome, that is where the majority who meet +together are Christians! There are altars in all the temples, +and an altar also in the Temple of Victory. Since they delight +in numbers, they celebrate their sacrifices everywhere. +To claim a sacrifice on this one altar, what is it but to insult +the faith? Is it to be borne that a heathen should sacrifice +and a Christian be present?… Shall there not be a common +lot in that common assembly? The faithful portion of the +Senate will be bound by the voices of those who call upon the +gods, by the oaths of those who swear by them. If they +oppose they will seem to exhibit their falsehood, if they acquiesce, +to acknowledge what is a sacrilege. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 10, +12; A. D. 392.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Decree of Theodosius prohibiting heathen worship as a crime of the +same character as treason. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following decree may be said to have permanently forbidden +heathenism, at least in the East, though as a matter of fact many +heathen not only continued to practise their rites in defiance of the law +or with the connivance of the authorities, but also received appointments +at the court and elsewhere. The law was never repealed. In +course of time heathenism disappeared as a religious system. +</quote> + +<p> +XVI, 10, 12. Hereafter no one of whatever race or dignity, +whether placed in office or discharged therefrom with +honor, powerful by birth or humble in condition and fortune, +<pb n='347'/><anchor id='Pg347'/> +shall in any place or in any city sacrifice an innocent victim +to a senseless image, venerate with fire the household deity +by a more private offering, as it were the genius of the house, +or the Penates, and burn lights, place incense, or hang up garlands. +If any one undertakes by way of sacrifice to slay a +victim or to consult the smoking entrails, let him, as guilty +of lese-majesty, receive the appropriate sentence, having been +accused by a lawful indictment, even though he shall not have +sought anything against the safety of the princes or concerning +their welfare. It constitutes a crime of this nature to +wish to repeal the laws, to spy into unlawful things, to reveal +secrets, or to attempt things forbidden, to seek the end of +another's welfare, or to promise the hope of another's ruin. +If any one by placing incense venerates either images made +by mortal labor, or those which are enduring, or if any one +in ridiculous fashion forthwith venerates what he has represented, +either by a tree encircled with garlands or an altar +of cut turfs, though the advantage of such service is small, +the injury to religion is complete, let him as guilty of sacrilege +be punished by the loss of that house or possession in which +he worshipped according to the heathen superstition. For all +places which shall smoke with incense, if they shall be proved +to belong to those who burn the incense, shall be confiscated. +But if in temples or public sanctuaries or buildings and fields +belonging to another, any one should venture this sort of +sacrifice, if it shall appear that the acts were performed without +the knowledge of the owner, let him be compelled to pay +a fine of twenty-five pounds of gold, and let the same penalty +apply to those who connive at this crime as well as those +who sacrifice. We will, also, that this command be observed +by judges, defensors, and curials of each and every city, to +the effect that those things noted by them be reported to the +court, and by them the acts charged may be punished. But +if they believe anything is to be overlooked by favor or allowed +to pass through negligence, they will lie under a judicial +warning. And when they have been warned, if by any negligence +<pb n='348'/><anchor id='Pg348'/> +they fail to punish they will be fined thirty pounds +of gold, and the members of their court are to be subjected to +a like punishment. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_70"/> +<head>§ 70. The Dogmatic Parties and Their Mutual Relations</head> + +<p> +The parties in the Arian controversy became greatly divided +in the course of the conflict. Speaking broadly, there were +still two groups, of which one was composed of all those who +regarded the Son as a creature and so not eternal and not +truly God; and the other, of those who regarded Him as uncreated +and in some real sense eternal and truly God, yet +without denying the unity of God. The former were the +various Arian parties tending to constant division. The latter +can hardly yet be comprised under one common name, +and might be called the anti-Arian parties, were it not that +there was a positive content to their faith which was in far +better harmony with the prevailing religious sentiment of +the East and was constantly receiving accessions. In the +second generation after Nicæa, a new group of theologians +came to the front, of whom the most important were Eustathius +of Sebaste, Cyril of Jerusalem, and the three Cappadocians, +Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa, most +of whom had at least sympathized with the Homoiousian +party. Already at the synod of Ancyra, in 358, an approach +was made toward a reconciliation of the anti-Arian factions, +in that, by a more careful definition, homoousios was rejected +only in the sense of identity of being, and homoiousios was +asserted only in the sense of equality of attributes in the not +identical subjects which, however, shared in the same essence. +Homoiousios did not mean mere similarity of being. (Anathemas +in Hahn, § 162; Hefele, § 80.) The line of development +ultimately taken was by a precise distinction between +<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">hypostasis</foreign> and +<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">ousia</foreign>, whereby +<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">hypostasis</foreign>, which never meant +person in the modern sense, which later is represented by the +<pb n='349'/><anchor id='Pg349'/> +Greek <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">prosopon</foreign>, was that +which subsists and shares with other +<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">hypostases</foreign> +in a common essence or <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">ousia</foreign>. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>De Synodis</hi> (PNF); Basil, +<hi rend='italic'>Epp.</hi> 38, 52, 69, 125 (PNF, ser. II, vol. VIII); Hilary of +Poitiers, <hi rend='italic'>De Synodis</hi>, cc. 87-91 (PNF, ser. II, vol. IX); +Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 25. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>Council of Alexandria A. D. 362. <hi rend='italic'>Tomus ad Antiochenos</hi>. +(MSG, 26:797.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Council of Alexandria, A. D. 362, was held by Athanasius in the +short time he was allowed to be in his see city at the beginning of the +reign of Julian. In the synodal letter or tome addressed to the Nicene +Christians at Antioch we have the foundation of the ultimate formula +of the Church as opposing Arianism, one substance and three persons, +one <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">ousia</foreign> and three +<foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">hypostases</foreign>. The +occasion of the letter was an attempt +to win over the Meletian party in the schism among the anti-Arians +of Antioch. Meletius and his followers appear to have been +Homoiousians who were strongly inclined to accept the Nicene confession. +Their church was in the Old Town, a portion of Antioch. Opposed +to them was Paulinus with his party, which held firmly to the +Nicene confession. The difficulty in the way of a full recognition of +the Nicene statement by Meletius and his followers was that it savored +of Sabellianism. The difficulty of the party of Paulinus in recognizing +the orthodoxy of the Meletians was their practice of speaking of the +three hypostases or subsistences, which was condemned by the words +of the Nicene definition.<note place="foot">V. supra, <ref +target="Section_63">§ 63</ref>.</note> The outcome of the Alexandrian Council in +the matter was that a distinction could be made between <foreign +lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">ousia</foreign> and <foreign +lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">hypostasis</foreign>, +that the difference between the parties was largely a matter of +terminology, that those who could use the Nicene symbol with the understanding +that the Holy Ghost was not a creature and was not separate +from the essence of Christ should be regarded as orthodox. Out of +this understanding came the <q>New Nicene</q> party, of which the first +might be said to have been Meletius, who accepted <foreign +lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">homoousios</foreign> in the +sense of <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">homoiousios</foreign>, +and of which the <q>three great Cappadocians</q> +became the recognized leaders. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Council of Alexandria, in addition to condemning the Macedonian +heresy, in advance of Constantinople, also anticipated that assembly +by condemning Apollinarianism without mentioning the teacher +by whom the heresy was taught. It is condemned in the seventh section +of the tome. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 3. As many, then, as desire peace with us, and especially +those who assemble in the Old Town, and those again who +are seceding from the Arians, do ye call to yourselves, and +<pb n='350'/><anchor id='Pg350'/> +receive them as parents their sons, and as tutors and guardians +welcome them; and unite them to our beloved Paulinus and +his people, without requiring more from them than to anathematize +the Arian heresy and confess the faith confessed by the +holy Fathers at Nicæa and to anathematize also those who +say that the Holy Ghost is a creature and separate from the +essence of Christ. For this is in truth a complete renunciation +of the abominable heresy of the Arians, to refuse to divide +the Holy Trinity, or to say that any part of it is a creature. +</p> + +<p> +§ 5. … As to those whom some were blaming for speaking +of three subsistences (hypostases), on the ground that the +phrase is unscriptural and therefore suspicious, we thought +it right, indeed, to require nothing beyond the confession of +Nicæa, but on account of the contention we made inquiry of +them, whether they meant, like the Arian madmen, subsistences +foreign and strange and alien in essence from one +another, and that each subsistence was divided apart by itself, +as is the case with other creatures in general and those +begotten of men, or like substances, such as gold, silver, or +brass; or whether, like other heretics, they meant three beginnings +and three Gods, by speaking of three subsistences. +</p> + +<p> +They assured us in reply that they neither meant this nor +had ever held it. But upon our asking them <q>what, then, +do you mean by it, or why do you use such expressions?</q> they +replied: Because they believe in a Holy Trinity, not a trinity +in name only, but existing and subsisting in truth, both +Father truly existing and subsisting, and a Son, truly substantial +and subsisting, and a Holy Ghost subsisting and +really existing do we acknowledge, said they, and that neither +had they said there were three Gods or three beginnings, +nor would they at all tolerate such as said or held so, but that +they acknowledged a Holy Trinity, but one Godhead and one +beginning, and that the Son is co-essential with the Father, +as the Fathers said; and the Holy Ghost not a creature, +nor external, but proper to, and inseparable from, the essence +of the Father and the Son. +</p> + +<pb n='351'/><anchor id='Pg351'/> + +<p> +§ 6. Having accepted, then, these men's interpretation of +their language and their defence, we made inquiry of those +blamed by them for speaking of one subsistence, whether +they use the expression in the sense of Sabellius, to the negation +of the Son and Holy Ghost, or as though the Son was +non-substantial, or the Holy Ghost without subsistence. But +they in their turn assured us that they neither said this nor +had ever held it, but, <q>we use the word subsistence thinking it +the same thing to say subsistence or essence.</q><note place="foot">Hypostasis +or ousia; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> the Nicene definition, +<ref target="Section_63_g">§ 63, <hi rend='italic'>g</hi></ref>.</note> +But we hold there is One, because the Son is of the essence of the Father +and because of the identity of nature. For we believe that +there is one Godhead, and that the nature of it is one, and +not that there is one nature of the Father, from which that +of the Son and of the Holy Ghost are distinct. Well, thereupon, +they who had been blamed for saying that there were +three subsistences agreed with the others, while those who +had spoken of one essence, also confessed the doctrine of the +former as interpreted by them. And by both sides Arius +was anathematized as an adversary of Christ, and Sabellius, +and Paul of Samosata as impious men, and Valentinus and +Basilides as aliens from the truth, and Manichæus as an inventor +of mischief. And all, by God's grace, and after the +above explanations, agreed together that the faith confessed +by the Fathers at Nicæa is better and more accurate than the +said phrases, and that for the future they would prefer to be +content to use its language. +</p> + +<p> +§ 7. But since, also, certain seemed to be contending together +concerning the fleshly economy of the Saviour, we +inquired of both parties. And what the one confessed the +others also agreed to: that not as when the word of the Lord +came to the prophets, did it dwell in a holy man at the consummation +of the ages, but that the Word himself was made +flesh; and being in the form of God, He took the form of a +servant, and from Mary after the flesh became man for us, +and that thus in Him the human race is perfectly and wholly +<pb n='352'/><anchor id='Pg352'/> +delivered from sin and made alive from the dead, and led +into the kingdom of heaven. For they also confess that the +Saviour had not a body without a soul, nor without sense or +intelligence;<note place="foot">The Apollinarian heresy.</note> +for it was not possible, when the Lord had become +man for us, that His body should be without intelligence; +nor was the salvation, effected in the Word himself, +a salvation of the body only, but of the soul also. And +being Son of God in truth, He became also Son of Man; and +being God's only begotten Son, He became also at the same +time <q>first-born among many brethren.</q> Wherefore neither +was there one Son of God before Abraham, another after +Abraham: nor was there one that raised up Lazarus, another +that asked concerning him; but the same it was that said as +man, <q>Where does Lazarus lie?</q> and as God raised him up; +the same that as man and in the body spat, but divinely +as Son of God opened the eyes of the man blind from his +birth; and while, as Peter says, in the flesh He suffered, as +God He opened the tomb and raised the dead. For which reasons, +thus understanding all that is said in the Gospel, they +assured us that they held the same truth about the Word's +incarnation and becoming man. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_71"/> +<head>§ 71. The Emperor Theodosius and the Triumph of the New Nicene Orthodoxy at +the Council of Constantinople, A. D. 381</head> + +<p> +The Emperor Theodosius was appointed colleague of +Gratian and Valentinian II, 378. He issued in conjunction +with these emperors an edict (<hi rend='italic'>Cod. Theod.</hi>, +XVI, 1, 2; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Cod. +Just.</hi>, I, 1, 1, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_72">§ 72</ref>, +<ref target="Section_72_b"><hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>, +<ref target="Section_72_e"><hi rend='italic'>e</hi></ref>), requiring all subjects +of the Empire to hold the orthodox faith in the Trinity. He +then called a council of Eastern bishops to meet at Constantinople +in 381 to settle the question as to the succession to +the see of that city and to confirm the creed of Nicæa as the +faith of the Eastern half of the Church. Gregory of Nazianzus +<pb n='353'/><anchor id='Pg353'/> +was appointed bishop of Constantinople, but was forced to +resign, having formerly been bishop of Sasima, from which +he had been translated in violation of the Nicene canons. +As soon as it was apparent that the bishops would have to +accept the Nicene faith the thirty-six Macedonians withdrew. +Their opinion as to the Holy Spirit, that He was not divine +in the same sense that the Son was divine, was condemned, +without express statement of the point condemned, as was +also the teaching of Apollinaris as to the nature of Christ. +The council was not intended to be an ecumenical or general +council, and it was not regarded as such even in the East +until after the Council of Chalcedon, A. D. 451, and then +probably on account of the creed which was then falsely +attributed to the Fathers of Constantinople. In the West +the council was not recognized as an ecumenical council until +well into the sixth century. (See Hefele, § 100.) The council +issued no creed and made no additions to the Nicene creed. +It published a tome, since lost, setting forth the faith in the +Trinity. It enacted four canons, of which only the first three +are of general application. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Percival, <hi rend='italic'>Seven Ecumenical Councils</hi> +(PNF); Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 6-9; Socrates, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 8; Basil, <hi rend='italic'>De Spiritu Sancto</hi> +(PNF), Hefele, §§ 95-100. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Council of Constantinople, A. D. 381, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>, Bruns, I, 20. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. +583 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The text of the canons of the council may be found in Hefele, § 98, +and also in Bruns. The <hi rend='italic'>Translations and Reprints</hi> of the University +of Pennsylvania give translations. For the address of the council to +Theodosius, see <ref target="Section_72_b">§ 72, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>. +The fourth canon is of a merely temporary importance. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 1. The faith of the three hundred and eighteen +Fathers who were assembled at Nicæa in Bithynia shall not +be set aside but shall remain dominant. And every heresy +shall be anathematized, especially that of the Eunomians or +Anomœans, the Arians or Eudoxians, the semi-Arians or +<pb n='354'/><anchor id='Pg354'/> +Pneumatomachians, the Sabellians, Marcellians, Photinians, +and Apollinarians. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 2. The bishops are not to go beyond their dioceses +to churches lying outside of their bounds, nor bring confusion +on churches; but let the bishop of Alexandria, according +to the canons, alone administer the affairs of Egypt; and let +the bishops of the East manage the East alone, the privileges +of the church in Antioch, which are mentioned in the canons +of Nicæa, being preserved; and let the bishops of the Asian +diocese administer the Asian affairs only; and the Pontic +bishops only Pontic matters; and the Thracian bishops only +Thracian matters. And let not the bishops go beyond their +dioceses for ordination or any other ecclesiastical ministrations, +unless they be invited. And the aforesaid canon concerning +dioceses being observed, it is evident that the synod of each +province will administer the affairs of that particular province +as was decreed at Nicæa. But the churches of God in heathen +nations must be governed according to the custom which has +prevailed from the time of the Fathers. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 3. The bishop of Constantinople, however, shall +have the prerogative of honor after<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +following.</note> the bishop of Rome; because Constantinople is New Rome. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Cyril of Jerusalem, <hi rend='italic'>Creed</hi>. +(<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> MSG, 35:533.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +Hahn, § 124.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The clauses which are here given are the headings of the sixth to the +eighteenth <hi rend='italic'>Catechetical Lectures</hi> of Cyril of +Jerusalem in which the writer expounded the baptismal creed of Jerusalem. +This creed is approximately reconstructed by bringing together the headings. Its +date is circa 345. It should be compared with the creed of the church +of Salamis, in the next selection. They are the precursors of what is +now known as the Nicene creed, incorrectly attributed to the Council +of Constantinople A. D. 381. +</quote> + +<p> +We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of +heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. +</p> + +<p> +And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only +<pb n='355'/><anchor id='Pg355'/> +begotten, begotten of the Father, true God, before all the +ages, through whom all things were made; +</p> + +<p> +Incarnate and made man; crucified and buried; +</p> + +<p> +And rose again the third day; +</p> + +<p> +And ascended into heaven; +</p> + +<p> +And sat on the right hand of the Father; +</p> + +<p> +And shall come again in glory to judge the quick and the +dead, of whose kingdom there shall be no end. +</p> + +<p> +And in one Holy Ghost, the Paraclete, who spake by the +prophets; +</p> + +<p> +And in one baptism of repentance for remission of sins; +</p> + +<p> +And in one holy Catholic Church; +</p> + +<p> +And in the resurrection of the flesh; +</p> + +<p> +And in the life eternal. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Epiphanius, <hi rend='italic'>Ancoratus</hi>, +chs. 119 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> (MSG, 43:252.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hahn, +§ 125.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, was the most important of the +hereseologists of the Fathers, gathering to form his work on heresies +some scores of heterodox systems of teachings. His passion for orthodoxy +was taken advantage of by Theophilus of Antioch to cause trouble +for Chrysostom and others; see Origenistic controversy, +<ref target="Section_87">§ 87</ref>. The <hi rend='italic'>Ancoratus</hi>, +from which the following creed is taken, is a statement of +the Catholic faith which, amidst the storms of the Arian controversy, +should serve as an anchor of salvation for the Christians. The date +of the following creed, which has come to be known as the Salaminium, +is 374. It is evidently based upon that of Jerusalem given by Cyril. +</quote> + +<p> +We believe in one God the Father Almighty, maker of +heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible. +</p> + +<p> +And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of +God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, that is, of the +substance of the Father, light of light, very God of very +God, begotten, not made, being of one substance [homoousios] +with the Father; by whom all things were made, both +those in heaven and those on earth; who for us men and for +our salvation came down from heaven and was incarnate by +the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, and was made man; +He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered +<pb n='356'/><anchor id='Pg356'/> +and was buried; and the third day He rose again, according +to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven, and sitteth on +the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again in +glory to judge the quick and the dead; of whose kingdom +there shall be no end. +</p> + +<p> +And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and giver of life, who proceedeth +from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together +is worshipped and glorified, who spake by the prophets; +and in one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church; we acknowledge +one baptism for the remission of sins; and we look for +the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. +</p> + +<p> +But those who say there was a time when He was not, and +He was not before He was begotten, or He was made of +nothing, or of another substance or essence [hypostasis or +ousia], saying that the Son of God is effluent or variable—these +the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter IV. The Empire And The Imperial State Church</head> + +<p> +In the period extending from the accession of Constantine +(311 or 324) to the death of Theodosius the Great (395), the +characteristic features of the Church's organization took definite +form, and its relations to the secular authorities and the +social order of the Empire were defined. Its constitution with +its hierarchical organization of clergy, of courts, and synods, +together with its intimate union, at least in the East, with +the imperial authority, became fixed (<ref target="Section_72">§ 72</ref>). +As the Church of the Empire, it was under the control and patronage of the +State; all other forms of religion, whether pagan or Christian, +schismatical or heretical, were severely repressed (<ref target="Section_73">§ 73</ref>). +The Christian clergy, as officials in this State Church, became +a class by themselves in the society of the Empire, not only as +the recipients of privileges, but as having special functions +in the administration of justice, and eventually in the superintendence +of secular officials and secular business (<ref target="Section_74">§ 74</ref>). +By degrees the Christian spirit influenced the spirit of the +<pb n='357'/><anchor id='Pg357'/> +laws and the popular customs, though less than at first sight +might have been expected; the rigors of slavery were mitigated +and cruel gladiatorial sports abandoned (<ref target="Section_75">§ 75</ref>). +Meanwhile popular piety was by no means raised by the influx of +vast numbers of heathen into the Church; bringing with them +no little of their previous modes of thought and feeling, and +lacking the testing of faith and character furnished by the +persecutions, they lowered the general moral tone of the +Church, so that Christians everywhere were affected by these +alien ideas and feelings (<ref target="Section_76">§ 76</ref>). +The Church, however, endeavored to raise the moral tone and ideals and to work +effectively in society by care for the poor and other works +of benevolence, and in its regulation of marriage, which began +in this period to be a favorite subject of legislation for the +Church's councils (<ref target="Section_76">§ 76</ref>). +In monasticism this striving against the lowering forces in +Christian society and for a higher type of life most clearly +manifested itself, and, beginning in Egypt, +organized forms of asceticism spread throughout the East +and toward the end of the period to the West as well +(<ref target="Section_78">§ 78</ref>). +But monasticism was not confined to the private ascetic. +The priesthood, as necessarily presenting an example of higher +moral life, began to be touched by the ascetic spirit, and in +the West this took the form of enforced clerical celibacy, +though the custom of the East remained far less rigorous +(<ref target="Section_79">§ 79</ref>). +In presenting these lines of development, it is at +times convenient to pass beyond the exact bounds of the +period, so that the whole subject may be brought together +at this point of the history. +</p> + +<pb n='358'/><anchor id='Pg358'/> + + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_72"/> +<head>§ 72. The Constitution of the State Church</head> + +<p> +The Church's constitution received its permanent form in +this period. The conciliar system was carried to its logical +completion in the ecumenical council representing the entire +Church and standing at the head of a system which included +the provincial and patriarchal councils, at least in theory. +The clergy were organized into a hierarchy which rested upon +the basis of the single bishop in his diocese, who had under +him his clergy, and culminated in the patriarchs placed over +the great divisions of the State Church, corresponding to the +primary divisions of the Empire. The Emperor assumed the +supreme authority in the Church, and the foundation was laid +for what became under Justinian Cæsaropapism. By the +institution of the hierarchical gradation of authority and +jurisdiction, for the most part corresponding to the political +and administrative divisions of the Empire, the Church both +assumed a rigidly organized form and came more easily under +the control of the secular authority. +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_72_a"/> +<head>(A) The Ecumenical Council</head> + +<p> +The Council of Nicæa was held before there was any definition +of the place of an ecumenical council. Many councils +were held during the Arian controversy that were quite +as representative. It was taken for granted that the councils +were arranged in a scale of authority corresponding to the +extent of the Church represented. The first clear statement +of this principle is at the Council of Constantinople A. D. 382. +</p> + +<div> +<head>Council of Constantinople, A. D. 382, <hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 2. Text, +Hefele, § 98.</head> + +<pb n='359'/><anchor id='Pg359'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The so-called second general council was held in 381, but in the next +year nearly the same bishops were called together by Theodosius +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V. 9). +In a letter addressed to the Western bishops at a council at Rome +this council speaks of their previous meeting +at Constantinople in 381 as being an ecumenical council. The +query suggests itself whether, considering the fact that it actually +only represented the East and did represent more than one patriarchate, +<q>ecumenical</q> might not be understood as being used in a sense similar +to that in which the African bishops spoke of their councils as +<hi rend='italic'>universalis</hi>. See Hefele, § 100, note. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following canon is printed as the sixth canon of Constantinople, +A. D. 381, in Hefele and the other collections, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, +Bruns and Percival. +</quote> + +<p> +… If persons who are neither heretics, nor excommunicated, +nor condemned, nor charged with crime claim to have +a complaint in matters ecclesiastical against the bishop,<note +place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, of their diocese.</note> +the holy synod commands such to bring their charges first before +all the bishops of the province, and to prove before them +the charges against the accused bishop. But should it happen +that the comprovincials be unable to settle the charges +alleged against the bishop, the complainants shall have recourse +then to the larger synod of the bishops of that diocese,<note +place="foot">In the sense of patriarchal province, following the use of +the word <q>diocese</q> in the administrative system of the Empire. +It should be noted that the patriarchal council seems not to have +become well defined in the Church's system and never to have come +into actual use.</note> +who shall be called together on account of the complaint; and +the complainants may not bring their complaint until they +have agreed in writing to take upon themselves the same punishment +which would have fallen upon the accused, in case +the complainants in the course of the matter should be proved +to have brought a false charge against the bishop. But if +any one, holding in contempt these directions, venture to +burden the ear of the Emperor, or the tribunals of the secular +judges, or disturb an ecumenical synod,<note place="foot">For the +development of the ecumenical council, see below, +<ref target="Section_91_a">§ 91, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>. This +scheme of nicely adjusted appeals never took permanent place in the Church +owing to obvious difficulties.</note> dishonoring the +bishops of their patriarchal province, such shall not be admitted +to make complaint, because he despises the canons +and violates the Church's order. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='360'/><anchor id='Pg360'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_72_b"/> +<head>(B) The Hierarchical Organization</head> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Council of Nicæa, A. D. 325, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Text, Hefele, § 42. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +Kirch, nn. 364-368.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Canons of organization. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Canon 4 regulates the ordinations of bishops; Canon 5 orders that +excommunications in one diocese shall hold good everywhere; Canon +6 defines the larger provincial organization which eventually resulted +in the patriarchates; Canon 7 defines the position of the bishopric of +Jerusalem; Canons 15 and 16 place the bishops permanently in their +sees and the clergy under their own proper bishop. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 4. It is by all means proper that a bishop should be +appointed by all the bishops in the province; but should this +be difficult, either on account of urgent necessity or because +of distance, three at least should assemble, and the suffrages +of the absent should also be given and communicated in +writing, and then the ordination should take place. But +in every province the ratification of what is done should be +left to the metropolitan. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 5. Concerning those, whether of the clergy or of +the laity, who have been excommunicated in the several +provinces, let the provisions of the canon be observed by the +bishops which provides that persons cast out by some be not +readmitted by others.… Nevertheless, inquiry should be +made whether they have been excommunicated through captiousness, +or contentiousness, or any such like ungracious +disposition in the bishops. And that this matter may have +due investigation, it is decreed that in every province synods +shall be held twice a year, in order that when all the bishops +of the province are assembled together, such questions may +be thoroughly examined by them, that so those who have +confessedly offended against their bishop may be seen by +all to be for just causes excommunicated, until it shall appear +fit to a general meeting of the bishops to pronounce a milder +sentence upon them. And let these synods be held, the one +before Lent (that the pure gift may be offered to God after +<pb n='361'/><anchor id='Pg361'/> +all bitterness has been put away) and let the second be held +about autumn. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 6. Let the ancient customs in Egypt, Libya, and +Pentapolis prevail, that the bishop of Alexandria shall have +jurisdiction in all these, since the like is customary for the +bishop of Rome also.<note place="foot">This sixth canon of Nicæa +very early received the title: <q>Concerning the Primacy of the +Roman Church.</q> and had this addition placed as its first clause: +<q>The Roman Church has always had the primacy.</q> In this form the canon +was cited by the Roman legates at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.</note> +Likewise in Antioch and the other +provinces, let the churches retain their privileges. And this +is to be universally understood, that if any one be made +bishop without the consent of his metropolitan, the great +synod has declared that such a man ought not to be bishop. +If, however, two or three bishops shall, from natural love of +contradiction, oppose the common suffrage of the rest, it +being reasonable and in accordance with the ecclesiastical +law, then let the choice of the majority prevail. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 7. Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed +that the bishop of Ælia [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Jerusalem] should be +honored, let him, saving its due dignity to the metropolis, +have the next place of honor. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 15. On account of the great disturbance and discords +that occur, it is decreed that the custom prevailing in +certain places contrary to the canon must wholly be done +away; so that neither bishop, presbyter, nor deacon shall +pass from city to city. And if any one, after this decree of +the holy and great synod, shall attempt any such thing or +continue in such course, his proceedings shall be utterly void, +and he shall be restored to the church for which he was ordained +bishop or presbyter. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 16. Neither presbyters, nor deacons, nor any others +enrolled among the clergy, who, not having the fear of God +before their eyes, nor regarding the ecclesiastical canon, shall +recklessly remove from their own church, ought by any means +to be received by another church; but every constraint should +<pb n='362'/><anchor id='Pg362'/> +be applied to restore them to their own parishes;<note place="foot">Here, +as generally, parish means diocese.</note> and, if they +will not go, they must be excommunicated. And if one shall +dare surreptitiously to carry off and in his own church ordain +a man belonging to another, without the consent of his own +proper bishop from whom, although he was enrolled in the +clergy list, he has seceded, let the ordination be void. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Synod of Antioch, A. D. 341. +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>, Bruns, I, 80 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. 439 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For the Council of Antioch, see <ref target="Section_65_c">§ 65, +<hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>. These canons on discipline +were held in highest authority in the Church, although enacted by +Arians whose creed was rejected. They obtained this position in the +law of the Church because they carried further the natural line of +development long since taken in the ecclesiastical system. +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hefele, § 56. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 2. All who enter the Church of God and hear the +Holy Scriptures, but do not communicate with the people in +prayers, or who turn away, by reason of some disorder, from +the holy partaking of the eucharist, are to be cast out of the +Church until, after they shall have made confession, have +brought forth fruits of penance, and have made earnest entreaty, +they shall have obtained forgiveness; and it is unlawful +to communicate with excommunicated persons, or to assemble +in private houses and pray with those who do not pray in the +Church; or to receive in one church those who do not assemble +with another church. And if any one of the bishops, +presbyters, or deacons, or any one in the canon shall be found +communicating with excommunicated persons, let him also +be excommunicated, as one who brings confusion on the +order of the Church. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 3. If any presbyter or deacon or any one whatever +belonging to the priesthood shall forsake his own parish and +shall depart, and, having wholly changed his residence, shall +set himself to remain for a long time in another parish, let +him no longer officiate; especially if his own bishop shall +summon and urge him to return to his own parish, and he +<pb n='363'/><anchor id='Pg363'/> +shall disobey. And if he persist in his disorder, let him be +wholly deposed from his ministry, so that no further room +be left for his restoration. And if another bishop shall receive +a man deposed for this cause, let him be punished by +the common synod as one who nullifies the ecclesiastical laws. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 4. If any bishop be deposed by a synod, or any +presbyter or deacon, who has been deposed by his bishop, +shall presume to execute any part of the ministry, whether +it be a bishop according to his former function, or a presbyter, +or a deacon, he shall no longer have any prospect of restoration +in another synod, nor any opportunity of making his +defence; but they who communicate with him shall be cast +out of the Church, and particularly if they have presumed to +communicate with the persons aforementioned, knowing the +sentence pronounced against them. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 6. If any one has been excommunicated by his own +bishop, let him not be received by others until he has either +been restored by his own bishop, or until, when a synod is +held, he shall have appeared and made his defence, and, +having convinced the synod, shall have received a different +sentence. And let this decree apply to the laity, and to the +presbyters and deacons, and all who are enrolled in the clergy +list. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 9. It behooves the bishops in each province to +acknowledge the bishop who presides in the metropolis, and +who has to take thought of the whole province; because all +men of business come together from every quarter to the +metropolis. Wherefore it is decreed that he have precedence +in rank, and that the other bishops do nothing extraordinary +without him, according to the ancient canon which prevailed +from the time of our fathers, or such things only as pertain +to their own particular parishes and the districts subject to +them. For each bishop has authority over his own parish, +both to manage it with piety, which is incumbent on every +one, and to make provision for the whole district which is +dependent upon his city; to ordain presbyters and deacons; +<pb n='364'/><anchor id='Pg364'/> +and to settle everything with judgment. But let him not +undertake anything further without the bishop of the metropolis; +neither the latter without the consent of the others. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 10. The holy synod decrees that those [bishops] +living in village and country districts, or those who are called +chorepiscopi, even though they have received ordination to +the episcopate, shall regard their own limits and manage the +churches subject to them, and be content with the care and +administration of these; but they may ordain readers, subdeacons, +and exorcists, and shall be content with promoting +these; but they shall not presume to ordain either a presbyter +or a deacon, without the consent of the bishop of the city +to which he and his district are subject. And if he shall dare +to transgress these decrees, he shall be deposed from the rank +which he enjoys. And a chorepiscopus is to be appointed +by the bishop of the city to which he is subject. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Sardica, A. D. 343 or 344, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>, Bruns, I, 88. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, +n. 113, and Kirch, nn. 448 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Council of Sardica was intended to be composed of representatives +from the entire Empire who might be able to settle once and for +all the Arian question. It met at Sardica on the boundary between +the two divisions of the Empire as they were then defined. The Eastern +ecclesiastics, strongly Arian, found themselves outnumbered by the +Western bishops who supported Athanasius and the Nicene definition +of faith. The Eastern representatives withdrew to Philippopolis near +by, and held their own council. The following canons were intended +to provide a system of appeal for cases like that of Athanasius, and +although they do not seem to have been acted upon enough to have +become a part of the Church's system, yet they were of great importance +inasmuch as subsequently they were used as late as the ninth +century for a support to a wholly different system of appeals. These +canons were very early attributed to the Council of Nicæa A. D. 325. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 3. Bishop Hosius said: This, also, it is necessary +to add—that bishops shall not pass from their own province +to another province in which there are bishops, unless perchance +they are invited by their brethren, that we seem not +to close the door to charity. But if in any province a bishop +have an action against his brother bishop, neither shall call +<pb n='365'/><anchor id='Pg365'/> +in as judge a bishop from another province. But if judgment +shall have gone against any bishop in a case, and he think +that he has a good case, in order that the question may be +heard, let us, if it be your pleasure, honor the memory of +St. Peter the Apostle, and let those who have tried the case +write to Julius, the bishop of Rome, and if he shall decide +that the case should be retried, let it be retried, and let him +appoint judges; but if he shall be satisfied that the case is +such that what has been done should not be disturbed, what +has been decreed shall be confirmed. +</p> + +<p> +Is this the pleasure of all? The synod answered: It is our +pleasure. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 4. Bishop Gaudentius said: If it please you, it is +necessary to add to this sentence, which full of sincere charity +thou hast pronounced, that if any bishop has been deposed +by the judgment of those bishops who happened to be in the +vicinity, and he asserts that he has fresh matter in defence, a +new bishop is not to be settled in his see, unless the bishop +of Rome judge and render a decision as to this. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Latin Version of Canon 4.</hi> Bishop Gaudentius said: If it +please you, there ought to be added to this sentence, which +full of holiness thou hast pronounced, that if any bishop has +been deposed by the judgment of those bishops who dwell in +the vicinity, and he asserts that the business ought to be conducted +by him in the city of Rome, another bishop should in +nowise be ordained in his see after the appellation of him who +appears to have been deposed, unless the cause shall have been +determined by the judgment of the bishop of Rome. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 5.<note place="foot">This is the seventh canon of the Latin +version of the canons.</note> Bishop Hosius said: Let it be decreed that if +a bishop shall have been accused and the assembled bishops +of the same region shall have deposed him from his office, +and he, so to speak, appeals and takes refuge with the bishop +of the Roman Church and wishes to be heard by him, if +he<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, Bishop of Rome.</note> +think it right to renew the examination of his case, let him be +<pb n='366'/><anchor id='Pg366'/> +pleased to write to those of fellow-bishops who are nearest the +province that they may examine the particulars with care +and accuracy and give their votes on the matter in accordance +with the word of truth. And if any one demand that +his case be heard yet again, and at his request it seems good +to the bishop of Rome to send presbyters from his own side, +let it be in the power of that bishop, according as he judges +it to be good and decides it to be right, that some be sent to +be judges with the bishops and invested with his authority +by whom they were sent. And be this also ordained. But if +he thinks that they [the bishops] are sufficient for the hearing +and determining of the matter of the bishop, let him do what +shall seem good in his most prudent judgment. +</p> + +<p> +The bishops answered: What has been said is approved. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Gratian and Valentinian, +<hi rend='italic'>Rescript</hi>; A. D. 378. (MSG, 13:586.) Mirbt, nn. 118, +<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This rescript was sent in answer to a petition addressed to the emperors +by a Roman council under Damasus. It is, therefore, found +connected with an epistle in the works of Damasus. It does not +seem to have been the foundation of any claim or to have played any +considerable part in the development of the Roman primacy. It is +of importance in the present connection as illustrating the part +emperors took in the internal affairs of the Church. For Damasus +and the disturbances in connection with his election, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_74_a">§ 74, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>. +The rescript may be found in Mansi, III, 624; Hardouin, I, 842; and +in Gieseler, I, 380. +</quote> + +<p> +6. If any one shall have been condemned by the judgment +of Damasus, which he shall have delivered with the council +of five or seven bishops, or by the judgment or council of +those who are Catholics, and if he shall unlawfully attempt +to retain his church,<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +ecclesiastical position.</note> in order that such a one, who has been +called to the priestly judgment, shall not escape by his contumacy, +it is our will that such a one be remitted by the +illustrious prefects of Gaul and Italy, either by the proconsul +or the vicars, use having been made of due authority, to the +episcopal judgment, and shall come to the city of Rome under +<pb n='367'/><anchor id='Pg367'/> +an escort; or if such insolence of any one shall appear in +parts very far distant, the entire pleading of his case shall be +brought to the examination of the metropolitan of the province +in which the bishop is, or if he himself is the metropolitan, +then of necessity he shall hasten without delay to Rome, or +to those whom the Roman bishop shall assign as judges, so that +whoever shall have been deposed shall be removed from the +confines of the city in which they were priests. For we punish +those who deserve punishment less severely than they +deserve, and we take vengeance upon their sacrilegious stubbornness +more gently than it merits. And if the unfairness +or partiality of any metropolitan, bishop, or priest is suspected, +it is allowed to appeal to the Roman bishop or to a +council gathered of fifteen neighboring bishops, but so that +after the examination of the case shall have been concluded +what was settled shall not be begun over again. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_72_e"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 1, +2; Feb. 27, A. D. 380. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 755.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following edict was issued by Gratian, Valentinian and Theodosius, +requiring the acceptance of the orthodox faith by all subjects. +In other words, the emperors, following the example of Constantius +and Valens in enforcing Arianism, are now enforcing the Nicene theology. +Sozomenus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VII, 4, gives the circumstances under +which this edict was issued. +</quote> + +<p> +It is our will that all the peoples whom the government of +our clemency rules shall follow that religion which a pious +belief from Peter to the present declares the holy Peter +delivered to the Romans, and which it is evident the pontiff +Damasus and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic +sanctity, follow; that is, that according to the apostolic +discipline and evangelical doctrine we believe in the deity of +the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost of equal majesty, +in a holy trinity. Those who follow this law we command +shall be comprised under the name of Catholic Christians; +but others, indeed, we require, as insane and raving, to bear the +infamy of heretical teaching; their gatherings shall not receive +<pb n='368'/><anchor id='Pg368'/> +the name of churches; they are to be smitten first with +the divine punishment and after that by the vengeance of our +indignation, which has the divine approval. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 1, +3.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Gratian, Valentinian, and Theodosius to Auxonius, proconsul of +Asia. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +To enforce still further the principles of Nicene orthodoxy certain +bishops were named as teachers of the true faith, communion with +whom was a test of orthodoxy. +</quote> + +<p> +We command that all churches be forthwith delivered up +to the bishops who confess the Father, the Son, and the Holy +Ghost to be of one majesty and power; of the same glory +and of one splendor, making no distinction by any profane +division, but rather harmony by the assertion of the trinity +of the persons and the unity of the Godhead, to the bishops +who are associated in communion with Nectarius, bishop of +the Church of Constantinople, and with Timotheus in Egypt, +bishop of the city of Alexandria; in the parts of the Orient, +who are in communion with Pelagius, bishop of Laodicæa +and Diodorus, bishop of Tarsus; in proconsular Asia and in +the diocese of Asia, who are in communion with Amphilochius, +bishop of Iconium, and Optimus, bishop of Antioch; in the +diocese of Pontus, who are in communion with Helladius, +bishop of Cæsarea, and Otreius, bishop of Melitina, and +Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, Terennius, bishop of Scythia, Marmarius, +bishop of Marcianopolis. Those who are of the communion +and fellowship of approved priests<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +bishops.</note> ought to be admitted +to possess the Catholic churches; but all who dissent +from the communion of the faith of those whom the special +list has named ought to be expelled from the churches as +manifest heretics; and no opportunity whatsoever ought to +be allowed them henceforth of obtaining episcopal +churches<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, episcopal +sees.</note> that the priestly orders of the true and Nicene faith may +remain pure and no place be given to evil cunning, according +to the evident form of our precept. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='369'/><anchor id='Pg369'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Council of Constantinople, A. D. 381. +<hi rend='italic'>Address to Theodosius.</hi> See Mansi, III, 557.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following letter illustrates the relation of the councils in the +East to the imperial authority. The emperors called the various +general councils, directed their discussions and confirmed the results. +In this way their findings were given the force of laws and authority +throughout the Church. <hi rend='italic'>V. infra</hi>, §§ +<ref target="Section_90">90</ref>, <ref target="Section_91">91</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +To the most religious Emperor Theodosius, the holy synod +of bishops assembled in Constantinople out of different provinces. +</p> + +<p> +We begin our letter to your Piety with thanks to God, who +has established the Empire of your Piety for the common peace +of the churches and for the support of the true faith. And, +after rendering due thanks unto God, as in duty bound, we +lay before your Piety the things which have been done in the +holy synod. When, then, we had assembled in Constantinople, +according to the letter of your Piety, we first of all +renewed our unity of heart each with the other, and then we +pronounced some concise definitions, ratifying the faith of +the Nicene Fathers, and anathematizing the heresies which +have sprung up contrary thereto. Besides these things, we +also framed certain canons for the better ordering of the +churches, all which we have subjoined to this our letter. +We therefore beseech your Piety that the decree of the synod +may be ratified, to the end that as you have honored the +Church by your letter of citation, so you should set your seal +to the conclusion of what has been decreed. May the Lord +establish your Empire in peace and righteousness, and prolong +it from generation to generation; and may He add unto +your earthly powers the fruition of the heavenly kingdom +also. May God, by the prayers of the saints, show favor to +the world, that you may be strong and eminent in all good +things as an Emperor most truly pious and beloved of God. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Synod of Antioch, A. D. 341, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>, Bruns, I, 80.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following canons passed at Antioch are the first touching a +habit which they did little to correct. The so-called sixth canon of +<pb n='370'/><anchor id='Pg370'/> +Constantinople, 381, in reality a canon of the council of the next year, +took up the matter again. All through the great controversies appeals +were constantly made to the emperors because, after all, they alone +had the authority. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hefele, § 56. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 11. If any bishop, or presbyter, or any one whatever +of the canon shall presume to betake himself to the Emperor +without the consent and letters of his bishop of the province +and particularly of the bishop of the metropolis, such a one +shall be publicly deposed and cast out, not only from the +communion, but also from the rank which he happens to have +had; inasmuch as he dares to trouble the ears of our Emperor, +beloved of God, contrary to the law of the Church. But, +if necessary business shall require any one to go to the Emperor, +let him do it with the advice and consent of the metropolitan +and other bishops in the province, and let him undertake +his journey with the letters from them. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 12. If any presbyter or deacon deposed by his own +bishop, or any bishop deposed by a synod, shall dare trouble +the ears of the Emperor, when it is his duty to submit his case +to a greater synod of bishops, and to refer to more bishops the +things which he thinks right, and to abide by the examination +and decision made by them; if, despising these, he shall +trouble the Emperor, he shall be entitled to no pardon, neither +shall he have opportunity of defence, nor any hope of future +restoration. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_73"/> +<head>§ 73. Sole Authority of the State Church</head> + +<p> +When Theodosius had successfully forced upon the East +the theology of Nicæa, his policy as to religious matters was +manifest. No longer was heresy to be allowed. Laws were +to control opinion in the same way that they did conduct. +The old plea of the persecuted Christians under the heathen +Roman Empire, <hi rend='italic'>religio non cogi potest</hi>, was completely forgotten. +As Christianity was the one sole religion of divine character, +based upon the unique divine act of the incarnation, +it was folly to allow men to continue in heathenism—it might +<pb n='371'/><anchor id='Pg371'/> +even be dangerous to the State to allow them, as it might +bring down the just vengeance of God. With this policy the +populace was completely in accord, especially when it led +to the plunder and destruction of heathen sanctuaries, and +many of the more zealous of the clergy were willing to lead in +the assault. In these ways the State Church obtained a two-fold +exclusive authority: as regards heathenism, and as regards heresy. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Laws regarding heathenism. +</quote> + +<p> +XVI, 10, 14; A. D. 399. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever privileges were conceded by the ancient laws to +the priests, ministers, prefects, hierophants of sacred things, +or by whatsoever name they may be designated, are to be +abolished henceforth, and let them not think that they are +protected by a granted privilege when their religious confession +is known to have been condemned by the law. +</p> + +<p> +XVI, 10, 16; A. D. 399. +</p> + +<p> +If there are temples in the fields, let them be destroyed +without crowd or tumult. For when these have been thrown +down and carried away, the support of superstition will be +consumed. +</p> + +<p> +XVI, 10, 15; A. D. 399. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +This law appears again in the <hi rend='italic'>Cod. Just.</hi>, I, 13, 3, for +it appears to have been necessary even as late as the sixth century to +prevent unauthorized destructions of temples which were in the cities and might +be fairly regarded as ornaments to the city. +</quote> + +<p> +We prohibit sacrifices yet so that we wish that the ornaments +of public works to be preserved. And that those who +attempt to overthrow them may not flatter themselves that +it is with some authority, if any rescript or, perchance, law +is alleged, let these documents be taken from their hands +and referred to our knowledge. +</p> + +<pb n='372'/><anchor id='Pg372'/> + +<p> +XVI, 10, 21; A. D. 416. +</p> + +<p> +Those who are polluted by the error or crime of pagan rites +are not to be admitted to the army nor to receive the distinction +and honor of administrator or judge. +</p> + +<p> +XVI, 10, 23; A. D. 423. +</p> + +<p> +Although the pagans that remain ought to be subjected +to capital punishment if at any time they are detected in the +abominable sacrifices of demons, let exile and confiscation +of goods be their punishment. +</p> + +<p> +XVI, 10, 24; A. D. 423. (Retained in <hi rend='italic'>Cod. Just.</hi>, I, 11, 16.) +</p> + +<p> +The Manichæans and those who are called Pepyzitæ [Montanists] +and also those who by this one opinion are worse than +all heretics, in that they dissent from all as to the venerable +day of the Easter festival, we subject to the same punishment, +viz.: confiscation of goods and exile, if they persist in the +same unreason. But this we especially demand of Christians, +both those who are really such and those who are called +such, that they presume not, by an abuse of religion, to lay +hands upon the Jews and pagans who live peaceably and who +attempt nothing riotous or contrary to the laws. For if +they should do violence to them living securely and take +away their goods, let them be compelled to restore not merely +what they have taken away but threefold and fourfold. Let +the rectors of provinces, officials, and provincials know that +if they permit these things to be done, they themselves will +be punished, as well as those who do them. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 29. +(MSG, 82:1256.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The destruction of temples. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passage is illustrative of the temper of those who took +part in the destruction of heathen sanctuaries. The imperial edicts for +these acts were obtained in 399. Chrysostom, the leader in the movement, +fairly represents the best thought and temper of the Church. +</quote> + +<p> +On receiving information that Phœnicia was still suffering +from the madness of the demons' rites, he [John Chrysostom] +got together some monks fired with divine zeal and despatched +<pb n='373'/><anchor id='Pg373'/> +them, armed with imperial edicts, against the idols' shrines. +He did not draw from the imperial treasury the money to +pay the craftsmen and their assistants who were engaged in +the work of destruction, but he persuaded certain faithful +and wealthy women to make liberal contributions, pointing +out to them how great would be the blessing their generosity +would win. Thus the remaining shrines of the demons were +utterly destroyed. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VII, 15. +(MSG, 67:768.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The murder of Hypatia. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The fearful murder of Hypatia represents another aspect of the +opposition to heathenism, in which the populace seconded the efforts +of the authorities in a policy of extirpating paganism. +</quote> + +<p> +There was a woman in Alexandria named Hypatia. She +was the daughter of the philosopher Theon, and she had +attained such a proficiency in literature and science as to surpass +by far all the philosophers of her own time. Having +succeeded to the Platonic school, which had come down from +Plotinus, she explained all the principles of philosophy to +her auditors. Therefore many from all sides, wishing to study +philosophy, came to her. On account of the self-possession +and ease of manner which she had acquired by her study, +she not infrequently appeared with modesty in the presence +of magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in entering an +assembly of men. For all men, on account of her extraordinary +dignity and virtue, admired her the more. Against her +envious hostility arose at that time. For as she had frequent +interviews with Orestes [governor of Alexandria] it +was calumniously reported among the Christian populace +that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled +to the bishop [Cyril]. Some men of this opinion and of a hot-headed +disposition, whose leader was a reader named Peter, +waylaid her returning home. Dragging her from her carriage +they took her to the church called Cæsareum. There they +completely stripped her and murdered her with tiles. When +<pb n='374'/><anchor id='Pg374'/> +they had torn her in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to +a place called Cinaron, and there they burnt them. This +affair brought no little opprobrium, not only upon Cyril but +also upon the whole Alexandrian Church. And surely murders, +fights, and actions of that sort are altogether alien to +those who hold the things of Christ. These things happened +in the fourth year of the episcopate of Cyril [415]. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VII, 11. +(MSG, 67:757.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Novatians and the Church at the beginning of the fifth century. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Socrates is the principal authority for the later history of the Novatians. +It is probable that his interest in them and evident sympathy +for them were due to some connection with the sect, perhaps in his +early years, and he gives many incidents in their history, otherwise +unknown. +</quote> + +<p> +After Innocent [401-417], Zosimus [417-418] governed the +Roman Church for two years, and after him Boniface [418-422] +presided over it for three years. Celestinus [422-432] +succeeded him, and this Celestinus took away the churches +from the Novatians at Rome and obliged Rusticula, their +bishop, to hold his meetings secretly in private houses. Until +this time the Novatians had flourished exceedingly in Rome, +having many churches there and gathering large congregations. +But envy attacked them there, also, as soon as the +Roman episcopate, like that of Alexandria, extended itself +beyond the limits of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and degenerated +into its present state of secular domination. And for +this cause the bishops would not suffer even those who agreed +with them in matters of faith to enjoy the privileges of assembling +in peace, but stripping them of all they possessed, +praised them merely for these agreements in faith. The +bishops of Constantinople kept themselves free from this +sort of conduct; in so much as in addition to tolerating +them and permitting them to hold their assemblies within +the city, as I have already stated,<note place="foot">See Socrates, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 10.</note> they treated them with +every mark of Christian regard. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='375'/><anchor id='Pg375'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 5, +40; A. D. 407.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Edict of Arcadius and Honorius against the Manichæans and other +heretics. (Retained in <hi rend='italic'>Cod. Just.</hi>, I, 5, 4.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 155. +</quote> + +<p> +What we have thought concerning the Donatists we have +recently set forth. Especially do we pursue, with well-merited +severity, the Manichæans, the Phrygians, and the Priscillianists,<note +place="foot">In the code of Justinian this reads <q>Manichæans and Donatists.</q></note> +since men of this sort have nothing in common with +others, neither in custom nor laws. And first we declare +that their crime is against the State, because what is committed +against the divine religion is held an injury of all. +And we will take vengeance upon them by the confiscation +of their goods, which, however, we command shall fall to +whomsoever is nearest of their kindred, in ascending or descending +lines or cognates of collateral branches to the second +degree, as the order is in succession to goods. Yet it shall +be so that we suffer the right to receive the goods to belong +to them, only if they themselves are not in the same way polluted +in their conscience. And it is our will that they be +deprived of every grant or succession from whatever title +derived. In addition, we do not leave to any one convicted +of this crime the right of giving, buying, selling, or finally +of making a contract. The prosecution shall continue till +death. For if in the case of the crime of treason it is lawful +to attack the memory of the deceased, not without desert +ought he to endure condemnation. Therefore let his last +will and testament be invalid, whether he leave property by +testament, codicil, epistle, or by any sort of will, if ever he +has been convicted of being a Manichæan, Phrygian, or Priscillianist, +and in this case the same order is to be followed as +in the grades above stated; and we do not permit sons to +succeed as heirs unless they forsake the paternal depravity; +for we grant forgiveness of the offence to those repenting. +We will that slaves be without harm if, rejecting their sacrilegious +master, they pass over to the Catholic Church by a +<pb n='376'/><anchor id='Pg376'/> +more faithful service. Property on which a congregation of +men of this sort assemble, in case the owner, although not a +participator in the crime, is aware of the meeting and does +not forbid it, is to be annexed to our patrimony; if the owner +is ignorant, let the agent or steward of the property, having +been punished with scourging, be sent to labor in the mines, +and the one who hires the property, if he be a person liable +to such sort of punishment, be deported. Let the rectors of +provinces, if by fraud or force they delay the punishment of +these crimes when they have been reported, or if conviction +have been obtained neglect punishment, know that they will +be subject to the fine of twenty pounds of gold. As for defensors +and heads of the various cities and the provincial officials, +a penalty of ten pounds is to compel them to do their duty, +unless performing those things which have been laid down by +the judges in this matter, they give the most intelligent care +and the most ready help. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 7. +(MSL, 54:620.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Manichæanism in Rome. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This epistle, addressed to the bishops throughout Italy, shows the +way in which zealous bishops could, and were expected to, co-operate +with the secular authorities in putting down heresy. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Leo the Great [440-461], the greatest of the popes before Gregory +the Great, was equally great as an ecclesiastical statesman, as theologian, +and universally acknowledged leader of the Roman people in +the times of the invasions of Attila and Genseric. Without being the +creator of the papal idea, he was able so to gather up the elements that +had been developed by Siricius, Innocent, and others, as to give it a +classical expression that almost warrants one in describing him as the +first of the popes in the later sense of that term. His literary remains +consist of sermons, of which ninety-six are genuine, in which, among +other matters, he sets forth his conception of the Petrine prerogative +(see below, <ref target="Section_87_b">§ 87, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>), +and letters in which he deals with the largest questions +of ecclesiastical politics, especially in the matter of the condemnation +of Monophysitism at the Council of Chalcedon. See below, +<ref target="Section_91">§ 91</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +Our search has discovered in the city a great many followers +and teachers of the Manichæan impiety, our watchfulness +has proclaimed them, and our authority and censure have +<pb n='377'/><anchor id='Pg377'/> +checked them: those whom we could reform we have corrected +and driven to condemn Manichæus with his preachings +and teachings, by public confession in the Church, and by the +subscription of their own hands; and thus we have lifted +those who have acknowledged their fault from the pit of their +impiety, by granting them opportunity for repentance. But +some who had so deeply involved themselves that no remedy +could assist them have been subjected to the laws, in accordance +with the constitutions of our Christian princes, and lest +they should pollute the holy flock by their contagion, have +been banished into perpetual exile by the public judges. +And all the profane and disgraceful things which are found, +as well in their writings as in their secret traditions, we have +disclosed and clearly proved to the eyes of Christian laity, +that the people might know what to shrink from or avoid; so +that he that was called their bishop was himself tried by us +and betrayed the criminal views which he held in his mystic +religion, as the record of our proceedings can show you. For +this, too, we have sent you for instruction; and after reading +them you will be able to understand all the discoveries we +have made. +</p> + +<p> +And because we know that some of those who are involved +here in too close an accusation for them to clear themselves +have fled, we have sent this letter to you, beloved, by our +acolyte; that your holiness, dear brothers, may be informed +of this, and see fit to act more diligently and cautiously, lest +the men of Manichæan error be able to find opportunity of +hurting your people and of teaching these impious doctrines. +For we cannot otherwise rule those intrusted to us unless we +pursue, with the zeal of faith in the Lord, those who are destroyers +and destroyed; and with what severity we can bring +to bear, cut them off from intercourse with sound minds, lest +this pestilence spread much wider. Wherefore I exhort you, +beloved, I beseech and warn you to use such watchful diligence +as you ought and can employ in tracking them out lest they +find opportunity of concealment anywhere. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='378'/><anchor id='Pg378'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 15. +(MSL, 54:680.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +An account of the tenets of the Priscillianists. Leo is answering a +letter sent him by Bishop Turribius of Asturia, in which that bishop +had given him statements about the faith of these sectaries. It appears +that these statements which Leo quotes and refutes in brief are +not wholly correct and that the Priscillianists were far from being as +heretical as they have been commonly represented. See articles in +the recent encyclopædias, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, New Schaff-Herzog, +and Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. The change in opinion is due to the discovery +of writings of Priscillian himself. Nevertheless, these statements, defective +as they may be, represent the opinion of the times as to these +heretics and the general attitude toward what was regarded as heretical +and savoring of Manichæanism.<note place="foot">For further detail of the +history of the Priscillianists, see Sulpicius Severus, +<hi rend='italic'>Sacred History</hi>, II, 46-51. (PNF, ser. II, vol. XI.)</note> +</quote> + +<p> +1. And so under the first head is shown what impious +views they hold about the divine Trinity; they affirm that +the person of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost is one +and the same, as if the same God were named now Father, now +Son, now Holy Ghost; and as if He who begat were not one, +He who was begotten another, and He who proceedeth +from both yet another; but an undivided unity must be +understood, spoken of under three names, but not consisting +of three persons.… +</p> + +<p> +2. Under the second head is displayed their foolish and +empty fancy about the issue of certain virtues from God +which He began to possess, and which were posterior to God +in His own essence.… +</p> + +<p> +3. Again the language of the third head shows that these +same impious persons assert that the Son of God is called +<q>only begotten</q> for this reason that He alone was born of +a virgin.… +</p> + +<p> +4. The fourth head deals with the fact that the birthday +of Christ, which the Catholic Church venerates as His taking +on Him the true man, because <q>the Word became flesh +and dwelt among us,</q> is not truly honored by these men, but +they pretend that they honor it, for they fast on that day, +as they do also on the Lord's Day, which is the day of Christ's +<pb n='379'/><anchor id='Pg379'/> +resurrection. No doubt they do this because they do not +believe that Christ the Lord was truly born in man's nature, +but maintain that by a sort of illusion there was an appearance +of what was not a reality. +</p> + +<p> +5. Their fifth head refers to their assertion that man's +soul is a part of the divine substance, and that the nature of +our human state does not differ from its Creator's nature.… +</p> + +<p> +6. The sixth points out that they say that the devil never +was good and that his nature is not God's handiwork, but +that he came forth of chaos and darkness.… +</p> + +<p> +7. In the seventh place follows that they condemn marriage +and are horrified at begetting children, in which, as in +nearly all things, they agree with the profanity of the Manichæans. +</p> + +<p> +8. Their eighth point is that the formation of men's bodies +is the device of the devil and that the seed of conception is +shaped by the aid of demons in the womb.… +</p> + +<p> +9. The ninth notice declares that they say that the sons +of promise are born, indeed, of women, conceived by the Holy +Spirit; lest the offspring that is born of carnal seed should +seem to share in God's estate.… +</p> + +<p> +10. Under the tenth head they are reported as asserting +that the souls which are placed in men's bodies have previously +been without a body and have sinned in their heavenly habitation +and for this reason have fallen from their high estate +to a lower one alighting upon ruling spirits of divers qualities, +and after passing through a succession of powers of the air +and stars, some fiercer, some milder, are enclosed in bodies +of different sorts and conditions, so that whatever variety and +inequality is meted out to us in this life, seems the result of +previous causes.… +</p> + +<p> +11. Their eleventh blasphemy is that in which they suppose +that both the souls and bodies of men are under the +influence of fatal stars.… +</p> + +<p> +12. The twelfth of these points is this: that they map out +the parts of the soul under certain powers and the limbs under +<pb n='380'/><anchor id='Pg380'/> +others; and they suggest the characters of the inner powers +that rule the soul by giving them the names of the patriarchs; +and on the other hand, they attribute the signs of the stars +to those under which they put the body. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_74"/> +<head>§ 74. The Position of the State Church in the Social +Order of the Empire</head> + +<p> +The elevation of the Church exposed the Church to worldliness +whereby selfish men, or men carried away with partisan +zeal, took advantages of its privileges or contended +fiercely for important appointments. The clergy all too frequently +ingratiated themselves with wealthy members of +their flocks that they might receive from them valuable +legacies, an abuse which had to be corrected by civil law; +factional spirit occasionally led to bloodshed in episcopal +elections. But on the other hand the Church was employed +by the State in an important work which properly belonged +to the secular administration, viz., the administration of justice +in the episcopal courts of arbitration, for which see <hi rend='italic'>Cod. +Just.</hi>, I, tit. 3, <hi rend='italic'>de Episcopali Audientia</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> E. Loening, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte +des deutschen Kirchenrechts</hi>, vol. I; and in the supervision +of civil officials in the expenditures of funds for public +improvements. These are but instances of their large public +activity according to law. +</p> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_74_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Ammianus Marcellinus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Rom.</hi>, +XXVII, 3, §§ 12 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. 607 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Damasus and Ursinus. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The strife which attained shocking proportions in connection with +the election of Damasus seems to have been connected with the schism +at Rome occasioned by the attitude of Liberius in the Arian controversy. +Damasus proved one of the ablest bishops that Rome ever +had in the ancient Church. For aid in overcoming the partisans of +Ursinus a Roman council appealed to the Emperor Gratian, whose +answer is given in part above, <ref target="Section_72_e">§ 72, +<hi rend='italic'>e</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +12. Damasus and Ursinus, being both immoderately eager +to obtain the bishopric, formed parties and carried on the +<pb n='381'/><anchor id='Pg381'/> +conflict with great asperity, the partisans of each carrying +their violence to actual battle, in which men were wounded +and killed. And as Juventius, prefect of the city, was unable +to put an end to it, or even to soften these disorders, he +was at last by their violence compelled to withdraw to the +suburbs. +</p> + +<p> +13. Ultimately Damasus got the best of the strife by the +strenuous efforts of his partisans. It is certain that on one +day one hundred and thirty-seven dead bodies were found in +the Basilica of Sicinus, which is a Christian church. And +the populace who had thus been roused to a state of ferocity +were with great difficulty restored to order. +</p> + +<p> +14. I do not deny, when I consider the ostentation that +reigns at Rome, that those who desire such rank and power +may be justified in laboring with all possible exertion and +vehemence to obtain their wishes; since after they have succeeded, +they will be secure for the future, being enriched by +offerings of matrons, riding in carriages, dressing splendidly, +and feasting luxuriously, so that their entertainments surpass +even royal banquets. +</p> + +<p> +15. And they might be really happy if, despising the vastness +of the city which they excite against themselves by their +vices, they were to live in imitation of some of the priests in +the provinces, whom the most rigid abstinence in eating and +drinking, and plainness of apparel, and eyes always cast on +the ground, recommend to the everlasting Deity and His true +worshippers as pure and sober-minded men. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XVI, 2, +20; A. D. 370. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 759.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following law is only one of several designed to correct what +threatened to become an intolerable abuse. +</quote> + +<p> +Ecclesiastics and those who wish to be known by the name +of the continent<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +ascetics and monks.</note> are not to come into possession of the houses +of widows and orphan girls, but are to be put aside by public +<pb n='382'/><anchor id='Pg382'/> +courts if afterward the affines and near relatives of such think +that they ought to be put away. Also we decree that the +aforesaid may acquire nothing whatsoever from the liberality +of that woman to whom privately, under the cloak of religion, +they have attached themselves, or from her last will; and all +shall be of no effect which has been left by one of these to +them, they shall not be able to receive anything by way of +donation or testament from a person in subjection. But if, +by chance, after the warning of our law, these women shall +think something is to be left to them by way of donation or in +their last will, let it be seized by the fisc. But if they should +receive anything by the will of those women in succession to +whom or to whose goods they have the support of the <hi rend='italic'>jus civile</hi> +or the benefit of the edict, let them take it as relatives. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, I, 27, 2; +A. D. 408.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Edict of Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius II concerning the +<hi rend='italic'>Audientia Episcopalis</hi>. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +According to Roman law many cases were frequently decided by an +arbitrator, according to an agreement between the litigants. The +bishops had long acted as such in many cases among Christians. As +they did not always decide suits on authorization by the courts, their +decisions did not have binding authority in all cases. But after Constantine's +recognition of the Church they were given authority to +decide cases, and according to an edict of 333 their decisions were binding +even if only one litigant appealed to his judgment. But this was +reduced to cases in which there was an agreement between the parties. +The following law, the earliest extant, though probably not the earliest, +may be found, curtailed by the omission of the second sentence, in +<hi rend='italic'>Cod. Just.</hi>, I, 4, 8. +</quote> + +<p> +An episcopal judgment shall be binding upon all who chose +to be heard by the priests.<note place="foot">Priest, +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">sacerdos</foreign>, +is here used, as so often, not for presbyter but for bishop.</note> +For since private persons may +hear cases between those who consent, even without the +knowledge of the judges, we suffer it to be permitted them. +That respect is to be shown their decisions which is required +to be shown your authority,<note place="foot">As this was addressed +to Theodorus, the prætorian prefect, the authority +of the decision is rendered of the highest character.</note> +from which there is no +<pb n='383'/><anchor id='Pg383'/> +appeal. By the court and the officials execution is to be +given the sentence, so that the episcopal judicial examination +may not be rendered void. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, II, 1, +10; A. D. 398.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Law of Arcadius and Honorius. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following law is cited to show that in the legalization of the +<hi rend='italic'>Audientia Episcopalis</hi> the legislation +followed a principle that was not +peculiar to the position of the Church as the State Church. The Jews +had a similar privilege. The conditions under which their religious +authorities could act as arbitrators were similar to that in which the +bishops acted. This edict can also be found in <hi rend='italic'>Cod. +Just.</hi>, I, 9, 8. +</quote> + +<p> +Jews living at Rome, according to common right, are in +those cases which do not pertain to their superstition, their +court, laws, and rights, to attend the courts of justice, and are +to bring and defend legal actions according to the Roman +laws; hereafter let them be under our laws. If, indeed, any +by agreement similar to that for the appointment of arbitrators, +decide that the litigation be before the Jews or the +patriarchs by the consent of both parties and in business of +a purely civil character, they are not forbidden by public +law to choose their courts of justice; and let the provincial +judges execute their decisions as if the arbitrators had been +assigned them by the sentence of a judge. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Justinianus</hi>, I, 4, +26.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following law of the Emperor Justinian, A. D. 530, is one of +many showing the way in which the bishops were employed in many +duties of the State which hardly fell to their part as ecclesiastics. +</quote> + +<p> +With respect to the yearly affairs of cities, whether they +concern the ordinary revenues of the city, either from funds +derived from the property of the city, or from legacies and +private gifts, or given or received from other sources, whether +for public works, or for provisions, or public aqueducts, or +the maintenance of baths or ports, or the construction of +walls and towers, or the repairing of bridges and roads, or +for trials in which the city may be engaged in reference to +public or private interests, we decree as follows: The very +<pb n='384'/><anchor id='Pg384'/> +pious bishop and three men of good reputation, in every respect +the first men of the city, shall meet and each year not +only examine the work done, but take care that those who conduct +them or have been conducting them, shall manage them +with exactness, shall render their accounts, and show by the +production of the public records that they have duly performed +their engagements in the administration of the sums +appropriated for provisions, or baths, or for the expenses +involved in the maintenance of roads, aqueducts, or any other +work. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_75"/> +<head>§ 75. Social Significance of the State Church</head> + +<p> +The Church at no time degenerated into a mere department +of the State. In spite of the worldly passions that invaded +it and the dissensions that distracted it, the Church remained +mindful of its duty as not merely a guardian of the deposit of +faith but as a school of Christian morality. This was the +principle of the penitential discipline of the ante-Nicene period. +It was saved from becoming a mere form, or lost altogether by +the custom which became general after 400, of having the +confession of sin made in private. In matters of great moral +concern, such as the treatment of slaves, marriage, and divorce, +and the cruel sports of the arena, the Church was able +to exert its influence and eventually bring about a change in +the law. And in standing for righteousness, instances were +not lacking when the highest were rebuked by the Church, +as in the great case of Ambrose and Theodosius. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 168, +ch. 2. (MSL, 54:1210.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Denziger, n. 145.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Confession should no longer be public, but only private. From the +tone of the letter it would appear that private confession had been customary +for some time and that public confession had so far gone out +of use as to appear as a novelty. <hi rend='italic'>V. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_42">§ 42</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +I direct that that presumptuous violation of the apostolic +rule be entirely done away, which we have recently learned +<pb n='385'/><anchor id='Pg385'/> +has been without warrant committed by some; namely, +concerning penance, which is demanded of the faithful, that +a written confession in a schedule concerning the nature of +each particular sin be not recited publicly, since it suffices +that the guilt of conscience be made known by a secret confession +to the priests alone. Although that fulness of faith +appears to be laudable which on account of the fear of God +is not afraid to blush before men, yet because the sins of all +are not such that those who demand penance would not be +afraid to publish them, let a custom so objectionable be done +away; that many may not be deterred from the remedies +of penitence, since they are ashamed or are afraid to disclose +their deed to their enemies, by which they might be ruined +by the requirements of the laws. For that confession suffices +which is first offered to God, then further to the priest, who +intervenes as with intercessions for the sins of the penitent. +In this way many can be brought to penitence if the bad conscience +of the one making the confession is not published in +the ears of the people. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, IV, 7, +1; A. D. 321. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 749.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Edict of Constantine granting the privilege of manumission to take +place in churches. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Church does not seem to have been opposed to slavery as an +institution. It recognized it as a part of the social order, following the +advice of St. Paul. But, at the same time, also following his advice, +it endeavored to inculcate Christian love in the treatment of slaves, +and legislated frequently on the matter. The edict of Constantine was +in favor of this humane teaching of the Church to the extent that it +enabled it to forward the tendency toward manumission of slaves, +which the Church taught as a pious act. This edict is to be found in +<hi rend='italic'>Cod. Just.</hi>, I, 13, 2. +</quote> + +<p> +Those who from the motives of religion shall give deserved +liberty to their slaves in the midst of the Church shall be +regarded as having given the same with the same legal force +as that by which Roman citizenship has been customarily +given with the traditional solemn rites. But this is permitted +<pb n='386'/><anchor id='Pg386'/> +only to those who give this liberty in the presence of the +priest. But to the clergy we concede more, so that, when +they give liberty to their slaves, they may be said to have +granted a full enjoyment of liberty, not merely in the face of +the Church and the religious people, but also, when in their +last disposition of their effects they shall have given liberty +or shall direct by any words whatsoever that it be given, on +the day of the publication of their will liberty, without any +witness or intervention of the law, shall belong to them immediately. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Canons bearing on Slavery:</head> + +<div> +<head>Synod of Elvira, A. D. 309, <hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 5, Bruns, II, 1.</head> + +<p> +If a mistress seized with furious passion beat her female +slave with whips so that within three days she gives up her +soul in suffering, inasmuch as it is uncertain whether she +killed her wilfully or by chance, let her, if it was done wilfully, +be readmitted after seven years, when the lawful penance +has been accomplished; or after the space of five years +if it was by chance; but if she should become ill during the +appointed time, let her receive the communion. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Synod of Gangra, A. D. 343, <hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 3, Bruns, I, 107.</head> + +<p> +If any one, under the pretence of piety, advises a slave to +despise his master and run away from his service and not +with good will and full respect serve his master, let him be +anathema. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Synod of Agde, A. D. 509. <hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 7, Bruns, II, 147.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +As slaves were a valuable possession, bishops could no more alienate +them than any other property, or only under the same conditions. +This canon lays down principles generally followed in the relation of +the Church toward the unfree of every sort on lands belonging to the +endowments of the Church. +</quote> + +<p> +The bishops should possess the houses and slaves of the +Church in a faithful manner and without diminishing the +<pb n='387'/><anchor id='Pg387'/> +right of the Church, as the primitive authorities direct, and +also the vessels of their ministry as intrusted to them. That +is, they should not presume to sell nor alienate by any contracts +those things from which the poor live. If necessity +requires that something should be disposed of either as a +usufruct<note place="foot">In a usufruct the title remained with +the grantor, and the grantee merely had the use or enjoyment of the land.</note> +or in direct sale, let the case be first shown before two or +three bishops of the same province or neighborhood, as to why +it is necessary to sell; and after the priestly discussion has taken +place, let the sale which was made be confirmed by their subscription; +otherwise the sale or transaction made shall not +have validity. If the bishop bestows upon any deserving +slaves of the Church their liberty, let the liberty that has been +conferred be respected by his successors, together with that +which the manumitter gave them when they were freed; and +we command them to hold twenty solidi in value in fields, +vineyards, and dwellings; what shall have been given more +the Church shall reclaim after the death of the one who +manumitted.<note place="foot">On the principle that one who +had a life interest in property (and only such the bishop had) +could alienate for a period not extending beyond his natural life.</note> +But little things and things of less utility to +the Church we permit to be given to strangers and clergy for +their usufruct, the right of the Church being maintained. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Apostolic Constitutions</hi>, IV, +6. (MSG, 1:812.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Cruelty to slaves was placed upon the same moral level as cruelty +and oppression of other weak and defenceless people. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Apostolic Constitutions form an elaborate treatise upon the +Church and its organization in eight books, which appear, according +to the consensus of modern scholars, to belong to the early part of the +fifth century. The Apostolic Canons are eighty-five canons appended +to the eighth book. +</quote> + +<p> +Now the bishop ought to know whose oblations he ought to +receive, and whose he ought not. For he is to avoid corrupt +dealers and not receive their gifts.… He is also to avoid +those that oppress the widow and overbear the orphan, and +<pb n='388'/><anchor id='Pg388'/> +fill the prisons with the innocent, and abuse their own slaves +wickedly, I mean with stripes and hunger and hard service. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Apostolic Canons</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 81, Bruns, I, 12.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This deals with the question of the ordination of a slave. Later, if +a slave was ordained without his master's consent, the ordination held, +but the bishop was obliged to pay the price of the slave to his master. +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Council of Orleans, A. D. 511, <hi rend='italic'>Can.</hi> 8. +</quote> + +<p> +We do not permit slaves to be ordained to the clergy without +their masters' consent; for this would wrong those that +owned them. For such a practice would occasion the subversion +of families. But if at any time a servant appears +worthy to be ordained to a high office, such as Onesimus appears +to have been, and if his master allows it, and gives him +his freedom, and dismisses him free from his house, let him +be ordained. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Montanam +et Thomam</hi>. (MSL, 77:803.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Gregory and others approved of manumission of slaves as an act of +self-denial, for therein a man surrendered what belonged to him, as +in almsgiving; but he and others also justified the practice of manumission +upon lines that recall Stoic ideas of man's natural freedom. +Yet, at the same time, Gregory could insist upon the strict discipline +of slaves in the administration of the Church property. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following is a letter of manumission addressed apparently to a +man and his wife. +</quote> + +<p> +Since our Redeemer, the Maker of every creature, vouchsafed +to assume human flesh for this end, that when by the +grace of His divinity the chain of slavery wherewith we were +held had been broken He might restore us to our pristine +liberty, it is a salutary deed if men, whom nature originally +produced free, and whom the law of nations has subjected to +the yoke of slavery, be restored by the benefit of manumission +to the liberty in which they were born. And so moved by +loving-kindness and consideration of the case, we make you +Montana and Thomas, slaves of the holy Roman Church, +which with the help of God we serve, free from this day and +<pb n='389'/><anchor id='Pg389'/> +Roman citizens, and we release to you all your private +property.<note place="foot">The peculium of the slave, property +which he was allowed to possess but only by the sufferance of the master.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, XV, 12, +1; A. D. 325. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 754.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Constitution of Constantine regarding gladiatorial shows. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This edict was by no means enforced everywhere. In a shorter +form it passed into the <hi rend='italic'>Cod. Just.</hi> (XI, 44, 1), +but only after the edict of Honorius had stopped these shows. +</quote> + +<p> +Bloody spectacles are not pleasing in civil rest and domestic +tranquillity. Wherefore we altogether prohibit them to +be gladiators<note place="foot">The Constitution ends here +in Justinian's collection.</note> +who, it may be, for their crimes have been accustomed +to receive this penalty and sentence, and you shall +cause them rather to serve in the mines, that without blood +they may pay the penalty of their crimes. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 26. +(MSG, 82:1256.)</head> + +<p> +Honorius, who had inherited the Empire of Europe, put a +stop to gladiatorial combats, which had long been held in +Rome, and he did this under the following circumstances. +There was a certain man named Telemachus who had embraced +the ascetic life. He had set out for the East and for +this reason had repaired to Rome. There, when the abominable +spectacle was being exhibited, he went himself into +the stadium, and stepping down into the arena endeavored +to stop the men who were wielding their weapons against one +another. The spectators of the slaughter were indignant +and, inspired by the mad fury of the demon who delights in +these bloody deeds, stoned the peacemaker to death. When +the admirable Emperor was informed of this he numbered +Telemachus in the army of the victorious martyrs, and put +an end to that impious practice. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>i</hi>) Ambrose, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. 51</hi>. (MSL, +16:1210.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. 754 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<pb n='390'/><anchor id='Pg390'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Letter to the Emperor Theodosius after the massacre at Thessalonica +in 390. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Emperor had ordered a general massacre of the inhabitants of +Thessalonica because of a sedition there. Ambrose wrote to him the +following letter after having pleaded in vain with him before the +massacre to deal mercifully with the people. (The well-known story +of the penitence of Theodosius may be found in Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Ec.</hi>, V, 17.) His residence at the seat of the imperial government at that +time, Milan, made him the chief adviser to the court in spite of the +fact that the Arian influence was strong at court, as the empress +mother Justina was an Arian, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ambrose, +<hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 20, 21. (PNF, ser. II, vol. X.) +</quote> + +<p> +4. Listen, august Emperor, I cannot deny that you have +a zeal for the faith; I confess that you have the fear of God. +But you have a natural vehemence, which, if any one endeavors +to soothe it, you quickly turn to mercy; and if any one +stirs it up, you allow it to be roused so much that you can +scarcely restrain it. Would that it might be that, if no one +soothed it, at least no one inflamed it. To yourself I willingly +intrust it, restrain yourself and overcome your natural vehemence +by the love of piety.… +</p> + +<p> +6. There took place in the city of the Thessalonians that +of which no memory recalls the like, which I was not able to +prevent taking place; which, indeed, I had before said, would +be most atrocious when I so often petitioned concerning +it<note place="foot">Cf. Paulinus, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Ambros.</hi> MSL, 14:37.</note> +and which as you yourself show, by revoking it too late, +you consider to be grave, and this I could not extenuate +when committed.… +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +After citing from the Bible several cases of kings exhibiting penance +for sins, Ambrose continues: +</quote> + +<p> +11. I have written this, not to confound you, but that the +examples of kings may stir you up to put away this sin from +your kingdom, for you will put it away by humbling your soul +before God. You are a man, temptation has come to you; +conquer it. Sin is not done away but by tears and penitence. +Neither angel can do it, nor archangel. The Lord himself, +<pb n='391'/><anchor id='Pg391'/> +who alone can say <q>I am with you,</q> if we have sinned, does +not forgive any but those who do penance. +</p> + +<p> +12. I urge, I beg, I exhort, I warn; for it is grief to me that +you who were an example of unheard-of piety, who were conspicuous +for clemency, who would not suffer single offenders +to be put in peril, should not mourn that so many innocent +persons have perished. Though you have waged war most +successfully, though in other matters too you are worthy of +praise, yet piety was ever the crown of your actions. The +devil envied that which you had as a most excellent possession. +Conquer him whilst you still possess that wherewith +you can conquer. Do not add another sin to your sin by a +course of action which has injured many. +</p> + +<p> +13. I, indeed, though a debtor to your kindness, for which +I cannot be ungrateful, that kindness which I regard as surpassing +that of many emperors, and has been equalled by +one only, I have no cause, I say, for a charge of contumacy +against you, but have cause for fear. I dare not offer the +sacrifice if you intend to be present. Is that which is not +allowed after the shedding of the blood of one innocent person +allowed after the shedding of the blood of many? I +think not. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>j</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Codex Theodosianus</hi>, III, 16, +2; A. D. 421.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The later Roman law of divorce. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Roman law under the Empire was extremely favorable to divorce, +making it easy for either party to become rid of the other for +any cause that seemed sufficient. The Christian Church from the +first, following the teaching of Christ, opposed divorce. Marriage +was an indissoluble relation; see § 39 +<ref target="Section_39_f"><hi rend='italic'>f</hi></ref>, +<ref target="Section_39_g"><hi rend='italic'>g</hi></ref>. It was only by degrees that +much change could be introduced into the civil law. The following +law of Theodosius II gives the condition of the law in the fifth century. +It shows that to some extent the Christian principles regarding marriage +had affected legislation. +</quote> + +<p> +If a woman leave her husband by a repudiation made by +her and prove no cause for her divorcing him, the gifts which +she received as bride shall be taken away and she shall likewise +be deprived of her dowry, and be subjected to the punishment +<pb n='392'/><anchor id='Pg392'/> +of deportation; and to her we deny not only the right +of marriage with another man, but also the right of +post-liminium.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +of returning to her former home and condition.</note> +But if the woman opposed to the marriage prove +faults of morals and vices, though of no great gravity, let +her lose her dowry and pay back to her husband her marriage +gift, and let her never join herself in marriage with another; +that she may not stain her widowhood with the impudence +of unchastity we give the repudiated husband the right of +bringing an accusation by law. Hereafter if she who abandons +her husband prove grave causes and a guilt involving great +crimes, let her obtain a control of her dowry and marriage +gifts, and five years after the day of repudiation she shall +receive the right of remarrying; for it would then appear that +she had acted rather out of detestation of her husband than +from desire after another. Likewise, if the husband bring +a divorce and charge grave crimes against the woman, let +him bring action against the accused under the laws and let +him both have the dowry (sentence having been obtained) +and let him receive his gifts to her and let the free choice of +marrying another be granted him immediately. But if it +is an offence of manners and not of a criminal nature, let him +receive the donations, relinquish the dowry, and marry after +two years. But if he merely wishes to dissolve the marriage +by dissent, and she who is put away is charged with no fault +or sin, let the man lose the donation and the dowry, and in +perpetual celibacy let him bear as a penalty for his wrongful +divorce the pain of solitude; to the woman, however, is conceded +after a year the right to remarry. Regarding the retention +of the dowry on account of the children we command +that the directions of the old law shall be observed. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>k</hi>) Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 78, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Oceanum</hi>. (MSL, 22:691.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Divorce and remarriage. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The principle here laid down by Jerome was that which ultimately +prevailed in the Church of the West, that after divorce there could be +no remarriage, inasmuch as the marriage bond was indissoluble, though +the parties might be separated by the law. But another principle +<pb n='393'/><anchor id='Pg393'/> +was also made a part of the code of Christian morality, that what was +forbidden a woman was also forbidden a man, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +the moral code as to chastity was the same for both sexes. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 3. The Lord hath commanded that a wife should not +be put away except for fornication; and that when she has +been put away, she ought to remain unmarried [Matt. +19:9; I Cor. 7:11]. Whatever is given as a commandment +to men logically applies to women also. For it cannot be +that while an adulterous wife is to be put away, an incontinent +husband must be retained.… The laws of Cæsar are different, +it is true, from the laws of Christ. Papinian commands +one thing; our Paul another.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +in distinction from Paulus the eminent Roman lawyer, a contemporary +of Papinian.</note> Among them the +bridles are loosened for immodesty in the case of men. But +with us what is unlawful for women is equally unlawful for +men; and both are bound by the same conditions of service. +She<note place="foot">Fabiola (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> DCB) on whose +death Jerome is here writing to her husband Oceanus.</note> +then put away, as they report, a husband that was a +sinner; she put away one who was guilty of this and that +crime.… She was a young woman; she could not preserve +her widowhood.… She persuaded herself and thought that +her husband had been lawfully put away from her. She did +not know that the strictness of the Gospel takes away from +women all pretexts for remarriage, so long as their former +husbands are alive. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>l</hi>) Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Adversus Jovinianum</hi>, +I, 7. (MSL, 23:229.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The inferiority of marriage to virginity. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +While the Church teachers insisted on the indissolubility of marriage +and its sanctity, in not a few cases they depreciated marriage. +Of those who did this Jerome may be regarded as the most characteristic +and representative of a tendency which had set in, largely in connection +with the increase of monasticism, regarded as the only form +of Christian perfection. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>It is good for a man not to touch a woman.</q><note place="foot">See +I Cor. 7:1 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></note> If it is +good not to touch a woman, it is bad to touch one; for nothing +<pb n='394'/><anchor id='Pg394'/> +is opposed to goodness but the bad. But if it be bad +and the evil is pardoned, it is conceded that a worse evil may +not happen. But what sort of good is that which is allowed +only because there may be something worse? He would have +never added, <q>Let each man have his own wife,</q> unless he +had previously said, <q>But because of fornication.</q>… <q>Defraud +ye not one another, except it be by consent for a season, +that ye may give yourselves unto prayer.</q> What, I pray, +is the quality of that good thing which hinders prayer, which +does not allow the body of Christ to be received? So long +as I do a husband's part, I fail in continency. The same +Apostle in another place commands us to pray +always.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Council of Carthage, A. D. 398, +<hi rend='italic'>Can.</hi> 13. <q>When the bridegroom and +bride are to be blessed by the priest they are to be presented by their parents +and paranymphs. And let them when they have received the benediction remain +in virginity the same night out of reverence for the benediction.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +9. <q>It is better to marry than to burn.</q> If marriage +itself be good, do not compare it with fire, but simply say, +<q>It is good to marry.</q> I suspect the goodness of that thing +which must be only the lesser of two evils. What I want is +not the smaller evil, but a thing that is absolutely good. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>m</hi>) Chrysostom, <hi rend='italic'>Hom.</hi> 66 +<hi rend='italic'>in Matth.</hi> (XX, 30). (MSG, 58:630.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Church took the lead in philanthropy and not only organized +relief of poor but constantly exhorted people to contribute to the +cause. See above, <ref target="Section_68_d">§ 68, <hi rend='italic'>d</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +If both the wealthy and those next to them in wealth were +to distribute among themselves those in need of bread and +raiment, scarcely would one poor person fall to the share of +fifty men, or even a hundred. Yet, nevertheless, though in +such great abundance of persons able to assist them, they are +wailing every day. And that thou mayest learn their inhumanity, +recall that the Church<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +of Antioch, where Chrysostom was a presbyter and delivered these +homilies.</note> has a revenue of one of +the lowest among the wealthy, and not of the very rich; and +consider how many widows it succors every day, how many +<pb n='395'/><anchor id='Pg395'/> +virgins; for indeed the list of them amounts to the number +of three thousand. Together with these she succors them +that dwell in prison, the sick in the caravansaries, the +healthy, those that are absent from their homes, those that +are maimed in their bodies, those that wait upon the altar; +and with respect to food and raiment, those that casually +come every day; and her substance is in no respect diminished. +So that if ten men only were thus willing to spend, +there would be no poor. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>n</hi>) Gregory of Nazianzus, <hi rend='italic'>Panegyric on +Basil</hi>, ch. 63. (MSG, 36:577.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Gregory of Nazianzus was the friend and schoolmate of Basil. The +action of Basil in forcing upon him the bishopric of Sasima led to an +estrangement and brought about the tragedy of Gregory's ecclesiastical +career, his forced resignation of the archiepiscopal see of Constantinople. +See Gregory's oration, <q>The Last Farewell</q> (PNF, ser. II, +vol. VII, 385). Nevertheless, the death of Basil was an occasion for +him to deliver his greatest oration. It was probably composed and +delivered several years after Basil's decease and after Gregory had +retired from Constantinople to his home at Nazianzus. +</quote> + +<p> +Go forth a little way from the city, behold the New +City,<note place="foot">The name given to the extensive +charitable institutions founded by Basil.</note> +the storehouse of piety … where disease is regarded +in a philosophic light, and disaster is thought to be a blessing +in disguise, and sympathy is tested. Why should I +compare with this work Thebes having the seven gates, and +the Egyptian Thebes and the walls of Babylon … and all +other objects of men's wonder and of historic record, from all +of which, except for some slight glory, there was no advantage +to their founders? My subject is the most wonderful +of all, the short road to salvation, the easiest ascent to +heaven.<note place="foot">For this conception of the value to +the giver to be found in almsgiving, see above, +<ref target="Section_39_h">§ 39, <hi rend='italic'>h</hi></ref>.</note> +There is no longer before our eyes that terrible and piteous +spectacle of men dead before their death, in many members +of their body already dead, driven away from their cities and +homes and public places and fountains, ay and from their +<pb n='396'/><anchor id='Pg396'/> +dearest ones, recognizable by their names rather than by their +features.… He, however, it was who most of all persuaded +us men, as being men, not to despise men nor to dishonor +Christ, the head of all, by inhuman treatment of them; but +in the misfortune of others to establish well our own lot +and to lend to God that mercy, since we ourselves need +mercy. He did not therefore disdain to honor disease with +his lips; he was noble and of noble ancestry and of brilliant +reputation, but he saluted them as brethren, not out of vainglory, +as some might suppose (for who was so far removed +from this feeling?), but taking the lead in approaching to tend +them in consequence of his philosophy, and so giving not only +a speaking but also a silent instruction. Not only the city, +but the country and parts beyond behave in like manner; and +even the leaders of society have vied with one another in +their philanthropy and magnanimity toward them. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_76"/> +<head>§ 76. Popular Piety and the Reception of Heathenism +in the Church</head> + +<p> +When vast numbers poured into the Church in the fourth +century and the profession of Christianity no longer involved +danger, morals became less austere, and the type of piety became +adapted to the religious condition of those with whom +the Church had now to deal. This is shown in the new place +that the intercession of saints and the veneration of their +relics take in the religious life of the times. Yet these and +similar forms of devotion in popular piety were not new and +cannot be attributed in principle to any wholesale importation +of heathenism into the Church, as was charged at the +time and often since. In principle, and to some extent in +practice, they can be traced to times of persecution and danger. +But, on the other hand, no little heathenism was brought +into the Church by those who came into it without any adequate +preparation or real change of religious feeling. With +this heathenism the Church had to struggle, either casting it +<pb n='397'/><anchor id='Pg397'/> +out in whole or in part, or rendering it as innocuous as possible. +In spite of all, many heathen superstitions remained everywhere +in Christendom, though playing for the most part +such an inferior rôle as to be negligible in the total effect. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Constantini</hi> (PNF), III, +21, 28; IV, 38, 39, 54. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Ambrose, <hi rend='italic'>De Viduis</hi>, ch. 9. +(MSL, 16:264.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The importance and value of calling upon the saints for their intercessions. +</quote> + +<p> +When Simon's mother-in-law was lying sick with violent +fever, Peter and Andrew besought the Lord for her: <q>And He +stood over her and commanded the fever and it left her, and +immediately she arose and ministered unto them.</q>… +</p> + +<p> +So Peter and Andrew prayed for the widow. Would that +there were some one who could so quickly pray for us, or +better still, they who prayed for the mother-in-law—Peter +and Andrew his brother. Then they could pray for one related +to them, now they are able to pray for us and for all. +For you see that one bound by great sin is less fit to pray for +herself, certainly less likely to obtain for herself. Let her +then make use of others to pray for her to the Physician. For +the sick, unless the Physician be called to them by the prayers +of others, cannot pray for themselves. The flesh is weak, +the soul is sick and hindered by the chains of sins, and cannot +direct its feeble steps to the throne of that great Physician. +The angels must be entreated for us, who have been to us as +guardians; the martyrs must be entreated whose patronage +we seem to claim by a sort of pledge, the possession of their +body. They can entreat for our sins, who, if they had any +sins, washed them in their own blood; for they are the martyrs +of God, our leaders, the beholders of our life and of our +actions. Let us not be ashamed to take them as intercessors +for our weakness, for they themselves knew the weakness of +the body, even when they overcame. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Contra Vigilantium</hi>, +chs. 4 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> (MSL, 23:357.)</head> + +<pb n='398'/><anchor id='Pg398'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +A defence of the worship and practice of the Church, especially in +regard to veneration of relics against the criticism of Vigilantius. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Jerome's attack on Vigilantius is in many respects a masterpiece of +scurrility, and unworthy of the ability of the man. But it is invaluable +as a statement of the opinions of the times regarding such matters +as the veneration of relics, the attitude toward the departed saints +and martyrs, and many other elements of the popular religion which +have been commonly attributed to a much later period. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 4. Among other words of blasphemy he [Vigilantius] +may be heard to say: <q>What need is there for you not only to +reverence with so great honor but even to adore I know not +what, which you carry about in a little vessel and worship?</q> +And again in the same book, <q>Why do you adore by kissing a +bit of powder wrapped up in a cloth?</q> and further on, <q>Under +the cloak of religion we see really a heathen ceremony introduced +into the churches; while the sun is shining heaps of +tapers are lighted, and everywhere I know not what paltry +bit of powder wrapped in a costly cloth is kissed and worshipped. +Great honor do men of this sort pay to the blessed +martyrs, who, as they think, are to be glorified by trumpery +tapers, but to whom the Lamb who is in the midst of the +throne, with all the brightness of His majesty gives light.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 5. … Is the Emperor Arcadius guilty of sacrilege, +who, after so long a time, conveyed the bones of the blessed +Samuel from Judæa to Thrace? Are all the bishops to be considered +not only sacrilegious but silly as well, who carried that +most worthless thing, dust and ashes, wrapped in silk and in +a golden vessel? Are the people of all the churches fools, who +went to meet the sacred relics, and received them with as +much joy as if they beheld the living prophet in the midst +of them, so that there was one great swarm of people from +Palestine to Chalcedon and with one voice the praises of +Christ resounded?… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 6. For you say that the souls of the Apostles and +martyrs have their abode either in the bosom of Abraham, +or in some place of refreshment, or under the altar of God, +and that they cannot leave their own tombs and be present +<pb n='399'/><anchor id='Pg399'/> +where they will. They are, it seems, of senatorial rank and +are not in the worst sort of prison and among murderers, but +are kept apart in liberal and honorable custody in the isles of +the blessed and the Elysian fields. Do you lay down laws for +God? Will you throw the Apostles in chains? So that to the +day of judgment they are to be kept in confinement and are +not with the Lord, although it is written concerning them, +<q>They follow the Lamb whithersoever He goeth.</q> If the Lamb +is present everywhere, then they who are with the Lamb, it +must be believed, are everywhere. And while the devil and +the demons wander through the whole world, and with only +too great speed are present everywhere, the martyrs after shedding +their blood are to be kept out of sight shut up in a +coffin<note place="foot"><q>Shut up in the altar</q> is another reading.</note> +from whence they cannot go forth? You say in your +pamphlet that so long as we are alive we can pray for one +another; but after we are dead the prayer of no person for +another can be heard, and especially because the martyrs, +though they cry for the avenging of their blood, have never +been able to obtain their request. If Apostles and martyrs, +while still in the body, can pray for others, when they ought +still to be anxious for themselves, how much more must they +do so after they have their crowns and victories and triumphs? +A single man, Moses, won pardon from God for six hundred +thousand armed men; and Stephen, the follower of his Lord +and the first martyr for Christ, entreats pardon for his persecutors; +and after they have entered on their life with Christ, +shall they have less power? The Apostle Paul says that +two hundred and seventy-six souls were given him in the ship; +and after his dissolution, when he began to be with Christ, +must he then shut up his mouth and be unable to say a word +for those who throughout the whole world have believed in +his Gospel? Shall Vigilantius the live dog be better than Paul +the dead lion? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Laodicæa, A. D. 343-381, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi> 35. <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, Bruns, I, 77.</head> + +<pb n='400'/><anchor id='Pg400'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Council of Laodicæa is of uncertain date, but its earliest possible +date is 343 and the latest 381, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, between the +Councils of Sardica and Constantinople. See Hefele, § 93. It +owes its importance not to any immediate effect it had +upon the course of the Church's development, but to the +fact that its canons were incorporated in collections and +received approval, possibly at Chalcedon, A. D. 451, though not mentioned +by name in Canon 1, and certainly at the Quinisext, A. D. 692, +Canon 2. In the West the canons were of importance as having been +used by Dionysius Exiguus in his collection. That the Canon of Holy +Scripture was settled at this council is a traditional commonplace in +theology, but hardly borne out by the facts. The council only drew up +one of the several imperfect lists of sacred books which appeared in +antiquity. The following canons show the influx of heathenism into +the Church, resulting from the changed status of the Church. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 35. Christians must not forsake the Church of +God and go away and invoke angels and gather assemblies, +which things are forbidden. If, therefore, any one shall be +found engaged in secret idolatry, let him be anathema; for he +has forsaken our Lord Jesus Christ and gone over to idolatry. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 36. They who are of the priesthood and of the +lower clergy shall not be magicians, enchanters, mathematicians<note place="foot">Cf. +Suetonius, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Tiberii</hi>, c. 36, +<hi rend='italic'>expulsit et mathematicos</hi>. Probably they were a sort of +fortune-tellers, computers of nativities, etc. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hefele, +<hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi></note> +nor astrologers; nor shall they make amulets, which +are chains for their own souls. And those who wear such +we command to be cast out of the Church. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 29. +(MSL, 33:117.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Heathenism in the Church. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +An Epistle of Augustine, written when Augustine was still a presbyter +of Hippo, concerning the birthday of Leontius, formerly bishop of +Hippo. In it he tells Alypius that he had at length put an end to the +custom among the Catholics of Hippo of taking part in splendid banquets +on the birthday of saints, as was then the custom in the African +churches. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 8. When the day dawned on which they were accustomed +to prepare themselves for excess in eating and drinking, +I received notice that some, even of those who were present +at my sermon, had not yet ceased complaining, and that +so great was the power of detestable custom among them that, +<pb n='401'/><anchor id='Pg401'/> +using no other argument, they asked: <q>Wherefore is this now +prohibited? Were they not Christians who in former times +did not interfere with this practice?</q>… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 9. Lest, however, any slight should seem to be put +by us upon those who before our time either tolerated or dared +not put down such manifest wrong-doings of an undisciplined +multitude, I explained to them the necessity by which this +custom seems to have arisen in the Church; namely, that +when, in the peace which came after such numerous and violent +persecutions, crowds of heathen who wished to assume +the Christian religion were kept back because, having been +accustomed to celebrate the feasts connected with idols in +revelling and drunkenness, they could not easily refrain from +these pleasures so hurtful and so habitual; and it seemed good +to our ancestors that for a time a concession should be made +to this infirmity, that after they had renounced the former +festivals they might celebrate other feasts, in honor of the +holy martyrs, which were observed, not with the same profane +design, although with similar indulgence. Now upon +them as persons bound together in the name of Christ, and +submissive to the yoke of His august authority, the wholesome +restraints of sobriety were laid; and these restraints, on +account of the honor and fear of Him who appointed them +they might not resist; and that therefore it was now time +that those who did not dare to deny that they were Christians +should begin to live according to Christ's will; being now +Christians they should reject those things conceded that they +might become Christians. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_77"/> +<head>§ 77. The Extension of Monasticism Throughout the Empire</head> + +<p> +Asceticism arose within the Christian Church partly as the +practical expression of the conviction of the worthlessness of +things transitory and partly as a reaction against the moral +laxity of the times. As this laxity could not be kept entirely +<pb n='402'/><anchor id='Pg402'/> +out of the Church, and Christians everywhere were exposed +to it, those who sought the higher life felt the necessity of +retirement. From the life of the isolated hermit, asceticism +advanced naturally to the community type of the ascetic +life. There were forerunners in non-Christian religions of +the solitary ascetic and the cenobite in Egypt, Palestine, +India, and elsewhere, but all the essentials of Christian monasticism +can be adequately explained without employing the +theory of borrowing or imitation. For the principal points +of development, <hi rend='italic'>v.</hi> §§ <ref target="Section_53">53</ref>, +<ref target="Section_78">78</ref>, <ref target="Section_104">104</ref>. +When monasticism had once made itself a strong factor in the Christian religious +life of Egypt, it was quickly taken up by other parts of +the Church as it satisfied a widely felt want. In Asia Minor +Basil of Cæsarea was the great promoter and organizer of the +ascetic life; and his rule still obtains throughout the East. +In the West Athanasius appears to have introduced monastic +ideas during his early exiles. Ambrose was a patron of +the movement. Martin of Tours, Severinus, and John Cassian +did much to extend it in Gaul. Augustine organized +his clergy according to a monastic rule which ultimately +played a large part in later monasticism. +</p> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_77_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Palladius, <hi rend='italic'>Historia Lausiaca</hi>, +ch. 38. (MSG, 34:1099.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Rule of Pachomius. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Palladius, the author of the history of monasticism, known as the +<hi rend='italic'>Historia Lausiaca</hi>, was an Origenist, +pupil of Evagrius Ponticus, and later bishop in Asia +Minor. He is not to be confused with Palladius +of Helenopolis, who lived about the same time, in the first part of the +fifth century. The work of Palladius receives its name from the fact +that it is dedicated to a high official, Lausus by name. Palladius made +a careful study of monasticism, travelling extensively in making researches +for his work. He also used what written material was available. +It is probable that the text is largely interpolated, but on the +whole it is a trustworthy account of the early monasticism. It was +written about A. D. 420, and the following account of Pachomius +should be compared with that of Sozomenus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Ec.</hi>, III, 14, written some years later. Text in Kirch, nn. +712 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +There is a place in the Thebaid called Tabenna, in which +lived a certain monk Pachomius, one of those men who have +<pb n='403'/><anchor id='Pg403'/> +attained the highest form of life, so that he was granted predictions +of the future and angelic visions. He was a great +lover of the poor, and had great love to men. When, therefore, +he was sitting in a cave an angel of the Lord came in and +appeared to him and said: Pachomius you have done well +those things which pertain to your own affairs; therefore sit +no longer idle in this cave. Up, therefore, go forth and gather +all the younger monks and dwell with them and give them +laws according to the form which I give thee. And he gave +him a brass tablet on which the following things were written: +</p> + +<p> +1. Give to each to eat and drink according to his strength; +and give labors according to the powers of those eating, and +forbid neither fasting nor eating. Thus appoint difficult +labors to the stronger and those who eat, but the lighter and +easy tasks to those who discipline themselves more and are +weaker. +</p> + +<p> +2. Make separate cells in the same place; and let three +remain in a cell. But let the food of all be prepared in one +house. +</p> + +<p> +3. They may not sleep lying down, but having made seats +built inclining backward let them place their bedding on +them and sleep seated. +</p> + +<p> +4. But by night let them wear linen tunics, being girded +about. Let each of them have a shaggy goatskin, made +white. Without this let them neither eat nor sleep. When +they go in unto the communion of the mysteries of Christ +every Sabbath and Lord's Day, let them loose their girdles +and put off the goatskin, and enter with only their cuculla +[<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> DCA]. But he made the cuculla for them without any +fleece, as for boys; and he commanded to place upon them +certain branding marks of a purple cross. +</p> + +<p> +5. He commanded that there be twenty-four groups of the +brethren, according to the number of the twenty-four letters. +And he prescribed that to each group should be given as a +name a letter of the Greek alphabet, from Alpha and Beta, +one after another, to Omega, in order that when the archimandrite +<pb n='404'/><anchor id='Pg404'/> +asked for any one in so great a company, that one +may be asked who is the second in each, how group Alpha is, +or how the group Beta; again let him salute the group Rho; +the name of the letters following its own proper sign. And +upon the simpler and more guileless place the name Iota; +and upon those who are more ill-tempered and less righteous +the letter Xi. And thus in harmony with the principles and +the life and manners of them arrange the names of the letters, +only the spiritual understanding the meaning. +</p> + +<p> +6. There was written on the tablet that if there come a +stranger of another monastery, having a different form of +life, he shall not eat nor drink with them, nor go in with them +into the monastery, unless he shall be found in the way outside +of the monastery. +</p> + +<p> +7. But do not receive for three years into the contest of +proficients him who has entered once for all to remain with +them; but when he has performed the more difficult tasks, +then let him after a period of three years enter the stadium. +</p> + +<p> +8. When they eat let them veil their faces, that one brother +may not see another brother eating. They are not to speak +while they eat; nor outside of their dish or off the table shall +they turn their eyes toward anything else. +</p> + +<p> +9. And he made it a rule that during the whole day they +should offer twelve prayers; and at the time of lighting the +lamps, twelve; and in the course of the night, twelve; and +at the ninth hour, three; but when it seemed good for the whole +company to eat, he directed that each group should first sing +a psalm at each prayer. +</p> + +<p> +But when the great Pachomius replied to the angel that the +prayers were few, the angel said to him: I have appointed +these that the little ones may advance and fulfil the law and +not be distressed; but the perfect do not need to have laws +given to them. For being by themselves in their cells, they +have dedicated their entire life to contemplation on God. +But to these, as many as do not have an intelligent mind, I +will give a law that as saucy servants out of fear for the +<pb n='405'/><anchor id='Pg405'/> +Master they may fulfil the whole order of life and direct it +properly. When the angel had given these directions and +fulfilled his ministry he departed from the great Pachomius. +There are monasteries observing this rule, composed of seven +thousand men, but the first and great monastery, wherein the +blessed Pachomius dwelt, and which gave birth to the other +places of asceticism, has one thousand three hundred men. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Basil the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Regula fusius +tractata</hi>, Questio 7. (MSG, 31:927.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Rule of St. Basil is composed in the form of question and answer, +and in place of setting down a simple, clearly stated law, with perhaps +some little exhortation, goes into much detailed argument, even in +the briefer Rule. In the following passage Basil points out the advantages +of the cenobitic life over the solitary or hermit life. It is +condensed as indicated. +</quote> + +<p> +Questio VII. Since your words have given us full assurance +that the life [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the cenobitic life] is dangerous with +those who despise the commandments of the Lord, we wish +accordingly to learn whether it is necessary that he who withdraws +should remain alone or live with brothers of like mind +who have placed before themselves the same goal of piety. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Responsio</hi> 1. I think that the life of several in the same +place is much more profitable. First, because for bodily +wants no one of us is sufficient for himself, but we need each +other in providing what is necessary. For just as the foot +has one ability, but is wanting another, and without the help +of the other members it would find neither its own power +strong nor sufficient of itself to continue, nor any supply for +what it lacks, so it is in the case of the solitary life: what is +of use to us and what is wanting we cannot provide for ourselves, +for God who created the world has so ordered all things +that we are dependent upon each other, as it is written that +we may join ourselves to one another [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Wis. 13:20]. But +in addition to this, reverence to the love of Christ does not +permit each one to have regard only to his own affairs, for +love, he says, seeks not her own [I Cor. 13:5]. The solitary +<pb n='406'/><anchor id='Pg406'/> +life has only one goal, the service of its own interests. That +clearly is opposed to the law of love, which the Apostle fulfilled, +when he did not in his eyes seek his own advantage +but the advantage of many, that they might be saved [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> I +Cor. 10:33]. Further, no one in solitude recognizes his own +defects, since he has no one to correct him and in gentleness +and mercy direct him on his way. For even if correction +is from an enemy, it may often in the case of those who are +well disposed rouse the desire for healing; but the healing of +sin by him who sincerely loves is wisely accomplished.… +Also the commands may be better fulfilled by a larger community, +but not by one alone; for while this thing is being +done another will be neglected; for example, by attendance +upon the sick the reception of strangers is neglected; and +in the bestowal and distribution of the necessities of life +(especially when in these services much time is consumed) +the care of the work is neglected, so that by this the greatest +commandment and the one most helpful to salvation is neglected; +neither the hungry are fed nor the naked clothed. +Who would therefore value higher the idle, useless life than the +fruitful which fulfils the commandments of God? +</p> + +<p> +3. … Also in the preservation of the gifts bestowed by +God the cenobitic life is preferable.… For him who falls +into sin, the recovery of the right path is so much easier, for +he is ashamed at the blame expressed by so many in common, +so that it happens to him as it is written: It is enough that +the same therefore be punished by many [II Cor. 2:6].… +There are still other dangers which we say accompany the +solitary life, the first and greatest is that of self-satisfaction. +For he who has no one to test his work easily believes that he +has completely fulfilled the commandments.… +</p> + +<p> +4. For how shall he manifest his humility, when he has no +one to whom he can show himself the inferior? How shall he +manifest compassion, cut off from the society of many? How +will he exercise himself in patience, if no one opposes his +wishes? +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='407'/><anchor id='Pg407'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Chalcedon, A. D. 451, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 4. Bruns, I, 26.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The subjection of the monastery and the monks to the bishop. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Asceticism of the solitary life was apart from the organization of +the Church; when this form of life had developed in cenobitism it +still remained for a time, at least, outside the ecclesiastical organization. +Athanasius, who was a patron of the monastic life and often +found support and refuge among the monks, did much to bring Egyptian +monasticism back to the Church, and in the fifth century monks +became a great power in ecclesiastical affairs, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> the +Origenistic controversy, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_88">§ 88</ref>. Basil, at once archbishop of Cæsarea and leading +exponent of monastic ideas, brought the two to some extent together. +But always the episcopal control was only with difficulty +brought to bear on the monastic life, and in the West this opposition +of the two religious forces ultimately became embodied in the principle +of monastic exemption. The Council of Chalcedon, in 451, aimed to +correct the early abuse by placing the monasteries under the control +of the bishop. +</quote> + +<p> +They who lead a true and worthy monastic life shall enjoy +the honor that belongs to them. But since there are some who +assume the monastic condition only as a pretence, and will +upset the ecclesiastical and civil regulations and affairs, and +run about without distinction in the cities and want to found +cloisters for themselves, the synod therefore has decreed that +no one shall build a cloister or house of prayer or erect anywhere +without the consent of the bishop of the city; and further, +that also the monks of every district and city shall be +subject to the bishop, that they shall love peace and quiet +and observe the fasts and prayers in the places where they +are assigned continually; that they shall not cumber themselves +with ecclesiastical and secular business and shall not take +part in such; they shall not leave their cloisters except when +in cases of necessity they may be commissioned by the bishop +of the city with such; that no slave shall be admitted into the +cloister in order to become a monk without the permission of +his master. Whoever violates this our order shall be excommunicated, +that the name of God be not blasphemed. The +bishop of the city must keep a careful oversight of the cloisters. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 127, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Principiam</hi>. (MSL, 22:1087.)</head> + +<pb n='408'/><anchor id='Pg408'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The introduction of monasticism into the West during the Arian +controversy. +</quote> + +<p> +5. At that time no high-born lady at Rome knew of the +profession of the monastic life, neither would she have dared, +on account of the novelty, publicly to assume a name that was +regarded as ignominious and vile. It was from some priests +of Alexandria and from Pope Athanasius<note place="foot">The +title of pope which was not yet restricted even by Latins to the +bishop of Rome was in general use as the title of the bishop +of Alexandria.</note> and subsequently from Peter,<note place="foot">Successor +of Athanasius in the see of Alexandria.</note> +who, to escape the persecution of the Arian +heretics, had fled for refuge to Rome as the safest haven of +their communion—it was from these that she [Marcella] +learned of the life of the blessed Anthony, then still living, and +of the monasteries in the Thebaid, founded by Pachomius, +and of the discipline of virgins and widows. Nor was she +ashamed to profess what she knew was pleasing to Christ. +Many years after her example was followed first by Sophronia +and then by others.… The revered Paula enjoyed +Marcella's friendship, and it was in her cell that Eustochium, +that ornament of virginity, was trained. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_77_e"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Confessiones</hi>, VIII, +ch. 6. (MSL, 32:755.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The extension of monasticism in the West. +</quote> + +<p> +Upon a certain day … there came to the house to see +Alypius and me, Pontitianus, a countryman of ours, in so +far as he was an African, who held high office in the Emperor's +court. What he wanted with us I know not. We sat down +to talk together, and upon the table before us, used for games, +he noticed by chance a book; he took it up, opened it, and, +contrary to his expectations, found it to be the Apostle Paul, +for he imagined it to be one of those books the teaching of +which was wearing me out. At this he looked up at me +smilingly, and expressed his delight and wonder that he so +unexpectedly found this book, and this only, before my eyes. +For he was both a Christian and baptized, and in constant and +<pb n='409'/><anchor id='Pg409'/> +daily prayers he often prostrated himself before Thee our +God in the Church. When, then, I had told him that I bestowed +much pains upon these writings, a conversation ensued +on his speaking of Anthony, the Egyptian monk, whose +name was in high repute among Thy servants, though up to +that time unfamiliar to us. When he came to know this he +lingered on that topic, imparting to us who were ignorant a +knowledge of this man so eminent, and marvelling at our ignorance. +But we were amazed, hearing Thy wonderful works +most fully manifested in times so recent, and almost in our +own, wrought in the true faith and the Catholic Church. We +all wondered—we that they were so great, and he that we +had never heard of them. +</p> + +<p> +From this his conversation turned to the companies in the +monasteries, and their manners so fragrant unto Thee, and +of the fruitful deserts of the wilderness, of which we knew +nothing. And there was a monastery at Milan full of good +brethren, without the walls of the city, under the care of +Ambrose, and we were ignorant of it. He went on with his +relation, and we listened intently and in silence. He then +related to us how on a certain afternoon, at Treves, when the +Emperor was taken up with seeing the Circensian games, he +and three others, his comrades, went out for a walk in the +gardens close to the city walls, and there, as they chanced to +walk two and two, one strolled away with him, while the other +two went by themselves; and these in their ramblings came +upon a certain cottage where dwelt some of Thy servants, +<q>poor in spirit,</q> of whom <q>is the kingdom of heaven,</q> and +they found there a book in which was written the life of +Anthony. This one of them began to read, marvel at, and be +inflamed by it; and in the reading to meditate on embracing +such a life, and giving up his worldly employments to serve +Thee.… Then Pontitianus, and he that had walked with +him through other parts of the garden, came in search of them +to the same place, and, having found them, advised them to +return as the day had declined.… But the other two, +<pb n='410'/><anchor id='Pg410'/> +setting their affections upon heavenly things, remained in the +cottage. And both of them had affianced brides who also, +when they heard of this, dedicated their virginity to God. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Sulpicius Severus, <hi rend='italic'>Life of St. +Martin of Tours</hi>, ch. 10. (MSL, 20:166.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Monasticism in Gaul. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +St. Martin, bishop of Tours, was born 316, became bishop of Tours +in 371, and died 396. He was the most considerable figure in the +Church life of Gaul at that time. Sulpicius Severus was his disciple +and enthusiastic biographer. For John Cassian and his works on +monasticism, see PNF, ser. II, vol. XI. +</quote> + +<p> +And now having entered upon the episcopal office, it is +beyond my power to set forth how well and how much he +[Martin] performed. For he remained with the utmost constancy +the same as he had been before. In his heart there +was the same humility and in his garments the same simplicity; +and so full of dignity and courtesy, he maintained the +dignity of a bishop, yet so as not to lay aside the objects and +virtues of a monk. Accordingly he made use for some time of +the cell connected with the church; but afterward, when he +felt it impossible to tolerate the disturbance of the numbers +of those visiting it, he established a monastery for himself +about two miles outside the city. This spot was so secret +and retired that he did not desire the solitude of a hermit. +For, on one side, it was surrounded by a precipitous rock of +a lofty mountain; while the river Loire has shut in the rest +of the plain by a bend extending back for a distance. The +place could be approached by only one passage, and that +very narrow. Here, then, he possessed a cell constructed of +wood; many also of the brethren had, in the same manner, +fashioned retreats for themselves, but most of them had +formed these out of the rock of the overhanging mountain, +hollowed out into caves. There were altogether eighty disciples, +who were being disciplined after the example of the +saintly master. No one there had anything which was called +his own; all things were possessed in common. It was not +<pb n='411'/><anchor id='Pg411'/> +allowed either to buy or sell anything, as is the custom +amongst most monks. No art was practised there except +that of transcribers, and even to this the more youthful +were assigned, while the elders spent their time in prayer. +Rarely did any of them go beyond the cell unless when +they assembled at the place of prayer. They all took their +food together after the hour of fasting was past. No one +used wine except when illness compelled him. Most of them +were dressed in garments of camel's hair. Any dress approaching +softness was there deemed criminal, and this must +be thought the more remarkable because many among them +were such as are deemed of noble rank, who though very differently +brought up had forced themselves down to this degree +of humility and patience, and we have seen many of these +afterward as bishops. For what city or church could there +be that would not desire to have its priest from the monastery +of Martin? +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_78"/> +<head>§ 78. Celibacy of the Clergy and the Regulation of +Clerical Marriage</head> + +<p> +The insistence upon clerical celibacy and even the mere +regulation of the marriage of the clergy contributed not a +little to making a clear distinction between the clergy and +the laity which became a marked feature in the constitution +of the Church. The East and the West have always differed +as to clerical marriage. In the East the parish clergy have +always been married; the bishops formerly married have long +since been exclusively of the unmarried clergy. The clergy +who do not marry become monks. This seems to have been +the solution of practical difficulties which were found to arise +in that part of the Church in connection with general clerical +celibacy. In the West the celibacy of the clergy as a +body was an ideal from the beginning of the fourth century, +and became an established principle by the middle of the +fifth century under Leo the Great, though as a matter of fact +<pb n='412'/><anchor id='Pg412'/> +it was not enforced as a universal obligation of the clerical +order until the reforms of Gregory VII. In the following +canons and documents the division is made between the +East and the West, and the selected documents are arranged +chronologically so as to show the progress in legislation toward +the condition that afterward became dominant in the respective +divisions of the Empire and the Church. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(A) <hi rend='italic'>Clerical Marriage in the East</hi></head> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Council of Ancyra, A. D. 314, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 10. Bruns, I, 68. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. +90.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following canon is important as being the first Eastern regulation +of a council bearing on the subject and having been generally followed +long before the canons of this council were adopted as binding by the +Council of Constantinople known as the Quinisext in 692, Canon 2; +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Hefele, § 327. For the Council of Ancyra, +see Hefele, § 16. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 10. Those who have been made deacons, declaring +when they were ordained that they must marry, because they +were not able to abide as they were, and who afterward married, +shall continue in the ministry because it was conceded +to them by the bishop. But if they were silent on the matter, +undertaking at their ordination to abide as they were, +and afterward proceeded to marry, they shall cease from the +diaconate. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Council of Nicæa, A. D. 325, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 3. Bruns, I, 15. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. +101, Kirch, n. 363.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The meaning of the following canon is open to question because of +the term <hi rend='italic'>subintroducta</hi> and the concluding clause. Hefele contends +that every woman is excluded except certain specified persons. But +the custom of the East was not to treat the rule as meaning such. See +E. Venables, art. <q>Subintroductæ,</q> in DCB; and Achelis, art. <q>Subintroductæ,</q> +in PRE. Hefele's discussion may be found in his <hi rend='italic'>History +of the Councils</hi>, §§ 42 and 43; in the latter he discusses the question as +to the position of the council as to the matter of clerical celibacy. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 3. The great synod has stringently forbidden any +bishop, presbyter, deacon, or any one of the clergy whatever, +to have a <hi rend='italic'>subintroducta</hi> (συνείσακτος) +dwelling with him, +<pb n='413'/><anchor id='Pg413'/> +except only a mother, sister, or aunt, or such persons only as +are beyond all suspicion. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Gangra, A. D. 355-381, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 4. Bruns, I, 107.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The canons of this council were approved at the Quinisext together +with those of Ancyra and Laodicæa and others. This canon is directed +against the fanaticism of the Eustathians. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 4. If any one shall maintain, concerning a married +presbyter, that it is not lawful to partake of the oblation that +he offers, let him be anathema. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 22. +(MSG, 67:640.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +That the custom of clerical celibacy grew up without much regard to +conciliar action, and that canons only later regulated what had been +established and modified by custom, is illustrated by the variation in +the matter of clerical marriage noted by Socrates. +</quote> + +<p> +I myself learned of another custom in Thessaly. If a +clergyman in that country should, after taking orders, cohabit +with his wife, whom he had legally married before ordination, +he would be degraded.<note place="foot">Cf. Apostolic Canons, 6, 27; +also Council of Neo-Cæsarea. Can 1.</note> +In the East, indeed, all clergymen +and even bishops abstain from their wives; but this they do +of their own accord and not by the necessity of law; for +many of them have had children by their lawful wives during +their episcopate. The author of the usage which obtains +in Thessaly was Heliodorus, bishop of Tricca in that country, +under whose name it is said that erotic books are extant, entitled +<hi rend='italic'>Ethiopica</hi>, which he composed in his youth. The same +custom prevails in Thessalonica and in Macedonia and Achaia. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Quinisext Council, A. D. 692, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi> 6, 12, 13, 48. Bruns, I, 39 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Canons on celibacy. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Trullan Council fixed the practice of the Eastern churches regarding +the celibacy of the clergy. In general it may be said that the +clergyman was not allowed to marry after ordination. But if he married +before ordination he did not, except in the case of the bishops +separate from his wife, but lived with her in lawful marital relations. +</quote> + +<pb n='414'/><anchor id='Pg414'/> + +<p> +Canon 6. Since it is declared in the Apostolic Canons that +of those who are advanced to the clergy unmarried, only +lectors and cantors are able to marry, we also, maintaining +this, determine that henceforth it is in nowise lawful for any +subdeacon, deacon, or presbyter after his ordination to contract +matrimony; but if he shall have dared to do so, let him +be deposed. And if any of those who enter the clergy wishes +to be joined to a wife in lawful marriage before he is ordained +subdeacon, deacon, or presbyter, let it be done. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 12. Moreover, it has also come to our knowledge +that in Africa and Libya and in other places the most God-beloved +bishops in those parts do not refuse to live with their +wives, even after consecration, thereby giving scandal and +offence to the people. Since, therefore, it is our particular +care that all things tend to the good of the flock placed in our +hands and committed to us, it has seemed good that henceforth +nothing of the kind shall in any way occur.… But +if any shall have been observed to do such a thing, let him be +deposed. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 13. [Text in Kirch, nn. 985 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>] Since we know it +to be handed down as a rule of the Roman Church that those +who are deemed worthy to be advanced to the diaconate and +presbyterate should promise no longer to cohabit with their +wives, we, preserving the ancient rule and apostolic perfection +and order, will that lawful marriage of men who are in holy +orders be from this time forward firm, by no means dissolving +their union with their wives nor depriving them of their +mutual intercourse at a convenient season.… For it is +meet that they who assist at the divine altar should be absolutely +continent when they are handling holy things, in order +that they may be able to obtain from God what they ask in +sincerity. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 48. The wife of him who is advanced to the episcopal +dignity shall be separated from her husband by mutual +consent, and after his ordination and consecration to the +episcopate she shall enter a monastery situated at a distance +<pb n='415'/><anchor id='Pg415'/> +from the abode of the bishop, and there let her enjoy the +bishop's provision. And if she is deemed worthy she may be +advanced to the dignity of a deaconess. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(B) <hi rend='italic'>Clerical Celibacy in the West</hi></head> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Council of Elvira, A. D. 306, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 33. Bruns, II, 6. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. +90, and Kirch, n. 305.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This is the earliest canon of any council requiring clerical celibacy. +For the Council of Elvira, see Hefele, § 13; A. W. W. Dale, <hi rend='italic'>The Synod +of Elvira</hi>, London. 1882. For discussion of reasons for assigning a +later date, see E. Hennecke, art. <q>Elvira, Synode um 313,</q> in PRE, +and the literature there cited. The council was a provincial synod of +southern Spain. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 33. It was voted that it be entirely forbidden<note place="foot">Note the +extraordinary form in which the clergy are apparently forbidden +to do what in reality the council commands; namely, that they should abandon +marital relations with their wives. Cf. Hefele, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi> +Can. 80 of Elvira uses the same uncouth phraseology.</note> +bishops, presbyters, and deacons, and all clergy placed in the +ministry to abstain from their wives and not to beget sons: +whoever does this, let him be deprived of the honor of the +clergy. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Siricius, <hi rend='italic'>Decretal</hi> A. D. +385. (MSL, 13:1138.) Mirbt, nn. 122 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Denziger, nn. 87 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Clerical celibacy: the force of decretals. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +In the following passages from the first authentic decretal, the +celibacy of the clergy is laid down as of divine authority in the Church, +and the rule remains characteristic of the Western Church. See Canon +13 of the Quinisext Council, above, <ref target="Section_78_c">§ 78, +<hi rend='italic'>c</hi></ref>. The binding authority of +the decretals of the bishop of Rome is also asserted, and this, too, becomes +characteristic of the jurisprudence of the Western Church. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 7 (§ 8). Why did He admonish them to whom the holy +of holies was committed, Be ye holy, because I the Lord +your God am holy? [Lev. 20:7.] Why were they commanded +to dwell in the temple in the year of their turn to +officiate, afar from their own homes? Evidently it was for +the reason that they might not be able to maintain their +<pb n='416'/><anchor id='Pg416'/> +marital relations with their wives, so that, adorned with a +pure conscience, they might offer to God an acceptable sacrifice. +After the time of their service was accomplished they +were permitted to resume their marital relations for the sake +of continuing the succession, because only from the tribe of +Levi was it ordained that any one should be admitted to the +priesthood.… Wherefore also our Lord Jesus, when by +His coming He brought us light, solemnly affirmed in the Gospel +that He came not to destroy but to fulfil the law. And +therefore He who is the bridegroom of the Church wished +that its form should be resplendent with chastity, so that in +the day of Judgment, when He should come again, He might +find it without spot or blemish, as He taught by His Apostle. +And by the rule of its ordinances which may not be gainsaid, +we who are priests and Levites are bound from the day of our +ordination to keep our bodies in soberness and modesty, so +that in those sacrifices which we offer daily to our God we may +please Him in all things. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 15 (§ 20). To each of the cases, which by our son +Bassanius you have referred to the Roman Church as the head +of your body, we have returned, as I think, a sufficient answer. +Now we exhort your brotherly mind more and more to obey +the canons and to observe the decretals that have been drawn +up, that those things which we have written to your inquiries +you may cause to be brought to the attention of all our fellow-bishops, +and not only of those who are placed in your diocese, +but also of the Carthaginians, the Bætici, the Lusitani, and +the Gauls, and those who in neighboring provinces border +upon you, those things which by us have been helpfully +decreed may be sent accompanied by your letters. And +although no priest of the Lord is free to ignore the statutes +of the Apostolic See and the venerable definitions of the +canons, yet it would be more useful and, on account of the +long time you have been in holy orders, exceedingly glorious +for you, beloved, if those things which have been written you +especially by name, might through your agreement with us +<pb n='417'/><anchor id='Pg417'/> +be brought to the notice of all our brethren, and that, seeing +that they have not been drawn up inconsiderately but prudently +and with very great care, they should remain inviolate, +and that, for the future, opportunity for any excuse might be +cut off, which is now open to no one among us. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_78_c"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Carthage, A. D. 390, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon 2</hi>. Bruns, I, 117.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +See also Canon 1 of the same council. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 2. Bishop Aurelius said: <q>When in a previous council +the matter of the maintenance of continence and chastity +was discussed, these three orders were joined by a certain +agreement of chastity through their ordination, bishops, I +say, presbyters, and deacons; as it was agreed that it was +seemly that they, as most holy pontiffs and priests of God, +and as Levites who serve divine things, should be continent +in all things whereby they may be able to obtain from God +what they ask sincerely, so that what the Apostles taught +and antiquity observed, we also keep.</q> By all the bishops it +was said: <q>It is the pleasure of all that bishops, presbyters, +and deacons, or those who handle the sacraments, should be +guardians of modesty, and refrain themselves from their wives.</q> +By all it was said: <q>It is our pleasure that in all things, and by +all, modesty should be preserved, who serve the altar.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. 14</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Anastasium</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Ep. 167</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Rusticum</hi>. (MSL, 54:672, 1204.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The final form of the Western rule, that the clergy, from subdeacon +to bishop, both inclusive, should be bound to celibacy, was expressed +in its permanent form by Leo the Great in his letters to Anastasius and +Rusticus. From each of these letters the passage bearing on the subject +is quoted. By thus following up the ideas of the Council of Elvira +and the Council of Carthage as well as the decretal of Siricius, the subdeacon +was included among those who were vowed to celibacy, for he, +too, served at the altar, and came to be counted as one of the major +orders of the ministry. +</quote> + +<p> +Ep. 14, Ch. 5. Although they who are not within the +ranks of the clergy are free to take pleasure in the companionship +of wedlock and the procreation of children, yet, for +<pb n='418'/><anchor id='Pg418'/> +the sake of exhibiting the purity of complete continence, even +subdeacons are not allowed carnal marriage; that <q>both +they that have wives be as though they had none</q> [I Cor. +7:29], and they that have not may remain single. But if +in this order, which is the fourth from the head, this is worthy +to be observed, how much more is it to be kept in the first, +the second, and the third, lest any one be reckoned fit for +either the deacon's duties or the presbyter's honorable position, +or the bishop's pre-eminence, who is discovered as not +yet having bridled his uxorious desires. +</p> + +<p> +Ep. 167, Quest. 3. Concerning those who minister at the +altar and have wives, whether they may cohabit with them. +</p> + +<p> +Reply. The same law of continence is for the ministers of +the altar as for the bishops and priests who, when they were +laymen, could lawfully marry and procreate children. But +when they attained to the said ranks, what was before lawful +became unlawful for them. And therefore in order that their +wedlock may become spiritual instead of carnal, it is necessary +that they do not put away their wives<note place="foot">This last +point was considerably modified by the subsequent canon law.</note> +but to have them +<q>as though they had them not,</q> whereby both the affection +of their married life may be retained and the marriage functions +cease. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='419'/><anchor id='Pg419'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Period II. The Church From The Permanent Division Of The Empire Until The +Collapse Of The Western Empire And The First Schism Between The East And The +West, Or Until About A. D. 500</head> + +<p> +In the second period of the history of the Church under the +Christian Empire, the Church, although existing in two divisions +of the Empire and experiencing very different political +fortunes, may still be regarded as forming a whole. The +theological controversies distracting the Church, although +different in the two halves of the Græco-Roman world, were +felt to some extent in both divisions of the Empire and not +merely in the one in which they were principally fought out; +and in the condemnation of heresy, each half of the Church +assisted the other. Though already marked lines of cleavage +are clearly perceptible, and in the West the dominating personality +of Augustine forwarded the development of the characteristic +theology of the West, setting aside the Greek influences +exerted through Hilary, Ambrose, Rufinus, and Jerome, +and adding much that was never appreciated in the East—yet +the opponent of Augustine was condemned at the general +council of Ephesus, 431, held by Eastern bishops in the East; +and at the same time in the East the controversies regarding +the union of the divine and human natures in Christ, although +of interest almost entirely in the East and fought out by men +of the East, found their preliminary solution at Chalcedon +in 451 upon a basis proposed by the West. On the other +hand, the attitudes of the two halves of the Church toward +<pb n='420'/><anchor id='Pg420'/> +many profound problems were radically different, and the +emergence of the Roman See as the great centre of the West +amid the overturn of the Roman world by the barbarians, +and the steadily increasing ascendency of the State over the +Church in the East tended inevitably to separate ecclesiastically +as well as politically the two divisions of the Empire. +As the emperors of the East attempted to use dogmatic +parties in the support of a political policy, the differences +between the Church of the East, under the Roman Emperor, +and the Church of the West, where the imperial authority +had ceased to be a reality, became manifest in a schism resulting +from the Monophysite controversy and the attempt to +reconcile the Monophysites. +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter I. The Church At The Beginning Of The Permanent Separation Of +The Two Parts Of The Roman Empire</head> + +<p> +Although Theodosius the Great had been the dominating +power in the government of the Empire almost from his accession +in 379, he was sole ruler of the united Roman Empire for +only a few months before his death in 395. The East and the +West became henceforth permanently divided after having +been united, since the reorganization of the Empire under Diocletian +in 285, for only three periods aggregating twenty-eight +years in all. The imperial authority was divided between the +sons of Theodosius, Arcadius taking the sovereignty of the +East and Honorius that of the West. Stilicho, a Vandal, +directed the fortunes of the West until his death in 408, but +the Empire of the East soon began to take a leading part, +especially after the barbarians commenced to invade the +West about 405, and to establish independent kingdoms within the +boundaries of the Empire. The German tribes that +settled within the Empire were either Arians when they +entered or became such almost immediately after; this Arianism +had been introduced among the West Goths from Constantinople +<pb n='421'/><anchor id='Pg421'/> +during the dominance of that creed. The Franks +alone of all the Germanic tribes were heathen when they +settled within the Empire. +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_79"/> +<head>§ 79. The Empire of the Dynasty of Theodosius.</head> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Emperors of the West</hi>: +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Honorius; born 384, Emperor 395-423. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Valentinian III; born 419, Emperor 425-455; son of +Galla Placidia, the daughter of Theodosius the Great, +and the Empress of the West 419-450. +</quote> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Emperors of the East</hi>: +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Arcadius: born 377, Emperor 395-408. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Theodosius II: born 401, Emperor 408-450. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Marcianus: Emperor 450-457; husband of Pulcheria +(born 399, died 453), daughter of Arcadius. +</quote> + +<p> +The greatest event in the first half of the fifth century, the +period in which the degenerate descendants of Theodosius +still retained the imperial title, was the Barbarian Invasion, +a truly epoch-making event. In 405 the Vandals, Alans, +and Suevi crossed the Rhine, followed later by the Burgundians. +August 24, 410, Alarich, the king of the West +Goths, captured Rome. In 419 the West Gothic kingdom +was established with Toulouse as a capital. In 429 the Vandals +began to establish themselves in North Africa, and about +450 the Saxons began to invade Britain, abandoned by the +Romans about 409. Although the West was thus falling to +pieces, the theory of the unity of the Empire was maintained +and is expressed in the provision of the new Theodosian Code +of 439 for the uniformity of law throughout the two parts of +the Empire. This theory of unity was not lost for centuries +and was influential even into the eighth century. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 123, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Ageruchiam</hi>. (MSL, 22:1057.)</head> + +<pb n='422'/><anchor id='Pg422'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Barbarian Invasions in the opening years of the fifth century. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Jerome's letters are not to be considered a primary source for the +barbarian invasion, but they are an admirable source for the way the +invasion appeared to a man of culture and some patriotic feeling. +With this passage should be compared his <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 60, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Heliodorum</hi>, § 16, +written in 396, in which he expresses his belief that Rome was falling +and describes the barbarian invaders. The following letter was written +409. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 16. Innumerable savage tribes have overrun all parts +of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the +Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the ocean, have been laid +waste by Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepidi, Herules,<note place="foot">See +Putzger, <hi rend='italic'>Historischer Schul-Atlas</hi>, 1905.</note> +Saxons, Bergundians, Allemans and, alas for the common +weal—even the hordes of the Pannonians. For Asshur is +joined with them (Psalm 83:8). The once noble city of +Mainz has been captured and destroyed. In its church many +thousands have been massacred. The people of Worms have +been extirpated after a long siege. The powerful city of +Rheims, the Ambiani [a tribe near Amiens], the Altrabtæ +[a tribe near Arras], the Belgians on the outskirts of the world, +Tournay, Speyer, and Strassburg have fallen to Germany. +The provinces of Aquitaine and of the Nine Nations, of +Lyons and Narbonne, with the exception of a few cities, all +have been laid waste. Those whom the sword spares without, +famine ravages within. I cannot speak of Toulouse without +tears; it has been kept hitherto from falling by the merits of +its revered bishop, Exuperius. Even the Spains are about to +perish and tremble daily as they recall the invasion of the +Cymri; and what others have suffered once they suffer continually +in fear. +</p> + +<p> +§ 17. I am silent about other places, that I may not seem +to despair of God's mercy. From the Pontic Sea to the +Julian Alps, what was once ours is ours no longer. When +for thirty years the barrier of the Danube had been broken +there was war in the central provinces of the Roman Empire. +Long use dried our tears. For all, except a few old people, +<pb n='423'/><anchor id='Pg423'/> +had been born either in captivity or during a blockade, and +they did not long for a liberty which they had never known. +Who will believe it? What histories will seriously discuss +it, that Rome has to fight within her borders, not for glory +but for bare life; and that she does not fight even, but buys +the right to exist by giving gold and sacrificing all her substance? +This humiliation has been brought upon her, not by +the fault of her emperors, both of them most religious men +[Arcadius and Honorius], but by the crime of a half-barbarian +traitor,<note place="foot">Stilicho, on whose advice the Senate +granted a subsidy to Alarich, in 408 of four thousand pounds of gold.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Prefaces to Commentary +on Ezekiel</hi>. (MSL, 25, 15:75.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The fall of Rome. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Jerome's account of the capture of Rome by Alarich is greatly exaggerated +(see his <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 127, <hi rend='italic'>ad Principiam</hi>). +By his very exaggeration, +however, one gains some impression of the shock the event must have +occasioned in the Roman world. +</quote> + +<p> +Preface to Book I. Intelligence has suddenly been brought +to me of the death of Pammachus and Marcella, the siege of +Rome [A. D. 408], and the falling asleep of many of my brethren +and sisters. I was so stupefied and dismayed that day +and night I could think of nothing but the welfare of all.… +But when the bright light of all the world was put out,<note place="foot">Capture +of Rome, A. D. 410, by Alarich.</note> or, +rather, when the Roman Empire was decapitated, and, to speak +more correctly, the whole world perished in one city, <q>I became +dumb and humbled myself, and kept silence from good +words, but my grief broke out afresh, my heart was hot within +me, and while I was musing the fire was kindled</q> [Psalm +39:3, 4]. +</p> + +<p> +Preface to Book III. Who would believe that Rome, built +up by the conquest of the whole world, had collapsed; that she +had become both the mother of nations and their tomb; that +all the shores of the East, of Egypt, of Africa, which had once +<pb n='424'/><anchor id='Pg424'/> +belonged to the imperial city should be filled with the hosts +of her men-servants and maid-servants; that every day holy +Bethlehem should be receiving as mendicants men and women +who were once noble and abounding in every kind of wealth? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Theodosius II, <hi rend='italic'>Novella I, de +Theodosiani Codicis Auctoritate</hi>; Feb. 15, 439.</head> + +<p> +The Emperors Theodosius and Valentinian, Augusti, to +Florentius, Prætorian Prefect of the East. +</p> + +<p> +Our clemency has often been at a loss to understand the +cause of the fact that, although so many rewards are held out +for the maintenance of arts and studies, so few and rare are +they who are fully endowed with a knowledge of the civil law, +and that although so many have grown pale from late studies, +scarcely one or two have gained a sound and complete learning. +When we consider the enormous multitude of books, +the diversity in the forms of process, and the difficulty of +legal cases, and, further, the huge mass of imperial constitutions +which, hidden as it were under a veil of gross mist and +darkness, precludes man's intellect from gaining a knowledge +of them, we have performed a task needful for our age, and, +the darkness having been dispelled, we have given light to the +laws by a brief compendium. Noble men of approved faithfulness +were selected, men of well-known learning, to whom +the matter was intrusted. We have published the constitutions +of former princes, cleared by interpretation of difficulties +so that men may no longer have to wait formidable responses +from expert lawyers as from a shrine, since it is quite plain +what is the value of a donation, by what action an inheritance +is to be sued for, with what words a contract is to be made.… +Thus having wiped out the cloud of volumes, on which +many wasted their lives and explained nothing in the end, we +establish a compendious knowledge of the imperial constitutions +since the time of the divine Constantine, and permit no +one after the first day of next January to use in courts and +daily practice of law the imperial law, or to draw up pleadings +<pb n='425'/><anchor id='Pg425'/> +except from these books which bear our name and are kept +in the sacred archives.… +</p> + +<p> +To this we add that henceforward no constitution can be +passed in the West or in any other place by the unconquerable +Emperor, the son of our clemency, the everlasting Augustus +Valentinian, or possess any legal validity, except the same by +a divine pragmatica be communicated to us. The same rule +is to be observed in the acts which are promulgated by us in +the East; and those are to be condemned as spurious which +are not recorded in the Theodosian Code [certain documents +excepted which were kept in the registers of bureaux]. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_80"/> +<head>§ 80. The Extension of the Church about the Beginning +of the Fifth Century</head> + +<p> +The most important missionary work in the early part of +the fifth century was the extension of the work of Ulfilas +among the German tribes and the work of the missionaries of +the West in Gaul and western Germany. Of the latter the +most important was Martin of Tours. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, II, 41. +(MSG, 67:349.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Ulfilas. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional material for the life of Ulfilas may be found in the +<hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical History</hi> of Philostorgius, fragments of +which, as preserved, may be found appended to the Bohn translation of Sozomen's +<hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical History</hi>. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +After giving a list of creeds put forth by various councils, from +Nicæa down to the Arian creed of Constantinople, 360 (text may be +found in Hahn, § 167), Socrates continues: +</quote> + +<p> +The last creed was that put forth at Constantinople [A. D. +360], with the appendix. For to this was added the prohibition +respecting the mention of substance [ousia], or subsistence +[hypostasis], in relation to God. To this creed +Ulfilas, bishop of the Goths, then first gave his assent. For +before that time he had adhered to the faith of Nicæa; for he +was a disciple of Theophilus, bishop of the Goths, who was +present at the Nicene Council, and subscribed what was there +determined. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='426'/><anchor id='Pg426'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Ulfilas, <hi rend='italic'>Confession of Faith</hi>. +Hahn, § 198.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This confession of faith, which Ulfilas describes as his testament, is +found at the conclusion of a letter of Auxentius, his pupil, an Arian +bishop of Silistria, in Mœsia Inferior; see note of Hahn. It should be +compared with that of Constantinople of 360. +</quote> + +<p> +I, Ulfilas, bishop and confessor, have always thus believed, +and in this sole and true faith I make my testament before +my Lord: I believe that there is one God the Father, alone +unbegotten and invisible; and in His only begotten Son, our +Lord and God, the fashioner and maker of all creation, not +having any one like him—therefore there is one God of all, +who, in our opinion, is God—and there is one Holy Spirit, the +illuminating and sanctifying power—as Christ said to his +apostles for correction, <q>Behold I send the promise of my +Father to you, but remain ye in the city of Jerusalem until ye +be indued with power from on high</q>; and again, <q>And ye +shall receive power coming upon you from the Holy Spirit</q>—neither +God nor Lord, but a minister of Christ in all things; +not ruler, but a subject, and obedient in all things to the Son, +and the Son himself subject and obedient in all things to his +Father … through Christ … with the Holy Spirit.…<note place="foot">The +termination is fragmentary.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV, 23. +(MSG, 67:551.)</head> + +<p> +The barbarians dwelling beyond the Danube, who are called +Goths, having been engaged in a civil war among themselves, +were divided into two parties; of one of these Fritigernus was +the leader, of the other Athanaric. When Athanaric had +obtained an evident advantage over his rival, Fritigernus +had recourse to the Romans and implored their assistance +against his adversary. When these things were reported to the +Emperor Valens [364-378], he ordered the troops garrisoned +in Thrace to assist those barbarians against the barbarians +fighting against them. They won a complete victory over +Athanaric beyond the Danube, totally routing the enemy. +This was the reason why many of the barbarians became +<pb n='427'/><anchor id='Pg427'/> +Christians: for Fritigernus, to show his gratitude to the Emperor +for the kindness shown him, embraced the religion of +the Emperor, and urged those under him to do the same. +Therefore it is that even to this present time so many of the +Goths are infected with the religion of Arianism, because the +emperors at that time gave themselves to that faith. Ulfilas, +the bishop of the Goths at that time, invented the Gothic letters +and, translating the Holy Scriptures into their own language, +undertook to instruct these barbarians in the divine +oracles. But when Ulfilas taught the Christian religion not +only to the subjects of Fritigernus but to the subjects of +Athanaric also, Athanaric, regarding this as a violation of the +privileges of the religion of his ancestors, subjected many of +the Christians to severe punishments, so that many of the +Arian Goths of that time became martyrs. Arius, indeed, +failing to refute the opinion of Sabellius the Libyan, fell from +the true faith and asserted that the Son of God was a new +God; but the barbarians, embracing Christianity with greater +simplicity, despised this present life for the faith of Christ. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Sulpicius Severus, <hi rend='italic'>Vita S. +Martini</hi>, 13. (MSL, 20:167.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Sulpicius Severus was a pupil of Martin of Tours, and wrote the life +of his master during the latter's lifetime (died 397), but published it +after his death. He wrote also other works on Martin. The astounding +miracles they contain present curious problems for the student +of ethics as well as of history. As St. Martin was one of the most +popular saints of Gaul, and in this case the merits of the man and his +reputation as a saint were in accord, the works of Sulpicius became the +basis of many popular lives of the saint. The following passage illustrates +the embellishment which soon became attached to all the lives +of religious heroes. It is, however, one of the least astounding of the +many miracles the author relates in apparent good faith. Whatever +may be the judgment regarding the miracle, the story contains several +characteristic touches met with in the history of missions in the following +centuries: <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, the destruction of heathen temples and objects of +worship. This sacred tree also finds its duplicate in other attacks upon +heathen sanctuaries. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 13. When in a certain village he had demolished a very +ancient temple, and had set about cutting down a pine-tree, +<pb n='428'/><anchor id='Pg428'/> +which stood close to the temple, the chief priest of that place +and a crowd of other heathen began to oppose him. And +though these people, under the influence of the Lord, had +been quiet while the temple was being overthrown, they could +not patiently allow the tree to be cut down. Martin carefully +instructed them that there was nothing sacred in the +trunk of a tree; let them rather follow God, whom he himself +served. He added that it was necessary that that tree be cut +down, because it had been dedicated to a demon [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, to a +heathen deity]. Then one of them, who was bolder than the +others, said: <q>If you have any trust in the God whom you +say you worship, we ourselves will cut down this tree, you shall +receive it when it falls; for if, as you declare, your Lord is +with you, you will escape all injury.</q> Then Martin, courageously +trusting in the Lord, promised that he would do this. +Thereupon all that crowd of heathen agreed to the condition; +for they held the loss of their tree a small matter, if only they +got the enemy of their religion buried beneath its fall. Accordingly +when that pine-tree was hanging over in one direction, +so that there was no doubt as to what side it would fall +on being cut, Martin, having been bound, was, in accordance +with the decision of these pagans, placed in that spot where, +as no one doubted, the tree was about to fall. They began, +therefore, to cut down their own tree with great joy and +mirth. At some distance there was a great multitude of +wondering spectators. And now the pine-tree began to totter +and to threaten its own ruin by falling. The monks at a distance +grew pale and, terrified by the danger ever coming +nearer, had lost all hope and confidence, expecting only the +death of Martin. But he, trusting in the Lord, and waiting +courageously, when now the falling pine had uttered its expiring +crash, while it was now falling, while it was just rushing +upon him, with raised hand put in its way the sign of salvation +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the sign of the cross]. Then, indeed, after the +manner of a spinning top (one might have thought it driven +back) it fell on the opposite side, so that it almost crushed the +<pb n='429'/><anchor id='Pg429'/> +rustics, who had been standing in a safe spot. Then truly a +shout was raised to heaven; the heathen were amazed by +the miracle; the monks wept for joy; and the name of Christ +was extolled by all in common. The well-known result was +that on that day salvation came to that region. For there +was hardly one of that immense multitude of heathen who did +not desire the imposition of hands, and, abandoning his impious +errors, believe in the Lord Jesus. Certainly, before +the times of Martin, very few, nay, almost none, in those +regions had received the name of Christ; but through his +virtues and example it has prevailed to such an extent that +now there is no place there which is not filled with either very +crowded churches or monasteries. For wherever he destroyed +heathen temples, there he was accustomed to build, +immediately, either churches or monasteries. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter II. The Church Of The Western Empire In The Fifth Century</head> + +<p> +The period between the closing years of the fourth century, +in which the struggle was still going on between heathenism +and Christianity (<ref target="Section_81">§ 81</ref>), and the end of the Roman Empire +of the West is of fundamental importance in the study of the +history of the Christian Church of the West. In this period +were laid the foundations for its characteristic theology and +its ecclesiastical organization. The former was the work of +St. Augustine, the most powerful religious personality of the +Western Church. In this he built partly upon the traditions +of the West, but also, largely, upon his own religious experience +(<ref target="Section_82">§ 82</ref>). These elements were developed and modified by the +two great controversies in which, by discussion, he formulated +more completely than ever had been done before the idea +of the Church and its sacraments in opposition to the Donatists +(<ref target="Section_83">§ 83</ref>), and the doctrines of sin and grace in +opposition to a moralistic Christianity, represented by Pelagius +(<ref target="Section_84">§ 84</ref>). The +leading ideas of Augustine, however, could be appropriated +only as they were modified and brought into conformity with +<pb n='430'/><anchor id='Pg430'/> +the dominant ecclesiastical and sacramental system of the +Church, in the semi-Pelagian controversy, which found a tardy +termination in the sixth century (<ref target="Section_85">§ 85</ref>). In the meanwhile +the inroads of the barbarians with all the horrors of the invasions, +the confusion in the political, social, and ecclesiastical +organization, threatened the overthrow of all established institutions. +In the midst of this anarchy, the Roman See, in +the work of Innocent I, and still more clearly in the work of +Leo the Great, enunciated its ideals and became the centre, +not merely of ecclesiastical unity, in which it had often to +contest its claims with the divided Church organizations of the +West, but still more as the ideal centre of unity for all those +that held to the old order of the Empire with its culture and +social life (<ref target="Section_86">§ 86</ref>). +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_81"/> +<head>§ 81. The Western Church Toward the End of the Fourth Century</head> + +<p> +Heathenism lingered as a force in society longer in the West +than in the East, not merely among the peasantry, but among +the higher classes. This was partly due to the conservatism +of the aristocratic classes and the superior form in which the +religious philosophy of Neo-Platonism had been presented to +the West. This presentation was due, in no small part, to the +work of such philosophers as Victorinus, who translated the +earlier works of the Neo-Platonists so that it escaped the tendencies, +represented by Jamblichus, toward theurgy and magic, +and an alliance with polytheism and popular superstition. +Victorinus himself became a Christian, passing by an easy +<pb n='431'/><anchor id='Pg431'/> +transition from Neo-Platonism to Christianity; a course in +which he was followed by Augustine, and, no doubt, by others +as well. +</p> + +<div> +<head>Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Confessiones</hi>, VIII, 2. (MSL, 32:79.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The conversion of Victorinus. +</quote> + +<p> +To Simplicianus then I went—the father of Ambrose,<note place="foot">At +the time a bishop.</note> in receiving Thy +grace,<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, Simplicianus had baptized +Ambrose.</note> and whom he truly loved as a father. +To him I narrated the windings of my error. But when I +mentioned to him that I had read certain books of the Platonists, +which Victorinus, formerly professor of rhetoric at Rome +(who died a Christian, as I had heard), had translated into +Latin, he congratulated me that I had not fallen upon the +writings of other philosophers, which were full of fallacies +and deceit, <q>after the rudiments of this world</q> [Col. 2:8], +whereas they, in many respects, led to the belief in God and +His word. Then to exhort me to the humility of Christ, +hidden from the wise and revealed to babes, he spoke of Victorinus +himself, whom, while he was in Rome, he had known +intimately; and of him he related that about which I will not +be silent. For it contained great praise of Thy grace, which +ought to be confessed unto Thee, how that most learned old +man, highly skilled in all the liberal sciences, who had read, +criticised, and explained so many works of the philosophers; +the teacher of so many noble senators, who, also, as a mark of +his excellent discharge of his duties, had both merited and +obtained a statue in the Roman Forum (something men of +this world esteem a great honor), he, who had been, even to +that age, a worshipper of idols and a participator in the sacrilegious +rites to which almost all the nobility of Rome were +addicted, and had inspired the people with the love of <q>monster +gods of every sort, and the barking Anubis, who hold +their weapons against Neptune and Venus and Minerva</q> +[Vergil, <hi rend='italic'>Æneid</hi>, VIII, 736 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>], +and those whom Rome once conquered, she now worshipped, all of which Victorinus, now +<pb n='432'/><anchor id='Pg432'/> +old, had defended so many years with vain language,<note place="foot">This is hardly +fair to Victorinus and his pre-Christian religious views.</note> he +now blushed not to be a child of Thy Christ, and an infant at +Thy fountain, submitting his neck to the yoke of humility, +and subduing his forehead to the reproach of the cross. +</p> + +<p> +O Lord, Lord, who hast bowed the heavens and come down, +touched the mountains and they smoked [Psalm 144:5], by +what means didst Thou convey Thyself into that bosom? He +used to read, Simplicianus said, the Holy Scriptures and most +studiously sought after and searched out all the Christian +writings, and he said to Simplicianus, not openly, but secretly +and as a friend: <q>Knowest thou that I am now a Christian?</q> +To which he replied: <q>I will not believe it, nor will I rank +you among the Christians unless I see you in the Church of +Christ.</q> Whereupon he replied derisively: <q>Do walls then +make Christians?</q> And this he often said, that already he +was a Christian; and Simplicianus used as often to make the +same answer, and as often the conceit of the walls was repeated. +For he was fearful of offending his friends, proud demon worshippers, +from the height of whose Babylonian pride, as from +the cedars of Lebanon, which the Lord had not yet broken +[Psalm 29:5], he seriously thought a storm of enmity would +descend upon him. But after that he had derived strength +from reading and inquiry, and feared lest he should be denied +by Christ before the holy angels if he was now afraid to confess +Him before men [Matt. 10:33], and appeared to himself +to be guilty of a great fault in being ashamed of the sacraments +of the humility of Thy word, and not being ashamed +of the sacrilegious rites of those proud demons, which as a +proud imitator he had accepted, he became bold-faced against +vanity and shamefaced toward the truth, and suddenly and +unexpectedly said to Simplicianus, as he himself informed me: +<q>Let us go to the Church; I wish to be made a Christian.</q> +And he, unable to contain himself for joy, went with him. +When he had been admitted to the first sacrament of instruction +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the Catechumenate], he, not long after, gave in his +<pb n='433'/><anchor id='Pg433'/> +name that he might be regenerated by baptism. Meanwhile +Rome marvelled and the Church rejoiced; the proud saw and +were enraged; they gnashed with their teeth and melted +away [Psalm 92:9]. But the Lord God was the hope of +Thy servant, and He regarded not vanities and lying madness +[Psalm 40:4]. +</p> + +<p> +Finally the hour arrived when he should make profession +of his faith, which, at Rome, they, who are about to approach +Thy grace, are accustomed to deliver from an elevated place, +in view of the faithful people, in a set form of words learnt +by heart. But the presbyters, he said, offered Victorinus +the privilege of making his profession more privately, as was +the custom to do to those who were likely, on account of bashfulness, +to be afraid; but he chose, rather, to profess his salvation +in the presence of the holy assembly. For it was not +salvation that he had taught in rhetoric and yet he had publicly +professed that. How much less, therefore, ought he, +when pronouncing Thy word, to dread Thy meek flock, who, +in the delivery of his own words, had not feared the mad multitudes! +So then, when he ascended to make his profession, +and all recognized him, they whispered his name one to the +other, with a tone of congratulation. And who was there +among them that did not know him? And there ran through +the mouths of all the rejoicing multitude a low murmur: +<q>Victorinus! Victorinus!</q> Sudden was the burst of exultation +at the sight of him, and as sudden the hush of attention +that they might hear him. He pronounced the true faith +with an excellent confidence, and all desired to take him to +their hearts, and by their love and joy they did take him to +them; such were the hands with which they took him. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_82"/> +<head>§ 82. Augustine's Life and Place in the Western Church</head> + +<p> +Aurelius Augustinus, the greatest of the Latin fathers, was +born 354, at Tagaste, in Numidia. He was educated to be a +teacher of rhetoric, and practised his profession at Carthage, +<pb n='434'/><anchor id='Pg434'/> +Rome, and Milan. From 374 to 383, he was a Manichæan +catechumen, for although his mother, Monnica, was a Christian, +his religious education had been very meagre, and he +was repelled by the literary character of the Scriptures as +commonly interpreted. In 387, after a long struggle, and +passing through various schools of thought, he, with his son +Adeodatus, were baptized at Milan by Ambrose. In 391 he +became a presbyter, and in 394 bishop of Hippo Regius, a +small town in North Africa. He died 430, during the Vandal +invasion. Of his works, the <hi rend='italic'>Confessions</hi> are the most widely +known, as they have become a Christian classic of edification +of the first rank. They give an account of his early life and +conversion, but are more useful as showing his type of piety +than as a biography. From them is learned the secret of his +influence upon the Western world. The literary activity of +Augustine was especially developed in connection with the +prolonged controversies, in which he was engaged throughout +his episcopate (see §§ <ref target="Section_83">83</ref>, +<ref target="Section_84">84</ref>), but he wrote much in addition to +controversial treatises. The group of characteristic doctrines +known as <q>Augustinianism,</q> viz.: Original Sin, Predestination, +and Grace and the doctrines connected with them, were, +to a large extent, the outcome of his own religious experience. +He had known the power and depth of sin. He had discovered +the hand of God leading him in spite of himself. He knew +that his conversion was due, not to his own effort or merit, +but to God's grace. +</p> + +<p> +The works of Augustine have been translated in part in +PNF, ser. I, vols. I-VIII. There are many translations of the +<hi rend='italic'>Confessions</hi>; among others, one by E. B. Pusey, in <q>Library of +the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church,</q> reprinted in +<q>Everyman's Library.</q> +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Confessiones</hi>, VIII, +12. (MSL, 32:761.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The conversion of Augustine. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This is, perhaps, the most famous passage in the <hi rend='italic'>Confessions</hi>. It +came at the end of a long series of attempts to find peace in various +forms of philosophy and religion. Augustine regarded it as miraculous, +<pb n='435'/><anchor id='Pg435'/> +the crown and proof of the work of grace in him. The scene +was in Milan, 387, in the garden of the villa he occupied with his friend +Alypius. The principal obstacle to his embracing Christianity was his +reluctance to abandon his licentious life. To this the reference is made +in the passage from Scripture which he read, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Rom. 13:13, 14. +</quote> + +<p> +When a profound reflection had, from the depths of my +soul, drawn together and heaped up all my misery before the +sight of my heart, there arose a mighty storm, accompanied +by as mighty a shower of tears. That I might pour it all +forth in its own words I arose from beside Alypius; for solitude +suggested itself to me as fitter for the business of weeping. +So I retired to such a distance that even his presence +could not be oppressive to me. Thus it was with me at that +time, and he perceived it; for something, I believe, I had +spoken, wherein the sound of my voice appeared choked with +weeping, and thus I had risen up. He then remained where +we had been sitting, very greatly astonished. I flung myself +down, I know not how, under a certain fig-tree, giving free +course to my tears, and the streams of my eyes gushed out, +an acceptable sacrifice unto Thee. And not indeed in these +words, yet to this effect, spake I much unto Thee—<q>But Thou, +O Lord, how long?</q> [Psalm 13:1]. <q>How long, Lord? Wilt +Thou be angry forever? Oh, remember not against us former +iniquities</q> [Psalm 79:5, 8]; for I felt that I was held fast +by them. I sent up these sorrowful cries: <q>How long, how +long? To-morrow, and to-morrow? Why not now? Why is +there not this hour an end to my uncleanness?</q> +</p> + +<p> +I was saying these things and was weeping in the most bitter +contrition of my heart, when, lo, I hear the voice as of a +boy or girl, I know not which, coming from a neighboring +house, chanting and oft repeating: <q>Take up and read; take +up and read.</q> Immediately my countenance was changed, +and I began most earnestly to consider whether it was usual for +children in any kind of game to sing such words; nor could I +remember ever to have heard the like anywhere. So, restraining +the torrent of my tears, I rose up, interpreting it +in no other way than as a command to me from Heaven to +<pb n='436'/><anchor id='Pg436'/> +open the book and read the first chapter I should light upon. +For I had heard of Anthony [see also <ref target="Section_77_e">§ 77, +<hi rend='italic'>e</hi></ref>], that accidentally +coming in whilst the Gospel was being read, he received the +admonition as if what was read was addressed to him: <q>Go +and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt +have treasure in heaven; and come and follow me</q> [Matt. +19:21]. And by such oracle was he forthwith converted unto +Thee. So quickly I returned to the place where Alypius was +sitting; for there had I put down the volume of the Apostles, +when I rose thence. I seized, I opened, and in silence I read +that paragraph on which my eye first fell: <q>Not in rioting +and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in +strife and envying; but put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and +make not provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof</q> +[Rom. 13:13, 14]. No further would I read; there was no +need; for instantly, as the sentence ended, by a light, as it +were, of security infused into my heart, all the gloom of doubt +vanished away. +</p> + +<p> +Closing the book, then, and putting either my finger between, +or some other mark, I now with a tranquil countenance +made it known to Alypius. And he thus disclosed to me what +was wrong in him, which I knew not. He asked to look at +what I had read. I showed him; and he looked even further +than I had read, and I knew not what followed. This, in +fact, followed: <q>Him that is weak in the faith, receive ye</q> +[Rom. 14:1]; which he applied to himself, and discovered +to me. By this admonition was he strengthened; and by a +good resolution and purpose, very much in accord with his +character (wherein, for the better, he was always far different +from me), without any restless delay he joined me. Thence +we go to my mother. We tell her—she rejoices. We relate +how it came to pass—she exults and triumphs, and she blesses +Thee, who art <q>able to do exceeding abundantly above all +that we ask or think</q> [Eph. 3:20]; for she perceived Thee to +have given her more for me than she used to ask by her pitiful +and most doleful groanings. For Thou didst so convert me +<pb n='437'/><anchor id='Pg437'/> +unto Thyself, that I sought neither a wife, nor any other +hope of this world—standing in that rule of faith in which +Thou, so many years before, had showed me unto her. And +thou didst turn her grief unto gladness [Psalm 30:11], much +more plentiful than she had desired, and much dearer and +chaster than she used to crave, by having grandchildren of +my flesh. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Confessiones</hi>, X, 27, +29, 43. (MSL, 32:795, 796, 808.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passages from the <hi rend='italic'>Confessions</hi> are intended to +illustrate Augustine's type of piety. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 29. My whole hope is only in Thy exceeding great +mercy. Give what Thou commandest and command what +Thou wilt.<note place="foot">This is the phrase which so deeply offended Pelagius; +<hi rend='italic'>Da quod jubes, et jube quod vis.</hi></note> +Thou imposest continency upon us. <q>And when +I perceived,</q> saith one, <q>that no one could be continent except +God gave it; and this was a point of wisdom also to know +whose this gift was</q> [Wis. 8:21]. For by continency are we +bound up and brought into one, whence we were scattered +abroad into many. For he loves Thee too little, who besides +Thee loves aught which he loves not for Thee. O love, who +ever burnest and art never quenched! O charity, my God, +kindle me! Thou commandest continency; give what Thou +commandest, and command what Thou wilt. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 27. Too late have I loved Thee, O fairness, so ancient, +yet so new! Too late have I loved Thee. For behold Thou +wast within and I was without, and I was seeking Thee there; +I, without love, rushed heedlessly among the things of beauty +Thou madest. Thou wast with me, but I was not with Thee. +Those things kept me far from Thee, which, unless they were +in Thee, were not. Thou didst call and cry aloud, and Thou +broke through my deafness. Thou didst gleam and shine +and chase away my blindness. Thou didst exhale fragrance +and I drew in my breath and I panted for Thee. I tasted, and +<pb n='438'/><anchor id='Pg438'/> +did hunger and thirst. Thou didst touch me, and I burned +for Thy peace. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 43. O how Thou hast loved us, O good Father, who +sparedst not thine only Son, but didst deliver Him up for us +wicked ones! [Rom. 8:32.] O how Thou hast loved us, for +whom He, who thought it not robbery to be equal with Thee, +<q>became obedient unto death, even the death of the cross</q> +[Phil. 2:8]. He alone, <q>free among the dead</q> [Psalm 88:5], +that had power to lay down His life, and power to take it +again [John 10:18]; for us was He unto Thee both victor +and the victim, and the victor became the victim; for He was +unto Thee both priest and sacrifice, and priest because sacrifice; +making us from being slaves to become Thy sons, by +being born of Thee, and by serving us. Rightly, then, is my +strong hope in Him, because Thou didst cure all my diseases +by Him who sitteth at Thy right hand and maketh intercession +for us [Rom. 8:34]; else should I utterly despair. For +numerous and great are my infirmities, yea numerous and +great are they; but Thy medicine is greater. We might +think that Thy word was removed from union with man and +despair of ourselves had not He been <q>made flesh and dwelt +among us</q> [John 1:14]. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De Civitate Dei</hi>, +XIII, 3, 14. (MSL, 41:378; 86.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Fall of Man and Original Sin. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <hi rend='italic'>City of God</hi> is Augustine's great +theodicy, apology, and philosophy of universal history. It +was begun shortly after the capture of Rome, and +the author was engaged upon it from 413 to 426. It was +the source whence the mediæval ecclesiastics drew their theoretical +justification for the curialistic principles of the relation of State and +Church, and at the same time the one work of St. Augustine that Gibbon +the historian regarded highly. For an analysis see Presensée, +art. <q>Augustine</q> in DCB. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Compare the position of Augustine with the following passage from +St. Ambrose, <hi rend='italic'>On the Death of Satyrus</hi>, II, 6, +<q>Death is alike to all, +without difference for the poor, without exception for the rich. And +so although through the sin of one alone, yet it passed upon all; … In +Adam I fell, in Adam I was cast out of paradise. In Adam I died; +<pb n='439'/><anchor id='Pg439'/> +how shall the Lord call me back, except He find me in Adam; guilty +as I was in him, so now justified in Christ.</q> [MSL, 16:1374.] +</quote> + +<p> +The first men would not have suffered death if they had not +sinned.… But having become sinners they were so punished +with death, that whatsoever sprang from their stock +should also be punished with the same death. For nothing +else could be born of them than what they themselves had +been. The condemnation changed their nature for the worse +in proportion to the greatness of their sin, so that what was +before as punishment in the man who had first sinned, followed +as of nature in others who were born.… In the first +man, therefore, the whole human nature was to be transmitted +by the woman to posterity when that conjugal union received +the divine sentence of its own condemnation; and what man +was made, not when he was created but when he sinned, and +was punished, this he propagated, so far as the origin of sin +and death are concerned. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 14. For God, the author of natures, not of vices, +created man upright; but man, being by his own will corrupt +and justly condemned, begot corrupted and condemned children. +For we were all in that one man when we were all that +one man, who fell into sin by the woman who had been made +from him before the sin. For not yet was the particular form +created and distributed to us, in which we as individuals were +to live; but already the seminal nature was there from which +we were to be propagated; and this being vitiated by sin, and +bound by the chain of death, and justly condemned, man +could not be born of man in any other state. And thus from +the bad use of free will, there originated a whole series of +evils, which with its train of miseries conducts the human +race from its depraved origin, as from a corrupt root, on to +the destruction of the second death, which has no end, those +only being excepted who are freed by the grace of God. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De Correptione et +Gratia</hi>, 2. (MSL, 44:917.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Grace and Free Will. +</quote> + +<pb n='440'/><anchor id='Pg440'/> + +<p> +Now the Lord not only shows us what evil we should shun, +and what good we should do, which is all the letter of the law +can do; but moreover He helps us that we may shun evil and +do good [Psalm 37:27], which none can do without the spirit +of grace; and if this be wanting, the law is present merely to +make us guilty and to slay us. It is on this account that the +Apostle says: <q>The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life</q> +[II Cor. 3:6]. He, then, who lawfully uses the law, learns +therein evil and good, and not trusting in his own strength, +flees to grace, by the help of which he may shun evil and do +good. But who flees to grace except when <q>the steps of a +man are ordered by the Lord, and He wills his ways</q>? +[Psalm 37:23.] And thus also to desire the help of grace is +the beginning of grace.… It is to be confessed, therefore, +that we have free choice to do both evil and good; but in doing +evil every one is free from righteousness and is a servant +of sin, while in doing good no one can be free, unless he have +been made free by Him who said: <q>If the Son shall make +you free, then you shall be free indeed</q> [John 8:36]. +Neither is it thus, that when any one shall have been made +free from the dominion of sin, he no longer needs the help +of his Deliverer; but rather thus, that hearing from Him, +<q>Without me ye can do nothing</q> [John 15:5], he himself +also says to Him: <q>Be Thou my helper! Forsake me not!</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De Civitate Dei</hi>, +XV, 1. (MSL, 41:437.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Predestination. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Inasmuch as all men are born condemned, and of themselves have +not the power to turn to grace, which alone can save them, it follows +that the bestowal of grace whereby they may turn is not dependent upon +the man but upon God's sovereign good pleasure. This is expressed in +the doctrine of Predestination. For a discussion of the position of +Augustine respecting Predestination and his other doctrines as connected +with it, see J. B. Mozley, <hi rend='italic'>A Treatise on the Augustinian Doctrine +of Predestination</hi>, 1873, a book of great ability. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +also Tixeront, <hi rend='italic'>History of Dogmas</hi>, vol. II. +</quote> + +<p> +I trust that we have already done justice to these great and +difficult questions regarding the beginning of the world, of +<pb n='441'/><anchor id='Pg441'/> +the soul, and of the human race itself. This race we have +distributed into two parts: the one consisting of those who live +according to man, the other of those who live according to +God. And these we have also mystically called the two cities, +or the two communities of men, of which one is predestined +to reign eternally with God, and the other to suffer eternal +punishment with the devil.… +</p> + +<p> +Each man, because born of condemned stock, is first of all +born from Adam, evil and carnal, and when he has been grafted +into Christ by regeneration he afterward becomes good and +spiritual. So in the human race, as a whole, when these two +cities began to run their course by a series of births and deaths, +the citizen of this world was born first, and after him the stranger +of this world, and belonging to the City of God,<note place="foot">This +figure of the two cities is the motif of the whole work, in which the +idea is developed in the greatest detail.</note> predestined +by grace, elected by grace, by grace a stranger here +below, and by grace a citizen above. For so far as regards +himself he is sprung from the same mass, all of which is condemned +in its origin; but God like a potter (for this comparison +is introduced by the Apostle judiciously and not +without thought) of the same lump made one vessel to honor +and another to dishonor [Rom. 9:21]. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De Correptione et +Gratia</hi>, chs. 23 (9), 39 (13). (MSL, 44:930, 940.)</head> + +<p> +Ch. 23 (9). Whosoever, therefore, in God's most providential +ordering are foreknown [<foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">præsciti</foreign>] and predestinated, called +justified, glorified—I say not, even though not yet born again, +but even though not yet born at all—are already children of +God, and absolutely cannot perish.… From Him, therefore, +is given also perseverance in good even to the end; for +it is not given except to those who will not perish, since they +who do not persevere will perish.<note place="foot">See Augustine's treatise +<hi rend='italic'>On the Gift of Perseverance</hi>, PNF, ser. I, vol. V.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 39 (13). I speak of those who are predestinated to the +<pb n='442'/><anchor id='Pg442'/> +kingdom of God, whose number is so certain that no one can +either be added to them or taken from them; not of those who +when He had announced and spoken, were multiplied beyond +number [Psalm 40:6]. For these may be said to be called +[<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">vocati</foreign>] +but not chosen [<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">electi</foreign>], +because they are not called according to purpose.<note place="foot">This distinction +is of importance in Augustine's theory of the Church.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Enchiridion</hi>, 100. +(MSL, 40:279.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Twofold Predestination. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Augustine does not commonly speak of predestination of the wicked, +<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, those who are not among the elect and consequently +predestinated to grace and salvation. As a rule he speaks of predestination in connection +with the saints, those who are saved. But that he, with perfect +consistency, regarded the wicked as also predestinated is shown by +the following, as also other passages in his works, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>City of God</hi>, XV, 1 (<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>), XXII, +ch. 24:5. This point has a bearing in connection +with the controversy on predestination in the ninth century, in which +Gottschalk reasserted the theory of a double predestination. +</quote> + +<p> +These are the great works of the Lord, sought out according +to all His good pleasure [Psalm 111:2], and wisely sought +out, that when the angelic and the human creature sinned, +that is, did not do what He willed but what the creature itself +willed, so by the will of the creature, by which was done +what the Creator did not will, He carried out what He himself +willed; the supremely Good thus turning to account even +what is evil; to the condemnation of those whom He has +justly predestinated to punishment and to the salvation of +those whom He has mercifully predestinated to grace. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De Civitate Dei</hi>, +XVI, 2. (MSL, 41:479.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Augustine's theory of allegorical interpretation. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Augustine had been repelled by the literal interpretation of the +Scriptures and turned to the Manichæans who rejected the Old Testament. +<hi rend='italic'>Confessions</hi>, III, 5. From Ambrose he learned the <q>mystical</q> +or allegorical method of interpreting the Old Testament, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +<hi rend='italic'>Confessions</hi>, VI, 4. With Augustine's theory, treated at length, +especially in his <hi rend='italic'>De Doctrina Christiana</hi>, Bk. 3, should be +compared Origen's in <hi rend='italic'>De Principiis</hi>, IV, 9-15. See above, +<ref target="Section_43_b">§ 43, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<pb n='443'/><anchor id='Pg443'/> + +<p> +These secrets of the divine Scriptures we investigate as we +can;<note place="foot">He has been explaining the significance of the references to +the three sons of Noah.</note> some in more, some in less agreement, but all faithfully +holding it as certain that these things were neither done nor +recorded without some foreshadowing of future events, and +that they are to be referred only to Christ and His Church, +which is the City of God, the proclamation of which has not +ceased since the beginning of the human race; and we now +see it everywhere accomplished. From the blessing of the +two sons of Noah and from the cursing of the middle son, +down to Abraham, for more than a thousand years, there is +no mention of any righteous person who worshipped God. I +would not, therefore, believe that there were none, but to +mention every one would have been very long, and there +would have been historical accuracy rather than prophetic +foresight. The writer of these sacred books, or rather the +Spirit of God through him, sought for those things by which +not only the past might be narrated, but the future foretold, +which pertained to the City of God; for whatever is said of +these men who are not its citizens is given either that it may +profit or be made glorious by a comparison with what is different. +Yet it is not to be supposed that all that is recorded +has some signification; but those things which have no signification +of their own are interwoven for the sake of the things +which are significant. Only by the ploughshare is the earth +cut in furrows; but that this may be, other parts of the plough +are necessary. Only the strings of the harp and other musical +instruments are fitted to give forth a melody; but that they +may do so, there are other parts of the instrument which are +not, indeed, struck by those who sing, but with them are +connected the strings which are struck and produce musical +notes. So in prophetic history some things are narrated which +have no significance, but are, as it were, the framework to +which the significant things are attached. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>i</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Enchiridion</hi>, 109, +110. (MSL, 40:283.)</head> + +<pb n='444'/><anchor id='Pg444'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Augustine in his teaching combined a number of different theological +tendencies, without working them into a consistent system. His +doctrines of Original Sin, Predestination, Grace are by no means harmonized +with his position regarding the Church and the sacraments +in which he builds upon the foundation laid in the West, especially by +Optatus. See below, <ref target="Section_83">§ 83</ref>. There is also a +no small remnant of what +might be called pre-Augustinian Western piety, which comes down +from Tertullian and of which the following is an illustration, a +passage which is of significance in the development of the doctrine +of purgatory. Cf. Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De Monogamia</hi>, ch. 10. See above, +<ref target="Section_39">§ 39</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 109. The time, moreover, which intervenes between a +man's death and the final resurrection, keeps the soul in a +hidden retreat, as each is deserving of rest or affliction, according +to what its lot was when it lived in the flesh. +</p> + +<p> +§ 110. Nor can it be denied that the souls of the dead are +benefited by the piety of their living friends, when the sacrifice +of the Mediator is offered, or alms given in the Church +in their behalf. But these services are of advantage only to +those who during their lives merited that services of this kind +could help them. For there is a manner of life which is +neither so good as not to require these services after death, +nor so bad that these services are of no avail after death. +There is, on the other hand, a kind of life so good as not to +require them; and again one so bad that when they depart +this life they render no help. Therefore it is here that all +the merit and demerit is acquired, by which one can either +be relieved or oppressed after death. No one, then, need +hope that after he is dead he shall obtain the merit with +God which he had neglected here. And, accordingly, those +services which the Church celebrates for the commendation +of the dead are not opposed to the Apostle's words: <q>For +we must all appear before the judgment-seat of Christ, that +every one may receive the things done in his body, according +to that he hath done, whether it be good or bad</q> [Rom. +14:10; II Cor. 5:10]. For that merit that renders services +profitable to a man, each one has acquired while he lives in +the body. For it is not to every one that these services are +<pb n='445'/><anchor id='Pg445'/> +profitable. And why are they not profitable to all, except +it be because of the different kinds of lives that men lead in +the body? When, therefore, sacrifices either of the altar or of +alms of any sort are offered on behalf of the dead who have +been baptized, they are thanksgivings for the very good; they +are propitiations [<foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">propitiationes</foreign>] for the not very bad; and for +the case of the very bad, even though they do not assist the +dead, they are a species of consolation to the living. And to +those to whom they are profitable, their benefit consists +either in full remission of sins, or at least in making the condemnation +more tolerable. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_83"/> +<head>§ 83. Augustine and the Donatist Schism</head> + +<p> +After the recall of the Donatists by the Emperor Julian, +the sect rapidly increased, though soon numerous divisions appeared +in the body. The more liberal opinions of the Donatist +grammarian Tychonius about 370 were adopted by many +of the less fanatical. The connection of the party with the +Circumcellions alienated others. The contest for rigorism led +by Maximianus about 394 occasioned a schism within the +Donatist body. +</p> + +<p> +Augustine's activity in the Donatist troubles began as soon +as he was made bishop of Hippo, as his town was made up +largely of Donatists, who probably constituted more than +a half of the population. The books written by him after +400 have alone survived. +</p> + +<p> +The turning-point in the history of Donatism was the +Collatio, or conference, held at Carthage in 411. Two hundred +and seventy-nine Donatist, and two hundred and eighty-six +Catholic, bishops were present. Augustine was one of +those who represented the Catholic position. The victory +was adjudged by the imperial commissioners to the Catholic +party. After this the laws against the sect were enforced +relentlessly, and Donatism rapidly lost its importance. The +Vandal invasion in 429 changed the condition of things for +<pb n='446'/><anchor id='Pg446'/> +a time. The last traces of Donatism disappear only with the +Moslem invasion in the seventh century. +</p> + +<p> +The importance of the Donatist controversy is that in it +were defined the doctrines of the Church and of the sacraments, +definitions which, with some modifications, controlled +the theology of the Church for centuries. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Optatus, <hi rend='italic'>De Schismate +Donatistarum</hi>, II, 1-3. (MSL, 11:941.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The unity of the Catholic Church. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 1. The next thing to do … is to show that there is one +Church which Christ called a dove and a bride. Therefore +the Church is one, the sanctity of which is derived from the +sacraments; and it is not valued according to the pride of +persons. Therefore this one dove Christ also calls his beloved +bride. This cannot be among heretics and schismatics.… You +have said, brother Parmenianus, that it is with you alone … among +you in a small part of Africa, in the corner of a +small region, but among us in another part of Africa will it +not be? In Spain, in Gaul, in Italy, where you are not, will +it not be?… And through so many innumerable islands +and other provinces, which can scarcely be numbered, will it +not be? Wherein then will be the propriety of the Catholic +name, since it is called Catholic, because it is reasonable<note place="foot">Dupin +in his edition of Optatus, <hi rend='italic'>ad. loc.</hi>, points out that there were +current two etymologies of Catholic; according to one κατὰ λόγον it meant reasonable, +and according to the other, κατὰ ὅλον general or universal.</note> and +everywhere diffused? +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 2. I have proved that that is the Catholic Church, which +spread throughout the whole world, and now are its ornaments +to be recalled; and it is to be seen where the first five gifts +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, notes of the Church] are, which you say are six. Among +these the first is the cathedra, and unless a bishop, who is the +angel [the second gift or note according to the Donatists], sit +in it, no other gift can be joined. It is to be seen who first +placed a see and where.… You cannot deny that in the +<pb n='447'/><anchor id='Pg447'/> +city of Rome the episcopal cathedra was first placed by Peter, +and in it sat Peter, the head of all the Apostles, wherefore he +is called Cephas, so that in that one cathedra unity is preserved +by all, that the other Apostles might not claim each +one for himself a cathedra; so that he is a schismatic and a +sinner who against that one cathedra sets up another. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. Therefore Peter first sat in that single cathedra, which +is the first gift of the Church, to him succeeded Linus … to +Damasus, Siricius, who is our contemporary, with whom +the world together with us agree in one fellowship of communion +by the interchange of letters. Recite the origin of +your cathedra, you who would claim for yourself the Holy +Church [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De +Præscriptione</hi>, c. 32]. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Optatus, <hi rend='italic'>De Schismate +Donatistarum</hi>, V, 4. (MSL, 11:1051.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The validity of sacraments is not dependent on the character of +those who minister them. With this should be compared Augustine, +<hi rend='italic'>Contra litteras Petiliani Donatistæ</hi>, II, 38-91, +and the treatise <hi rend='italic'>De Baptismo +contra Donatistas libri septem</hi>, which is little more than a working +out in a thousand variations of this theme. +</quote> + +<p> +In celebrating this sacrament of baptism there are three +things which you can neither increase, diminish, nor omit. +The first is the Trinity, the second the believer, and the third +the minister.… The first two remain ever immutable and +unmoved. The Trinity is always the same, the faith in each +is one. But the person of him who ministers is clearly not +equal to the first two points, in that it alone is mutable.… For +it is not one man who always and everywhere baptizes. +In this work there were formerly others, and now others +still, and again there will be others; those who minister may +be changed, the sacraments cannot be changed. Since therefore +you see that they who baptize are ministers and are not +lords, and the sacraments are holy in themselves, not on account +of men, why is it that you claim so much for yourselves? +Why is it that you endeavor to exclude God from His gifts? +Permit God to be over the things which are His. For that +<pb n='448'/><anchor id='Pg448'/> +gift cannot be performed by a man because it is divine. If +you think it can be so bestowed, you render void the words +of the prophets and the promises of God, by which it is proved +that God washes, not man. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De Baptismo contra +Donatistas</hi>, IV, 17 (§ 24). (MSL, 43:169.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Baptism without the Church valid but unprofitable. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Augustine, as opposing the Donatists and agreeing with the Catholic +Church, asserted the validity of baptism when conferred by one outside +the communion of the Church. It was notorious that Cyprian +and the Council of Carthage, A. D. 258 [see ANF, vol. V., pp. 565 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Hefele, § 6], +had held an opposite opinion. As Cyprian was the +great teacher of North Africa, and in the highest place in the esteem +of all, Augustine was forced to make <q>distinctions.</q> This he did in +his theory as to the validity of baptism as in the following passage. +The Sixth Book of the same treatise is composed of a statement of the +bishops at the Council of Carthage, and Augustine's answer to each +statement. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>Can the power of baptism,</q> says Cyprian, <q>be greater +than confession, than martyrdom, that a man should confess +Christ before men, and be baptized in his own blood, and yet,</q> +he says, <q>neither does this baptism profit the heretic, even +though for confessing Christ he be put to death outside the +Church.</q> This is most true; for by being put to death outside +the Church, he is proved not to have had that charity of +which the Apostle says: <q>Though I give my body to be burned +and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing</q> [I Cor. 13:3]. +But if martyrdom is of no avail for the reason that charity +is lacking, neither does it profit those who, as Paul says, and +Cyprian further sets forth, are living within the Church without +charity, in envy and malice; and yet they can both receive +and transmit true baptism. <q>Salvation,</q> he says, <q>is +not without the Church.</q> Who denies this? And therefore +whatever men have that belongs to the Church, outside +the Church it profits them nothing toward salvation. But +it is one thing not to have, another to have it but to no use. +He who has it not must be baptized that he may have it; he +<pb n='449'/><anchor id='Pg449'/> +who has to no use must be corrected, that what he has he may +have to some use. Nor is the water in baptism <q>adulterous,</q> +because neither is the creature itself, which God made, evil, +nor is the fault to be found in the words of the Gospel in the +mouths of any who are astray; but the fault is theirs in whom +there is an adulterous spirit, even though it may receive the +adornment of the sacrament from a lawful spouse. It therefore +can be true that baptism is <q>common to us and to the +heretics,</q> since the Gospel can be common to us, although +their error differs from our faith; whether they think otherwise +than the truth about the Father or Son or the Holy +Spirit; or, being cut away from unity, do not gather with +Christ, but scatter abroad, because it is possible that the sacrament +of baptism can be common to us if we are the wheat of +the Lord with the covetous within the Church and with robbers +and drunkards and other pestilent persons, of whom it is +said, <q>They shall not inherit the kingdom of God,</q> and yet +the vices by which they are separated from the kingdom of +God are not shared by us. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. 98, ad +Bonifatium</hi>. (MSL, 33:363.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Relation of the sacrament to that of which it is the sign. Sacraments +are effective if no hinderance is placed to their working. +</quote> + +<p> +On Easter Sunday we say, <q>This day the Lord rose from +the dead,</q> although so many years have passed since His +resurrection.… The event itself being said to take place +on that day, because, although it really took place long before, +it is on that day sacramentally celebrated. Was not Christ +once for all offered up in His own person as a sacrifice? And +yet, is He not likewise offered up in the sacrament as a sacrifice, +not only in the special solemnities of Easter, but also +daily among our congregations; so that when a man is questioned +and answers that He is offered as a sacrifice in that +ordinance, does he not declare what is strictly true? For if +sacraments had not some points of real resemblance to the +things of which they are the sacraments, they would not be +<pb n='450'/><anchor id='Pg450'/> +sacraments at all. [Augustine's general definition of a sacrament +is that it is a sign of a sacred thing.] In most cases, +moreover, they do, in virtue of this likeness, bear the names +of the realities which they resemble. As therefore in a certain +manner the sacrament of the body of Christ is the body +of Christ, the sacrament of the blood of Christ is the blood of +Christ, so the sacrament of faith is faith.… Now, believing +is nothing else than having faith; and accordingly, when on +behalf of an infant as yet incapable of exercising faith, the +answer is given that he believes, this answer means that he +has faith because of the sacrament of faith, and in like manner +the answer is made that he turns himself toward God because +of the sacrament of conversion, since the answer itself belongs +to the celebration of the sacrament. Thus the Apostle says, +in regard to this sacrament of baptism: <q>We are buried with +Christ by baptism into death.</q> He does not say, <q>We have +signified our being buried with Him,</q> but: <q>We have been +buried with Him.</q> He has therefore given to the sacrament +pertaining to so great a transaction no other name than the +word describing the transaction itself. +</p> + +<p> +10. Therefore an infant, although he is not yet a believer +in the sense of having that faith which includes the consenting +will of those who exercise it, nevertheless becomes a believer +through the sacrament of that faith.… The infant, though +not yet possessing a faith helped by the understanding, is not +obstructing<note place="foot">The expression +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">opponere obicem</foreign> became +in scholastic theology of great importance in connection with the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ex opere operato</foreign> nature of the +sacraments of the New Law. On this whole matter of the sacraments in the Fathers, see +Schwanne, <hi rend='italic'>Dogmengeschichte</hi>, § 93, which is very clear and +helpful, especially as showing the basis of scholastic theory of the sacraments in the +patristic period, and that, too, without doing violence to his authorities.</note> +faith by an antagonism of the understanding, +and therefore receives with profit the sacrament of faith. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De Correctione +Donatistarum</hi>, §§ 22 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> (MSL, 33:802.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The argument in favor of using force to compel the Donatists to +return to the Church. +</quote> + +<pb n='451'/><anchor id='Pg451'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Augustine in the early part of the Donatist controversy was not in +favor of using force. Like the others, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, Optatus, he denied +that force had been employed by the Church. About 404 the situation +changed, and his opinion did likewise. This work, known also as Epistle +CLXXXV, was written circa 417. Compare Augustine's position +with the statement of Jerome, <q>Piety for God is not cruelty,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Hagenbach, <hi rend='italic'>History of Christian +Doctrines</hi>, § 135:7. The Donatists had much injured their position by +their treatment of a party which had produced a schism in their own body, the +Maximianists. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 22. Who can love us more than Christ who laid down +His life for the sheep? And yet, after calling Peter and the +other Apostles by His word alone, in the case of Paul, formerly +Saul, the great builder of His Church, but previously its +cruel persecutor, He not only constrained him with His voice, +but even dashed him to the earth with His power.… Where +is what they [the Donatists] are accustomed to cry: <q>To believe +or not to believe is a matter that is free</q>? Toward +whom did Christ use violence? Whom did He compel? Here +they have the Apostle Paul. Let them recognize in his case +Christ's first compelling and afterward teaching; first striking +and afterward consoling. For it is wonderful how he +who had been compelled by bodily punishment entered into +the Gospel and afterward labored more in the Gospel than all +they who were called by word only; and the greater fear compelled +him toward love, that perfect love which casts out fear. +</p> + +<p> +§ 23. Why, therefore, should not the Church compel her +lost sons to return if the lost sons compelled others to perish? +Although even men whom they have not compelled but only +led astray, their loving mother embraces with more affection +if they are recalled to her bosom through the enforcement +of terrible but salutary laws, and are the objects of far more +deep congratulation than those whom she has never lost. +Is it not a part of the care of the shepherd, when any sheep +have left the flock, even though not violently forced away, +but led astray by soft words and by coaxings, and they have +begun to be possessed by strangers, to bring them back to the +<pb n='452'/><anchor id='Pg452'/> +fold of his master when he has found them, by the terrors or +even the pains of the whip, if they wish to resist; especially +since, if they multiply abundantly among the fugitive slaves +and robbers, he has the more right in that the mark of the +master is recognized on them, which is not outraged in those +whom we receive but do not baptize?<note place="foot">The basis of the +doctrine of the indelible character of baptism. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Augustine, +<hi rend='italic'>Contra epist. Parm.</hi>, II, 13. 28. <q>Each [baptism and the right of +giving baptism] is indeed a sacrament, and by a certain consecration each is +given to a man, this when he is baptized, that when he is ordained; therefore +in the Catholic Church it is not lawful to repeat either.</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> next passage.</note> So indeed is the error +of the sheep to be corrected that the sign of the Redeemer +shall not be marred. For if any one is marked with the royal +stamp by a deserter, who has himself been marked with it, and +they receive forgiveness, and the one returns to his service, +and the other begins to be in the service in which he had not +yet been, that mark is not effaced in either of them, but rather +it is recognized in both, and approved with due honor because +it is the king's. Since they cannot show that that is bad to +which they are compelled,<note place="foot">This was written after the +conference with the Donatists in 411, in which victory was adjudged +to the Catholics.</note> they maintained that they ought +not to be compelled to the good. But we have shown that +Paul was compelled by Christ; therefore the Church in compelling +the Donatists is following the example of her Lord, +though in the first instance she waited in hopes of not having +to compel any, that the prediction might be fulfilled concerning +the faith of kings and peoples. +</p> + +<p> +§ 24. For in this sense also we may interpret without +absurdity the apostolic declaration when the blessed Apostle +Paul says: <q>Being ready to revenge all disobedience, when +your obedience is fulfilled</q> [II Cor. 10:6]. Whence also +the Lord himself bids the guests to be brought first to His +great supper, and afterward compelled; for when His servants +answered Him, <q>Lord, it is done as thou hast commanded, +and yet there is room,</q> He said to them: <q>Go out into the +highways and hedges and compel them to come in</q> [Luke +14:22, 23]. In those, therefore, who were first brought in +<pb n='453'/><anchor id='Pg453'/> +with gentleness the former obedience is fulfilled, but in those +who were compelled the disobedience is avenged. For what +else is the meaning of <q>Compel them to come in,</q> after it +had previously been said, <q>Bring in,</q> and the answer was: +<q>Lord, it is done as Thou commandest, and yet there is +room</q>? Wherefore if by the power which the Church has +received by divine appointment in its due season, through +the religious character and faith of kings, those who are found +in the highways and hedges—that is, in heresies and schisms—are +compelled to come in, then let them not find fault because +they are compelled, but consider to what they are so compelled. +The supper of the Lord, the unity, is of the body of Christ, +not only in the sacrament of the altar but also in the bond of +peace. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Contra epistulam +Parmeniani</hi>, II, 13 (29). (MSL, 43:71.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Indelibility of baptism. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Parmenianus was the Donatist bishop who succeeded Donatus in +the see of Carthage. The letter here answered was written to Tychonius, +a leading Donatist. In it Parmenianus calls the Church +defiled because it contained unworthy members. The answer of Augustine +was written in 400, many years later. +</quote> + +<p> +If any one, either a deserter or one who has never served as +a soldier, signs any private person with the military mark, +would not he who has signed be punished as a deserter, when +he has been arrested, and so much the more severely as it +could be proved that he had never at all served as a soldier, +and at the same time along with him would not the most +impudent giver of the sign, be punished if he have surrendered +him? Or perchance he takes no military service, but is afraid +of the military mark [<hi rend='italic'>character</hi>] in his body, and he betakes +himself to the clemency of the Emperor, and when he has +poured forth prayers and obtained forgiveness, he then begins +to undertake military service, when the man has been liberated +and corrected is that mark [<hi rend='italic'>character</hi>] ever repeated, +and not rather is he not recognized and approved? Would +<pb n='454'/><anchor id='Pg454'/> +the Christian sacraments by chance be less enduring than this +bodily mark, since we see that apostates do not lack baptism, +and to them it is never given again when they return by +means of penitence, and therefore it is judged not possible to +lose it. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Contra epistulam +Manichæi</hi>, ch. 4 (5). (MSL, 42:175.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 132.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Authority of the Catholic Church. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This work, written in 396 or 397, is important in this connection as +showing the place the Catholic Church took in the mind of Augustine +as an authority and the nature of that authority. +</quote> + +<p> +Not to speak of that wisdom which you [the Manichæans] +do not believe to be in the Catholic Church, there are many +other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The +consent of people and nations keeps me in the Church; so +does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by +hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession +of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of Peter +the Apostle, to whom the Lord after His resurrection gave it +in charge to feed His sheep down to the present episcopate. +And so lastly does the name itself of Catholic, which not +without reason, amid so many heresies, that Church alone +has so retained that, though all heretics wish to be called +Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic +Church meets no heretic will venture to point to his own +basilica or house. Since then so many and so great are the +very precious ties belonging to the Christian name which +rightly keep a man who is a believer in the Catholic Church … no +one shall move me from the faith which binds my +mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion. +</p> + +<p> +Let us see what Manichæus teaches us; and in particular +let us examine that treatise which you call the Fundamental +Epistle in which almost all that you believe is contained. For +in that unhappy time when we read it, we were called by you +<pb n='455'/><anchor id='Pg455'/> +enlightened. The epistle begins: <q>Manichæus, an apostle of +Jesus Christ, by the providence of God the Father. These +are wholesome words from the perennial and living fountain.</q> +Now, if you please, patiently give heed to my inquiry. +I do not believe that he is an apostle of Christ. Do +not, I beg of you, be enraged and begin to curse. You know +that it is my rule not to believe without consideration anything +offered by you. <q>Wherefore I ask, who is this Manichæus?</q> +You reply, <q>An apostle of Christ.</q> I do not believe +it. Now you are at a loss what to say or do; for you +promised to give me knowledge of the truth, and you force +me to believe something I do not know. Perhaps you will +read the Gospel to me, and from it you will attempt to +defend the person of Manichæus. But should you meet +with a person not yet believing the Gospel, what could you +reply to him if he said to you: <q>I do not believe</q>? For +my part I should not believe the Gospel except the authority +of the Catholic Church moved me. So then I have assented +to them when they say to me, <q>Believe the Gospel</q>; why +should I not assent to them saying to me: <q>Do not believe +the Manichæans</q>? +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_84"/> +<head>§ 84. The Pelagian Controversy</head> + +<p> +The Pelagian controversy, in which the characteristic teaching +of Augustine found its best expression, may be divided +into three periods. In the first period, beginning about 411, +Pelagius and Cælestius, who had been teaching at Rome +unmolested since 400 and had come to Carthage, probably +on account of the barbarian attack upon Rome, are opposed +at Carthage, and six propositions attributed to Cælestius are +condemned at a council there, where he attempted to be +ordained. Cælestius leaves for the East and is ordained at +Ephesus, 412, and Pelagius soon after follows him. In the +second period, 415-417, the controversy is in the East as well +as in the West, as Augustine by letters to Jerome gave warning +<pb n='456'/><anchor id='Pg456'/> +about Pelagius, and councils are held at Jerusalem and +Diospolis, where Pelagius is acquitted of heresy. This was +probably due as much to the general sympathy of the Eastern +theologians with his doctrine as to any alleged misrepresentation +by Pelagius. But in North Africa synods are also held +condemning Pelagius, and their findings are approved by +Innocent of Rome. But Pelagius and Cælestius send confessions +of faith to Zosimus (417-418), Innocent's successor, +who reproves the Africans and acquits Pelagius and Cælestius +as entirely sound. In the third period, 417-431, the attack +on Pelagius is taken up at Rome itself by some of the clergy, +and an imperial edict is obtained against the Pelagians. +Zosimus changes his opinion and approves the findings of a +general council called at Carthage in 418, in which the doctrines +of original sin and the need of grace are asserted. The +last act of the controversy in its earlier form, after the deposition +of the leading Pelagians, among them Julian, of +Eclanum, their theologian, is the condemnation of Pelagius at +the Council of Ephesus, in 431. <hi rend='italic'>V. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_89">§ 89</ref>. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: See A. Bruckner, <hi rend='italic'>Quellen zur Geschichte +des pelagianischen Streites</hi> (in Latin), in Krüger's +<hi rend='italic'>Quellenschriften</hi>, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1906. The principal works +of Augustine bearing on the Pelagian controversy may be found in PNF, ser. I, vol. V. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. 146, ad +Pelagium</hi>. (MSL, 33:596.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This was probably written before the controversy. As to its use +later, see Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De gestis Pelagii</hi>, chs. +51 (26) <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> (PNF) +</quote> + +<p> +I thank you very much that you have been so kind as to +make me glad by your letter informing me of your welfare. +May the Lord recompense you with those blessings that you +forever be good and may live eternally with Him who is eternal, +my lord greatly beloved and brother greatly longed for. +Although I do not acknowledge that anything in me deserves +the eulogies which the letter of your benevolence contains +about me, I cannot, however, be ungrateful for the good-will +therein manifested toward one so insignificant, while suggesting +<pb n='457'/><anchor id='Pg457'/> +at the same time that you should rather pray for me that +I may be made by the Lord such as you suppose me already +to be. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Augustine. <hi rend='italic'>De Peccatorum Meritis +et Remissione et de Baptismo Parvulorum</hi>. (MSL, 44:185, 188.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Augustine's testimony as to the character of Pelagius. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This work was written in 412, after the condemnation of Cælestius +at Carthage. It was the first in the series of polemical writings against +the teaching of Pelagius. The first book is especially important as a +statement of Augustine's position as to the nature of justifying grace. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +It should be recalled that Pelagius was a monk of exemplary life, and +a zealous preacher of morality. It may be said that in him the older +moralistic tendency in theology was embodied in opposition to the new +religious spirit of Augustine. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Bruckner, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, n. 4. +</quote> + +<p> +III. 1. However, within the last few days I have read +some writings of Pelagius, a holy man, as I hear, who has made +no small progress in the Christian life, and these writings contain +very brief expositions of the Epistles of Paul the Apostle.<note place="foot">These +commentaries were falsely published under the name of Jerome and +may be found in his works. (MSL, 30:670.)</note> +</p> + +<p> +III. 3. But we must not omit that this good and praiseworthy +man (as they who know him describe him as being) +has not advanced this argument against the natural transmission +of sin in his own person. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Pelagius, <hi rend='italic'>Fragments</hi>, in +Augustine's <hi rend='italic'>De Gratia Christi et de Peccato Originali</hi>. +(MSL, 44:364, 379.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The teaching of Pelagius can be studied not only in his opponent's +statements but in his own words. These are to be found in his commentary +(see note to previous selection), and also in fragments found in +Augustine's writings and several minor pieces (see below). +</quote> + +<p> +I. 7. Very ignorant persons think that we do wrong in +this matter to divine grace, because we say that it by no +means perfects sanctity in us without our will: as if God could +impose any commands upon His grace and would not supply +also the help of His grace to those to whom He has given commands, +so that men might more easily accomplish through +grace what they are required to do by their free will. And +<pb n='458'/><anchor id='Pg458'/> +this grace we do not for our part, as you suppose, allow to +consist merely in the law, but also in the help of God. God +helps us by His teaching and revelation when He opens the +eyes of our heart; when He points out to us the future, that +we may not be absorbed in the present; when He discovers to +us the snares of the devil; when He enlightens us with manifold +and ineffable gifts of heavenly grace. Does the man who says +this appear to you to be a denier of grace? Does he not +acknowledge both man's free will and God's grace? +</p> + +<p> +I. 39. Speaking of the text Rom. 7:23: <q>But I see another law in my +members, warring against the law of my mind, and bringing me into +captivity to the law of sin which is in my members.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Now what you [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Augustine, whom he is addressing] wish +us to understand of the Apostle himself, all Church writers +assert that he spoke in the person of the sinner, and of one +still under the law, who by reason of very long custom of vice +was held bound, as it were, by a certain necessity of sinning, +and who, although he desired good with his will in practice, +indeed, was driven into evil. In the person, however, of one +man the Apostle designates the people who sinned still under +the ancient law, and this people, he declares, are to be delivered +from this evil of custom through Christ, who first of +all remits all sins in baptism, to those who believe on Him, +and then by an imitation of Himself incites them to perfect +holiness, and by the example of virtues overcomes the evil +custom of sins. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Pelagius, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula ad +Demetriadem</hi>. (MSL, 33:1100 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This epistle, from which selections are given, was written probably +about 412 or 413. As it gives a statement of the teaching of Pelagius +in his own words, it is of especial historical interest. Demetrias was +a virgin, and probably under the spiritual direction of Pelagius, though +little is known of her. Text in Bruckner, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, n. 56. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. As often as I have to speak of the principles of +virtue and a holy life, I am accustomed first of all to call attention +<pb n='459'/><anchor id='Pg459'/> +to the capacity and character of human nature, and +to show what it is able to accomplish; then from this to +arouse the feelings of the hearer, that he may strive after different +kinds of virtue, that he may permit himself to be +roused to acts which perhaps he had regarded as impossible. +For we are quite unable to travel the way of virtue if hope +does not accompany us. For all attempts to accomplish +anything cease if one is in doubt whether he will attain the +goal. This order of exhortation I follow in other minor writings +and in this case also. I believe it must be kept especially +in mind where the good of nature needs to be set forth the +more in detail as the life is to be more perfectly formed, that +the spirit may not be more neglectful and slow in its striving +after virtue, as it believes itself to have the less ability, and +when it is ignorant of what is within it, think that it does not +possess it. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. One must be careful to see to it that … one does +not think that a man is not made good because he can do evil +and is not compelled to an immutable necessity of doing good +through the might of nature. For if you diligently consider it +and turn your mind to the subtler understanding of the +matter, the better and superior position of man will appear +in that from which his inferior condition was inferred. But +just in this freedom in either direction, in this liberty toward +either side, is placed the glory of our rational nature. Therein, +I say, consists the entire honor of our nature, therein its +dignity; from this the very good merit praise, from this their +reward. For there would be for those who always remain +good no virtue if they had not been able to have chosen the +evil. For since God wished to present to the rational creature +the gift of voluntary goodness and the power of the free will, +by planting in man the possibility of turning himself toward +either side, He made His special gift the ability to be what he +would be in order that he, being capable of good and evil, +could do either and could turn his will to either of them. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 8. We defend the advantage of nature not in the sense +<pb n='460'/><anchor id='Pg460'/> +that we say it cannot do evil, since we declare that it is capable +of good and evil; we only protect it from reproach. It +should not appear as if we were driven to evil by a disease of +nature, we who do neither good nor bad without our will, +and to whom there is always freedom to do one of two things, +since always we are able to do both.… Nothing else makes +it difficult for us to do good than long custom of sinning which +has infected us since we were children, and has gradually +corrupted us for many years, so that afterward it holds us +bound to it and delivered over to it, so that it almost seems +as if it had the same force as nature. +</p> + +<p> +If before the Law, as we are told, and long before the appearance +of the Redeemer, various persons can be named who +lived just and holy lives, how much more after His appearance +must we believe that we are able to do the same, we who +have been taught through Christ's grace, and born again to be +better men; and we who by His blood have been reconciled +and purified, and by His example incited to more perfect +righteousness, ought to be better than they who were before +the Law, better than they who were under the law. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Marius Mercator, <hi rend='italic'>Commonitorium super +nomine Cælestii</hi>, ch. 1. (MSL, 48:67.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. 737 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Council of Carthage and the opinions of Cælestius condemned +at that council, 411. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Marius Mercator, a friend and supporter of Augustine, was one of +the most determined opponents of Pelagianism, as also of Nestorianism. +His dates are not well determined. In 418 he sent works to Augustine +to be examined by the latter, and he seems to have lived until after +the Council of Chalcedon, 451. The work from which the selection is +taken was written, 429, in Greek, and translated and republished in +Latin, 431 or 432. With the following should be compared Augustine's +<hi rend='italic'>De Gratia Christi et Peccato Originali</hi>, II, +2<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 175:6; 157:3, +22. +</quote> + +<p> +A certain Cælestius, a eunuch from his mother's womb, a +disciple and auditor of Pelagius, left Rome about twenty years +ago and came to Carthage, the metropolis of all Africa, and +there he was accused of the following heads before Aurelius, +<pb n='461'/><anchor id='Pg461'/> +bishop of that city, by a complaint from a certain Paulinus, a +deacon of Bishop Ambrose of Milan, of sacred memory, as +the record of the acts stands in which the same complaint is +inserted (a copy of the acts of the council we have in our +hands) that he not only taught this himself, but also sent in +different directions throughout the provinces those who +agreed with him to disseminate among the people these +things, that is: +</p> + +<p> +1. Adam was made mortal and would have died whether +he had sinned or had not sinned. +</p> + +<p> +2. The sin of Adam injured himself alone, and not the +human race. +</p> + +<p> +3. New-born children are in that state in which Adam was +before his fall. +</p> + +<p> +4. Neither by the death and sin of Adam does the whole +race die, nor by the resurrection of Christ does the whole race +rise. +</p> + +<p> +5. The Law leads to the kingdom of heaven as well as the +Gospel. +</p> + +<p> +6. Even before the coming of the Lord there were men +without sin. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Pelagius. <hi rend='italic'>Confessio fidei</hi>. +(MSL, 45:1716 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>) Hahn, § 209.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The confession of faith addressed to Innocent of Rome, but actually +laid before Zosimus, in 417, consists of an admirably orthodox statement +of the doctrine of the Trinity and of the incarnation, an expansion +of the Nicene formula with reference to perversions of the faith +by various heretics, and in conclusion a statement of Pelagius's own +opinions regarding free will, grace, and sin. It is due to the irony of +history that it should have been found among the works of both +Jerome and Augustine, long passed current as a composition of Augustine, +<hi rend='italic'>Sermo CCXXXVI</hi>, and should have been actually quoted by the +Sorbonne, in 1521, in its articles against Luther. It also appears in the +<hi rend='italic'>Libri Carolini</hi>, III, 1, as an orthodox exposition of the faith. +The passages which bear upon the characteristic Pelagian doctrine are here +given. Fragments of the confessions of other Pelagians, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, +Cælestius, and Julius of Eclanum, are found in Hahn, §§ 210 and 211. For +the proceedings in the East, see Hefele, § 118. +</quote> + +<pb n='462'/><anchor id='Pg462'/> + +<p> +We hold that there is one baptism, which we assert is to be +administered to children in the same words of the sacrament +as it is administered to adults.… +</p> + +<p> +We execrate also the blasphemy of those who say that anything +impossible to do is commanded man by God, and the +commands of God can be observed, not by individuals but by +all in common, also those who with the Manichæans condemn +first marriages or with the Cataphrygians condemn second +marriages.… We so confess the will is free that we say that +we always need the aid of God, and they err who with the +Manichæans assert that man cannot avoid sins as well as +those who with Jovinan say that man cannot sin; for both +take away the liberty of the will. But we say that man can +both sin and not sin, so that we confess that we always have +free will. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Sermo</hi> 131. +(MSL, 38:734.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, n. 672.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +<hi rend='italic'>Causa finita est.</hi> +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Late in 416 synods were held in Carthage and Mileve condemning +Pelagianism. On January 27, 417, Innocent wrote to the Africans, approving +their councils and condemning Pelagianism, incidentally stating +the supreme authority of the Roman See and requiring that +nothing should ever be definitively settled without consulting the Apostolic +See (text of passage in Denziger. ed. 1911, n. 100). September +23 of the same year, about the time when Pelagius and Cælestius were +at Rome with Zosimus seeking to rehabilitate themselves in the West, +Augustine delivered a sermon in which he made the following statement. +It is the basis of the famous phrase <hi rend='italic'>Roma locuta, causa finita +est</hi>, a saying which is apocryphal, however, and not found in the works +of Augustine. +</quote> + +<p> +What, therefore, is said concerning the Jews, that we see +in them [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the Pelagians]. They have the zeal for God; +I bear witness, that they have a zeal for God, but not according +to knowledge. Why is it not according to knowledge? +Because, being ignorant of the justice of God and wishing to +establish their own, they are not subject to the righteousness +of God [Rom. 10:2 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>]. My brethren, have patience with me. +</p> + +<pb n='463'/><anchor id='Pg463'/> + +<p> +When you find such, do not conceal them, let there be not +false mercy in you. Most certainly when you find such, do +not conceal them. Refute those contradicting, and those +resisting bring to me. For already two councils about this +case have been sent to the Apostolic See, whence also rescripts +have come. The case has been ended; would that +the error might some time end! Therefore let us warn them +that they pay attention; let us teach them that they may be +instructed; let us pray that they may be changed. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Zosimus, III <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Episcopos Africæ +de causa Cælestii</hi> A. D. 417. (MSL, 45:1721.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Bruckner, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, n. 28.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Fragments of his later <hi rend='italic'>Epistula tractoria</hi> together with other +letters may be found in Bruckner, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +Likewise Pelagius sent letters also containing an extended +justification of himself, to which he added a profession of his +faith, what he condemned and what he followed, without +any dissimulation, so that all subtilities of interpretation +might be avoided. There was a public recitation of these. +They contained all things like those which Cælestius had +previously presented and expressed in the same sense and +drawn up in the same thoughts. Would that some of you, +dearest brethren, could have been present at the reading of +the letters. What was the joy of the holy men who were +present; what was the admiration of each of them! Some +of them could scarcely restrain themselves from tears and +weeping, that such men of absolutely correct faith could +have been suspected. Was there a single place in which the +grace of God or his aid was omitted? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>i</hi>) Council of Carthage, A. D. 418, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns, I, 188.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +These canons of the Council of Carthage, A. D. 418, were incorporated +in the <hi rend='italic'>Codex Canon Ecclesiæ Africanæ</hi> adopted at the Council +of Carthage A. D. 419. The numbers given in brackets are the numbers +in that Codex. Interprovincial councils were known in North +Africa as <q>general councils.</q> +</quote> + +<pb n='464'/><anchor id='Pg464'/> + +<p> +In the consulate of the most glorious emperors, Honorius +for the twelfth time and Theodosius for the eighth, on the +calends of May, at Carthage in the Secretarium of the Basilica +of Faustus, when Bishop Aurelius presided over the general +council, the deacons standing by, it pleased all the bishops, +whose names and subscriptions are indicated, met together +in the holy synod of the church of Carthage: +</p> + +<p> +1 [109]. That whosoever should say that Adam, the first +man, was created mortal, so that whether he had sinned or +not, he would have died in the body—that is, he would have +gone forth of the body, not because of the desert [or merit] of +sin, but by natural necessity, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +2 [110]. Likewise that whosoever denies that infants +newly from their mother's womb should be baptized, or says +that baptism is for remission of sins, but that they derive +from Adam no original sin, which is removed by the layer of +regeneration, whence the conclusion follows that in them +the form of baptism for the remission of sins is to be understood +as false and not true, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +For not otherwise can be understood what the Apostle +says, <q>By one man sin has come into the world,<note place="foot">Some manuscripts +add <q>and death through sin.</q></note> and so it +passed upon all men in that all have sinned,</q> than as the +Catholic Church everywhere diffused has always understood +it. For on account of this rule of faith, even infants, who +could have committed no sin themselves, therefore are truly +baptized for the remission of sins, in order that what in them +is the result of generation may be cleansed by regeneration. +</p> + +<p> +3 [111]. Likewise, that whoever should say that the grace +of God, by which a man is justified through Jesus Christ our +Lord, avails only for the remission of past sins, and not for +assistance against committing sins in the future, let him be +anathema. +</p> + +<p> +4 [112]. Also, whoever shall say that the same grace of +God through Jesus Christ our Lord helps us not to sin only +in that by it are revealed to us and opened to our understanding +<pb n='465'/><anchor id='Pg465'/> +the commandments, so that we may know what to seek, +what we ought to avoid, and also that we should love to do so, +but that through it we are not helped so that we are able to +do what we know we should do, let him be anathema. For +when the Apostle says, <q>Wisdom puffeth up, but charity +edifieth,</q> it were truly infamous were we to believe that we +have the grace of Christ for that which puffeth us up, but have +it not for that which edifieth, since each is the gift of God, +both to know what we ought to do, and to love it so as to do +it; so that wisdom cannot puff us up while charity is edifying +us. For as it is written of God, <q>Who teacheth man knowledge,</q> +so also it is written, <q>Love is of God.</q> +</p> + +<p> +5 [113]. It seemed good that whosoever should say that +the grace of justification is given to us only that we might +be able more readily by grace to perform what we were commanded +to do through our free will; as if when grace was not +given, although not easily, yet nevertheless we could even +without grace fulfil the divine commandments, let him be +anathema. For the Lord spake concerning the fruits of the +commandments, when he said, <q>Without me ye can do nothing,</q> +and not <q>Without me ye can do it but with difficulty.</q> +</p> + +<p> +6 [114]. It seemed also good that as St. John the Apostle +says, <q>If ye shall say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves +and the truth is not in us</q>; whosoever thinks that this +should be so understood as to mean that out of humility we +ought to say that we have sin, and not because it is really so, +let him be anathema. For the Apostle goes on to add, <q>But +if we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our +sins and to cleanse us from all iniquity,</q> where it is sufficiently +clear that this is said not only in humility but also in truth. +For the Apostle might have said, <q>If we shall say we have no +sins we shall extol ourselves, and humility is not in us</q>; but +when he says, <q>we deceive ourselves and the truth is not in +us,</q> he sufficiently intimates that he who affirmed that he +had no sin would speak not that which is true but that which +is false. +</p> + +<pb n='466'/><anchor id='Pg466'/> + +<p> +7 [115]. It has seemed good that whosoever should say +that when in the Lord's Prayer, the saints say, <q>Forgive us +our trespasses,</q> they say this not for themselves, because +they have no need of this petition, but for the rest who are +sinners of the people; and that therefore none of the saints +can say, <q>Forgive me my trespasses,</q> but <q>Forgive us our +trespasses</q>; so that the just is understood to seek this for +others rather than for himself, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +8 [116]. Likewise it seemed good, that whosoever asserts +that these words of the Lord's Prayer when they say, <q>Forgive +us our trespasses,</q> are said by the saints out of humility and +not in truth, let them be anathema. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following canon, although it seems to have been enacted for the +case of Apiarius, is nevertheless often cited in the same connection +as the eight against Pelagius, and is therefore given here for the sake of +convenience. +</quote> + +<p> +18 [125]. Likewise, it seemed good that presbyters, deacons, +or other of the lower clergy who are to be tried, if they +question the decision of their bishops, the neighboring bishops +having been invited by them with the consent of their +bishops shall hear them and determine whatever separates +them. But should they think that an appeal should be carried +from them, let them not carry the appeal except to +African councils or to the primates of their provinces. But +whoso shall think of carrying an appeal across the seas, shall +be admitted to communion by no one in Africa.<note place="foot">For +the discussion on appeals across the sea, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +to Rome, see Hefele. § 119; A. W. Haddan, art. <q>Appeal</q> in DCA.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_85"/> +<head>§ 85. Semi-Pelagian Controversy</head> + +<p> +With the condemnation of Pelagianism the doctrine of +Augustine in its logically worked out details was not necessarily +approved. The necessity of baptism for the remission +of sins in all cases was approved as well as the necessity of +grace. The doctrine of predestination, an essential feature +in the Augustinian system, was not only not accepted but was +<pb n='467'/><anchor id='Pg467'/> +vigorously opposed by many who heartily condemned Pelagianism. +The ensuing discussion, known as the Semi-Pelagian +controversy (427-529), was largely carried on in Gaul, which +after the Vandal occupation of North Africa, became the intellectual +centre of the Church in the West. The leading opponent +of Augustine was John Cassian (ob. 435), abbot of a +monastery at Marseilles, hence the term Massilians applied +to his party, and his pupil, Vincent of Lerins, author of +<hi rend='italic'>Commonitorium</hi>, +written 434. The chief Augustinians were Hilary +and Prosper of Aquitaine. The discussion was not continuous. +About 475 it broke out again when Lucidus was +condemned at a council at Lyons and forced to retract his +predestinarian views; and again about 520. The matter received +what is regarded as its solution in the Council of +Orange, 529, confirmed by Boniface II in 531. By the decrees +of this council so much of the Augustinian system as +could be combined with the teaching and practice of the +Church as to the sacraments was formally approved. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) John Cassian. <hi rend='italic'>Collationes</hi>, +XIII. 7 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> (MSL, 49:908.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +John Cassian, born about 360, was by birth and education a man of +the East, and does not appear in the West until 405, when he went to +Rome on some business connected with the exile of Chrysostom, his +friend and patron. In 415 he established two monasteries at Marseilles, +one for men and the other for women. He had himself been +educated as a monk and made a careful study of monasticism in Egypt +and Palestine. Western monasticism is much indebted to him for +his writings. <hi rend='italic'>De Institutis Cœnobiorum</hi> and the +<hi rend='italic'>Collationes</hi>. In the +former, he describes the monastic system of Palestine and Egypt and +the principal vices to which the monastic life is liable; in the latter, +divided into three parts, Cassian gives reports or what purports to be +reports of conversations he and his friend Germanus had with Egyptian +ascetics. These books were very popular during the Middle Ages +and exerted a wide influence. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 7. When His [God's] kindness sees in us even the very +smallest spark of good-will shining forth or which He himself +has, as it were, struck out from the hard flints of our hearts, +He fans it and fosters it and nurses it with His breath, as He +<q>will have all men to be saved and to come unto the knowledge +<pb n='468'/><anchor id='Pg468'/> +of the truth</q> [I Tim. 2:4].… For He is true and lieth +not when He lays down with an oath: <q>As I live, saith the +Lord, I will not the death of a sinner, but that he should turn +from his way and live</q> [Ezek. 33:11]. For if he willeth +not that one of His little ones should perish, how can we +think without grievous blasphemy that He willeth not all +men universally, but only some instead of all be saved. +Those then who perish, perish against His will, as He testifieth +against each of them day by day: <q>Turn from your evil +ways for why will ye die, O house of Israel?</q> [Ezek. 33:11] … +The grace of Christ is then at hand every day, which, +while it <q>willeth all men to be saved and come to the knowledge +of the truth,</q> calleth all without exception, saying: +<q>Come all unto me all ye that labor and are heavy laden and I +will give you rest</q> [Matt. 11:28]. But if he calls not all +generally but only some, it follows that not all are heavy +laden with either original sin or actual sin, and that this saying +is not a true one: <q>For all have sinned and come short of +the glory of God</q> [Rom. 3:23]; nor can we believe that +<q>death passed on all men</q> [Rom. 5:12]. And so far do +all who perish, perish against the will of God, that God cannot +be said to have made death, as the Scripture itself testifieth: +<q>For God made not death, neither hath He pleasure in the +destruction of the living</q> [Wisdom 1:13]. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 8. When He sees anything of good-will arisen in us +He at once enlightens it and strengthens it and urges it on to +salvation, giving increase to that which He himself implanted +or He sees to have arisen by our own effort. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 9. … But that it may be still more evident that +through the good of nature, which is bestowed by the kindness +of the Creator, sometimes the beginnings of a good-will +arise, yet cannot come to the completion of virtue unless +they are directed by the Lord, the Apostle is a witness, saying: +<q>For to will is present with me, but to perform what is +good I find not</q> [Rom. 7:18]. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 11. … If we say that the beginnings of a good-will +<pb n='469'/><anchor id='Pg469'/> +are always inspired in us by the grace of God, what shall we +say about the faith of Zacchæus, or of the piety of that thief +upon the cross, who by their own desire brought violence to +bear upon the Kingdom of Heaven, and so anticipated the +special leadings of their callings?… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 12. We should not hold that God made man such +that he neither wills nor is able to do good. Otherwise He +has not granted him a free will, if He has suffered him only to +will or be capable of evil, but of himself neither to will nor be +capable of what is good.… It cannot, therefore, be doubted +that there are by nature seeds of goodness implanted in every +soul by the kindness of the Creator; but unless these are quickened +by the assistance of God, they will not be able to attain +to an increase of perfection; for, as the blessed Apostle says: +<q>Neither is he that planteth anything nor he that watereth, +but God that giveth the increase</q> [I Cor. 3:7]. But that +freedom of will is to some degree in a man's power is very +clearly taught in the book called <hi rend='italic'>The +Pastor</hi>,<note place="foot">Hermas, <hi rend='italic'>Pastor</hi>, Man. VI. +(ANF, vol. II.)</note> where two +angels are said to be attached to each one of us, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> a good and +a bad one, while it lies in a man's own option to choose which +to follow. And, therefore, the will always remains free in +man, and it can either neglect or delight in the grace of God. +For the Apostle would not have commanded, saying, <q>Work +out your own salvation with fear and trembling</q> [Phil. 2:12], +had he not known that it could be advanced or neglected by +us.… But that they should not think that they did not need +divine aid he adds: <q>For it is God who worketh in you both +to will and accomplish His good pleasure</q> [Phil. 2:13]. +The mercy of the Lord, therefore, goes before the will of man, +for it is said, <q>My God will prevent me with His mercy</q> +[Psalm 59:10], and again, that He may put our desire to the +test, our will goes before God who waits, and for our good +delays. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Vincent of Lerins, <hi rend='italic'>Commonitorium</hi>, +chs. 2, 23, 26, (MSL, 50:659.)</head> + +<pb n='470'/><anchor id='Pg470'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The rule of Catholic verity. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Vincent of Lerins wrote his <hi rend='italic'>Commonitorium</hi> in 434, +three years after the death of Augustine, who had been commended in 432 to the clergy +of Gaul by Celestine of Rome [<hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 21; Denziger, nn. 128-142; Mansi +IV, 454 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>]. Vincent attacked Augustine in his +<hi rend='italic'>Commonitorium</hi>, not openly, but, so far as +the work has been preserved, covertly, under the pseudonym of +Peregrinus. The work consists of two books, of which +the second is lost with the exception of what appear to be some concluding +chapters, or a summary taking the place of the book. In the +first book he lays down the general principle as to the tests of Catholic +truth. In doing so he is careful to point out several cases of very +great teachers, renowned for learning, ability, and influence, who, +nevertheless, erred against the test of Catholic truth, and brought forward +opinions which, on account of their novelty, were false. It is +a working out in detail of the principles of the idea of Tertullian in his +<hi rend='italic'>De Prœscriptione</hi> [<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_27">§ 27</ref>]. The Augustinian doctrines of predestination +and grace could not stand the test of the appeal to antiquity. +After laying down his test of truth it appears to have been +the author's intention to prove thereby the doctrine of Augustine +false. The so-called <q>Vincentian rule</q> is often quoted without a +thought that it was intended, primarily, as an attack upon Augustine. +The <hi rend='italic'>Commonitorium</hi> may be found translated in PNF, ser. II, vol. +XI. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2 [4]. I have often inquired earnestly and attentively +of very many men eminent for sanctity and learning, how +and by what sure and, so to speak, universal rule I might be +able to distinguish the truth of the Catholic faith from the +falsehood of heretical pravity, and I have always, and from +nearly all, received an answer to this effect: That whether I +or any one else should wish to detect the frauds of heretics +as they arise, or to avoid their snares, and to continue +sound and complete in the faith, we must, the Lord helping, +fortify our faith in two ways: first, by the authority of +the divine Law, and then, by the tradition of the Catholic +Church. +</p> + +<p> +But here some one, perhaps, will ask: Since the canon of +Scripture is complete and sufficient for everything, and more +than sufficient, what need is there to add to it the authority +of the Church's interpretation? For this reason: because, +owing to the depth of Holy Scripture, all do not accept it +in one and the same sense, but one understands its words +<pb n='471'/><anchor id='Pg471'/> +one way, another in another way; so that almost as many +opinions may be drawn from it as there are men.… Therefore +it is very necessary, on account of so great intricacies, +and of such various errors, that the rule of a right understanding +of the prophets and Apostles should be framed in +accordance with the standard of ecclesiastical and Catholic +interpretation. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, in the Catholic Church itself all possible care +should be taken that we hold that faith which has been believed +everywhere, always, and by all. For that is truly +and properly <q>Catholic</q> which, as the name implies and the +reason of the thing declares, comprehends all universally. +This will be the case if we follow universality, antiquity, and +consent. We shall follow universality in this way, if we confess +that one faith to be true which the whole Church throughout +the world confesses; antiquity, if we in nowise depart +from those interpretations which it is manifest were notoriously +held by our holy ancestors and fathers; consent in like +manner, if in antiquity itself we adhere to the consentient +definitions and determinations of all, or at least almost all, +priests and doctors. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 23 [59]. The Church of Christ, the careful and watchful +guardian of the doctrines deposited in her charge, never +changes anything in them, never diminishes, never adds; does +not cut off what is necessary, does not add what is superfluous, +does not lose her own, does not appropriate what is +another's, but, while dealing faithfully and judiciously with +ancient doctrine, keeps this one object carefully in view—if +there be anything which antiquity has left shapeless and rudimentary, +to fashion and to polish it; if anything already reduced +to shape and developed, to consolidate and strengthen +it; if any already ratified and defined, to keep and guard it. +Finally, what other objects have councils ever aimed at in +their decrees, than to provide that what was before believed +in simplicity, should in the future be believed intelligently; +that what was before preached coldly, should in the future be +<pb n='472'/><anchor id='Pg472'/> +preached earnestly; that what before was practised negligently, +should henceforth be practised with double solicitude? +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Passage referring especially to Augustine. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 26 [69]. But what do they say? <q>If thou be the Son +of God, cast thyself down</q>; that is, <q>If thou wouldest be +a son of God, and wouldest receive the inheritance of the Kingdom +of Heaven, cast thyself down; that is, cast thyself down +from the doctrine and tradition of that sublime Church, which +is imagined to be nothing less than the very temple of God.</q> +And if one should ask one of the heretics who gives this advice: +How do you prove it? What ground have you for saying +that I ought to cast away the universal and ancient faith of +the Catholic Church? he has only the answer ready: <q>For it +is written</q>; and forthwith he produces a thousand testimonies, +a thousand examples, a thousand authorities from the +Law, from the Psalms, from the Apostles, from the prophets, +by means of which, interpreted on a new and wrong principle, +the unhappy soul is precipitated from the height of Catholic +truth to the lowest abyss of heresy. Then with the accompanying +promises, the heretics are wont marvellously to beguile +the incautious. For they dare to teach and promise +that in their church, that is, in the conventicle of their communion, +there is a certain great and special and altogether +personal grace of God, so that whosoever pertain to their +number, without any labor, without any effort, without any +industry, even though they neither ask, nor seek, nor knock,<note place="foot">The +references are to Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De Dono Perseverantiæ</hi>, ch. 23 [64], +and to Prosper of Aquitaine's epistle to Augustine, see Augustine, +<hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 225. Citations from both in PNF, ser. II, vol. XI. p. +158.</note> have such a dispensation from God, that borne up of angel +hands, that is, preserved by the protection of angels, it is impossible +they should ever dash their feet against a stone, that +is, that they should ever be offended. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Orange, A. D. 529, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns II, 176. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Denziger, n. +174.</head> + +<pb n='473'/><anchor id='Pg473'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The end of the Semi-Pelagian controversy. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Council of Orange, A. D. 529, was made up of several bishops +and some lay notables who had gathered for the dedication of a church +at Orange. Cæsarius of Arles had received from Felix IV of Rome +eight statements against the Semi-Pelagian teaching. He added some +more of his own to them, and had them passed as canons by the company +gathered for the dedication. It is noteworthy that the lay +notables signed along with the bishops. Boniface II, to whom the +canons were sent, confirmed them in 532: <q>We approve your above +written confession as agreeable to the Catholic rule of the Fathers.</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Hefele, § 242. For the sources of the canons, +see Seeberg, <hi rend='italic'>History of Doctrines</hi>, Eng. trans., I, +380, note 3. For the sake of brevity the scriptural quotations are not +given, merely indicated by references to the Bible. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 1. Whoever says that by the offence of the disobedience +of Adam not the entire man, that is, in body and +soul, was changed for the worse, but that the freedom of +his soul remained uninjured, and his body only was subject +to corruption, has been deceived by the error of Pelagius +and opposes Scripture [Ezek. 18:20; Rom. 6:16; II Peter +2:19]. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 2. Whoever asserts that the transgression of Adam +injured himself only, and not his offspring, or that death only +of the body, which is the penalty of sin, but not also sin, which +is the death of the soul, passed by one man to the entire human +race, wrongs God and contradicts the Apostle [Rom. 5:12]. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 3. Whoever says that the grace of God can be bestowed +in reply to human petition, but not that the grace +brings it about so that it is asked for by us, contradicts Isaiah +the prophet and the Apostle [Is. 65:1; Rom. 10:20]. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 4. Whoever contends that our will, to be set free +from sin, may anticipate God's action, and shall not confess +that it is brought about by the infusion of the Holy Spirit +and his operation in us, that we wish to be set free, resists that +same Holy Spirit speaking through Solomon: <q>The will is prepared +by the Lord</q> [Proverbs 8:35, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> LXX; not so in +Vulgate or Heb.], and the Apostle [Phil. 2:13]. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 5. Whoever says the increase, as also the beginning +of faith and the desire of believing, by which we believe in +<pb n='474'/><anchor id='Pg474'/> +Him who justifies the impious, and we come to the birth of +holy baptism, is not by the free gift of grace, that is, by the +inspiration of the Holy Spirit turning our will from unbelief +to belief, from impiety to piety, but belongs naturally to us, +is declared an adversary of the apostolic preaching [Phil. +1:6; Ephes. 2:8]. For they say that faith by which we +believe in God is natural, and they declare that all those who +are strangers to the Church of Christ in some way are believing. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 6. Whoever says that to us who, without the grace +of God, believe, will, desire, attempt, struggle for, watch, +strive for, demand, ask, knock, mercy is divinely bestowed, +and does not rather confess that it is brought about by the +infusion and inspiration of the Holy Spirit in us that believe, +will, and do all these other things as we ought, and annexes +the help of grace to human humility and obedience, and does +not admit that it is the gift of that same grace that we are +obedient and humble, opposes the Apostle [I Cor. 4:7]. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 7. Whoever asserts that by the force of nature we +can rightly think or choose anything good, which pertains to +eternal life, or be saved, that is, assent to the evangelical +preaching, without the illumination of the Holy Spirit, who +gives to all grace to assent to and believe the truth, is deceived +by an heretical spirit, not understanding the voice of +the Lord [John 15:5], and of the Apostle [II Cor. 3:5]. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 8. Whoever asserts that some by mercy, others by +free will, which in all who have been born since the transgression +of the first man is evidently corrupt, are able to come +to the grace of baptism, is proved an alien from the faith. +For he asserts that the free will of all has not been weakened +by the sin of the first man, or he evidently thinks that it has +been so injured that some, however, are able without the +revelation of God to attain, by their own power, to the +mystery of eternal salvation. Because the Lord himself +shows how false this is, who declares that not some, but no +one was able to come to Him unless the Father drew him +<pb n='475'/><anchor id='Pg475'/> +[John 6:4], and said so to Peter [Matt. 16:17] and the Apostle +[I Cor. 12:3]. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +The canons that follow are less important. The whole concludes +with a brief statement regarding the points at issue, as follows: +</quote> + +<p> +And so according to the above sentences of the Holy Scriptures +and definitions of ancient Fathers, by God's aid, we believe +that we ought to believe and preach: +</p> + +<p> +That by the sin of the first man, free will was so turned +aside and weakened that afterward no one is able to love God +as he ought, or believe in God, or do anything for God, +which is good, except the grace of divine mercy comes first +to him [Phil. 1:6, 29; Ephes. 2:8; I Cor. 4:7, 7:25; +James 1:17; John 3:27].… +</p> + +<p> +We also believe this to be according to the Catholic faith, +that grace having been received in baptism, all who have been +baptized, can and ought, by the aid and support of Christ, to +perform those things which belong to the salvation of the soul, +if they labor faithfully. +</p> + +<p> +But not only do we not believe that some have been predestinated +to evil by the divine power, but also, if there are +any who wish to believe so evil a thing, we say to them, with +all detestation, anathema. +</p> + +<p> +Also this we profitably confess and believe, that in every +good we do not begin and afterward are assisted by the mercy +of God, but without any good desert preceding, He first inspires +in us faith and love in Him, so that we both faithfully +seek the sacrament of baptism, and after baptism with His +help are able to perform those things which are pleasing to +Him. Whence it is most certainly to be believed that in the +case of that thief, whom the Lord called to the fatherland of +paradise, and Cornelius the Centurion, to whom an angel of +the Lord was sent, and Zacchæus, who was worthy of receiving +the Lord himself, their so wonderful faith was not of +nature, but was the gift of the divine bounty. +</p> + +<p> +And because we desire and wish our definition of the ancient +<pb n='476'/><anchor id='Pg476'/> +Fathers, written above, to be a medicine not only for the +clergy but also for the laity, it has been decided that the +illustrious and noble men, who have assembled with us at +the aforesaid festival, shall subscribe it with their own hand. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_86"/> +<head>§ 86. The Roman Church as the Centre of the Catholic +Roman Element of the West</head> + +<p> +In the confusion of the fifth century, when the provinces +of the Roman Empire were being lopped off one by one, Italy +invaded, and the larger political institutions disappearing, +the Church was the one institution that maintained itself. +In not a few places among the barbarians the bishops became +the acknowledged heads of the Roman element of the communities. +In meeting the threatened invasion of Italy by +Attila, Leo was the representative of the Roman people, the +head of the embassy sent to induce the Hun to recross the +Danube. Under such circumstances the see of Rome constantly +gained in importance politically and ecclesiastically. +As a centre of unity it was far more powerful than a feeble +emperor at Ravenna or puppets set up by barbarians. It +was the one and only great link between the provinces and +the representative of the ancient order. It represented Rome, +an efficient and generally gratefully recognized authority. +In the development of the papal idea the first stadium was +completed with the pontificate of Leo the Great (440-461), +who, fully conscious of the inherited Petrine prerogatives, +expressed them the most clearly, persistently, and, on the +whole, most successfully of any pontiff before Gregory the +Great. Leo, therefore, stands at the end of a development +marked by the utterances of Victor, Cornelius, Siricius, Innocent I, +Zosimus, Boniface I, and Celestine. For their statements +of the authority of the Roman see, see Denziger, under +their names, also Kirch and Mirbt. The whole may be found +combined in one statement in Schwanne, <hi rend='italic'>Dogmengeschichte</hi>, I, +413 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>; II, 661-698. +</p> + +<pb n='477'/><anchor id='Pg477'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: In English there is comparatively little +except the writings of Leo, see especially <hi rend='italic'>Sermones</hi> 2, 82, 84; +<hi rend='italic'>Epistulæ</hi> 4, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 17, 105, 167; Jerome, +<hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 146, <hi rend='italic'>ad Evangelum</hi>. Kirch, +Mirbt, and Denziger give many references to original texts and citations. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Sermo</hi> 3. +(MSL, 55:145 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +On the prerogatives of Peter and his see. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. … From His overruling and eternal providence +we have received also the support of the Apostle's aid, which +assuredly does not cease from its operation; and the strength +of the foundation, on which the whole lofty building of the +Church is reared, is not weakened by the weight of the temple +that rests upon it. For the solidity of that faith which +was praised in the chief of the Apostles is perpetual; and, as +that remains which Peter believed in Christ, so that remains +which Christ instituted in Peter. For when, as has been read +in the Gospel lesson [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, for the day], the Lord has asked the +disciples whom they believed Him to be, amid the various +opinions that were held, the blessed Peter replied, saying: +<q>Thou art the Christ,</q> etc. [Matt. 16:16-19]. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. The dispensation of the truth therefore abides, +and the blessed Peter, persevering in the strength of the rock +which he has received, has not abandoned the helm of the +Church which he undertook. For he was ordained before +the rest in such a way that since he is called the rock, since +he is pronounced the foundation, since he is constituted the +doorkeeper of the kingdom of heaven, since he is set up as +the judge to bind and to loose, whose judgments shall retain +their validity in heaven, from all these mystical titles we might +know the nature of his association with Christ. And still +to-day he more fully and effectually performs what is intrusted +to him, and carries out every part of his duty and +charge in Him and with Him, through whom he has been +glorified. And so if anything is rightly done or rightly decreed +by us, if anything is obtained from the mercy of God +by daily supplications, it is his work and merits whose power +<pb n='478'/><anchor id='Pg478'/> +lives in his see and whose authority excels. For this, dearly +beloved, that confession gained, that confession which, inspired +in the Apostle's heart by God the Father, transcends +all the uncertainty of human opinions, and was endued with +the firmness of a rock, which no assaults could shake. For +throughout the Church Peter daily says, <q>Thou art the +Christ, the Son of the living God,</q> and every tongue which +confesses the Lord is inspired by the instruction +[<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">magisterio</foreign>] +of that voice. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 104, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Marcianum Augustum</hi>, A. D. 452. (MSL, 54:993.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Condemnation of the twenty-eighth canon of Chalcedon. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This and the two following epistles upon the twenty-eighth canon of +the Council of Chalcedon define the relation of the Roman see to +councils, canons, and patriarchal sees. Apostolic sees may not be constituted +by mere canon; political importance of a place does not regulate +its ecclesiastical position; the see of Rome can reject the canons of +councils even though general; apostolic sees connected with Peter may +not have their authority diminished. For the twenty-eighth canon of +Chalcedon, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, <ref target="Section_90_d">§ 90, +<hi rend='italic'>d</hi></ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 3. Let the city of Constantinople have, as we desire, +its glory, and may it, under the protection of God's right +hand, long enjoy the rule of your clemency. Yet the basis +of things secular is one, and the basis of things divine another; +and there can be no sure building save on that rock which the +Lord laid as a foundation. He that covets what is not his due, +loses what is his own. Let it be enough for the aforesaid +[Anatolius, bishop of Constantinople] that by the aid of your +piety and by my favorable assent he has obtained the bishopric +of so great a city. Let him not disdain a royal city, which +he cannot make an apostolic see; and let him on no account +hope to be able to rise by injury to others. For the privileges +of the churches, determined by the canons of the holy Fathers, +and fixed by the decrees of the Nicene synod, cannot be overthrown +by an unscrupulous act, nor disturbed by an innovation. +And in the faithful execution of this task by the aid of +Christ, it is necessary that I show an unflinching devotion; +<pb n='479'/><anchor id='Pg479'/> +for it is a charge intrusted to me, and it tends to condemnation +if the rules sanctioned by the Fathers and laid down +under the guidance of God's spirit at the synod of Nicæa for +the government of the whole Church are violated with my +connivance (which God forbid) and if the wishes of a single +brother have more weight with me than the common word of +the Lord's whole house. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 105, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Pulcheriam Augustam</hi> A. D. 452. (MSL, 54:997.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Condemnation of all canons contravening those of Nicæa. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 3. Let him [Anatolius] know to what sort of man he has +succeeded, and, expelling all the spirit of pride, let him imitate +the faith of Flavian, his modesty and his humility, which +raised him up even to a confessor's glory. If he will shine +with his virtues, he will be praiseworthy and everywhere he +will win an abundance of love, not by seeking human things, +but divine favor. And by this careful course I promise that +my heart will also be bound to him, and the love of this apostolic +see which we have ever bestowed upon the church of +Constantinople shall never be violated by any change. Because, +if rulers, lacking self-restraint, fall into errors, yet the +purity of the churches of Christ continues. As for the assents +of bishops which are in contradiction with the regulations +of the holy canons composed at Nicæa, in conjunction with +your faithful race we do not recognize them, and by the authority +of the blessed Apostle Peter we absolutely disannul +in comprehensive terms in all cases ecclesiastical, following +those laws which the Holy Ghost set forth by three hundred +and eighteen bishops for the pacific observance of all priests, +so that, even if a much greater number were to pass a different +decree from theirs, whatever was opposed to their constitution +would have to be held in no respect. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 106, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Anatolium</hi> A. D. 452. (MSL, 54:1005.)</head> + +<pb n='480'/><anchor id='Pg480'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The relation of the apostolic sees to Peter. +</quote> + +<p> +Your purpose is in no way whatever supported by the written +assent of certain bishops, given, as you allege, sixty years +ago,<note place="foot">Reference to the Council of Constantinople, 381, known as the +Second General Council, but not yet acknowledged as such; see above, +<ref target="Section_71">§ 71</ref>.</note> and never brought to the +knowledge of the Apostolic See by your predecessors; under this +project<note place="foot">The elevation of the see at Constantinople +to supremacy in the East.</note> which +from its outset was tottering and has already collapsed, you +now wish to place too late and useless props.… The +rights of provincial primates may not be overthrown, nor +metropolitan bishops be defrauded of privileges based on antiquity. +The see of Alexandria may not lose any of that dignity +which it merited through St. Mark, the evangelist and +disciple of the blessed Peter, nor may the splendor of so great +a church be obscured by another's clouds, when Dioscurus +fell through his persistence in impiety. The church of +Antioch, too, in which first, at the preaching of the blessed +Apostle Peter, the Christian name arose, must continue in the +position assigned to it by the Fathers, and, being set in the +third place [Can. 6, Nicæa, 325, <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_72">§ 72</ref>], must never be +lowered therefrom. For the see is one thing, and those who +preside in it something different; and an individual's great +honor is his own integrity. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 6, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Anastasium</hi> A. D. 444. (MSL, 54:616.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. 814 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The policy of centralization. The primates are representatives of +the bishop of Rome. Anastasius was bishop of Thessalonica. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 2. Inasmuch, dear brother, as your request has been +made known to us through our son Nicholas, the priest, that +you also, like your predecessors, might receive from us in your +turn authority over Illyricum for the observance of the rules, +we give our consent, and earnestly exhort that no concealment +and no negligence may be allowed in the management of the +churches situated throughout Illyricum, which we commit to +<pb n='481'/><anchor id='Pg481'/> +you in our stead, following the precedent of Siricius, of blessed +memory, who then, for the first time acting on a fixed method, +intrusted them to your last predecessor but one, Anysius, of +holy memory, who had at the time well deserved of the Apostolic +See, and was approved by after events, that he might +render assistance to the churches situated in that province, +whom he wished to keep up to the discipline.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 5. Those of the brethren who have been summoned +to a synod should attend, and not deny themselves to the holy +congregation.… But if any more important question spring +up, such as cannot be settled there under your presidency, +brother, send your report and consult us, so that we may +write back under the revelation of the Lord, of whose mercy +it is that we can do aught, because He has breathed favorably +upon us; that by our decision we may vindicate our +right of cognizance in accordance with old-established tradition, +and the respect which is due the Apostolic See; for as +we wish you to exercise your authority in our stead, so we reserve +to ourselves points which cannot be decided on the spot +and persons who have appealed to us.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +<hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 14, <hi rend='italic'>ad Anastasium</hi>, written somewhat +later: <q>From which model [the difference in the rank and order of the Apostles] has +arisen a distinction between bishops also, and by an important ordinance it has been +provided that every one should not claim everything for himself; but that there should +be in each province one whose opinion should have priority among the brethren; and +again, that certain whose appointment is in the greater cities should undertake +fuller responsibility, through whom the care of the universal Church should +converge toward Peter's one seat, and nothing anywhere should be separated +from its head.</q></note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter III. The Church In The Eastern Empire.</head> + +<p> +At the beginning of the permanent division of the Empire, +the church life of the East was disturbed by a series of closely +connected disputes known as the First Origenistic Controversy +(<ref target="Section_87">§ 87</ref>), in which were comprised a conflict between a +rationalistic tendency, connected with the religious philosophy +of Origen, and a traditionalism that eschewed speculation, a +bitter rivalry between the great sees of Alexandria, the religious +<pb n='482'/><anchor id='Pg482'/> +and intellectual capital of the East, and Constantinople, +the church of the new imperial city, and personal disputes. +But more serious controversies were already beginning. +While the Church of the West was laying the foundations of +the papal system, the Church of the East was falling more +and more under the dominance of the secular authority; while +the West was developing its anthropology, with its doctrines of +Original Sin, Grace, and Election, the East was entering upon +the long discussion of the topic which had been left by the +Arian controversy—granted that the incarnate Son of God +is truly eternal God, in what way are the divine and human +natures related to the one personality of the incarnate God +(<ref target="Section_88">§ 88</ref>)? The controversies that +arose over this topic involved the entire Church of the East, +and found in the general councils of Ephesus, A. D. 431 +(<ref target="Section_89">§ 89</ref>), and Chalcedon, A. D. 451 +(<ref target="Section_90">§ 90</ref>), partial solutions. In +the case of each council, permanent schisms resulted, +and large portions of the Church of the East broke away from the previous unity +(<ref target="Section_91">§ 91</ref>); and on account +of the intimate connection between the affairs of the +Church and the secular policy of the Empire, a schism was +caused between the see of Rome and the churches in communion +with the see of Constantinople. +</p> + +<pb n='483'/><anchor id='Pg483'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_87"/> +<head>§ 87. The First Origenistic Controversy and the +Triumph of Traditionalism</head> + +<p> +In the East the leading theologians of the fourth century +were educated under the influence of Origenism; among these +were Basil of Cæsarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of +Nazianzus. In the West the feeling regarding Origen was +not so favorable, but the Western theologians, Jerome and +Rufinus, who were then living in Palestine, shared in the +general admiration of Origen. But a series of brief controversies +broke out in which the standing of Origen as an orthodox +theologian was seriously attacked, as well as the whole +tendency for which he stood. The result was a wide-spread +condemnation of the spiritualizing teaching of the great Alexandrian, +and the rise of what might be called an anthropomorphic +traditionalism. The first of the three controversies +took place in Palestine, 395-399, and was occasioned by +Epiphanius of Salamis, a zealous opponent of heresy. He +denounced Origen and induced Jerome to abandon Origen; +and Rufinus was soon in bitter enmity with Jerome. The +second controversy took place in Egypt about the same time, +when a group of monks in the Scetic desert, who were violently +opposed to Origenism, compelled Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria +and an admirer of Origen, to abandon that theologian +and to side with them against the monks of the Nitrian desert, +who were Origenists, and to condemn Origen at a council at +Alexandria, 399. The third controversy involved John Chrysostom, +bishop of Constantinople, who had protected four +Nitrian monks who had fled to his protection. Theophilus +seized the opportunity and, with the assistance for a time of +Epiphanius, ultimately brought about the downfall of Chrysostom, +who died deposed and in exile, 404. No controversies +of the ancient Church are less attractive than the Origenistic, +in which so much personal rancor, selfish ambition, mean +intrigue, and so little profound thought were involved. The +literature, therefore, is scanty. +</p> + +<pb n='484'/><anchor id='Pg484'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 86-99 (PNF); Rufinus and +Jerome, controversial writings bearing on Origenism in PNF, ser. +II. vol. III, pp. 417-541; Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 2-21; +Sozomen, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VIII, 2-28. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Basil, <hi rend='italic'>De Spiritu Sancto</hi>, 27. +(MSG, 32:187.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The force of unwritten tradition. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following is the most important and authoritative statement of +the force of unwritten tradition in the Eastern Church. It is referred +to by John of Damascus in his defence of images (<hi rend='italic'>De Fide Orthod.</hi>, +IV, 16), <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> § 109. It is placed in the present section as +illustrating the principle of traditionalism which, in a fanatical form, brought about +the Origenistic controversies. +</quote> + +<p> +Of the beliefs and public teachings preserved in the Church, +some we have from written tradition, others we have received +as delivered to us <q>in a mystery</q> by the tradition of +the Apostles; and both of these have in relation to true piety +the same binding force. And these no one will gainsay, at +least no one who is versed even moderately in the institutions +of the Church. For were we to reject such customs as are +unwritten as having no great force, we should unintentionally +injure the gospels in their very vitals; or, rather, reduce our +public definition to a mere name and nothing more. For +example, to take the first and most general instance, who is +there who has taught us in writing to sign with the cross those +who have trusted in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ? +What writing has taught us to turn to the East in our prayers? +Which of the saints has left us in writing the words at the +invocation and at the displaying of the bread in the eucharist +and the cup of blessing? For we are not, as is well known, +content with what the Apostle or the Gospel has recorded; +but, both before and after, we say other words as having great +importance for the mystery, and these we derive from unwritten +teaching. Moreover, we bless the water of baptism +and the oil of chrism, and, besides this, him who is baptized. +From what writings? Is it not from the silent and mystical +tradition? What written word teaches the anointing of oil +itself? And whence is it that a man is baptized three times? +<pb n='485'/><anchor id='Pg485'/> +And as to other customs of baptism, from what Scripture +comes the renunciation of Satan and his angels? Does not +this come from the unpublished and secret teaching which our +fathers guarded in silence, averse from curious meddling and +inquisitive investigation, having learned the lesson that the +reverence of the mysteries is best preserved in silence? How +was it proper to parade in public the teaching of those things +which it was not permitted the uninitiated to look at? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_87_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Preface to the Vulgate +Translation of the New Testament</hi>. (MSL, 29:557.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Jerome's free critical attitude in his work in his earlier life. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This preface is addressed to Bishop Damasus of Rome and is dated +383. +</quote> + +<p> +You urge me to make a new work out of an old and, as it +were, to sit in judgment on the copies of the Scriptures already +scattered throughout the whole world; and, inasmuch as they +differ among themselves, I am to decide which of them agree +with the Greek original. A pious labor, but a perilous presumption; +to judge others, myself to be judged of all; to +change the language of the aged, and to carry back the world +already grown gray, back to the beginnings of its infancy! +Is there a man, learned or unlearned, who will not, when he +takes the volume into his hands and perceives that what he +reads differs from the flavor which once he tasted, break out +immediately into violent language and call me a forger and a +profane person for having the audacity to add anything to +the ancient books or to change or correct anything? I am +consoled in two ways in bearing this odium: in the first place, +that you, the supreme bishop, command it to be done; and +secondly, even on the testimony of those reviling us, what +varies cannot be true. For if we put faith in the Latin texts, +let them tell us which; for there are almost as many texts +as copies. But if the truth is to be sought from many, why +should we not go back to the original Greek and correct the +mistakes introduced by inaccurate translators, and the blundering +<pb n='486'/><anchor id='Pg486'/> +alterations of confident and ignorant men, and further, +all that has been added or altered by sleepy copyists? I am +not discussing the Old Testament, which was turned into +Greek by the Seventy Elders, and has reached us by a descent +of three steps. I do not ask what Aquila and Symmachus +think, or why Theodotion takes a middle course between the +ancients and the moderns. I am willing to let that be a true +translation which had apostolic approval [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the LXX]. I +am now speaking of the New Testament. This was undoubtedly +composed in Greek, with the exception of the work of the +Apostle Matthew, who first published the gospel of Christ in +Judea and in Hebrew. This [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the New Testament], as it +is in our language, is certainly marked by discrepancies, and +the stream flows in different channels; it must be sought in +one fountainhead. I pass over those manuscripts bearing +the names of Lucian and Hesychius, which a few contentious +persons perversely support. It was not permitted these writers +to amend anything in the Old Testament after the labor +of the Seventy; and it was useless to make corrections in the +New, for translations of the Scriptures already made in the +language of many nations show that they are additions and +false. Therefore this short preface promises only the four +gospels, of which the order is Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, +revised by a comparison of the Greek manuscripts and only +of the ancient manuscripts. And that they might not depart +far from the Latin customarily read, I have used my pen with +some restraint, so that having corrected only the passages +which seemed to change the meaning, I have allowed the rest +to remain as it was. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 7, +<hi rend='italic'>ad Pammachium</hi>. (MSL, 23:376.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The principal errors of Origen according to Jerome. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This is the most important work of Jerome in the controversy known +as the Origenistic controversy. Jerome attacks in this work John, +bishop of Jerusalem, and writes as a result of the work of Epiphanius +in Palestine three years before. The following were addressed to John +to reject, as a test of that bishop's orthodoxy. See above, +<ref target="Section_43">§ 43</ref>. +</quote> + +<pb n='487'/><anchor id='Pg487'/> + +<p> +First, in the book περὶ ἀρχῶν it is said [I, 1:8]: <q>For as it is +unfitting to say that the Son can see the Father, so it is not +meet to think that the Holy Spirit can see the Son.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Secondly, that souls are bound in this body as in a prison; +and that before man was made in paradise they dwelt among +rational creatures in the heavens. Wherefore, afterward, +to console itself, the soul says in the Psalms, <q>Before I was +humbled I went wrong,</q> and <q>Return, my soul, unto thy rest,</q> +and <q>Lead my soul out of prison,</q> and similarly elsewhere. +</p> + +<p> +Thirdly, that he says that both the devil and the demons +will some time or other repent and ultimately reign with the +saints. +</p> + +<p> +Fourthly, that he interprets the coats of skins, with which +Adam and Eve were clothed after their fall and ejection from +paradise, to be human bodies, and no doubt they were previously +in paradise without flesh, sinews, or bones. +</p> + +<p> +Fifthly, he most openly denies the resurrection of the flesh, +the bodily structure, and the distinction of sexes by which we +men are distinguished from women, both in his explanation +of the first psalm and in many other treatises. +</p> + +<p> +Sixthly, he so allegorizes paradise as to destroy the truth +of history, understanding angels instead of trees, heavenly +virtues instead of rivers; and he overthrows all that is contained +in the history of paradise by his tropological interpretation. +</p> + +<p> +Seventhly, he thinks that the waters which in the Scriptures +are said to be above the heavens are holy and supernal +powers; while those which are upon the earth and beneath +the earth are, on the contrary, demoniacal powers. +</p> + +<p> +Eighthly, that the image and likeness of God, in which man +was created, was lost and was no longer in man after he was +expelled from paradise. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Anastasius, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Simplicianum</hi>, +in Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 95 (MSL, 22:772.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Condemnation of Origen by Anastasius, bishop of Rome, A. D. 400 +</quote> + +<pb n='488'/><anchor id='Pg488'/> + +<p> +To his lord and brother, Simplicianus, Anastasius. +</p> + +<p> +It is felt right that a shepherd have great care and watchfulness +over his flock. In like manner, also, the careful watchman +from his lofty tower keeps a lookout day and night on +behalf of the city. In the hour of tempest and peril the +prudent shipmaster suffers great distress of mind lest by the +tempest and the violent waves his vessel be dashed upon the +rocks. With similar feelings that reverend and honorable +man Theophilus, our brother and fellow-bishop, ceases not to +watch over the things which make for salvation, that God's +people in the different churches may not by reading Origen +run into awful blasphemies. +</p> + +<p> +Having been informed, then, by the letter of the aforesaid, +we inform your holiness that just as we are set in the city of +Rome, in which the prince of the Apostles, the glorious Peter, +founded the Church and then by his faith strengthened it; +to the end that no man contrary to the commandment read +these books which we have mentioned and the same we have +condemned; and with earnest prayers we have urged that the +precepts of the Evangelists which God and Christ have inspired +the Evangelists to teach ought not to be forsaken; but +that is to be remembered which the venerable Apostle Paul +preached by way of warning: <q>If any one preach a gospel +unto you other than that which was preached unto you, let +him be anathema</q> [Gal. 1:8]. Holding fast, therefore, +this precept, we have intimated that everything written in +days past by Origen that is contrary to our faith is even by +us rejected and condemned. +</p> + +<p> +We have written these things to your holiness by the hand +of the presbyter Eusebius, who, being a man filled with a +glowing faith and having the love of the Lord, has shown me +some blasphemous chapters at which we shuddered and which +we condemned, but if any other things have been put forth +by Origen, you should know that with their author they are +alike condemned by me. The Lord have you in safe-keeping, +my lord and brother deservedly held in honor. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='489'/><anchor id='Pg489'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Rufinus, <hi rend='italic'>Preface to Translation of +Origen's <q>De Principiis</q></hi>. (MSL, 22:733 and also MSG, 11:111.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In this preface Rufinus refers, without mentioning names, to Jerome. +Inasmuch as it was perfectly clear to whom the allusion was made, as +the translator and admirer of Origen, Jerome felt himself personally +attacked and retorted furiously upon Rufinus. +</quote> + +<p> +I know that a great many of the brethren, incited by their +desire for a knowledge of the Scriptures, have requested various +men versed in Greek letters to make Origen a Roman and give +him to Latin ears. Among these was our brother and associate +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Jerome], who was so requested by Bishop Damasus, +when he translated the two homilies on the Song of Songs from +Greek into Latin, prefixed to the work a preface so full of +beauty and so magnificent that he awoke in every one the +desire of reading Origen and of eagerly examining his works, +and he said that to the soul of that man the words might well +be applied, <q>The King has brought me into his chamber</q> +[Cant. 2:4], and he declared that Origen in his other books +surpassed all other men, but in this had surpassed himself. +What he promised in his preface is, indeed, that he would +give to Roman ears not only these books on the Song of Songs, +but many others of Origen. But, as I perceive, he is so pleased +with his own style that he pursues an object bringing him more +glory, viz., to be the father of a book rather than a translator. +I am therefore following out a task begun by him and commended +by him.… In translation, I follow as far as possible +the method of my predecessors, and especially of him +whom I have already mentioned, who, after he had translated +into Latin above seventy of the books of Origen, which +he called Homilies, and also a certain number of the tomes +written on the Apostle [the Epistles of St. Paul], since a number +of offensive passages are to be found in the Greek, eliminated +and purged, in his translation, all of them, so that the +Latin reader will find nothing in these which jar on our faith. +Him, therefore, we follow, not indeed with the power of his +eloquence, but as far as we can in his rules and methods: +<pb n='490'/><anchor id='Pg490'/> +that is, taking care not to promulgate those things which in +the books of Origen are found to be discrepant and contradictory +one to the other. The cause of these variations I +have set forth fully in the apology which Pamphilus wrote +for the books of Origen, to which is appended a short treatise +showing how proofs which, as I judge, are quite clear in his +books have in many cases been falsified by heretical and evil-disposed +persons. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 73, Ch. 8. +(MSL, 33:249.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The attempt of Augustine to bring about a reconciliation between +Rufinus and Jerome. Jerome had written some affectionate words to +Augustine to which he alludes in the beginning of the following passage: +</quote> + +<p> +When, by these words, now not only yours but also mine, +I am gladdened and refreshed, and when I am comforted not +a little by the desire of both of us for mutual fellowship, which +has been suspended and is not satisfied, suddenly I am pierced +through by the darts of keenest sorrow when I consider that +between you [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Rufinus and Jerome] (to whom God granted +in fullest measure and for a long time that which both of us +have longed for, that in closest and most intimate fellowship +you tasted together the honey of Holy Scriptures) such a +blight of bitterness has broken out, when, where, and in whom +it was not to be feared, since it has befallen you at the very +time when, unencumbered, having cast away secular burdens, +you were following the Lord, were living together in +that land in which the Lord walked with human feet, when +He said, <q>Peace I leave with you, My peace I give unto you</q>; +being, moreover, men of mature age, whose life was devoted +to the study of the word of God. Truly, <q>man's life on earth +is a period of trial</q> [Job 7:1]. Alas, that I cannot meet +you both together, perchance that in agitation, grief, and fear +I might cast myself at your feet, weep till I could weep no +more, and appeal as I love you, first to each of you for his +own sake, and then for the sake of those, especially the weak, +<q>for whom Christ died</q> [I Cor. 8:11], who to their great +<pb n='491'/><anchor id='Pg491'/> +peril look on you as on the stage of time, imploring you not +to scatter abroad, in writing, those things about each other +which when reconciled, you, who are now unwilling to be +reconciled, could not then destroy, and which when reconciled +you would not dare to read lest you should quarrel anew. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI, 15. +(MSG, 67:708.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The fall of Chrysostom. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Epiphanius had gone to Constantinople on the suggestion of Theophilus, +and there, in his zeal, had violated the canons of ordination +as generally received. In this case he had ordained priests in the +diocese of Chrysostom and without his permission. Other troubles +had arisen. On being called to account for his conduct by Chrysostom, +Epiphanius hastily left the city, and died on the voyage back to his +diocese, Salamis, in Cyprus. +</quote> + +<p> +When Epiphanius had gone John was informed by some +person that the Empress Eudoxia had set Epiphanius +against him. Being of a fiery temperament and of ready +utterance, he soon after pronounced to the public an invective +against women in general. The people readily took this as +uttered indirectly against the Empress, and so the speech, +laid hold of by evil-disposed persons, was brought to the +knowledge of those in authority. At length the Empress, +having been informed of it, immediately complained to her +husband of the insult offered her, saying that the insult +offered her was an insult to him. He therefore gave orders +that Theophilus should speedily convoke a synod against John; +Severianus also co-operated in promoting this, for he still +retained his grudge [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, against Chrysostom. See DCB, +art. <q>Severianus, bishop of Gabala.</q>]. No great length of +time, accordingly, intervened before Theophilus arrived, having +stirred up many bishops from different cities; but this, +also, the summons of the Emperor had commanded. Especially +did they assemble who had one cause or another of complaint +against John, and there were present besides those +whom John had deposed, for John had deposed many bishops +in Asia when he went to Ephesus for the ordination of Heraclides. +<pb n='492'/><anchor id='Pg492'/> +Accordingly they all, by previous agreement, assembled +at Chalcedon in Bithynia.… Now none of the clergy +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, of Constantinople] would go forth to meet Theophilus +or pay him the customary honors because he was openly +known as John's enemy. But the Alexandrian sailors—for +it happened that at that time the grain-transport ships were +there—on meeting him, greeted him with joyful acclamations. +He excused himself from entering the church, and took up his +abode at one of the imperial mansions called <q>The Placidian.</q> +Then, in consequence of this, many accusations began to be +poured forth against John, and no longer was there any mention +of the books of Origen, but all were intent on pressing +a variety of absurd accusations. When these preliminary +matters were settled the bishops were convened in one of the +suburbs of Chalcedon, which is called <q>The Oak,</q> and immediately +cited John to answer charges which were brought +against him.… And since John, taking exception to those +who cited him, on the ground that they were his enemies, +demanded a general council, without delay they repeated their +citation four times; and as he persisted in his refusal to +answer, always giving the same reply, they condemned him, +and deposed him without giving any other cause for his deposition +than that he refused to obey when summoned. This, +being announced toward evening, incited the people to a very +great sedition, insomuch that they kept watch all night and +would by no means suffer him to be removed from the church, +but cried out that the charges against him ought to be determined +by a larger assembly. A decree of the Emperor, however, +commanded that he should be immediately expelled +and sent into exile. When John knew this he voluntarily +surrendered himself about noon, unknown to the populace, on +the third day after his condemnation; for he dreaded any +insurrectionary movement on his account, and he was accordingly +led away. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Theophilus of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Hieronymum</hi>, in Jerome, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 113. (MSL, 22:932.)</head> + +<pb n='493'/><anchor id='Pg493'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Theophilus on the fall of Chrysostom. +</quote> + +<p> +To the well-beloved and most loving brother Jerome, Theophilus +sends greeting in the Lord. +</p> + +<p> +At the outset the verdict of truth satisfies but few; but +the Lord, speaking by the prophet, says, <q>My judgment +goeth forth as the light,</q> and they who are surrounded with +a horror of darkness do not with clear mind perceive the +nature of things, and they are covered with eternal shame +and know by their outcome that their efforts have been in +vain. Wherefore we also have always desired that John +[Chrysostom], who for a time ruled the church of Constantinople, +might please God, and we have been unwilling to accept +as facts the cause of his ruin in which he behaved himself +rashly. But not to speak of his other misdeed, he has +by taking the Origenists into his confidences,<note place="foot">This +probably refers to <q>the four long brothers.</q></note> by advancing +many of them to the priesthood, and by this crime saddening +with no slight grief that man of God, Epiphanius, of blessed +memory, who has shone throughout all the world a bright +star among bishops, deserved to hear the words, <q>Babylon +is fallen, is fallen.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_88"/> +<head>§ 88. The Christological Problem and the Theological +Tendencies</head> + +<p> +The Arian controversy in bringing about the affirmation +of the true deity of the Son, or Logos, left the Church with the +problem of the unity of the divine and human natures in the +personality of Jesus. It seemed to not a few that to combine +perfect deity with perfect humanity would result in two +personalities. Holding fast, therefore, to the reality of the +human nature, a solution was attempted by Apollinarius, or +Apollinaris, by making the divine Logos take the place of the +human logos or reason. Mankind consisted of three parts: +a body, an animal soul, and a rational spirit. The Logos +was thus united to humanity by substituting the divine for +<pb n='494'/><anchor id='Pg494'/> +the human logos. But this did violence to the integrity of +the human nature of Christ. This attempt on the part of +Apollinaris was rejected at Constantinople, but also by the +Church generally. The human natures must be complete if +human nature was deified by the assumption of man in the +incarnation. On this basis two tendencies showed themselves +quite early: the human nature might be lost in the divinity, +or the human and the divine natures might be kept distinct +and parallel or in such a way that certain acts might be assigned +to the divine and certain to the human nature. The +former line of thought, adopted by the Cappadocians, tended +toward the position assumed by Cyril of Alexandria and in +a more extreme form by the Monophysites. The latter line +of thought tended toward what was regarded as the position +of Nestorius. In this position there was such a sharp cleavage +between the divine and the human natures as apparently +to create a double personality in the incarnate Son. This +divergence of theological statement gave rise to the christological +controversies which continued in various forms +through several centuries in the East, and have reappeared +in various disguises in the course of the Church's theological +development. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: There are several exegetical works of +Cyril of Alexandria available in English, see Bardenhewer, § 77, also +a German translation of three treatises bearing on christology in the +Kempten <hi rend='italic'>Bibliothek der Kirchenväter</hi>, 1879. For the general point +of view of the Cappadocians and the relation of the incarnation to +redemption, see Gregory of Nyssa, <hi rend='italic'>The Great Catechism</hi> (PNF, ser. +II, vol. V), <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_89">§ 89</ref> and references in Seeberg, § 23. +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_88_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Apollinaris, <hi rend='italic'>Fragments</hi>. Ed. H. +Lietzmann.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +His Christology. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following fragments of the teaching of Apollinaris are from H. +Lietzmann, <hi rend='italic'>Apollinaris von Laodicea und seine Schule. Texte und +Untersuchungen</hi>, 1904. Many fragments are to be found in the +<hi rend='italic'>Dialogues</hi> which Theodoret wrote against Eutychianism, which he +traced to the teaching of Apollinaris. The first condemnation of Apollinaris was +at Rome, 377, see Hefele, § 91; Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 10, +gives the letter of Damasus issued in the name of the synod. +</quote> + +<pb n='495'/><anchor id='Pg495'/> + +<p> +P. 224 [81]. If God had been joined with a man, one complete +being with another complete being, there would be two +sons of God, one Son of God by nature, another through +adoption. +</p> + +<p> +P. 247 [150]. They who assume a twofold spirit in Christ +pull a stone out with their finger. For if each is independent +and impelled by its own natural will, it is impossible that in +one and the same subject the two can be together, who will +what is opposed to each other; for each works what is willed +by it according to its own proper and personal motives. +</p> + +<p> +P. 248 [152]. They who speak of one Christ, and assert +that there are two independent spiritual natures in Him, do +not know Him as the Logos made flesh, who has remained in +His natural unity, for they represent Him as divided into two +unlike natures and modes of operation. +</p> + +<p> +P. 239 [129]. If a man has soul and body, and both remain +distinguished in unity, how much more has Christ, who +joins His divine being with a body, both as a permanent possession +without any commingling one with the other? +</p> + +<p> +P. 209 [21, 22]. The Logos became flesh, but the flesh +was not without a soul, for it is said that it strives against the +spirit and opposes the law of the understanding. [In this +Apollinaris takes up the trichotomy of human nature, a view +which he did not apparently hold at the beginning of his +teaching.] +</p> + +<p> +P. 240 [137]. John [John 2:19] spoke of the destroyed +temple, that is, of the body of Him who would raise it up +again. The body is altogether one with Him. But if the +body of the Lord has become one with the Lord, then the +characteristics of the body are proved to be characteristics +of Him on account of the body. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Apollinaris, <hi rend='italic'>Letter to the +Emperor Jovian</hi>. Lietzmann, 250 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<p> +We confess the Son of God who was begotten eternally +before all times, but in the last times was for our salvation +<pb n='496'/><anchor id='Pg496'/> +born of Mary according to the flesh; … and we confess that +the same is the Son of God and God according to the spirit, +Son of man according to the flesh; we do not speak of two +natures in the one Son, of which one is to be worshipped and +one is not to be worshipped, but of only one nature of the +Logos of God, which has become flesh and with His flesh is +worshipped with one worship; and we confess not two sons, +one who is truly God's Son to be worshipped and another the +man—who is of Mary and is not to be worshipped, who by the +power of grace had become the Son of God, as is also the case +with men, but one Son of God who at the same time was born +of Mary according to the flesh in the last days, as the angel +answered the Theotokos Mary who asked, <q>How shall this +be?</q>—<q>The Holy Ghost will come upon thee.</q> He, accordingly, +who was born of the Virgin Mary was Son of God by +nature and truly God … only according to the flesh from +Mary was He man, but at the same time, according to the +spirit, Son of God; and God has in His own flesh suffered our +sorrows. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Gregory of Nazianzus, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. I ad +Cledonium</hi>. (MSG, 37:181.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In this epistle Gregory attacks Apollinaris, basing his argument on +the notion of salvation by incarnation, which formed the foundation +of the most characteristic piety of the East, had been used as a major +premise by Athanasius in opposition to Arianism, and runs back to +Irenæus and the Asia Minor school; see above, <ref target="Section_33">§ 33</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +If any one trusted in a man without a human mind, he is +himself really bereft of mind and quite unworthy of salvation. +For what has not been assumed has not been healed; +but what has been united to God is saved. If only half of +Adam fell, then that which is assumed and saved may be half +also; but if the whole, it must be united to the whole of Him +that was begotten and be saved as a whole. Let them not, +then, begrudge us our complete salvation, or clothe the Saviour +only with bones and nerves and the semblance of humanity. +For if His manhood is without soul [ἄψυχος], even +<pb n='497'/><anchor id='Pg497'/> +the Arians admit this, that they may attribute His passion +to the godhead, as that which gives motion to the body is also +that which suffers. But if He had a soul and yet is without +a mind, how is He a man, for man is not a mindless [ἄνουν] animal? +And this would necessarily involve that His form was +human, and also His tabernacle, but His soul was that of a +horse, or an ox, or some other creature without mind. This, +then, would be what is saved, and I have been deceived in the +Truth, and have been boasting an honor when it was another +who was honored. But if His manhood is intellectual and not +without mind, let them cease to be thus really mindless. +</p> + +<p> +But, says some one, the godhead was sufficient in place of +the human intellect. What, then, is this to me? For godhead +with flesh alone is not man, nor with soul alone, nor with +both apart from mind, which is the most essential part of +man. Keep, then, the whole man, and mingle godhead therewith, +that you may benefit me in my completeness. But, as +he asserts [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Apollinaris], He could not contain two perfect +natures. Not if you only regard Him in a bodily fashion. +For a bushel measure will not hold two bushels, nor will the +space of one body hold two or more bodies. But if you will +look at what is mental and incorporeal, remember that I myself +can contain soul and reason and mind and the Holy Spirit; +and before me this world, by which I mean the system of +things visible and invisible, contained Father, Son, and Holy +Ghost. For such is the nature of intellectual existences that +they can mingle with one another and with bodies, incorporeally +and invisibly.… +</p> + +<p> +Further, let us see what is their account of the assumption +of the manhood, or the assumption of the flesh, as they call +it. If it was in order that God, otherwise incomprehensible, +might be comprehended, and might converse with men through +His flesh as through a veil, their mask is a pretty one, a hypocritical +fable; for it was open to Him to converse with us in +many other ways, as in the burning bush [Ex. 3:2] and in +the appearance of a man [Gen. 18:5]. But if it was that He +<pb n='498'/><anchor id='Pg498'/> +might destroy the condemnation of sin by sanctifying like +by like, then as He needed flesh for the sake of the condemned +flesh and soul for the sake of the soul, so also He needed +mind for the sake of mind, which not only fell in Adam but +was first to be affected, as physicians say, of the illness. For +that which received the commandment was that which failed +to observe the commandment, and that which failed to observe +the commandment was that also which dared to transgress, +and that which transgressed was that which stood most +in need of salvation, and that which needed salvation was that +which also was assumed. Therefore mind was taken upon Him. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Council of Constantinople, A. D. 382, +<hi rend='italic'>Epistula Synodica</hi>. Hefele, § 98.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Condemnation of Apollinarianism. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +At the Council of Constantinople held the year after that which is +known as the Second General Council, and attended by nearly the same +bishops, there was an express condemnation of Apollinaris and his +doctrine, for though Apollinaris had been condemned in 381, the +point of doctrine was not stated. The synodical letter of the council +of 382 is preserved only in part in Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 9, +who concludes his account with these words: +</quote> + +<p> +Similarly they openly condemn the innovation of Apollinarius +[so Theodoret writes the name] in the phrase, <q>And we +preserve the doctrine of the incarnation of the Lord, holding +the tradition that the dispensation of the flesh is neither soulless, +nor mindless, nor imperfect.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Theodore of Mopsuestia, <hi rend='italic'>Creed</hi>. +Hahn, § 215.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The position of the Nestorians. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following extracts are from the creed which was presented at +the Council of Ephesus, 431, and was written by Theodore of Mopsuestia, +the greatest theologian of the party which stood with Nestorius. +Although it does not state the whole doctrine of Theodore, +yet its historical position is so important that its characteristic passages +belong in the present connection. Bibliographical and critical +notes in Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +Concerning the dispensation which the Lord God accomplished +for our salvation in the dispensation according to the +<pb n='499'/><anchor id='Pg499'/> +Lord Christ, it is necessary for us to know that the Lord God +the Logos assumed a complete man, who was of the seed of +Abraham and David, according to the statement of the divine +Scriptures, and was according to nature whatsoever they were +of whose seed He was, a perfect man according to nature, +consisting of reasonable soul and human flesh, and the man +who was as to nature as we are, formed by the power of the +Holy Spirit in the womb of the Virgin, born of a woman, born +under the law, that he might redeem us all from the bondage +of the law [Gal. 4:4] who receive the adoption of sonship +which was long before ordained, that man He joined to himself +in an ineffable manner.… +</p> + +<p> +And we do not say that there are two Sons or two Lords, because +there is one God [Son?] according to substance, God the +Word, the only begotten Son of the Father, and He who has +been joined with Him is a participator in His deity and shares +in the name and honor of the Son; and the Lord according to +essence is God the Word, with whom that which is joined +shares in honor. And therefore we say neither two Sons +nor two Lords, because one is He who has an inseparable +conjunction with Himself of Him who according to essence +is Lord and Son, who, having been assumed for our salvation, +is with Him received as well in the name as in the honor of +both Son and Lord, not as each one of us individually is a +son of God (wherefore also we are called many sons of God, +according to the blessed Paul), but He alone in an unique +manner having this, namely, in that He was joined to God +the Word, participating in the Sonship and dignity, takes +away every thought of two Sons or two Lords, and offers +indeed to us in conjunction with the God the Word, to have +all faith in Him and all understanding and contemplation, +on account of which things also He receives from every +creature the worship and sacrifice of God. Therefore we say +that there is one Lord, namely, the Lord Jesus Christ, by +whom all things were made, understanding principally God +the Word, who according to substance is Son of God and +<pb n='500'/><anchor id='Pg500'/> +Lord, equally regarding that which was assumed, Jesus of +Nazareth, who God anointed with the Spirit and power, as in +conjunction with God the Lord, and participating in sonship +and dignity, who also is called the second Adam, according +to the blessed Apostle Paul, as being of the same +nature as Adam. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Theodore of Mopsuestia, +<hi rend='italic'>Fragments</hi>. Swete, <hi rend='italic'>Theodori epis. Mops. +in epistulas b. Pauli commentarii</hi>, Cambridge, 1880, 1882.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In the appendix to the second volume of this work by Theodore +there are many fragments of Theodore's principal dogmatic work, <hi rend='italic'>On +the Incarnation</hi>, directed against Eunomius. The work as a whole has +not been preserved. In the same appendix there are also other important +fragments. The references are to this edition. +</quote> + +<p> +P. 299. If we distinguish the two natures, we speak of one +complete nature of God the Word and a complete person +(πρόσωπον). But we name complete also the nature of the +man and also the person. If we think on the conjunction +(συνάφεια) then we speak of one person. +</p> + +<p> +P. 312. In the moment in which He [Jesus] was formed +[in the womb of the Virgin] He received the destination of +being a temple of God. For we should not believe that God +was born of the Virgin unless we are willing to assume that +one and the same is that which is born and what is in that +which is born, the temple, and God the Logos in the temple.… +If God had become flesh, how could He who was born +be named God from God [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Nicene Creed], and of one being +with the Father? for the flesh does not admit of such a +designation. +</p> + +<p> +P. 314. The Logos was always in Jesus, also by His birth +and when He was in the womb, at the first moment of his beginning; +to His development He gave the rule and measure, +and led Him from step to step to perfection. +</p> + +<p> +P. 310. If it is asked, did Mary bear a man, or is she +the bearer of God [Theotokos], we can say that both statements +are true. One is true according to the nature of the case; +<pb n='501'/><anchor id='Pg501'/> +the other only relatively. She bore a man according to +nature, for He was a man who was in the womb of Mary.… +She is Theotokos, since God was in the man who was +born; not enclosed in Him according to nature, but was in +Him according to the relation of His will. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Nestorius, <hi rend='italic'>Fragments</hi>. Loofs, +<hi rend='italic'>Nestoriana</hi>.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The fragments of Nestorius have been collected by Loofs, +<hi rend='italic'>Nestoriana</hi>, Halle, 1905; to this work the references are made. +It now appears that what was condemned as Nestorianism was a perversion of +his teaching and that Nestorius was himself in harmony with the +definition which was put forth at Chalcedon, a council which he survived +and regarded as a vindication of his position after the wrong +done him at Ephesus by Cyril; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Bethune-Baker, +<hi rend='italic'>Nestorius and His Teaching</hi>, Cambridge, 1908. +</quote> + +<p> +P. 252. Is Paul a liar when he speaks of the godhead of +Christ and says: <q>Without father, without mother, without +genealogy</q>? My good friend, Mary has not born the godhead, +for that which is born of the flesh is flesh.… A +creature has not born the Creator, but she bore a man, the +organ of divinity; the Holy Ghost did not create God the +Word, but with that which was born of the Virgin He prepared +for God the Word, a temple, in which He should dwell. +</p> + +<p> +P. 177. Whenever the Holy Scriptures make mention of +the works of salvation prepared by the Lord, they speak of +the birth and suffering, not of the divinity but of the humanity +of Christ; therefore, according to a more exact expression +the holy Virgin is named the bearer of Christ [Christotokos]. +</p> + +<p> +P. 167. If any one will bring forward the designation, +<q>Theotokos,</q> because the humanity that was born was conjoined +with the Word, not because of her who bore, so we say +that, although the name is not appropriate to her who bore, +for the actual mother must be of the same substance as her +child, yet it can be endured in consideration of the fact that +the temple, which is inseparably united with God the Word, +comes of her. +</p> + +<p> +P. 196. Each nature must retain its peculiar attributes, +<pb n='502'/><anchor id='Pg502'/> +and so we must, in regard to the union, wonderful and exalted +far above all understanding, think of one honor and confess +one Son.… With the one name Christ we designate at +the same time two natures.… The essential characteristics +in the nature of the divinity and in the humanity are +from all eternity distinguished. +</p> + +<p> +P. 275. God the Word is also named Christ because He +has always conjunction with Christ. And it is impossible +for God the Word to do anything without the humanity, for +all is planned upon an intimate conjunction, not on the deification +of the humanity. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Gregory of Nyssa, <hi rend='italic'>Contra +Eunomium</hi>, V, 5. (MSG, 45:705.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Christology of the Cappadocians. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Cappadocians use language which was afterward condemned +when given its extreme Alexandrian interpretation. Hefele, § 127, +may be consulted with profit. +</quote> + +<p> +The flesh is not identical with the godhead before this +is transformed into the godhead, so that necessarily some +things are appropriate to God the Word, other things to the +form of a servant. If, then, he [Eunomius] does not reproach +himself with a duality of Words, on account of such confusion, +why are we slanderously charged with dividing the faith +into two Christs, we who say that He who was highly exalted +after His passion, was made Lord and Christ by His union +with Him who is verily Lord and Christ, knowing by what we +have learned that the divine nature is always one and the +same mode of existence, while the flesh in itself is that which +reason and sense apprehend concerning it, but when mixed +with the divine it no longer remains in its own limitations +and properties, but is taken up to that which is overwhelming +and transcendent. Our contemplation, however, of the +respective properties of the flesh and of the godhead remains +free from confusion, so long as each of these is considered in +itself, as, for example, <q>The Word was before the ages, but +<pb n='503'/><anchor id='Pg503'/> +flesh came into being in the last times.</q>… It is not the +human nature that raises up Lazarus, nor is it the power that +cannot suffer that weeps for him when he lies in the grave; +the tear proceeds from the man, the life from the true Life.… +So much as this is clear … that the blows belong to +the servant in whom the Lord was, the honors to the Lord, +whom the servant compassed about, so that by reason of +contact and the union of natures the proper attributes of each +belong to both, as the Lord receives the stripes of the servant, +while the servant is glorified with the honor of the Lord. +</p> + +<p> +The godhead <q>empties</q> itself that it may come within the +capacity of the human nature, and the human nature is renewed +by becoming divine through its commixture with the +divine.… As fire that lies in wood, hidden often below the +surface, and is unobserved by the senses of those who see or +even touch it, is manifest, however, when it blazes up, so +too, at His death (which He brought about at His will, who +separated His soul from His body, who said to His own Father +<q>Into Thy hands I commend My spirit</q> [Luke 23:46], +<q>who,</q> as He says, <q>had power to lay it down and had +power to take it again</q>), He who, because He is the Lord of +glory, despised that which is shame among men, having concealed, +as it were, the flame of His life in His bodily nature, +by the dispensation of His death, kindled and inflamed it +once more by the power of His own godhead, warming into +life that which had been made dead, having infused with the +infinity of His divine power those humble first-fruits of our +nature; made it also to be that which He himself was, the +servile form to be the Lord, and the man born of Mary to +be Christ, and Him, who was crucified through weakness, to +be life and power, and making all such things as are piously +conceived to be in God the Word to be also in that which the +Word assumed; so that these attributes no longer seem to be +in either nature, being, by commixture with the divine, made +anew in conformity with the nature that overwhelms it; participates +in the power of the godhead, as if one were to say +<pb n='504'/><anchor id='Pg504'/> +that a mixture makes a drop of vinegar mingled in the deep +to be sea, for the reason that the natural quality of this liquid +does not continue in the infinity of that which overwhelms it. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_89"/> +<head>§ 89. The Nestorian Controversy; the Council of Ephesus A. D. 431.</head> + +<p> +The Council of Ephesus was called to settle the dispute +which had arisen between Cyril and the Alexandrians and +Nestorius, archbishop of Constantinople, and the Antiochians. +Several councils had been held previously, and much acrimonious +debate. Both parties desired a council to adjust the +dispute. The Emperor Theodosius II, in an edict of November +19, 430, called a council to be held on the following Whitsunday +at Ephesus. The council was opened by Cyril and +Memnon, bishop of Ephesus, June 22, a few days after the +date assigned. This opening of the synod was opposed by +the imperial commissioner and the party of Nestorius, because +many of the Antiochians had not yet arrived. Cyril +and Memnon, who had undertaken to bring about the condemnation +and deposition of Nestorius, forced through their +programme. On June 26 or 27 the Antiochians arrived, +and, under the presidency of John of Antioch, and with the +approval of the imperial commissioner, they held a council +attended by about fifty bishops, while two hundred attended +the rival council under Cyril. This smaller council deposed +Cyril and Memnon. Both synods appealed to the Emperor +and were confirmed by him. But shortly after Cyril and +Memnon were restored. The Antiochians now violently +attacked the successful Alexandrians but, having abandoned +Nestorius, patched up a union with the Alexandrians, by +which Cyril subscribed in 433 to a creed drawn up by the +Antiochians, probably by Theodoret of Cyrus. Accordingly, +the council of Cyril was now recognized by the Antiochians, +as well as by the imperial authority, and became known as +the Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431. +</p> + +<pb n='505'/><anchor id='Pg505'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VII, 29-34; +Theodoret, <hi rend='italic'>Epistulæ</hi> in PNF, ser. II, vol. III, and his counter +propositions to the Anathemas of Cyril, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi>, pp. 27-31; +Percival, <hi rend='italic'>The Seven Ecumenical Councils</hi> (PNF). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Cyril of Alexandria, +<hi rend='italic'>Anathematisms</hi>. Hahn, § 219.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Condemnation of the position of Nestorius. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Cyril held a council at Alexandria in 430, in which he set forth the +teaching of Nestorius, as he understood it, in the form of anathemas +against any who held the opinions which he set forth in order. Nestorius +immediately replied by corresponding anathematisms. They +may be found translated PNF, ser. II, vol. XIV, p. 206, where they are +placed alongside of Cyril's. In the meantime, Celestine of Rome had +called upon Nestorius to retract, though as a matter of fact the Nestorian +or Antiochian position was more in harmony with the position +held in Rome, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, compare Anath. IV with the language +of Nestorius and Leo, see <hi rend='italic'>Tome</hi> of Leo in +<ref target="Section_90">§ 90</ref>. A Greek text of these Anathematisms +of Cyril may be found also in Denziger, n. 113, as they were described +in the Fifth General Council as part of the acts of the Council of +Ephesus A. D. 431; the Latin version (the Greek is lost) of the Anathematisms +of Nestorius, as given by Marius Mercator are in Kirch, nn. +724-736. +</quote> + +<p> +I. If any one shall not confess that the Emmanuel is in +truth God, and that therefore the holy Virgin is Theotokos, +inasmuch as according to the flesh she bore the Word of God +made flesh; let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +II. If any one shall not confess that the Word of God the +Father is united according to hypostasis to flesh, and that +with the flesh of His own He is one Christ, the same manifestly +God and man at the same time; let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +III. If any one after the union divide the hypostases in +the one Christ, joining them by a connection only, which is +according to worthiness, or even authority and power, and not +rather by a coming together, which is made by a union according +to nature; let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +IV. If any one divide between the two persons or hypostases +the expressions in the evangelical and apostolic writings, +or which have been said concerning Christ by the saints, +or by Himself concerning Himself, and shall apply some to +Him as to a man regarded separately apart from the Word of +<pb n='506'/><anchor id='Pg506'/> +God, and shall apply others, as appropriate to God only, to +the Word of God the Father; let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +V. If any one dare to say that the Christ is a god-bearing +man, and not rather that He is in truth God, as an only Son +by nature, because <q>The Word was made flesh,</q> and hath +share in flesh and blood as we have; let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +VI. If any one shall dare to say that the Word of God the +Father is the God of Christ or the Lord of Christ, and shall +not rather confess Him as at the same time both God and man, +since according to the Scriptures the Word became flesh; let +him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +VII. If any one say that Jesus is, as a man, energized by +the Word of God, and that the glory of the Only begotten is +attributed to Him as being something else than His own; let +him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +VIII. If any one say that the man assumed ought to be +worshipped together with God the Word, and glorified together +with Him, and recognized together with Him as God, +as one being with another (for this phrase <q>together with</q> +is added to convey this meaning) and shall not rather with +one adoration worship the Emmanuel and pay Him one glorification, +because <q>the Word was made flesh</q>; let him be +anathema. +</p> + +<p> +IX. If any man shall say that the one Lord Jesus Christ +was glorified by the Spirit, so that He used through Him a +power not His own, and from Him received power against +unclean spirits, and power to perform divine signs before +men, and shall not rather confess that it was His own spirit, +through which He worked these divine signs; let him be +anathema. +</p> + +<p> +X. The divine Scriptures say that Christ was made the +high priest and apostle of our confession [Heb. 3:1], and that +for our sakes He offered Himself as a sweet odor to God the +Father. If then any one say that it is not the divine Word +himself, when He was made flesh and had become man as we +are, but another than He, a man born of a woman, yet different +<pb n='507'/><anchor id='Pg507'/> +from Him who has become our high priest and apostle; +or if any one say that He offered Himself as an offering for +Himself, and not rather for us, whereas, being without sin, +He had no need of offering; let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +XI. If any one shall not confess that the flesh of the Lord +is life-giving, and belongs to the Word of God the Father as +His very own, but shall pretend that it belongs to another who +is united to Him according to worthiness, and who has served +as only a dwelling for the Divinity; and shall not rather confess +that that flesh is life-giving, as we say, because it has been +made the possession of the Word who is able to give life to all; +let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +XII. If any one shall not confess that the Word of God +suffered in the flesh, and that He was crucified in the flesh, +and that likewise He tasted death in the flesh, and that He is +become the first-born from the dead [Col. 1:18], for as God +He is the life and life-giving; let him be anathema. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431. +<hi rend='italic'>Condemnation of Nestorius</hi>. Mansi, IV, 1211.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The text may also be found in Hefele, § 134, under the First Session +of the Council. +</quote> + +<p> +The holy synod says: Since in addition to other things the +impious Nestorius has not obeyed our Citation and did not +receive the most holy and God-fearing bishops who were sent +to him by us, we were compelled to proceed to the examination +of his impieties. And, discovering from his letters and +treatises and from the discourses recently delivered by him in +this metropolis, which have been testified to, that he has held +and published impious doctrines, and being compelled thereto +by the canons and by the letter of our most holy father and +fellow-servant Celestine, the Roman bishop, we have come, +with many tears, to this sorrowful sentence against him: Our +Lord Jesus Christ whom he has blasphemed, decrees through +the present most holy synod that Nestorius be excluded from +the episcopal dignity and from all priestly communion. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='508'/><anchor id='Pg508'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. +ad Celestinum</hi>. Mansi, IV, 1330-1338.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The letter is very long and gives an almost complete history of the +council. It may be found complete in PNF, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi>, p. 237. It +is of special importance in connection with the Pelagian controversy, as it +states that the Council of Ephesus had confirmed the Western deposition +of the Pelagians. +</quote> + +<p> +The letters were read which were written to him [Nestorius] +by the most holy and reverend bishop of the church of Alexandria, +Cyril, which the holy synod approved as being orthodox +and without fault, and in no point out of agreement, +either with the divinely inspired Scriptures, or with the faith +handed down and set forth in the great synod by the holy +Fathers who were assembled some time ago at Nicæa, as +your holiness, also rightly having examined this, has given +witness.… +</p> + +<p> +When there had been read in the holy synod what had been +done touching the deposition of the irreligious Pelagians and +Celestinians, of Celestius, Pelagius, Julianus, Præsidius, +Florus, Marcellinus, and Orontius, and those inclined to like +errors, we also deemed it right that the determinations of +your holiness concerning them should stand strong and firm. +And we all were of the same mind, holding them deposed. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>, Bruns, I, 24.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The text may be found also in Hefele, § 141. +</quote> + +<p> +Whereas it is needful that they who were detained from the +holy synod and remained in their own district or city for any +reason, ecclesiastical or personal, should not be ignorant of +the matters which were decreed by the synod; we therefore +notify your holiness and charity that—— +</p> + +<p> +I. If any metropolitan of a province, forsaking the holy +and ecumenical synod, has joined the assembly of apostasy +[the council under John of Antioch], or shall join the same +hereafter; or if he has adopted, or shall adopt, the doctrines +<pb n='509'/><anchor id='Pg509'/> +of Celestius,<note place="foot">The friendly treatment Nestorius had given the exiled +Pelagians, when they came to Constantinople, had led the men of the West to connect +Nestorianism with Pelagianism and to condemn the two as if there was some necessary +connection between them.</note> he has no power in any way to do anything in +opposition to the bishops of the province because he is already +cast forth by the synod from all ecclesiastical communion, +and is without authority; but he shall be subjected to the +same bishops of the province and to the neighboring bishops +who hold the orthodox doctrines, to be degraded completely +from his episcopal rank. +</p> + +<p> +II. If any provincial bishops were not present at the holy +synod, and have joined or attempted to join the apostasy; +or if, after subscribing to the deposition of Nestorius, they +went back to the assembly of apostasy, these, according to +the decree of the holy synod, are to be deposed completely +from the priesthood and degraded from their rank. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431, +<hi rend='italic'>Manifesto of John of Antioch and his council against Cyril +and his council</hi>. Mansi, IV, 1271.</head> + +<p> +The holy synod assembled in Ephesus, by the grace of God +and at the command of the pious emperors, declares: We +should indeed have wished to be able to hold a synod in peace, +according to the canons of the holy Fathers and the letters +of our most pious and Christ-loving emperors; but because +you held a separate assembly from a heretical, insolent, and +obstinate disposition, although, according to the letters of our +most pious emperors, we were in the neighborhood, and because +you have filled both the city and the holy synod with +every sort of confusion, in order to prevent the examination +of points agreeing with the Apollinarian, Arian, and Eunomian +heresies and impieties, and have not waited for the arrival +of the most religious bishops summoned from all regions +by our pious emperors, and when the most magnificent Count +Candidianus warned you and admonished you in writing and +verbally that you should not hear such a matter, but await +<pb n='510'/><anchor id='Pg510'/> +the common judgment of all the most holy bishops; therefore +know thou, O Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, and thou, O +Memnon, bishop of this city, that ye are dismissed and deposed +from all sacerdotal functions as the originators and +leaders of all this disorder and lawlessness, and those who +have violated the canons of the Fathers and the imperial +decrees. And all ye others who seditiously and wickedly, +and contrary to all ecclesiastical sanctions and the royal decrees, +gave your consent are excommunicated until you acknowledge +your fault and reform and accept anew the faith +set forth by the holy Fathers at Nicæa, adding to it nothing +foreign or different, and until ye anathematize the heretical +propositions of Cyril, which are plainly repugnant to evangelical +and apostolic doctrine, and in all things comply with +the letters of our most pious and Christ-loving emperors, who +require a peaceful and accurate consideration of the dogma. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Creed of Antioch A. D. 433. Hahn, § 170.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This creed was probably composed by Theodoret of Cyrus, and was +sent by Count Johannes to the Emperor Theodosius in 431 as expressing +the teaching of the Antiochian party. The bitterest period of the +Nestorian controversy was after the council which is commonly regarded +as having settled it. The Antiochians and the Alexandrians +attacked each other vigorously. At last, in 433, John, bishop of Antioch, +sent the creed given below to Cyril of Alexandria, who signed it. +The creed expresses accurately the position of Nestorius. In this way +a union was patched up between the contending parties. But the +irreconcilable Nestorians left the Church permanently. This creed +in the form in which it had been presented to the Emperor was at the +beginning and the end worded somewhat differently, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi>, note. +</quote> + +<p> +We therefore acknowledge our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son +of God, the only begotten, complete God and complete man, +of a rational soul and body; begotten of the Father before the +ages according to His godhead, but in the last days for us and +for our salvation, of the Virgin Mary, according to the manhood; +that He is of the same nature as the Father according +to His godhead, and of the same nature with us according to +<pb n='511'/><anchor id='Pg511'/> +His manhood; for a union of the two natures has been made; +therefore we confess one Christ, one Son, one Lord. According +to this conception of the unconfused union, we confess +that the holy Virgin is Theotokos, because God the Word was +made flesh and became man, and from her conception united +with Himself the temple received from her. We recognize +the evangelical and apostolic utterances concerning the Lord, +making common, as in one person, the divine and the human +characteristics, but distinguishing them as in two natures; and +teaching that the godlike traits are according to the godhead +of Christ, and the humble traits according to His manhood. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_90"/> +<head>§ 90. The Eutychian Controversy and the Council of Chalcedon A. D. 451</head> + +<p> +What is known as the Eutychian controversy is less a dogmatic +controversy than a struggle between the patriarchs +of the East for supremacy, using party theological differences +as a support. Few passages in the history of the Church are +more painful. The union made in 433 between the Antiochian +and Alexandrian parties lasted fifteen years, or until after +the death of those who entered into it. At Antioch Domnus +became bishop in 442, at Alexandria Dioscurus in 444, and +at Constantinople Flavian in 446. Early in 448 Dioscurus, +who aimed at the domination of the East, began to attack +the Antiochians as Nestorians. In this he was supported at +Constantinople by Chrysaphius, the all-powerful minister of +the weak Theodosius II, and the archimandrite Eutyches, the +godfather of the minister. Eusebius of Dorylæum thereupon +accused Eutyches, who held the Alexandrian position in an +extreme form, of being heretical on the doctrine of the Incarnation. +Eutyches was condemned by Flavian at an endemic +synod [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> DCA, I. 474]. November 22, 448. Both Eutyches +and Flavian [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> +21, 22] thereupon turned to Leo, bishop of Rome. Leo, abandoning the traditional +Roman alliance with Alexandria, on which Dioscurus +<pb n='512'/><anchor id='Pg512'/> +had counted, supported Flavian, sending him June 13, 449, a +dogmatic epistle (the <hi rend='italic'>Tome, Ep.</hi> 28) defining, in the terms +of Western theology, the point at issue. A synod was now +called by Theodosius at Ephesus, August, 449, in which Dioscurus +with the support of the court triumphed. Eutyches +was restored, and the leaders of the Antiochian party, Flavian, +Eusebius, Ibas, Theodoret, and others deposed. Flavian [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +Kirch, nn. 804 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>], Eusebius, and Theodoret appealed to Leo, +who vigorously denounced the synod as a council of robbers +(Latrocinium Ephesinum). At the same time the situation +at the court, upon which Dioscurus depended, was completely +changed by the fall of Chrysaphius and the death of +Theodosius. Pulcheria, his sister, and Marcian, her husband, +succeeded to the throne, both adherents of the Antiochian +party, and opposed to the ecclesiastical aspirations of Dioscurus. +A new synod was now called by Marcian at Chalcedon, +a suburb of Constantinople. Dioscurus was deposed, as well +as Eutyches, but Ibas and Theodoret were restored after an +examination of their teaching. A definition was drawn up +in harmony with the <hi rend='italic'>Tome</hi> of Leo. It was a triumph for +Leo, which was somewhat lessened by the passage of canon +28, based upon the third canon of Constantinople, A. D. 381, +a council which was henceforth recognized as the <q>Second +General Council.</q> Leo refused to approve this canon, which +remained in force in the East and was renewed at the Quinisext +Council A. D. 692. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: W. Bright, <hi rend='italic'>Select Sermons of S. Leo the +Great on the Incarnation; with his twenty-eighth Epistle called the <q>Tome</q></hi>, +Second ed., London, 1886; Percival, <hi rend='italic'>The Seven Ecumenical Councils</hi> +(PNF); Evagrius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, II, 1-5, 18, Eng. trans., London, 1846 +(also in Bohn's <hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical Library</hi>); also much material in +Hefele, §§ 170-208. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Council of Constantinople, A. D. 448, +<hi rend='italic'>Acts</hi>. Mansi, VI, 741 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The position of Eutyches and his condemnation. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Inasmuch as Eutyches was no theologian and no man of letters, he +<pb n='513'/><anchor id='Pg513'/> +has left no worked-out statement of his position. What he taught can +be gathered only from the acts of the Council of Constantinople A. D. +448. These were incorporated in the acts of the Council of Ephesus, +A. D. 449, and as his friends were there they may be regarded as trustworthy. +The acts of the Council of Ephesus, A. D. 449 were read in +the Council of Chalcedon, A. D. 451, and in this way the matter is +known. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passages are taken from the seventh sitting of the +Council of Constantinople, November 22, 448. +</quote> + +<p> +Archbishop Flavian said: Do you confess that the one and +the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, is consubstantial with +His Father as to His divinity, and consubstantial with His +mother as to His humanity? +</p> + +<p> +Eutyches said: When I intrusted myself to your holiness +I said that you should not ask me further what I thought concerning +the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. +</p> + +<p> +The archbishop said: Do you confess Christ to be of two +natures? +</p> + +<p> +Eutyches said: I have never yet presumed to speculate +concerning the nature of my God, the Lord of heaven and +earth; I confess that I have never said that He is consubstantial +with us. Up to the present day I have not said that the +body of our Lord and God was consubstantial with us; I confess +that the holy Virgin is consubstantial with us, and that +of her our God was incarnate.… +</p> + +<p> +Florentius, the patrician, said: Since the mother is consubstantial +with us, doubtless the Son is consubstantial with us. +</p> + +<p> +Eutyches said: I have not said, you will notice, that the +body of a man became the body of God, but the body was +human, and the Lord was incarnate of the Virgin. If you +wish that I should add to this that His body is consubstantial +with us, I will do this; but I do not understand the term consubstantial +in such a way that I do not deny that he is the +Son of God. Formerly I spoke in general not of a consubstantiality +according to the flesh; now I will do so, because +your Holiness demands it.… +</p> + +<p> +Florentius said: Do you or do you not confess that our +<pb n='514'/><anchor id='Pg514'/> +Lord, who is of the Virgin, is consubstantial and of two natures +after the incarnation? +</p> + +<p> +Eutyches said: I confess that our Lord was of two natures +before the union [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the union of divinity and humanity in +the incarnation], but after the union one nature.… I follow +the teaching of the blessed Cyril and the holy Fathers and +the holy Athanasius, because they speak of two natures before +the union, but after the union and incarnation they +speak not of two natures but of one nature. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Condemnation of Eutyches. +</quote> + +<p> +Eutyches, formerly presbyter and archimandrite, has been +shown, by what has taken place and by his own confession, to +be infected with the heresy of Valentinus and Apollinaris, and +to follow stubbornly their blasphemies, and rejecting our +arguments and teaching, is unwilling to consent to true doctrines. +Therefore, weeping and mourning his complete perversity, +we have decreed through our Lord Jesus Christ, who +has been blasphemed by him, that he be deprived of every +sacerdotal office, that he be put out of our communion, and +deprived of his position over a monastery. All who hereafter +speak with him or associate with him, are to know that they +also are fallen into the same penalty of excommunication. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_90_b"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Leo the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Epistola Dogmatica</hi> +or the <hi rend='italic'>Tome</hi>. Hahn, § 176. (MSL, 54:763.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This letter was written to Flavian on the subject which had been +raised by the condemnation of Eutyches in 448. It is of the first importance, +not merely in the history of the Church, but also in the history +of doctrine. Yet it cannot be said that Leo advanced beyond +the traditional formulæ of the West, or struck out new thoughts +[<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 187, text and +translation of most important part in Norris, <hi rend='italic'>Rudiments of +Theology</hi>, 1894, pp. 262-266]. It was to be read +at the Council of Ephesus, 449 A. D., but was not. It soon became +widely known, however, and was approved at the endemic Council of +Constantinople, A. D. 450, and when read at Chalcedon, the Fathers of +the council cried out: <q>Peter has spoken by the mouth of Leo.</q> +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +It may be found translated in PNF, ser II, vol. XII, p. 38, and again +vol. XIV, p. 254. The best critical text is given in Hahn, § 224. A +<pb n='515'/><anchor id='Pg515'/> +translation with valuable notes may be found in Wm. Bright, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> Hefele, § 176, gives a paraphrase and text with useful notes. The most +significant passages, which are here translated, may be found in Denziger, +nn. 143 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 3. Without detracting from the properties of either +nature and substance, which came together in one person, +majesty took on humility; strength, weakness; eternity, mortality; +and to pay off the debt of our condition inviolable +nature was united to passible nature, so that as proper +remedy for us, one and the same mediator between God and +man, the man Jesus Christ, could both die with the one and +not die with the other. Thus in the whole and perfect nature +of true man was true God born, complete in what was His +and complete in what was ours.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 4. There enters, therefore, these lower parts of the +world the Son of God, descending from His heavenly seat, and +not quitting the glory of His Father, begotten in a new order +by a new nativity. In a new order: because He who was invisible +in His own nature, was made visible in ours; He who +was incomprehensible [could not be contained], became comprehensible +in ours; remaining before all times, He began to +be in time; the Lord of all, He took upon Him the form of a +servant, having obscured His immeasurable majesty. He who +was God, incapable of suffering, did not disdain to be man, +capable of suffering, and the immortal to subject Himself to +the laws of death. Born by a new nativity: because the inviolate +virginity knew not concupiscence, it ministered the +material of the flesh. The nature of the Lord was assumed +from the mother, not sin; and in the Lord Jesus Christ, born +of the womb of the Virgin, because His nativity is wonderful, +yet is His nature not dissimilar to ours. For He who is true +God, is likewise true man, and there is no +fraud<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, not mere appearance +without reality, as in Docetism and Monophysitism.</note> since both +the humility of the man and the loftiness of God meet.<note place="foot">Hefele. +<hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi>, interprets the phrase, <hi rend='italic'>invicem +sunt</hi> as a mutual interpenetration.</note> For +<pb n='516'/><anchor id='Pg516'/> +as God is not changed by the manifestation of pity, so the +man is not consumed [absorbed] by the dignity. For each +form [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, nature] does in communion with the other what +is proper to it [<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">agit enim utraque forma +cum alterius communione quod proprium est</foreign>]; namely, by the action of the +Word what is of the Word, and by the flesh carrying out what +is of the flesh. One of these is brilliant with miracles, the +other succumbs to injuries. And as the Word does not depart +from equality with the paternal glory, so the flesh does +not forsake the nature of our race.<note place="foot">In explanation of this Leo adds +further on: To be hungry and thirsty, to be weary and to sleep, is clearly human; but +to satisfy five thousand men with five loaves, and to bestow on the woman of Samaria +living water … is, without doubt, divine.… It is not the part of the same nature to +be moved to pity for a dead friend, and when the stone that closed that four +days' grave was removed, to raise that same friend to life with a voice of +command.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Chalcedon, A. D. 451, +<hi rend='italic'>Definition</hi>. Mansi, VII, 107.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The definition of Chalcedon lays down the fundamental principles +upon which rests the doctrine of the incarnation, both in Eastern and +Western theology. It is the necessary complement and result of the +discussion that led to the definition of Nicæa, and is theologically second +only to that in importance. At Nicæa the true and eternal deity of +the Son who became incarnate was defined; at Chalcedon the true, +complete, and abiding humanity of manhood of the incarnate Son of +God. In this way two natures were asserted to be in the incarnate +Logos. According to Chalcedon, which came after the Nestorian +and the Eutychian controversies, these natures are neither to be confused +so that the divine nature suffers or the human nature is lost in +the divine, nor to be separated so as to constitute two persons. The +definition was, however, not preceded by any clear understanding of +what was to be understood by nature in relation to hypostasis. This +was left for later discussion. There was even then left open the question +as to the relation of the will to the nature, and this gave rise to +the Monothelete controversy (see § 110). +But the definition of Chalcedon +is important not merely for the history of doctrine but also for +the general history of the Church. The course of Christianity in the +East depends upon the great controversies, and in Monophysitism the +Church of the East was split into permanent divisions. The divisions +of the Eastern Church prepared the way for the Moslem conquests. +The attempts made to set aside the definition of Chalcedon as a political +<pb n='517'/><anchor id='Pg517'/> +move led to a temporary schism between the East and the +West. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +In this definition, it should be noted, the Council of Constantinople, +A. D. 381, for the first time takes its place alongside of Nicæa and +Ephesus, A. D. 431, and the so-called creed of Constantinople is placed +on the same level as the creed put forth at Nicæa. The creed of Constantinople +eventually took the place of the creed of Nicæa even in +the East. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The text of the definition may be found in its most important dogmatic +part in Hefele, § 193; Hahn, § 146; Denziger, n. 148. For a general +description of the council, see Evagrius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, II, 3, 4. +Extracts from the acts in PNF, ser. II, vol. XIV, 243 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +The holy, great, and ecumenical synod, assembled by the +grace of God and the command of our most religious and +Christian Emperors Marcian and Valentinian, Augusti, at +Chalcedon, the metropolis of the province of Bithynia, in +the martyry of the holy and victorious martyr Euphemia, +has decreed as follows: +</p> + +<p> +Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, when strengthening the +knowledge of the faith in his disciples, to the end that no one +might disagree with his neighbor concerning the doctrines of +religion, and that the proclamation of the truth might be set +forth equally to all men, said: <q>My peace I leave with you, +my peace I give unto you.</q> But since the Evil One does not +desist from sowing tares among the seeds of godliness, but +ever invents something new against the truth, therefore the +Lord, providing, as He ever does, for the human race, has +raised up this pious, faithful, and zealous sovereign, and He +has called together unto Himself from all parts the chief +rulers of the priesthood, so that, with the grace of Christ, our +common Lord, inspiring us, we may cast off every plague of +falsehood from the sheep of Christ and feed them with the +tender leaves of truth. And this we have done, with unanimous +consent driving away erroneous doctrine and renewing +the unerring faith of the Fathers, publishing to all the +creed of the three hundred and eighteen [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the creed of +Nicæa], and to their number adding as Fathers those who +have received the same summary of religion. Such are the +<pb n='518'/><anchor id='Pg518'/> +one hundred and fifty who afterward assembled in great Constantinople +and ratified the same faith. Moreover, observing +the order and every form relating to the faith which was observed +by the holy synod formerly held in Ephesus, of which +Celestine of Rome and Cyril of Alexandria, of holy memory, +were the leaders [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Ephesus A. D. 431], we do declare that +the exposition of the right and blameless faith made by the +three hundred and eighteen holy and blessed Fathers, assembled +at Nicæa in the reign of Constantine, of pious memory, +shall be pre-eminent, and that those things shall be of force +also which were decreed by the one hundred and fifty holy +Fathers at Constantinople for the uprooting of the heresies +which had then sprung up and for the confirmation of the +same Catholic and apostolic faith of ours. +</p> + +<p> +Then follow: +</p> + +<p> +<q>The Creed of the Three Hundred and Eighteen Fathers +at Nicæa.</q> The so-called Constantinopolitan creed, without +the <q>filioque.</q> +</p> + +<p> +This wise and salutary formula of divine grace sufficed for +the perfect knowledge and confirmation of religion; for it +teaches the perfect doctrine concerning Father, Son, and Holy +Ghost, and sets forth the incarnation of the Lord to them that +faithfully receive it. But forasmuch as persons undertaking +to make void the preaching of the truth have through their +individual heresies given rise to empty babblings, some of +them daring to corrupt the mystery of the Lord's incarnation +for us and refusing to use the name Theotokos in reference to +the Virgin, while others bringing in a confusion and mixture, +and idly conceiving that there is one nature of the flesh and +the godhead, maintaining that the divine nature of the Only +begotten is by mixture capable of suffering; therefore this +present, great, and ecumenical synod, desiring to exclude from +them every device against the truth and teaching that which +is unchanged from the beginning, has at the very outset decreed +that the faith of the three hundred and eighteen Fathers +shall be preserved inviolate. And on account of them that +<pb n='519'/><anchor id='Pg519'/> +contend against the Holy Ghost, it confirms the doctrine +afterward delivered concerning the substance of the Spirit by +the one hundred and fifty holy Fathers assembled in the imperial +city, which doctrine they declare unto all men, not as +though they were introducing anything that had been lacking +in their predecessors, but in order to explain through +written documents their faith concerning the Holy Ghost +against those who were seeking to destroy His sovereignty. +And on account of those who are attempting to corrupt the +mystery of the dispensation [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the incarnation], and who +shamelessly pretend that He who was born of the holy Virgin +Mary was a mere man, it receives the synodical letters of the +blessed Cyril, pastor of the church of Alexandria, addressed +to Nestorius and to the Easterns,<note place="foot">See PNF, ser. II. vol. XIV; +To Nestorius, p. 197; To the Easterns, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +to John of Antioch (Cyril, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 39), p. 251.</note> +judging them suitable for +the refutation of the frenzied folly of Nestorius and for the +instruction of those who long with holy ardor for a knowledge +of the saving symbol. And to these it has rightly added +for the confirmation of the orthodox doctrines the letter of +the president of the great and old Rome, the most blessed and +holy Archbishop Leo, which was addressed to Archbishop +Flavian, of blessed memory,<note place="foot">See above, the <hi rend='italic'>Tome</hi> +of Leo.</note> for the removal of the false doctrines +of Eutyches, judging them to be agreeable to the confession +of the great Peter and to be a common pillar against +misbelievers. For it opposes those who would rend the mystery +of the dispensation into a duad of Sons; it repels from +the sacred assembly those who dared to say that the godhead +of the Only begotten is capable of suffering; it resists those +who imagine there is a mixture or confusion in the two natures +of Christ; it drives away those who fancy His form +as a servant is of an heavenly or of some substance other +than that which was taken of us,<note place="foot">It was charged against Eutyches that +he taught that the Son brought His body with Him from heaven. This Eutyches +denied.</note> and it anathematizes +those who foolishly talk of two natures of our Lord before +<pb n='520'/><anchor id='Pg520'/> +the union,<note place="foot">This is the position of Eutyches. Cyril of Alexandria also +taught the same; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Loofs, <hi rend='italic'>Leitfaden zum +Studium der Dogmengeschichte</hi>, 1906, § 37, 2.</note> +conceiving that after the union there was only +one.<note place="foot">Cyril's phrase was <q>The one nature of the incarnate Logos</q>; +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ottley, <hi rend='italic'>The +Doctrine of the Incarnation</hi>, 1896, II, 93.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Following the holy Fathers,<note place="foot">The text of this passage, the most +important dogmatically, may be found in all the references given above.</note> +we all with one voice teach men +to confess that the Son and our Lord Jesus Christ is one and the +same, that He is perfect in godhead and perfect in manhood, +truly God and truly man, of a reasonable soul and body, consubstantial +with His Father as touching His godhead, and consubstantial +with us as to His manhood,<note place="foot">Against Eutyches, who denied this +point, and also against Apollinaris, <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_88_a">§ 88, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi></ref>.</note> +in all things like unto us, +without sin; begotten of His Father before all worlds according +to His godhead; but in these last days for us and for our +salvation of the Virgin Mary, the Theotokos, according to +His manhood, one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten +Son,<note place="foot">The Nestorians were accused of dividing the person of Christ +into two Sons.</note> in<note place="foot">The present Greek text reads <q>of two +natures,</q> but <q>in two natures</q> was the original reading. For the evidence, see +Hefele, § 193 (Eng. trans., III, p. 348, note); see also Hahn, § 146, n. 34. <q>Of</q> +appears to be an early forgery. On the other side, see Dorner, <hi rend='italic'>History +of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ</hi>, Eng. trans., div. II, vol. I, p. 411; Baur, +<hi rend='italic'>Dreieinigkeit</hi>, I, 820 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></note> +two natures, unconfusedly, immutably, indivisibly, +inseparably; the distinction of natures being preserved +and concurring in one person and hypostasis,<note place="foot">Πρόσωπον and +ὑπόστασις are here used as probably not distinguishable; see +Hatch, <hi rend='italic'>Hibbert Lectures</hi>, pp. 275 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>; +Loofs in PRE, V, 637, I. 12.</note> not +separated or divided into two persons, but one and the same +Son and Only begotten, God the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ, +as the prophets from the beginning have spoken concerning +Him, and as the Lord Jesus Christ himself has taught us, and +as the creed of the Fathers has delivered us. +</p> + +<p> +These things having been expressed by us with great accuracy +and attention, the holy ecumenical synod decrees +that no one shall be permitted to bring forward another +<pb n='521'/><anchor id='Pg521'/> +faith,<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, teaching as +to these points in the form of a definition.</note> +nor to write, nor to compose, nor to excogitate, nor to +teach such to others. But such as dare to compose another +faith, or to bring forward, or to teach, or to deliver another +creed to such as wish to be converted to the knowledge of the +truth from among the Gentiles or the Jews, or any heresy +whatever; if they be bishops or clerics, let them be deposed, +the bishops from the episcopate, the clerics from the clerical +rank; but if they be monks or laymen, let them be anathematized. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_90_d"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Council of Chalcedon, A. D. 451, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 28. Bruns, I, 32.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The rank of the see of Constantinople. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This canon is closely connected with Canon 3 of Constantinople, +A. D. 381, but goes beyond that in extending the authority of Constantinople. +With this canon should be compared Canons 9 and 17 of +Chalcedon, which, taken with Canon 28, make Constantinople supreme +in the East. For the circumstances in which the Canon was passed, +see Hefele, § 200. The letter of the council submitting its decrees to +Leo for approval and explaining this canon is among the Epistles of +Leo, <hi rend='italic'>Ep.</hi> 98. (PNF, ser. II, vol. XII, p. 72.) For Leo's criticism, +<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_86">§ 86</ref>. See W. Bright, +<hi rend='italic'>Notes on the Canons of the First Four +General Councils</hi>, 1882. A valuable discussion of the canon in its +historical setting is in Hergenröther, <hi rend='italic'>Photius, Patriarch von +Constantinopel</hi>, 1867, I, 74-89. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Texts of the canon may be found in Kirch, n. 868, and Hefele, <hi rend='italic'>loc. +cit.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +Following in all things the decisions of the holy Fathers, +and acknowledging the canon, which has just been read, of +the one hundred and fifty bishops, beloved of God we also +do enact and decree the same things concerning the privileges +of the most holy Church of Constantinople or New Rome. +For the Fathers rightly granted privileges to the throne of +Old Rome, because it was the royal city, and the one hundred +and fifty most religious bishops, moved by the same +considerations, gave equal privileges to the most holy throne +of New Rome, judging with good reason that the city which is +honored with the sovereignty and the Senate, and also enjoys +equal privileges with old imperial Rome, should in ecclesiastical +<pb n='522'/><anchor id='Pg522'/> +matters also be magnified as she is, and rank next after +her; so that in the dioceses of Pontus, Asia, and Thrace the +metropolitans, and such bishops also of the dioceses aforesaid +as are among the barbarians, should be ordained only by +the aforesaid most holy throne of the most holy Church of +Constantinople; every metropolitan of the aforesaid dioceses +together with the bishops of his province ordaining bishops +of the province, as has been declared by the divine canons; +but that, as has been said above, the metropolitans of the +aforesaid dioceses shall be ordained by the archbishop of +Constantinople, after the proper elections have been held according +to custom and have been reported to him. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Council of Chalcedon, A. D. 451, +<hi rend='italic'>Protests of the Legates of Leo against Canon</hi> 28. Mansi, VII, +446.</head> + +<p> +Lucentius, the bishop [legate of Leo], said: The Apostolic +See gave orders that all things should be done in our presence +[Latin text: The Apostolic See ought not to be humiliated in +our presence], and therefore whatever was done yesterday +during our absence, to the prejudice of the canons, we pray +your highnesses [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the royal commissioners who directed +the affairs of the council] to command to be rescinded. But +if not, let our protest be placed in these acts [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the minutes +of the council then being approved], so that we may know +clearly what we are to report to that apostolic and chief +bishop of the whole Church [Latin text: to that apostolic man +and Pope of the universal Church], so that he may be able to +take action with regard either to the indignity done to his +see or to the setting at naught of the canons. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_91"/> +<head>§ 91. Results of the Decision of Chalcedon: the Rise +of Schisms from the Monophysite Controversy</head> + +<p> +The definition of the Council of Chalcedon, in spite of its +condemnation of Nestorius and its approval of the letters of +Cyril, was a triumph of the Antiochian school and a condemnation +<pb n='523'/><anchor id='Pg523'/> +of Alexandrian theology. At Chalcedon no more than +at Nicæa was a controversy settled. So far from being settled +at the council, Monophysitism began with it its long career +in the Eastern Church only to end in permanent schisms. +As soon as the results of Chalcedon were known the Church +was in an uproar. Riots broke out in Jerusalem against the +patriarch. At Alexandria, Timothy Ælurus, a Monophysite, +was able to drive out the orthodox patriarch. In Antioch, +Petrus Fullo did the same and added to the liturgical Trisagion +[Is. 6:3] the Theopaschite phrase: <q>God who was +crucified for us.</q> The Emperor Marcian died 457 and was +succeeded by Leo I (457-474). His grandson Leo II (474) +was succeeded by his father Zeno (474-475, 477-491). Zeno +was temporarily deposed by Basiliscus (475-477), who, basing +his authority upon the Monophysite faction, issued an +Encyclion condemning Chalcedon and Leo's Epistle, and making +Monophysitism the religion of the Empire. Zeno was +restored by a Dyophysite faction under the lead of Acacius, +patriarch of Constantinople. Zeno, to win back the Monophysites, +issued in 482 the <hi rend='italic'>Henoticon</hi>, setting aside Chalcedon +and making only the definition of Nicæa authoritative. +Dissatisfaction arose on both sides, and minor schisms in the +East took place. With Rome a schism arose lasting 484-519. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Evagrius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, lib. III. +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_91_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Basiliscus, <hi rend='italic'>Encyclion</hi>; A. D. +476; in Evagrius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 4. (MSG, 86, II:2600.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. 879 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Although an anti-encyclion was issued in 477 condemning Eutyches +as well as Nestorius, the attempts of Basiliscus were in vain. +</quote> + +<p> +The Emperor Cæsar Basiliscus, pious, victorious, triumphant, +supreme, ever-worshipful Augustus, and Marcus, the +most noble Cæsar, to Timotheus, archbishop of the great city +of the Alexandrians, most reverend and beloved of God. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever laws the pious emperors before us, who worshipped +the blessed and immortal and life-giving Trinity, have +decreed in behalf of the true and apostolic faith, these laws, +<pb n='524'/><anchor id='Pg524'/> +we say, as always beneficial for the whole world, we will at +no time to be inoperative, but rather we promulgate them as +our own. We, preferring piety and zeal in the cause of our +God and Saviour, Jesus Christ, who created and has made us +glorious before all diligence in human affairs, and also believing +that concord among the flocks of Christ is the preservation +of ourselves and our subjects, the firm foundation and unshaken +bulwark of our Empire, and, accordingly, being rightly +moved with godly zeal and offering to God and our Saviour, +Jesus Christ, the unity of the holy Church as the first-fruits of +our reign, do ordain as the basis and confirmation of human +felicity, namely, the symbol of the three hundred and eighteen +holy Fathers who were in time past assembled with the Holy +Ghost at Nicæa, into which both ourselves and all our believing +subjects were baptized; that this alone should have reception +and authority with the orthodox people in all the most +holy churches of God as the only formulary of the right faith, +and sufficient for the utter destruction of all heresy and for +the complete unity of the holy churches of God; the acts of +the one hundred and fifty holy Fathers assembled in this +imperial city, in confirmation of the sacred symbol itself and +in condemnation of those who blasphemed against the Holy +Ghost, retaining their own force; as well as of all done in the +metropolitan city of the Ephesians against the impious Nestorius +and those who subsequently favored his opinions.<note place="foot">It is to be +noted that condemnation of Eutyches is not confirmed.</note> But +the proceedings which have disturbed the unity and good +order of the holy churches of God, and the peace of the whole +world, that is to say, the so-called <hi rend='italic'>Tome</hi> of Leo, and all things +done at Chalcedon in innovation upon the before-mentioned +holy symbol of the three hundred and eighteen holy Fathers, +whether by way of definition of the faith or setting forth of +symbols, or interpretation, or instruction, or discourse; we +decree that these shall be anathematized both here and everywhere +by all the most holy bishops in every church and shall +be given to the flames by whomsoever they shall be found, +<pb n='525'/><anchor id='Pg525'/> +insomuch as it was so enjoined respecting all heretical doctrines +by our predecessors of pious and blessed memory, +Constantine and Theodosius the younger [<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_73">§ 73</ref>], +and that, having thus been rendered null, they shall be utterly +cast out from the one and only Catholic and Apostolic Orthodox +Church, as superseding the everlasting and saving definitions +of the three hundred and eighteen Fathers, and those of +the blessed Fathers who, by the Holy Ghost, decreed at Ephesus +[it is possible that there is a fault in the text here; the +expected reading of the passage would be: and of the one +hundred and fifty bishops who decreed concerning the Holy +Spirit; and of those who were assembled at Ephesus] that +no one, either of the priesthood or laity, be allowed to +deviate in any respect from that most sacred constitution +of the holy symbol, and we decree that these be anathematized +together with all the innovations upon the sacred symbol +which were made at Chalcedon and the heresy of those +who do not confess that the only begotten Son of God was +truly incarnate and made man of the Holy Ghost and of the +holy and ever-virgin Mary, Theotokos, but falsely allege that +either from heaven or in mere phantasy and seeming He took +flesh; and, in short, every heresy and whatever else at any +time in any manner or place in the whole world, in either +thought or word, has been devised as an innovation upon +and in derogation of the sacred symbol. And inasmuch as it +belongs especially to imperial providence to furnish to their +subjects, with forecasting deliberation, security not only for +the present but for the future, we decree that everywhere +the most holy bishops shall subscribe to this our sacred circular +letter when exhibited to them, and shall distinctly declare +that they submit to the sacred symbol of the three hundred +and eighteen holy Fathers alone, which the one hundred +and fifty holy Fathers confirmed, as it was also defined by the +most holy Fathers who subsequently assembled in the metropolitan +city of the Ephesians, that they should submit to the +sacred symbol of the three hundred and eighteen holy Fathers, +<pb n='526'/><anchor id='Pg526'/> +as the definition of faith, and shall anathematize everything +done at Chalcedon as an offence to the orthodox people and +utterly cast it out of the churches as an impediment to the +general happiness and our own.<note place="foot">This left the +theological situation precisely as it was after the <q>Latrocinium +Ephesinum</q> of 449.</note> Those, moreover, who after +the issuing of this our sacred letter, which we trust has been +issued according to God, in an endeavor to bring about that +unity which all desire for the holy churches of God, shall attempt +to bring forward or so much as to name the innovation +upon the faith made at Chalcedon, either in discourse, +instruction, or writing, in whatsoever manner or place—those +persons, as the cause of confusion and tumult in the +churches of God and among the whole body of our subjects, +and as enemies of God and to our safety, we command +(in accordance with the laws ordained by our predecessor +Theodosius, of blessed and pious memory, against such sorts +of evil designs, which laws are subjoined to this our sacred +circular) that, if they be bishops or clergy, they be deposed; +if monks or laymen, that they be subjected to banishment +and every mode of confiscation and the severest penalties. +For so the holy and homoousian Trinity, the Creator and +Life-giver of the universe, which has ever been adored by us +in piety, now also is served by us in the destruction of the +before-mentioned tares and the confirmation of the true and +apostolic traditions of the holy symbol, becoming favorable +and gracious both to our souls and to every one of our subjects, +shall ever aid us and preserve in peace human affairs. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Zeno, <hi rend='italic'>Henoticon</hi>; in Evagrius, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 14. (MSG, 86, II:2620.) +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. 883 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Zeno published his <hi rend='italic'>Henoticon</hi> in 482 as an attempt to win back the +Monophysites. Evagrius says, in a note to the document: <q>When +these things were read, those who were in Alexandria were joined to the +holy Catholic and Apostolic Church.</q> The effect so far as the West +went was just the opposite. Felix III protested and threatened. But +Acacius, bishop of Constantinople, who was chiefly responsible for the +document, refused to listen. Felix (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Evagrius, III, 18) and +Acacius +<pb n='527'/><anchor id='Pg527'/> +thereupon issued mutual excommunications. On the accession of +the Emperor Anastasius [491-518] the <hi rend='italic'>Henoticon</hi> continued in force, +as his sympathies were with the Monophysites. It will be noted that +the <hi rend='italic'>Henoticon</hi> not merely sets aside Chalcedon but introduces +phrases which make it appear that the same moral subject is present in every +act, whether of humility or majesty, and that it is God who suffers. +These are characteristic Monophysite positions. +</quote> + +<p> +The Emperor Cæsar Zeno, pious, victorious, triumphant, +supreme, ever-worshipful Augustus, to the most reverend +bishops and clergy, and to the monks and laity throughout +Alexandria, Egypt, Libya, and Pentapolis. +</p> + +<p> +Being assured that the origin and constitution, the might +and invincible shield of our sovereignty, is the only right and +true faith, which the three hundred and eighteen holy Fathers +assembled at Nicæa set forth by divine inspiration, and the +one hundred and fifty holy Fathers who in like manner met +at Constantinople, confirmed; we night and day employ +every means of prayer, of zealous care, and of laws, that the +holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of God in every place +may be multiplied, which is the incorruptible and immortal +mother of our sceptre; and that the pious laity, continuing +in peace and unanimity in respect to God, may, together with +the bishops, highly beloved of God, the most pious clergy, +the archimandrites, and monks, offer up acceptably their supplications +in behalf of our sovereignty. So long as our great +God and Saviour, Jesus Christ, who was made man and +brought forth of Mary, the holy Virgin and Theotokos, approves +and readily accepts the praise we render by concord +and our service, the power of enemies will be crushed and +swept away, and all will bend their necks to our power, which +is according to God, and peace and its blessings, kindly temperature, +abundant produce, and whatever else is beneficial +will be liberally bestowed upon men. Since, then, the irreprehensible +faith is the preserver of both ourselves and Roman +affairs, petitions have been offered to us from pious archimandrites +and hermits and other venerable persons, imploring +with tears that there be unity for the most holy churches, +<pb n='528'/><anchor id='Pg528'/> +and the parts should be joined to parts which the enemy of +all good has of old time attempted to keep apart, knowing +that, if he assails the body of the Church sound and complete, +he will be defeated. For, since it happens that of unnumbered +generations which during the lapse of so many years in time +have withdrawn from life, some have departed deprived of +the laver of regeneration, and others have been borne away +on the inevitable journey of man without having partaken of +the divine communion; and innumerable murders have also +been committed; and not only the earth, but the very air +has been filled by a multitude of blood-sheddings, who would +not pray that this state of things might be transformed into +good? For this reason we were anxious that you should know +that neither we nor the churches everywhere have ever +held or shall hold, nor are we aware of any persons who +hold, any other symbol or teaching or definition of faith or +creed than the aforementioned holy symbol of the three hundred +and eighteen holy Fathers, which the aforesaid one hundred +and fifty holy Fathers confirmed. If any person should +hold such, we regard him as an alien; for we are confident +that this symbol alone is, as we said, the preserver of our sovereignty. +And all the people desiring the saving illumination +were baptized, receiving this faith only, and this the holy +Fathers assembled at Ephesus also followed; who deposed +the impious Nestorius and those who subsequently held his +sentiments. And this Nestorius we also anathematize, together +with Eutyches and all who entertain opinions contrary +to the above-mentioned, receiving at the same time the twelve +chapters of Cyril, of holy memory, formerly archbishop of +the holy Catholic Church of the Alexandrians. We confess, +moreover, that the only begotten Son of God, himself God, +who truly became man, namely, our Lord Jesus Christ, is +consubstantial with the Father as to his godhead, and the +same consubstantial with ourselves as respects his manhood; +that having descended and become flesh of the Holy Ghost +and Mary, the Virgin and Theotokos, He is one and not two; +<pb n='529'/><anchor id='Pg529'/> +for we affirm that both His miracles and the sufferings which +He voluntarily endured in the flesh, are of one; for we do +not in any degree admit those who either make a division +or a confusion or introduce a phantom; inasmuch as His +truly sinless incarnation from the Theotokos did not produce +an addition of a son, because the Trinity continued as a +Trinity, even when one of the Trinity, God the Word, did +become incarnate. Knowing, then, that neither the holy +orthodox churches of God in all places nor the priests, highly +beloved of God, who are at their head, nor our own sovereignty, +have allowed or do allow any other symbol or definition +of faith than the before-mentioned holy teaching, we +have united ourselves thereunto without hesitation. And +these things we write, not as making an innovation upon the +faith, but to satisfy you; and every one who has held or +holds any other opinion, either at the present or at another +time, whether at Chalcedon or in any synod whatever, we +anathematize; and specially the aforementioned Nestorius +and Eutyches, and those who maintain their doctrines. Link +yourselves, therefore, to the spiritual mother, the Church, and +in her enjoy divine communion with us, according to the +aforesaid one and only definition of the faith of the three +hundred and eighteen holy Fathers. For your all-holy +mother, the Church, waits to embrace you as true children, +and longs to hear your gentle voice so long withheld. Speed +yourselves, therefore, for by so doing you will both draw +toward yourselves the favor of our Master and Saviour and +God, Jesus Christ, and be commended by our sovereignty. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_92"/> +<head>§ 92. The Church of Italy under the Ostrogoths and during the first Schism +between Rome and the Eastern Church</head> + +<p> +The schism between New and Old Rome lasted from 484 to +517, but attempts were made on both sides to end the deplorable +situation. The two successors of Acacius were willing +<pb n='530'/><anchor id='Pg530'/> +to resume communion with Rome and restore the name of +the bishop of Rome to the diptychs, but refused to take the +names of their predecessors from the same, as required by the +latter. Gelasius (492-496), Anastasius II (496-498), and +Symmachus (498-514) held firmly but unavailingly to the +Roman contention that, before any communion was possible, +the name of Acacius must be struck from the diptychs—in +the case of the dead an act as condemnatory as excommunication +in the case of the living. Meanwhile the Roman see +boldly asserted the independence of the Church, and protested +against the action of the Emperor in setting aside the decree +of Chalcedon as usurpation and tyranny. This is most clearly +set forth by Gelasius, in his epistle to the Emperor Anastasius. +The schism finally came to an end in 519, in accordance with +the ecclesiastical policy of Justinian, and at that time the +<hi rend='italic'>Formula</hi> of Hormisdas (514-523) was accepted by the heads +of the Eastern Church by an act constituting a complete surrender +of the claims of the Orientals. +</p> + +<p> +While the schism was still existing and Rome was treating +with the East upon an independent footing, the situation +in Italy was far less brilliant. The Arian king, the Ostrogoth +Theodoric (489, 493-526) ruled Italy, and the attitude +of the Roman see was far less authoritative toward the local +ruler. It was, however, a period of great importance for the +future of the Church; Boethius, Cassiodorus, Dionysius Exiguus, +and Benedict of Nursia (<hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, §§ +<ref target="Section_104">104</ref>, <ref target="Section_105">105</ref>) all +belong to this period and the decree of Gelasius, <hi rend='italic'>De Recipiendis +Libris</hi>, was of permanent influence upon the theological +science of the West. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Cassiodorus, <hi rend='italic'>Varia</hi>, Eng. trans. +(condensed), by T. Hodgkin (<hi rend='italic'>The Letters of Cassiodorus</hi>), London, +1886. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Gelasius, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Imp. +Anastasium</hi>. (MSL, 59:42.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +A definition of the relation between the secular and religious authority. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The date of this epistle is 494. The period is not dealt with at any +length in English works on ecclesiastical history; see, however. T. +<pb n='531'/><anchor id='Pg531'/> +Greenwood, <hi rend='italic'>Cathedra Petri</hi>, II, pp. 41-84, the chapter entitled +<q>Papal Prerogative under Popes Gelasius and Symmachus.</q> +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +After Gelasius has alluded to the circumstances in which he is writing +and excused his not writing, he mentions his natural devotion to the +Roman Emperor—being himself by birth a Roman citizen—his desire as +a Christian to share with him the right faith, and as vicar of the Apostolic +See his constant anxiety to maintain the true faith; he then proceeds: +</quote> + +<p> +I beseech your piety not to regard as arrogance duty in +divine affairs. Far be it from a Roman prince, I pray, to +regard as injury truth that has been intimated to him. For, +indeed, there are, O Emperor Augustus, two by whom principally +this world is ruled: the sacred authority of the pontiffs +and the royal power. Of these the importance of the priests +is so much the greater, as even for kings of men they will have +to give an account in the divine judgment. Know, indeed, +most clement son, that although you worthily rule over the +human race, yet as a man of devotion in divine matters you +submit your neck to the prelates, and also from them you +await the matters of your salvation, and in making use of the +celestial sacraments and in administering those things you +know that you ought, as is right, to be subjected to the order +of religion rather than preside over it; know likewise that +in regard to these things you are dependent upon their +judgment and you should not bend them to your will. For +if, so far as it pertains to the order of public discipline, the +priests of religion, knowing that the imperial power has been +bestowed upon you by divine providence, obey your laws, +lest in affairs of exclusively mundane determination they +might seem to resist, with how much more gladness, I ask, +does it become you to obey them who have been assigned to +the duty of performing the divine mysteries. Just as there +is no light risk for the pontiffs to be silent about those things +which belong to the service of the divinity, so there is no +small peril (which God forbid) to those who, when they ought +to obey, refuse to do so. And if it is right that the hearts of +the faithful be submitted to all priests generally who treat +<pb n='532'/><anchor id='Pg532'/> +rightly divine things, how much more is obedience to be shown +to the prelate of that see which the highest divinity wished +to be pre-eminent over all priests and which the devotion of +the whole Church continually honors? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Gelasius, <hi rend='italic'>Epist. de Recipiendis et +non Recipiendis Libris</hi>. Mansi, VIII, 153 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This decretal is evidently made of matter of different dates, as has +been shown by Hefele, § 217, and probably contains matter which may +be later than Gelasius. In the first section of the decretal is a list of +the canonical books of the Bible, as in the Vulgate; the decretal +then sets forth the claims of the Roman see (§ 2), the books to be received +(§ 3), and the books which the Roman Church rejects (§ 4). +In respect to several there are various comments added, but these +have in several cases been omitted for the sake of brevity, where they +are of less importance. Portions of the decretal in Denziger, nn. 162-164; +the full text of the decretal may be found in Mansi VIII, 153 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +Preuschen, <hi rend='italic'>Analecta</hi>, vol. II, pp. 52 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>; +Mirbt, n. 168. +</quote> + +<p> +II. Although the one dwelling of the universal Catholic +Church spread through the world is of Christ, the holy Roman +Church, however, has been placed before the other churches +by no synodical decrees, but has obtained the primacy by +the evangelic voice of our Lord and Saviour, saying, <q>Thou +art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church,</q> etc.<note place="foot">Matt. +16:18 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></note> +To it was given the fellowship of the most blessed Apostle +Paul, that chosen vessel who not at a different time, as heretics +prate, but at one time and on one and the same day by +a glorious death, was crowned together with Peter in agony +in the city of Rome under the Emperor Nero. And they +equally consecrated the said holy Roman Church to Christ +and placed it over all the others in the whole world by their +presence and venerable triumph. +</p> + +<p> +III. Therefore the first see of Peter the Apostle is the +Roman Church, not having any spot or wrinkle or any such +thing. The second see was consecrated at Alexandria in the +name of the blessed Peter by Mark, his disciple and the evangelist. +He himself, having been directed by the Apostle Peter +<pb n='533'/><anchor id='Pg533'/> +to Egypt, preached the word of truth and consummated a +glorious martyrdom. But as the third see of the same most +blessed Apostle Peter is held the see of Antioch, since he held +that before he came to Rome, and there the name of the new +people, the name of Christians, arose. +</p> + +<p> +IV. 1. And although no other foundation can be laid than +that which has been laid, which is Christ Jesus, yet after the +writings of the Old and New Testaments,<note place="foot">The list +is given in the early part of the epistle not here given: see Preuschen, +<hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi></note> which we receive +regularly, the same holy Roman Church does not prohibit +these following writings to be received for the purposes of +edification: +</p> + +<p> +2. The holy synod of Nicæa, according to the three hundred +and eighteen Fathers, under the Emperor Constantine. +</p> + +<p> +3. The holy synod of Ephesus, in which Nestorius was +condemned with the consent of the most blessed Pope [<hi rend='italic'>papa</hi>] +Celestine, held under Cyril, the prelate of the see of Alexandria, +and Acadius, a bishop sent from Italy. +</p> + +<p> +4. The holy synod of Chalcedon, which was held under +the Emperor Marcian and Anatolius, bishop of Constantinople, +and in which Nestorius, Eutyches, and Dioscurus were +condemned. +</p> + +<p> +V. 1. Likewise the works of the blessed Cæcilius Cyprianus, +martyr, and bishop of Carthage; 2. … of Gregory +the bishop of Nazianzus; 3. … of Basil, bishop of Cappadocia; +4. … of Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria; 5. … +of John [Chrysostom], bishop of Constantinople; 6. … of +Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria; 7. … of Cyril, bishop +of Alexandria; 8. … of Hilary, bishop of Poitiers; 9. … +of Ambrose, bishop of Milan; 10. … of Augustine, bishop +of Hippo; 11. … of Jerome, the presbyter; 12. … of +Prosper; 13. … likewise the Epistle of the blessed Pope Leo +to Flavian, bishop of Constantinople, against Eutyches and +other heretics; and if any one dispute even so much as an +<pb n='534'/><anchor id='Pg534'/> +iota of the text of the epistle, and will not reverently receive +it in all points, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +14. Likewise the works and treatises of the orthodox +Fathers are to be read, who in no respect have deviated from +the union with the holy Roman Church, nor have separated +from its faith and teaching; but, by the grace of God, have +shared in communion with it even to the last days of their life. +</p> + +<p> +15. Likewise the decretal epistles which the most blessed +Popes at different times have given from the city of Rome, +in reply to consultations of various fathers, are to be reverently +received. +</p> + +<p> +16. Likewise the acts of the holy martyrs.… But, according +to an ancient custom and singular caution, they are +not to be read in the holy Roman Church, because the names +of those who wrote them are not known.… +</p> + +<p> +17. Likewise the lives of the fathers Paul, Antony, Hilarion, +and all hermits which the most blessed Jerome has described, +we receive in honor. +</p> + +<p> +18. Likewise the acts of the blessed Sylvester, prelate of +the Apostolic See, although the name of the writer is unknown; +however, we know that it is read by many Catholics in the +city of Rome, and on account of its ancient use many +churches have copied it. +</p> + +<p> +19. Likewise the writing concerning the discovery of the +cross and another concerning the discovery of the head of the +blessed John the Baptist.… +</p> + +<p> +20. Rufinus, a most religious man, has published many +books on ecclesiastical affairs and has also translated several +writings. But because the venerable Jerome has criticised +him in various points for his freedom in judgment, we are of +the same opinion as we know Jerome is, and not only concerning +Rufinus but all others whom, out of zeal toward God +and devotion to the faith, Jerome has condemned. +</p> + +<p> +21. Likewise several works of Origen which the blessed +Jerome does not reject we receive as to be read; the remaining +works along with their author we declare are to be rejected. +</p> + +<pb n='535'/><anchor id='Pg535'/> + +<p> +22. Likewise the chronicles of Eusebius of Cæsarea and +the books of his <hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical History</hi>, although in the first +book of his narrative he has been a little warm and afterward +he wrote one book in praise and defence of Origen, the schismatic, +yet on account of the mention of several things, which +pertain to instruction, we say that they are to that extent +not to be rejected.… +</p> + +<p> +23. Likewise we approve Orosius; 24. … the works of +Sedulius; 25. … the works of Juvencus.… +</p> + +<p> +VI. Other works which have been written by heretics or +schismatics the Catholic and Apostolic Roman Church in no +respect receives, and these, although they are not received +and are to be avoided by Catholics, we believe ought to be +added below. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +There follow a list of thirty-five apocryphal gospels, acts, and +similar documents. The epistle continues: +</quote> + +<p> +36. The book which is called <hi rend='italic'>The Canons of the Apostles</hi>; +37. the book called <hi rend='italic'>Physiologus</hi>, written by heretics and +ascribed to Ambrose; 38. the history of Eusebius Pamphilius; +39. the works of Tertullian; 40. … of Lactantius or Firminianus; +41. … of Africanus; 42. … Postumianus and +Gallus; 43. … of Montanus, Priscilla, and Maximilla; +44. … all the works of Faustus the Manichæan; 45. the +works of Commodus; 46. the works of another Clement +of Alexandria; 47. the works of Thascius Cyprianus; 48. +of Arnobius; 49. of Tichonius; 50. of Cassianus a presbyter +of Gaul; 51. Victorinus of Pettau; 52. of Frumentius +the blind; 53. of Faustus of Reiz; 54. the Epistle of Jesus +to Abgar; 55. Passion of St. Cyricus and Julitta; 56. +Passion of St. Georgius; 57. the writings which are called +the "Curse of Solomon"; 58. all phylacteries which have +been written not with the names of angels, as they pretend, +but rather of demons; 59. these works and all similar to +them which Simon Magus [a list of heretics down to] Peter +[Fullo] and another Peter [Mongus], of whom one defiled +<pb n='536'/><anchor id='Pg536'/> +Alexandria and the other Antioch, Acacius of Constantinople +with his adherents, as also all heretics or disciples of heretics +or schismatics have taught or written, whose names we do not +remember are not only repudiated by the entire Roman +Catholic Church, but we declare are bound forever with an +indissoluble anathema together with their authors and followers +of their authors. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Hormisdas, <hi rend='italic'>Formula</hi>. Mansi, VIII, +407. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Denziger, nn. 171 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The formula which Hormisdas of Rome (514-523) proposed in 515, +and which was accepted Easter 519 by the patriarch John II of Constantinople +and many other Orientals, and which ended the schism +between Rome and Constantinople occasioned by Acacius. As soon +as this formula was accepted the leading Monophysites fled to Egypt. +</quote> + +<p> +The beginning of salvation is to preserve the rule of a correct +faith and to deviate in no respect from the constitutions +of the fathers. And because the teaching of our Lord Jesus +Christ cannot be allowed to fail, who said, <q>Thou art Peter, +and upon this rock I will build my Church,</q> etc. [Matt. 16:18], +these things which were said are proved by the effects of +things, because in the Apostolic See religion has always been +preserved without spot or blemish. Desiring in no respect to +be separated from this hope and faith, and following the +constitutions of the Fathers, we anathematize all heretics, +and especially the heretic Nestorius, who was once bishop of +the city of Constantinople, and condemned in the Council of +Ephesus by Pope Celestine and by the holy Cyril, prelate of +the city of Alexandria. Likewise we anathematize Eutyches +and Dioscurus of Alexandria, condemned in the holy synod +of Chalcedon which we follow and embrace; adding to these +Timotheus the parricide, known as Ælurus, and also his +disciple and follower Peter [Mongus], also Acacius, who remained +in the society of their communion; because he mixed +himself with their communion he deserves the same sentence +of condemnation as they; no less condemning Peter +[Fullo] of Antioch with his followers and the followers of all +<pb n='537'/><anchor id='Pg537'/> +those above named. We receive and approve, therefore, all +the universal Epistles of Pope Leo which he wrote concerning +the Christian religion. And therefore, as we have said, following +in all things the Apostolic See and approving all of its +constitutions, I trust that I may be deemed worthy to be in +the communion with you, in which as the Apostolic See declares +there is, complete and true, the totality of the Christian +religion. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='538'/><anchor id='Pg538'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Period III. The Dissolution Of The Imperial State Church And The Transition To +The Middle Ages: From The Beginning Of The Sixth Century To The Latter Part Of +The Eighth</head> + +<p> +The third period of the ancient Church under the Christian +Empire begins with the accession of Justin I (518-527), +and the end of the first schism between Rome and Constantinople +(519). The termination of the period is not so clearly +marked. By the middle and latter part of the eighth century, +however, the imperial Church has ceased to exist in its original +conception. The Church in the East has become, in +great part, a group of national schismatic churches under +Moslem rulers, and only the largest fragment of the Church of +the East is the State Church of the greatly reduced Eastern +empire. In the West, the imperial influence has ceased, and +the Roman see has allied its fortunes with the rising Frankish +power, and the rise of a Western empire is already foreshadowed. +</p> + +<p> +In this period, the imperial ecclesiastical system, which +had begun with Constantine, found its completion in the +Cæsaropapism which was definitively established by Justinian +as the constitution of the Eastern Church. But at the +same time the Monophysite churches seceded and became +permanent national churches. The long Christological controversy +found, at least as regards Monophysitism, its settlement +on a basis derived from the revived Aristotelian philosophy; +and the mystical piety of the East, with its apparatus +<pb n='539'/><anchor id='Pg539'/> +of hierarchy and sacraments, found its characteristic expression +in the works of Dionysius the Areopagite. +</p> + +<p> +While in the East the Church was assuming its permanent +form, in the West the condition of the Church was being profoundly +influenced by the completely changed political organization +of what had been the Roman Empire of the West, +but was now parcelled out among new Germanic nationalities. +The Church in the various kingdoms, in spite of its adherence +to the see of Rome as the centre of Catholic unity, came, to +no small extent, under the secular authority, and Christianity +in Ireland, in Spain, among the Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and +even among the Lombards in Italy assumed a national character, +coming largely under the control and subject to the laws +and customs of the nation. In this period were laid the foundations +of the leading ecclesiastical institutions of the Middle +Ages, as the Church, although still under the influence of antiquity, +adapted itself and its institutions to the changed +condition due to the political situation and took up its duty +of training the rude peoples that had come within its fold. +</p> + +<p> +The seventh and eighth centuries saw the completion of +the revolution in the ecclesiastical situation. In the East, +in the territories in which the national churches of the Monophysites +were established, the Moslem rule protected them +from the attempts of the orthodox emperors to enforce uniformity. +The attempts made to recover their allegiance before +they succumbed to Islam had only ended in a serious +dispute within the Orthodox Church, the Monothelete controversy, +which ended in the Sixth General Council of 681. +In Italy the Arian Lombards were gradually won to the Catholic +faith, but the Roman see soon found itself embarrassed by +the too near secular authority. Accordingly, when the controversy +with the East over Iconoclasm broke out, the Roman +Church became practically independent of the Eastern imperial +authority, and in its conflict with the Lombards came +into alliance with the rising Frankish power. With this, the +transition to the Middle Ages may be said to have been completed. +<pb n='540'/><anchor id='Pg540'/> +It was, however, only the last of a series of acts +whereby the Church was severing itself from the ancient +order and coming into closer alliance with the new order in +the life of the West. Henceforth the Church, which found +its centre in the Roman see, belongs to the West, and its relations +to the East, although no formal schism had occurred, +are of continued and increasing estrangement or alienation. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <hi rend='italic'>Cambridge Medieval History</hi>, vol. II, will cover the entire +period and give ample bibliographical references. +</quote> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter I. The Church In The Eastern Empire</head> + +<p> +The century extending from the accession of Justin I (518-528) +to the end of the Persian wars of Heraclius (610-641), +or from 518 to 628, is the most brilliant period of the Eastern +Empire. The rise of Islam had not yet taken place, whereby +the best provinces in Asia and Africa were cut off from the +Empire. A large part of the West was recovered under +Justinian, and under Heraclius the power of Persia, the ancient +enemy of the Roman Empire, which had been a menace +since the latter part of the third century, was completely +overthrown in the most brilliant series of campaigns since the +foundation of the Roman Empire. With the death of Justin +II (565-578), the family of Justin came to an end after occupying +the throne for sixty years. But under Tiberius (578-582) +and Maurice (582-602) the policy of Justinian was continued +in all essentials in the stereotyped form known as +Byzantinism. The Church became practically a department +of the State and of the political machinery. The only limitation +upon the will of the Emperor was the determined resistance +of the Monophysites and smaller factions. Maurice was +succeeded by the rude Phocas (602-610), whom a military +revolution placed upon the throne, and who instituted a reign +of terror and blood. Upon his downfall, Heraclius (610-641) +ascended the throne. +</p> + +<pb n='541'/><anchor id='Pg541'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_93"/> +<head>§ 93. The Age of Justinian</head> + +<p> +Justinian I, the greatest of all the rulers of the Eastern Empire, +succeeded his uncle Justin I (518-527); but he had, from +the beginning of the latter's reign, exercised an ever-increasing +influence over the imperial policy, and to him can be +attributed the direction of ecclesiastical affairs from the accession +of Justin. No reign among the Eastern emperors was +more filled with important events and successful undertakings. +His first great work was the reduction of the vast mass of +Roman law to what approached a system. This was accomplished +in 534, resulting in the Digest, made up of the various +decisions and opinions of the most celebrated Roman legal +authorities, the Codex, comprising all the statute law then in +actual force and applicable to the conditions of the Empire, +and the Institutes, a revision of the excellent introductory +manual of Gaius. No body of law reduced to writing has +been more influential in the history of the world. The second +great undertaking, or series of undertakings, was the reconquest +of the West. In 533 Belisarius recovered North Africa +to the Empire by the overthrow of the Vandal kingdom. In +554 the conquest of Italy by Belisarius and Narses was completed. +Portions of Spain had also been recovered. No +Eastern Emperor ruled over a larger territory than did Justinian +at the time of his death. The third great line of work +on the part of Justinian was his regulation of ecclesiastical +and theological matters. In this he took an active personal +part. The end of the schism with the West had been brought +about under the reign of his uncle. Three controversies fill +the reign of Justinian: the Theopaschite (519-533) over the +introduction of the phrase into the Trisagion, stating that +God was crucified for us, so that the Trisagion read as follows, +<pb n='542'/><anchor id='Pg542'/> +<q>Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, who was +crucified for us, have mercy upon us</q>; the Second Origenistic +controversy (531-543) in which those elements of Origen's +teaching which had never been accepted by the Church were +condemned along with Origen himself; and the Three Chapters +controversy, 544-553, in which, as an attempt to win +back the Monophysites, which began even before the Conference +with the Severians in 533, three of the leading Antiochians +were condemned. In connection with the two last +controversies, the Fifth General Council was held A. D. 553. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Evagrius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, Lib. IV-VI; John +of Ephesus, <hi rend='italic'>The Third Part of His Ecclesiastical History</hi>, trans. +by R. Payne Smith, Oxford, 1860; Percival, <hi rend='italic'>Seven Ecumenical +Councils</hi> (PNF). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Justinian, <hi rend='italic'>Anathematisms against +Origen</hi>. Mansi, IX, 533. (MSG, 86:1013; MSL, 65:221.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Origenistic controversy arose in Palestine, where the learned +monks were nicknamed Origenists by the more ignorant. The abbot +St. Sabas was especially opposed to the group which had received this +name. But several, among whom the more important were Domitian +and Theodore Askidas, won the favor of Justinian and the latter +received promotion, becoming bishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia. +Supported by them, struggles broke out in various places between the +Sabaites and the Origenists. Ephraem, patriarch of Antioch, in a +synodal letter thereupon condemned Origenism. The Origenists tried +in vain to win the support of John, patriarch of Constantinople. But +he turned to Justinian, who thereupon abandoned the Origenists and +issued an edict condemning Origen and his writings, and appending a +summary of the positions condemned in ten anathematisms. Text in +Denziger, nn. 203 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> Synods were ordered for the condemnation of +Origen, and among these was the synod under Menas, patriarch of Constantinople, +in which were issued fifteen anathematisms based upon +the ten of Justinian (Hefele, §§ 257, 258). With this action, the controversy +may be said to be closed, were it not that in spite of the renewed +condemnation at the Fifth General Council (see below) disputes and disturbances +continued in Palestine until 563. +</quote> + +<p> +1. If any one says or thinks that human souls pre-existed, +that is, that they had previously been spirits and holy powers, +but that satiated with the vision of God, they turned to +evil, and in this way the divine love in them became cold +<pb n='543'/><anchor id='Pg543'/> +[ἀποψυγείσας] and they were there named souls [ψυχάς] and +were condemned to punishment in bodies, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +2. If any one says or thinks that the soul of the Lord pre-existed +and was united with God the Word before the incarnation +and conception of the Virgin, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +3. If any one says or thinks that the body of the Lord +Jesus Christ was first formed in the womb of the holy Virgin, +and that afterward there was united with it God the Word +and the pre-existing soul, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +4. If any one says or thinks that the Word of God has +become like to all heavenly orders, so that for the cherubim +He was a cherub and for the seraphim a seraph, in short, like +all the superior powers, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +5. If any one says or thinks that, at the resurrection, +human bodies will arise spherical in form and not like our +present form, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +6. If any one says or thinks that the heavens, the sun, +moon, and stars, and the waters above the firmament have +souls and are spiritual and rational beings, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +7. If any one says or thinks that Christ the Lord in a future +age will be crucified for demons as He was for men, let +him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +8. If any one says or thinks that the power of God is +limited and that He created only as much as He was able to +comprehend, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +9. If any one says or thinks that the punishment of +demons and impious men is only temporary and will have an +end, and that a restoration [<foreign lang="el" +rend="font-style: italic">apocatastasis</foreign>] will take place of +demons and impious men, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +10. Let Origen be anathema together with that Adamantius +who set forth these opinions together with his nefarious +and execrable doctrine, and whoever there is who thinks thus +or defends these opinions, or in any way hereafter at any time +shall presume to protect them. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='544'/><anchor id='Pg544'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Vigilius, <hi rend='italic'>Judicatum</hi>. Mansi, +IX, 181.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This important document was addressed to Menas of Constantinople +and is dated April 11, 548. Unfortunately it exists only in +detached fragments, which are given below, taken from the text as +given by Hefele, § 259. The first is given in a letter of Justinian to +the Fifth Council, an abridgment of which may be found in Hefele, +§ 267. Other fragments are from the <hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi> (see below), where +they are quoted by Vigilius from his previous letter to Menas, which +Hefele has identified with the <hi rend='italic'>Judicatum</hi>. In this opinion Krüger +(art. <q>Vigilius</q> in PRE). and Bailey (art. <q>Vigilius</q> in DCB) and other +scholars concur. The force of the first is that the writings condemned +by the Three Chapters are heretical; of the others, that the credit +of the Council of Chalcedon must be maintained. How the two +positions were reconciled is not clear. +</quote> + +<p> +1. And because certain writings under the name of Theodore +of Mopsuestia have been handed to us which contain +many things contrary to the right faith, we, following the +warnings of the Apostle Paul, who said: Prove all things, hold +fast that which is good, therefore anathematize Theodore, +who was bishop of Mopsuestia, with all his impious writings, +and also those who defend him. We anathematize also the +impious epistle which is said to have been written by Ibas +to Maris the Persian, as contrary to the right faith, and also +all who defend it and say that it is right. We anathematize +also the writings of Theodoret which were written contrary +to the right faith and against the capitula of Cyril.<note place="foot">The +Twelve Anathematisms of Cyril against Nestorius.</note> +</p> + +<p> +2. Since it is evident to us by sufficient reason, that whosoever +attempts to do anything to the disparagement of the +aforesaid council, will rather sin against himself. +</p> + +<p> +3. If it had been shown conclusively by us to be contained +in the acts [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, of the Council of Chalcedon], no one +would have dared to be the author of so great a presumption +or would have regarded as doubtful or undecided anything +which was brought before that most holy judgment; since +it is to be believed that those then present could have +investigated things diligently even apart from writing, and +have defined them positively, which appears to us after so +<pb n='545'/><anchor id='Pg545'/> +much time and on account of unknown causes still unsettled; +since also it is a part of reverence for the synods +that in those things which are less understood one recognizes +their authority. +</p> + +<p> +4. All things being accepted and remaining perpetually +established which were defined in the venerable councils at +Nicæa, and Constantinople, in the first at Ephesus, and at +Chalcedon, and confirmed by the authority of our predecessors; +and all who in the said holy councils were deposed are +without doubt condemned, and those are no less absolved +whose absolution was decreed by the same synods. +</p> + +<p> +5. Subjecting also him to the sentence of anathema who +accepts as of any force whatsoever may be found against the +said synod of Chalcedon, written in this present letter, or in +anything in the present case whatever done by us or by any +one; and let the holy synod of Chalcedon, of which the authority +is great and unshaken, perpetual and reverenced, have +the same force as that which the synods of Nicæa, Constantinople, +and the first at Ephesus have. +</p> + +<p> +6. We anathematize also whoever does not faithfully follow +and equally venerate the holy synods of Nicæa. of Constantinople, +the first of Ephesus, and the synod of Chalcedon +as most holy synods, agreeing in the one and immaculate +faith of the Apostles, and confirmed by the pontiffs of the Apostolic +See, and whoever wishes to correct as badly said, or wishes +to supply as imperfect, those things which were done in the +same councils which we have mentioned. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Vigilius, <hi rend='italic'>Oath to Justinian</hi>, +August 15, A. D. 550. Mansi. IX, 363. (MSL, 69: 121.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <hi rend='italic'>Judicatum</hi> met with great opposition in the West. Vigilius, +to still the clamor against it, withdrew it and proposed other measures +in consultation with Justinian. In connection with this he bound himself +with an oath to support Justinian in putting through the condemnation +of the Three Chapters, and this oath Justinian produced later, when Vigilius +had presented his <hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi> to him refusing to +condemn the chapters. The Emperor thereupon suppressed the +<hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi>. +</quote> + +<pb n='546'/><anchor id='Pg546'/> + +<p> +The most blessed Pope Vigilius has sworn to the most pious +lord Emperor in our presence, that is of me, Theodorus, bishop +of Cæsarea, in Cappadocia [see DCB, <hi rend='italic'>Theodorus of Askidas</hi>], +and of me, Cethegus, the patrician, by the sacred nails with +which our Lord God Jesus Christ was crucified and by the +four holy Gospels, as also by the sacred bridle,<note place="foot"><foreign +lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">Sanctum frenum.</foreign> Query: Does this refer +to the tradition that Constantine made out of the nails of the cross a bit for his +horse?</note> so also by the +four Gospels; that, being of one mind and will with your +piety, we shall so will, attempt, and act, as far as we are +able, so that the three chapters, that is, Theodore of Mopsuestia, +the epistle attributed to Ibas, and the writings of +Theodoret against the orthodox faith and his sayings against +the twelve capitula of the holy Cyril, may be condemned and +anathematized; and to do nothing, either by myself or by +those whom we can trust, either of the clerical or lay order, +in behalf of the chapters, against the will of your piety, or +to speak or to give counsel secretly in behalf of those chapters. +And if any one should say anything to me to the contrary, +either concerning these chapters or concerning the +faith, or against the State, I will make him known to your +piety, without peril of death, and also what has been said +to me, so that on account of my place you do not abandon +my person; and you have promised, because I observe these +things toward your piety, to protect my honor in all respects, +and also to guard my person and reputation and to +defend them with the help of God and to protect the privileges +of my see. And you have also promised that this +paper shall be shown to no one. I promise further that +in the case of the three chapters, we shall treat in common +as to what ought to be done, and whatsoever shall appear to +us useful we will carry out with the help of God. This oath +was given the fifteenth day of August, indiction XIII, the +twenty-third year of the reign of our lord Justinian, the +ninth year after the consulship of the illustrious Basil. I, +Theodore, by the mercy of God bishop of Cæsarea, in Cappadocia, +<pb n='547'/><anchor id='Pg547'/> +have subscribed hereunto as a witness to this oath; +I, Flavius Cethegus, patrician, have subscribed hereunto as +a witness to this oath. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Vigilius, <hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi>, May 14, +553. (MSL, 69:67.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The synod known as the Fifth General Council met May 5, 553, +and proceeded to condemn the Three Chapters, as directed by the +Emperor. Vigilius refused to attend, but consented to pronounce his +judgment on the matter apart from the council. This he did in his +<hi rend='italic'>Constitutum ad Imperatorem</hi>, May 14, 553. In it he condemns the +teaching of Theodore of Mopsuestia, but opposes the condemnation +of Theodore himself, inasmuch as he had died in the communion of +the Church. He also opposes the condemnation of Theodoret and +Ibas, because both were acquitted at Chalcedon. This <hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi> +is to be distinguished from the <hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi> of 554 (MSL, 69:143, +147), in which, after the council had acceded to the proposals of the Emperor +and condemned the Three Chapters and had excommunicated +Vigilius by removing his name from the diptychs, the latter confirmed +the decisions of the council and joined in the condemnation of the Three +Chapters. For a discussion of the whole situation, see Hefele, §§ 272-276. +The devious course followed by Vigilius has been the subject of +much acrimonious debate. The facts of the case are now generally recognized. +The conclusion of Cardinal Hergenröther, KG. I, 612, is the +best that can be said for Vigilius: <q>In the question as to the faith, +Vigilius was never wavering; but he was so, indeed, in the question as +to whether the action was proper or opportune, whether it was advisable +or necessary to condemn subsequently men whom the Council of +Chalcedon had spared, to put forth a judgment which would be regarded +by the Monophysites as a triumph of their cause, which was +most obnoxious for the same reason, and its supposed dishonoring of +the Council of Chalcedon, and was likely to create new divisions instead +of healing the old.</q> +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The portions of the <hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi> given below are the conclusions of +Vigilius as to each of the Three Chapters. The whole is a lengthy +document. +</quote> + +<p> +All these things have been diligently examined, and although +our Fathers speak in different phrases yet are guided +by one sentiment, that the persons of priests, who have died +in the peace of the Church, should be preserved untouched; +likewise the constitutions of the Apostolic See, which we have +quoted above, uniformly define that it is lawful for no one +to judge anew anything concerning the persons of the dead, +<pb n='548'/><anchor id='Pg548'/> +but each is left in that condition in which the last day finds +him; and especially concerning the name of Theodore of +Mopsuestia, what our Fathers determined is clearly shown +above. Him, therefore, we dare not condemn by our sentence, +and we do not permit him to be condemned by any one else; +the above-written chapters of dogmas, which are damned by +us, or any sayings of any one without name affixed, not +agreeing with, or consonant with, the evangelical and apostolic +doctrine and the doctrines of the four synods, of Nicæa, +of Constantinople, of the first of Ephesus, and of Chalcedon, +we, however, do not suffer to be admitted to our thought or +even to our ears. +</p> + +<p> +But concerning the writings which are brought forward +under the name of that venerable man, Theodoret, late +bishop, we wonder, first, why it should be necessary or with +what desire anything should be done to the disparagement +of the name of that priest, who more than a hundred years +ago, in the judgement of the sacred and venerable Council of +Chalcedon, subscribed without any hesitation and consented +with profound devotion to the Epistle of the most blessed Pope +Leo.… The truth of these things having been considered, +we determine and decree that nothing be done or proposed by +any one in judgement upon him to the injury and defamation +of a man most approved in the synod of Chalcedon, that is +to say, Theodoret of Cyrus. But guarding in all respects the +reverence of his person, whatsoever writings are brought forward +under his name or under that of another evidently in +accord with the errors of the wicked Nestorius and Eutyches +we anathematize and condemn. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Then follow these five anathematisms, the test of which may be +found in Hahn, § 228: +</quote> + +<p> +1. If any one does not confess that the Word was made +flesh, and the inconvertibility of the divine nature having been +preserved, and from the moment of conception in the womb +of the virgin united according to subsistence [hypostatically] +<pb n='549'/><anchor id='Pg549'/> +human nature to Himself, but as with a man already existing; +so that, accordingly, the holy Virgin is not to be believed to be +truly the bearer of God, but is called so only in word, let him +be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +2. If any one shall deny that a unity of natures according +to subsistence [hypostatically] was made in Christ, but that +God the Word dwelt in a man existing apart as one of the +just, and does not confess the unity of natures according to +subsistence, that God the Word with the assumed flesh remained +and remains one subsistence or person, let him be +anathema. +</p> + +<p> +3. If any one so divides the evangelical, apostolic words +in reference to the one Christ, that he introduces a division +of the natures united in Him, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +4. It any one says that the one Jesus Christ, God the +Word and the same true Son of Man, was ignorant of future +things or of the day of the last judgment, and was able to +know only so far as Deity revealed to Him, as if dwelling in +another, let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +5. If any one applies to Christ as if stripped of His divinity +the saying of the Apostle in the Epistle to the Hebrews,<note place="foot">Heb. 5:7, +8.</note> that He knew obedience by experience and with strong crying and +tears offered prayers and supplications to God who was able +to save Him from death, and who was perfected by the labors +of virtue, so that from this he evidently introduces two +Christs or two Sons, and does not believe the one and the same +Christ to be confessed and adored Son of God and Son of +Man, of two and in two natures inseparable and undivided, +let him be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +… We have also examined concerning the Epistle of the +venerable man Ibas, once bishop of the city of Edessa, concerning +which you also ask if in early times anything concerning +it was undertaken by our Fathers, or discussed, or examined, +or determined. Because it is known to all and especially to +your piety, that we are ignorant of the Greek language, yet by +<pb n='550'/><anchor id='Pg550'/> +the aid of some of our company, who have knowledge of that +tongue, we discover clearly and openly that in the same synod +the affair of the venerable man Ibas was examined, from the +action taken regarding Photius, bishop of Tyre, and Eustathius, +bishop of Berytus, that this epistle, concerning which +inquiry is made, was brought forward against him by his +accusers; and when, after discussion of the affair was ended, +it was asked of the venerable Fathers what ought to be done +concerning the matter of the same Ibas, the following sentence +was passed: +</p> + +<p> +Paschasius and Lucentius, most reverend bishops, and Boniface, +presbyter, holding the place of the Apostolic See (because +the apostolic delegates are accustomed always to speak +and vote first in synods), by Paschasius said: <q>Since the documents +have been read, we perceive from the opinion of the +most reverend bishops that the most reverend Ibas is approved +as innocent; for now that his epistle has been read we +recognize it as orthodox. And on this account we decree +that the honor of the episcopate be restored to him, and the +church, from which unjustly and in his absence he was driven +out, be given back.</q> [The patriarchs of Constantinople +and Antioch agreed, and their opinions are also quoted by +Vigilius from the Acts of the Council of Chalcedon.] +</p> + +<p> +… Therefore we, following in all things the discipline and +judgment of the holy Fathers, and the disposition of all +things according to the account which we have given of the +judgment of the Council of Chalcedon, since it is most evidently +true, from the words of the Epistle of the venerable +man Ibas, regarded with the right and pious mind, and from +the action taken regarding Photius and Eustathius, and from +the opinions of bishop Ibas, discussed in his presence by those +present, that our Fathers present at Chalcedon most justly +pronounced the faith of the same venerable man Ibas orthodox +and his blaming the blessed Cyril, which they perceive +to have been from error of human intelligence, purged by +appropriate satisfaction, by the authority of our present sentence, +<pb n='551'/><anchor id='Pg551'/> +we determine and decree in all things so also in the +often-mentioned Epistle of the venerable Ibas, the judgment +of the Fathers present at Chalcedon remain inviolate. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Conclusion of the <hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi>: +</quote> + +<p> +These things having been disposed of by us in every point +with all caution and diligence, in order to preserve inviolate +the reverence of the said synods and the venerable constitutions +of the same; mindful that it has been written [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Prov. +22:26], we ought not to cross the bounds of our Fathers, we +determine and decree that it is permitted to no one of any +ecclesiastical rank or dignity to do anything contrary to these +things which, by this present constitution, we assert and determine, +concerning the oft-mentioned three chapters, or to +write or to bring forward, or to compose, or to teach, or to +make any further investigation after this present definition. +But concerning the same three chapters, if anything contrary +to these things, which we here determine and assert, +is made in the name of any one, in ecclesiastical order or +dignity, or shall be found by any one or anywheresoever, +such a one by the authority of the Apostolic See, in which by +the grace of God we are placed, we refute in every way. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Council of Constantinople, A. D. 553, +<hi rend='italic'>Definition</hi>. Mansi, IX, 367.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Condemnation of the Three Chapters. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This action is taken from the Definition of the council, a rather +wordy document, but ending with a passage indicating the action of +the council. From this concluding passage this condemnation is +taken. See Hefele, § 274, also PNF, ser. II, vol. XIV, pp. 306-311. +</quote> + +<p> +We condemn and anathematize with all other heretics who +have been condemned and anathematized by the before-mentioned +four holy synods, and by the Catholic and Apostolic +Church, Theodore, who was bishop of Mopsuestia, and his +impious writings, and also those things which Theodoret +impiously wrote against the right faith and against the twelve +capitula of the holy Cyril, and against the first synod of Ephesus, +<pb n='552'/><anchor id='Pg552'/> +and also those which he wrote in defence of Theodore +and Nestorius. In addition to these, we also anathematize +the impious epistle which Ibas is said to have written to Maris +the Persian, which denies that God the Word was incarnate of +the holy Theotokos and ever-virgin Mary, and accuses Cyril, +of holy memory, who taught the truth, of being a heretic and +of the same sentiments with Apollinaris, and blames the first +synod of Ephesus for deposing Nestorius without examination +and inquiry, and calls the twelve capitula of Cyril impious +and contrary to the right faith, and defends Theodore and +Nestorius, and their impious dogmas and writings. We, +therefore, anathematize the three chapters before mentioned, +that is the impious Theodore of Mopsuestia with his execrable +writings, and those things which Theodoret impiously +wrote, and the impious letter which is said to be by Ibas, +together with their defenders and those who have written or +do write in defence of them, or who dare to say that they are +correct, and who have defended or do attempt to defend their +impiety with the names of the holy Fathers or of the holy +Council of Chalcedon. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Council of Constantinople A. D. 553. +<hi rend='italic'>Anathematism</hi> 11. Mansi, IX, 201. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +Denziger. n. 223.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Condemnation of Origen. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Appended to the Definition of the council are fourteen anathematisms, +forming (1-10) an exposition of the doctrine of the two natures, +and concluding with condemnation of Origen, together with other +heretics, and of the Three Chapters (11-14). These anathematisms +are based upon a confession of faith of the Emperor Justinian, a lengthy +document, but containing thirteen anathematisms. This confession +of faith was composed before the council, probably in 551. For an +analysis of it, see Hefele, § 263. The text of the council's anathematisms +may be found in Hefele, § 274, also in Hahn, § 148. Attempts +have been made by older scholars to show that the name Origen was +a later insertion. For arguments, see Hefele, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +If any one does not anathematize Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, +Apollinaris, Nestorius, Eutyches, and Origen, with +their impious writings, as also all other heretics already condemned +<pb n='553'/><anchor id='Pg553'/> +and anathematized by the holy Catholic and Apostolic +Church, and by the aforesaid four holy synods, and all +those who have been or are of the same mind with the heretics +mentioned, and who remain to the end in their impiety, +let him be anathema. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_94"/> +<head>§ 94. The Byzantine State Church under Justinian</head> + +<p> +According to Justinian's scheme of Church government, +the Emperor was the head of the Church in the sense that he +had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest +detail of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological +opinions to be held in the Church. This is shown, not +merely in his conduct of the Fifth General Council, but also in +his attempt, at the end of his life, to force Aphthartodocetism +upon the Church. This position of the Emperor in relation +to the Church is known as Cæsaropapism. (See Bury, <hi rend='italic'>Later +Roman Empire</hi>, chap. XI.) The ecclesiastical legislation of +Justinian should also be considered. At the same time Justinian +strictly repressed the lingering heathenism and, in the +interest of the schools at Constantinople, closed the schools +at Athens, the last stronghold of paganism. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Evagrius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV, 39. +(MSG, 86 II:2781.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Aphthartodocetism of Justinian. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Among the many variations of Monophysitism flourishing under +Justinian was Aphthartodocetism, according to which the body of Christ, +before as well as after his resurrection, was <q>a glorified body,</q> or incapable +of suffering. See selection for description. +</quote> + +<p> +At that time Justinian, abandoning the right road of doctrine +and following the path untrodden by the Apostles and +Fathers, became entangled in thorns and briars; and he +attempted to fill the Church also with these, but failed in his +purpose, and thereby fulfilled the prediction of prophecy.… Justinian, +after he had anathematized Origen, Didymus, and +Evagrius, issued what the Latins call an edict, after the deposition +<pb n='554'/><anchor id='Pg554'/> +of Eustochius [A. D. 556], in which he termed the body +of the Lord incorruptible and incapable of the natural and +blameless passions; affirming that the Lord ate before His +passion in the same manner as after His resurrection, His holy +body having undergone no conversion or change from the +time of its actual formation in the womb, not even in respect +to the natural and voluntary passions, nor yet after the resurrection. +To this he proceeded to compel bishops in all parts +to give their assent. However, they all professed to look to +Anastasius, the Bishop of Antioch, and thus avoided the first +attack. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Justinian, <hi rend='italic'>Novella VI</hi> +<q>Preface.</q></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Church and State according to Justinian. +</quote> + +<p> +Among the greatest gifts of God bestowed by the kindness +of heaven are the priesthood and the imperial dignity. Of +these the former serves things divine; the latter rules human +affairs and cares for them. Both are derived from the one +and the same source, and order human life. And, therefore, +nothing is so much a care to the emperors as the dignity of +the priesthood; so that they may always pray to God for +them. For if one is in every respect blameless and filled with +confidence toward God, and the other rightly and properly +maintains in order the commonwealth intrusted to it, there +is a certain excellent harmony which furnishes whatsoever +is needful for the human race. We, therefore, have the greatest +cares for the true doctrines of God and the dignity of the +priesthood which, if they preserve it, we trust that by it great +benefits will be bestowed by God, and we shall possess undisturbed +those things which we have, and in addition acquire +those things which we have not yet acquired. But all things +are well and properly carried on, if only a proper beginning is +laid, and one that is acceptable to God. But this we believe +will be so if the observance of the sacred canons is cared for, +which also the Apostles, who are rightly to be praised, and the +venerated eye-witnesses and ministers of the word of God, +<pb n='555'/><anchor id='Pg555'/> +delivered, and which the holy Fathers have also preserved and +explained. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Justinian, <hi rend='italic'>Novella CXXXVII</hi>, +6.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following section from the conclusion of a <hi rend='italic'>novella</hi> illustrates +the manner in which Justinian legislated in matter of internal affairs for +the Church and instituted a control over the priesthood which was +other than that of the Church's own system of discipline. +</quote> + +<p> +We command that all bishops and presbyters shall offer +the sacred oblation and the prayers in holy baptism not +silently, but with a voice which may be heard by the faithful +people, that thereby the minds of those listening may be moved +to greater contrition and to the glory of God. For so, indeed, +the holy Apostle teaches (I Cor. 14:16; Rom. 10:10).… Therefore +it is right that to our Lord Jesus Christ, to our +God with the Father and the Holy Ghost, be offered prayer +in the holy oblation and other prayers with the voice by the +most holy bishops and the presbyters; for the holy priests +should know that if they neglect any of those things they shall +render an account at the terrible judgment of the great God +and our Saviour Jesus Christ, and that we shall not quietly +permit such things when we know of them and will not leave +them unpunished. We command, therefore, that the governors +of the epachies, if they see anything neglected of those +things which have been decreed by us, first urge the metropolitans +and other bishops to celebrate the aforesaid synods, +and do whatsoever things we have ordered by this present law +concerning synods, and, if they see them delaying, let them +report to us, that from us may come a proper correction of +those who put off holding synods. And the governors and +the officials subject to them should know that if they do not +observe these matters they will be liable to the extreme +penalty [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, death]. But we confirm by this present law +all things which have been decreed by us in various constitutions +concerning bishops, presbyters, and other clerics, +and further concerning lodging-places for strangers, poor-houses, +<pb n='556'/><anchor id='Pg556'/> +orphan asylums and others as many as are over the +sacred buildings. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Justinian, <hi rend='italic'>Novella CXXIII</hi>, +1.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Laws governing the ordination of bishops. +</quote> + +<p> +We decree that whenever it is necessary to ordain a bishop, +the clergy and the leading citizens whose is the bishop who +is to be ordained shall make, under peril of their souls, with the +holy Gospels placed before them, certificates concerning three +persons, testifying in the same certificates that they have not +chosen them for any gifts or promises or for reasons of friendship, +or any other cause, but because they know that they +are of the true and Catholic faith and of honest life, and learned +in science and that none of them has either wife or children, +and know that they have neither concubine nor natural children, +but that if any of them had a wife the same was one and +first, neither a widow nor separated from her husband, nor +prohibited by the laws and sacred canons; and know that they +are not a curial or an official, or, in case they should be such, +are not liable to any curial or official duty; and they know +that they have in such case spent not less than fifteen years +in a monastery. This also is to be contained in the certificate: +that they know the person selected by them to be not +less than thirty years of age; so that from the three persons +for whom these certificates were made the best may be ordained +by the choice and at the peril of him who ordains. But +a curial or an official who, as has been said, has lived fifteen +years in a monastery and is advanced to the episcopate is +freed from his rank so that as freed from the curia he may +retain a fourth part of his property, since the rest of his property, +according to our law, is to be claimed by the curia and +fisc. Also we give to those who make the certificate the privilege +that if they deem a layman, with the exception of a +curial or an official, worthy of the said election, they may +choose such layman with the two other clergy or monks, but +so, however, that the layman who has in this way been chosen +<pb n='557'/><anchor id='Pg557'/> +to the episcopate shall not be ordained at once, but shall first +be numbered among the clergy not less than three months, +and so having learned the holy canons and the sacred ministry +of the Church, he shall be ordained bishop; for he who ought +to teach others ought not himself to be taught by others after +his consecration. But if by chance there are not found in +any place three persons eligible to such election, it is permitted +those who make the certificates to make them for two or even +for only one person, who shall each have the testimonials +mentioned by us. But if those who ought to elect a bishop +do not make this certificate within six months, then, at the +peril of his soul, let him who ought to ordain ordain a bishop, +provided, however, that all things which we have said be +observed. But if any one is made bishop contrary to the +aforesaid rules, we command that he be driven entirely from +the episcopate; but as for him who dared to ordain him against +these commands, let him be separated from the sacred ministry +for a year and all his property, which at any time or in +any way shall come into his possession, shall be seized on +account of the crime he has committed against the rule of the +Church of which he was a bishop. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 13. We do not permit clergy to be ordained unless +they are educated, have the right faith, and an honorable life, +and neither have, nor have had, a concubine or natural children, +but who either live chastely or have a lawful wife and +her one and only, neither a widow not separated from her +husband, nor forbidden by laws and sacred canons. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 14. We do not permit presbyters to be made less than +thirty years old, deacons and sub-deacons less than twenty-five, +and lectors less than sixteen; nor a deaconess to be ordained<note place="foot">Same +word used as for ordination of clergy.</note> in the holy Church who is less than forty +years old and who has been married a second time. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Justinian, <hi rend='italic'>Codex</hi>, I, 11.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Law against paganism. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following laws of Justinian, though of uncertain date, mark the +<pb n='558'/><anchor id='Pg558'/> +termination of the contest between Christianity and paganism. In +the second of these laws there is a reference to the prohibition of pagan +teachers. It is in line with the closing of the schools of the heathen +teachers at Athens. The decree closing the schools has not been preserved. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 9. We command that our magistrates in this royal +city and in the provinces take care with the greatest zeal that, +having been informed by themselves or the most religious +bishops of this matter, they make inquiry according to law +into all impurities of pagan<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Hellenic</hi>, and so +throughout.</note> superstitions, that they be not +committed, and if committed that they be punished; but if +their repression exceed provincial power, these things are to +be referred to us, that the responsibility for, and incitement +of, these crimes may not rest upon them. +</p> + +<p> +(1) It is permitted no one, either in testament or by gift, +to leave or give anything to persons or places for the maintenance +of pagan impiety, even if it is not expressly contained +in the words of the will, testament, or donation, but can be +truly perceived in some other way by the judges. (2) But +those things which are so left or given shall be taken from the +persons and places to whom they have been given or left, +and shall belong to the cities in which such persons dwell or +in which such places are situated, so that they may be paid as +a form of revenue. (3) All penalties which have been introduced +by previous emperors against the errors of pagans or +in favor of the orthodox faith are to remain in force and effect +forever and guarded by this present pious legislation. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 10. Because some are found who are imbued with the +error of the impious and detestable pagans, and do those things +which move a merciful God to just wrath, and that we may +not suffer ourselves to leave uncorrected matters which concern +these things, but, knowing that they have abandoned the +worship of the true and only God, and have in insane error +offered sacrifices, and, filled with all impiety, have celebrated +solemnities, we subject those who have committed these +<pb n='559'/><anchor id='Pg559'/> +things, after they have been held worthy of holy baptism, to +the punishment appropriate to the crimes of which they have +been convicted; but for the future we decree to all by this +present law that they who have been made Christians and at +any time have been deemed worthy of the holy and saving +baptism, if it appear that they have remained still in the +error of the pagans, shall suffer capital punishment. +</p> + +<p> +(1) Those who have not yet been worthy of the venerable +rite of baptism shall report themselves, if they dwell in this +royal city or in the provinces, and go to the holy churches +with their wives and children and all the household subject +to them, and be taught the true faith of Christians, so that +having been taught their former error henceforth to be rejected, +they may receive saving baptism, or know, if they +regard these things of small value, that they are to have no +part in all those things which belong to our commonwealth, +neither is it permitted them to become owners of anything +movable or immovable, but, deprived of everything, they are +to be left in poverty, and besides are subject to appropriate +penalties. +</p> + +<p> +(2) We forbid also that any branch of learning be taught +by those who labor under the insanity of the impious pagans, +so that they may not for this reason pretend that they instruct +those who unfortunately resort to them, but in reality +corrupt the minds of their pupils; and let them not receive +any support from the public treasury, since they are not permitted +by the Holy Scriptures or by pragmatic forms [public +decrees] to claim anything of the sort for themselves. +</p> + +<p> +(3) For if any one here or in the provinces shall have been +convicted of not having hastened to the holy churches with +his wife and children, as said, he shall suffer the aforesaid +penalties, and the fisc shall claim his property, and they shall +be sent into exile. +</p> + +<p> +(4) If any one in our commonwealth, hiding himself, shall +be discovered to have celebrated sacrifices or the worship of +idols, let him suffer the same capital punishment as the Manichæans +<pb n='560'/><anchor id='Pg560'/> +and, what is the same, the Borborani [certain Ophitic +Gnostics; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> DCB], for we judge them to be similar to these. +</p> + +<p> +(5) Also we decree that their children of tender years shall +at once and without delay receive saving baptism; but they +who have passed beyond their earliest age shall attend the +holy churches and be instructed in the Holy Scriptures, and +so give themselves to sincere penitence that, having rejected +their early error, they may receive the venerable rite of baptism, +for in this way let them steadfastly receive the true faith +of the orthodox and not again fall back into their former error. +</p> + +<p> +(6) But those who, for the sake of retaining their military +rank or their dignity or their goods, shall in pretence accept +saving baptism, but have left their wives and children and +others who are in their households in the error of pagans, we +command that they be deprived of their goods and have no +part in our commonwealth, since it is manifest that they have +not received holy baptism in good faith. +</p> + +<p> +(7) These things, therefore, we decree against the abominable +pagans and the Manichæans, of which Manichæans +the Borborani are a part. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_95"/> +<head>§ 95. The Definitive Type of Religion in the East: Dionysius the Areopagite</head> + +<p> +The works of Dionysius the Areopagite first appear in the +controversies in the reign of Justinian, when they are quoted +in the Conference with the Severians, 531 or 533. There are +citations from the works of the Areopagite fifteen or twenty +years earlier in the works of Severus, the Monophysite patriarch +of Antioch. In this is given the latest date to which +they may be assigned. They cannot be earlier than 476, +because the author is acquainted with the works of Proclus +(411-485) and uses them; also he refers to the practice of +singing the Credo in divine service, which was first introduced +by the Monophysites at Antioch in 476. No closer determination +of the date is possible. The author is wholly unknown. +</p> + +<pb n='561'/><anchor id='Pg561'/> + +<p> +That he was Dionysius the Areopagite (Acts 17:34) is maintained +by no scholar to-day. His standpoint is that of the +later Eastern religious feeling and practice, with its strong +desire for mysteries and sacramental system. But he brings +to it Neo-Platonic thought to such a degree as to color completely +his presentation of Christian truth. The effect of +the book was only gradual, but eventually very great. In the +East it gave authority, which seemed to be that of the apostolic +age, for its highly developed system of mysteries, which +had grown up in the Church. In the West it served as a +philosophical basis for scholastic mysticism. On account of +the connection between Dionysius and the later Greek philosophy +and the mediæval philosophy, Dionysius the Areopagite +occupies a place in the histories of philosophy quite out +of proportion to the intrinsic merit of the writer. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: English translations of Dionysius the +Areopagite, Dean Colet, ed. by J. H. Lupton, London, 1869, and +J. Parker, Oxford, 1897 (not complete); a new translation into German +appeared in the new edition of the <hi rend='italic'>Kempten Bibliothek der +Kirchenväter</hi>, 1912. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Dionysius Areopagita, <hi rend='italic'>De Cælesti +Hierarchia</hi>, III, 2. (MSG, 3:165.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Dionysius thus defines <q>Hierarchy</q>: +</quote> + +<p> +He who speaks of a hierarchy indicates thereby a holy +order … which in a holy manner works the mysteries of +illumination which is appropriate to each one. The order +of the hierarchy consists in this, that some are purified and +others purify; some are illuminated and others illuminate; +some are completed and others complete. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>De Cælesti Hierarchia</hi>, VI, 2. +(MSG, 3:200.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The heavenly hierarchy. +</quote> + +<p> +Theology has given to all heavenly existences new explanatory +titles. Our divine initiator divides these into three +threefold ranks. The first is that, as he says, which is ever +<pb n='562'/><anchor id='Pg562'/> +about God, and which, as it is related (Ezek. 1), is permanently +and before all others immediately united to Him; for +the explanation of the Holy Scripture tells us that the most +holy throne and the many-eyed and many-winged ranks, +which in Hebrew are called cherubim and seraphim, stand +before God in the closest proximity. This threefold order, or +rank, our great leader names the one, like, and only truly +first hierarchy, which is more godlike and stands more immediately +near the first effects of the illuminations of divinity +than all others. As the second hierarchy, he names +that which is composed of authorities, dominions, and powers, +and as the third and last of the heavenly hierarchies he +names the order of angels, archangels, and principalities. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>De Ecclesiastica Hierarchia</hi>, I, +1. (MSG, 3:372.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The nature of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. +</quote> + +<p> +That our hierarchy … which is given by God, is God-inspired +and divine, a divinely acting knowledge, activity, and +completion, we must show from the supernal and most Holy +Scriptures to those who through hierarchical secrets and traditions +have been initiated into the holy consecration.… Jesus, +the most divine and most transcendent spirit, the principle +and the being and the most divine power of every hierarchy, +holiness, and divine operation, brings to the blessed beings +superior to us a more bright and at the same time more +spiritual light and makes them as far as possible like to His +own light. And through our love which tends upward toward +Him, by the love of the beautiful which draws us up to Him, +He brings together into one our many heterogeneities; that +He might perfect them so as to become a uniform and divine +life, condition, and activity, He gives us the power of the +divine priesthood. In consequence of this honor we arrive +at the holy activity of the priesthood, and so we ourselves +come near to the beings over us, that we, so far as we are +able, approximate to their abiding and unchangeable holy +state and so look up to the blessed and divine brilliancy of +<pb n='563'/><anchor id='Pg563'/> +Jesus, gaze religiously on what is attainable by us to see, and are +illuminated by the knowledge of what is seen; and thus we are +initiated into the mystic science, and, initiating, we can become +light-like and divinely working, complete and completing. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>De Ecclesiastica Hierarchia</hi>, V, +3. (MSG, 3:504.)</head> + +<p> +The most holy consecration of initiation has as the godlike +power or activity the expiatory purification of the imperfect, +as the second the illuminating consecration of the purified, +and as the last, which also includes the other two, the perfecting +of the consecrated in the knowledge of the consecrations +that belong to them.… +</p> + +<p> +5. The divine order of the hierarch<note place="foot">By hierarch is to be understood +in this connection the episcopal order, or the bishop.</note> is the first under the +God-beholding orders; it is the highest and also the last, +for in it every other order of our hierarchy ends and is +completed.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf. Epistula</hi>, VIII, 2. (MSG, 3:1092.) +<q>Every order of the ecclesiastical hierarchy has relation to God and is more godlike +than that which is further removed from God, and lighter and more illuminating in all +that is nearer to the true light. Do not understand this nearness in a local sense: it +has reference rather to the ability to receive God.</q></note> +For we see that every hierarchy ends in Jesus, and +so each one ends in the God-filled hierarchs. +</p> + +<p> +6. The hierarchical order, which is filled full of the perfecting +power, performs especially the consecrations of the +hierarchy, imparts by revelation the knowledge of the sacred +things, and teaches the conditions and powers appropriate +to them. The order of priests which leads to light leads to +the divine beholding of the sacred mysteries all those who +have been initiated by the divine order of the hierarchs and +with that order performs its proper sacred functions. In +what it does it displays the divine working through the most +holy symbols [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, sacraments] and makes those who approach +beholders and participants in the most holy mysteries, sending +on to the hierarch those who desire the knowledge of those +sacred rites which are seen. The order of the liturges [or +deacons] is that which cleanses and separates the unlike +<pb n='564'/><anchor id='Pg564'/> +before they come to the sacred rites of the priests, purifies +those who approach that it may render them pure from all +that is opposing and unworthy of beholding and participating +in the sacred mysteries. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>De Ecclesiastica Hierarchia</hi>, I, +3. (MSG, 3:373.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The sacraments. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The mysteries or sacraments, according to Dionysius the Areopagite, +are six in number: baptism, the eucharist, anointing or confirmation, +the consecration of priests, the consecration of monks,<note place="foot">The highest +order of all the consecrated orders is the holy order of monks.</note> +and the consecration +of the dead. These he discusses in chs. 2-7 of the <hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical +Hierarchy</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +Salvation can in no other way come about than that the +saved are deified. The deification is the highest possible +resemblance to God and union with Him. The common +aim of all the hierarchy is the love which hangs upon God and +things divine, which fills with a divine spirit and works in +godlike fashion; and before this is the complete and never +retreating flight from that which is opposed to it, the knowledge +of being as being, the vision and knowledge of the holy +truth, the divinely inspired participation in the homogeneous +perfection of the One himself, so far as man can come to that, +the enjoyment of the holy contemplation, which spiritually +nourishes and deifies every one who strives for it. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter II. The Transition To The Middle Ages. The Foundation Of The +Germanic National Churches</head> + +<p> +While the doctrinal system of the Church was being wrought +out in the disputes and councils of Rome and the East, the +foundations of the Germanic national churches were being +laid in the West. In the British Isles the faith was extended +from Britain to Ireland and thence to Scotland (<ref target="Section_96">§ 96</ref>). +Among the inmates of the monasteries of these countries were many +monks who were moved to undertake missionary journeys +to various parts of Western Europe, and among them St. +<pb n='565'/><anchor id='Pg565'/> +Columbanus. But even more important for the future of +Western Christendom was the conversion of the Franks from +paganism to Catholic Christianity. At a time when the +other Germanic rulers were still Arian, Clovis and the Franks +became Catholics and, as a consequence, the champions of +the Catholic faith. The Franks rapidly became the dominant +power in the West, and soon other Germanic races either were +conquered or followed the example of the Franks and became +Catholics (<ref target="Section_97">§ 97</ref>). The State churches that thus arose were +more under the control of the local royal authority than the +Catholic Church had previously been, and the rulers were +little disposed to favor outside control of the ecclesiastical +affairs of their kingdoms (<ref target="Section_98">§ 98</ref>). Toward the end of the +sixth century the greatest pontiff of the ancient Church, Gregory +the Great, more than recovered the prestige and influence +which had been lost under Vigilius. By his able administration +he did much to unite the West, to heal the schism resulting +from the Fifth Council, and to overcome the heresies +which divided the Arians and the Catholics. At the same +time he advanced the authority of the see of Rome in the +East as well as in the West (<ref target="Section_99">§ 99</ref>). Of the many +statesman-like undertakings of Gregory none had more far-reaching +consequences than the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons and +the establishment in England of a church which would be in +close and loyal dependence upon the Roman see, and in consequence +of that close connection would be the heir of the +best traditions of culture in the West (<ref target="Section_100">§ 100</ref>). +</p> + +<pb n='566'/><anchor id='Pg566'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_96"/> +<head>§ 96. The Celtic Church in the British Isles</head> + +<p> +Christianity was probably planted in the British Isles +during the second century; as to its growth in the ante-Nicene +period little is definitely known. Representatives +of the British Church were at Arles in 314. The Church was +in close connection with the Church on the Continent during +the fourth century and in the fifth during the Pelagian controversy. +The Christianity thus established was completely +overthrown or driven into Wales by the invasion of the pagan +Angles, Jutes, and Saxons <hi rend='italic'>circa</hi> 449-500. (For the conversion +of the newcomers, <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_100">§ 100</ref>.) +Early in the fifth century the conversion of Ireland took place by missionaries +from Britain. In this conversion St. Patrick traditionally +plays an important part. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, Eng. trans. by Giles, +London, 1894; by A. M. Sellar, London, 1907 (for Latin text, <hi rend='italic'>v. +infra</hi>, <hi rend='italic'><ref target="Section_100_a">a</ref></hi>); Adamnani, +<hi rend='italic'>Vita S. Columbæ</hi>, ed. J. T. Fowler, 1894 (with valuable +introduction and translation); St. Patrick, <hi rend='italic'>Genuine Writings</hi>, ed. +G. T. Stokes and C. H. H. Wright, Dublin, 1887; J. D. Newport White, +<hi rend='italic'>The Writings of St. Patrick</hi>, 1904. For bibliography of sources, +see Gross, <hi rend='italic'>The Sources and Literature of English History</hi>, 1900, +pp. 221 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec. Gentis Anglorum</hi>, +I, 13. (MSL, 95:40.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Venerable Bede (672 or 673-735), monk at Jarrow, the most +learned theologian of the Anglo-Saxon Church, was also the first historian +of England. For the earliest period he used what written +sources were available. His work becomes of independent value with +the account of the coming of Augustine of Canterbury, 597 (I, 23). +The history extends to A. D. 731. The best critical edition is that of +C. Plummer, 1896, which has a valuable introduction, copious historical +and critical notes, and careful discrimination of the sources. +Wm. Bright's <hi rend='italic'>Chapters on Early English Church History</hi> is an +elaborate commentary on Bede's work as far as 709, the death of Wilfrid. Translation +of Bede's History by J. A. Giles, may be found in Bohn's <hi rend='italic'>Antiquarian +Library</hi>, and better by A. M. Sellar, 1907. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +In the following passage we have the only reference made by Bede +to the conversion of Ireland, and his failure to mention Patrick has +given rise to much controversy, see J. B. Bury, <hi rend='italic'>The Life of St. +Patrick +<pb n='567'/><anchor id='Pg567'/> +and his Place in History</hi>, 1905. This passage, referring to Palladius, +is a quotation from the <hi rend='italic'>Chronica</hi> of Prosper of Aquitaine (403-463) +ann. 431 (MSL, 51, critical edition in MGH, <hi rend='italic'>Auct. antiquiss</hi>, 9:1); +from Gildas, <hi rend='italic'>De excidio Britanniæ liber querulus</hi> (MSL, 69:327, +critical edition in MGH, <hi rend='italic'>Auct. antiquiss</hi>, 13. A translation by J. +A. Giles in <hi rend='italic'>Six Old English Chronicles</hi>, in Bohn's +<hi rend='italic'>Antiquarian Library</hi>), is the reference to the letter written to +the Romans; from the Chronica of Marcellinus Comes (MSL, 51:913; critical edition in MGH, +<hi rend='italic'>Auct. antiquiss</hi>, 11) is the reference to Blæda and Attila. +</quote> + +<p> +In the year of the Lord's incarnation, 423, Theodosius the +younger received the empire after Honorius and, being the +forty-fifth from Augustus, retained it twenty-six years. In +the eighth year of his reign, Palladius was sent by Celestinus, +the pontiff of the Roman Church, to the Scots<note place="foot">The Irish were known as +Scots. The name Scotland was given to that country on account of invaders from North +Ireland.</note> that believed +in Christ to be their first bishop. In the twenty-third year +of his reign (446), Aëtius, the illustrious, who was also patrician, +discharged his third consulate with Symmachus as his +colleague. To him the wretched remnants of the Britons sent +a letter beginning: <q>To Aëtius, thrice consul, the groans of +the Britons.</q> And in the course of the letter they thus express +their calamities: <q>The barbarians drive us to the sea; +the sea drives us back to the barbarians; between them there +have arisen two sorts of death; we are either slain or +drowned.</q> Yet neither could all this procure any assistance +from him, as he was then engaged in a most dangerous war +with Blæda and Attila, kings of the Huns. And though the +year next before this, Blæda had been murdered by the +treachery of his brother Attila, yet Attila himself remained so +intolerable an enemy to the republic that he ravaged almost +all Europe, invading and destroying cities and castles. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Patrick, <hi rend='italic'>Confessio</hi>, chs. 1, 10. +(MSL, 53:801.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The call of St. Patrick to be a missionary. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +There is much dispute and uncertainty about the life and work of +St. Patrick. Of the works of Patrick, two appear to be genuine, his +<hi rend='italic'>Confessio</hi> and his <hi rend='italic'>Epistola ad Coroticum</hi>. +The other works attributed to him are very probably spurious. The genuine works may be +found +<pb n='568'/><anchor id='Pg568'/> +in Haddan and Stubbs, <hi rend='italic'>Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents relating +to Great Britain and Ireland</hi>, vol. II, pt. ii, 296 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<p> +I, Patrick, a sinner, the most ignorant and least of all the +faithful, and the most contemptible among many, had for my +father Calpornius the deacon, son of the presbyter Potitus, +the son of Odissus, who was of the village of Bannavis Tabernia; +he had near by a little estate where I was taken captive. +I was then nearly sixteen years old. But I was ignorant of +the true God<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, not +necessarily a pagan, but he did not love God, or was not yet +<q>converted.</q></note> and I was taken into captivity unto Ireland, +with so many thousand men, according to our deserts, because +we had forsaken God and not kept His commandments +and had not been obedient to our priests who warned us +of our salvation. And the Lord brought upon us the fury +of His wrath and scattered us among many nations, even +to the end of the earth, where now my meanness appears to +be among strangers. And there the Lord opened the senses +of my unbelief, that I might remember my sin, and that +I might be converted with my whole heart to my Lord +God, who looked upon my humbleness and had mercy upon +my youth and ignorance, and guarded me before I knew Him, +and before I knew and distinguished between good and evil, +and protected me and comforted me as a father a son. +</p> + +<p> +… And again after a few years<note place="foot">In the meanwhile +he had escaped to France and lived there.</note> I was with my relatives +in Britain, who received me as a son, and earnestly besought +me that I should never leave them after having endured so +many great tribulations. And there I saw in a vision by +night a man coming to me as from Ireland, and his name was +Victorinus, and he had innumerable epistles; and he gave me +one of them and I read the beginning of the epistle as follows: +<q>The voice of the Irish.</q> And while I was reading the epistle, +I think that it was at the very moment, I heard the voice of +those who were near the wood of Fochlad,<note place="foot">Where +Patrick had lived as a slave.</note> which is near the +<pb n='569'/><anchor id='Pg569'/> +Western Sea. And thus they cried out with one voice: We +beseech thee, holy youth, to come here and dwell among us. +And I was greatly smitten in heart, and could read no further +and so I awoke. Thanks be to God, because after +many years the Lord granted them according to their cry. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 4. +(MSL, 95:121.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +St. Ninian and St. Columba in Scotland. +</quote> + +<p> +In the year of our Lord 565, when Justin the younger, the +successor of Justinian, took the government of the Roman +Empire, there came into Britain a priest and abbot, distinguished +in habit and monastic life, Columba by name, to +preach the word of God to the provinces of the northern Picts, +that is, to those who are separated from the southern parts +by steep and rugged mountains. For the southern Picts, +who had their homes within those mountains, had long before, +as is reported, forsaken the error of idolatry, and embraced +the true faith, by the preaching of the word to them by Ninian,<note place="foot">This +reference to Ninian is the most important there is; in fact, Bede is +here the chief authority for the work of this missionary.</note> +a most reverend bishop and holy man of the British nation, +who had been regularly instructed at Rome in the faith +and mysteries of the truth, whose episcopal see was named +after St. Martin, the bishop, and was famous for its church, +wherein he and many other saints rest in the body, and +which the English nation still possesses. The place belongs +to the province of Bernicia, and is commonly called Candida +Casa,<note place="foot">Whitherne, Galloway.</note> +because he there built a church of stone, which was +not usual among the Britons. +</p> + +<p> +Columba came to Britain in the ninth year of the reign of +Bridius, the son of Meilochon, the very powerful king of the +Picts, and he converted by work and example that nation to +the faith of Christ; whereupon he also received the aforesaid +island [Iona] for a monastery. It is not large, but contains +about five families, according to English reckoning. His successors +<pb n='570'/><anchor id='Pg570'/> +hold it to this day, and there also he was buried, +when he was seventy-seven, about thirty-two years after he +came into Britain to preach. Before he came into Britain +he had built a noble monastery in Ireland, which from the +great number of oaks is called in the Scottish +tongue<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, Irish tongue.</note> Dearmach, +that is, the Field of Oaks. From both of these monasteries +many others had their origin through his disciples both +in Britain and Ireland; but the island monastery where his +body lies holds the rule. +</p> + +<p> +That island always has for its ruler an abbot, who is a +priest, to whose direction all the province and even bishops +themselves are subject by an unusual form of organization, +according to the example of their first teacher, who was not +a bishop, but a priest and monk; of whose life and discourses +some writings are said to have been preserved by his disciples. +But whatever he was himself, this we regard as certain concerning +him, that he left successors renowned for their great +continency, their love of God, and their monastic rules. However, +they followed uncertain cycles<note place="foot">Rules for computing Easter.</note> +in their observance of the +great festival [Easter], for no one brought them the synodal +decrees for the observance of Easter, because they were +placed so far away from the rest of the world; they only practised +such works of piety and chastity as they could learn +from the prophetical, evangelical, and apostolical writings. +This manner of keeping Easter continued among them for a +long time, that is, for the space of one hundred and fifty years, +or until the year of our Lord's incarnation 715. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_97"/> +<head>§ 97. The Conversion of the Franks. The Establishment +of Catholicism in the Germanic Kingdoms</head> + +<p> +Chlodowech (Clovis, 481-511) was originally a king of the +Salian Franks, near Tournay. By his energy he became king +of all the Franks, and, overthrowing Syagrius in 486, pushed +his frontier to the Loire. In 496 he conquered a portion of the +<pb n='571'/><anchor id='Pg571'/> +Alemanni. About this time he became a Catholic. He had +for some time favored the Catholic religion, and with his +conversion his rule was associated with that cause in the kingdoms +subject to Arian rulers. In this way his support of +Catholicism was in line with his policy of conquest. By constant +warfare Chlodowech was able to push his frontier, in +507, to the Garonne. His death, in 511, at less than fifty +years of age, cut short only for a time the extension of the +Frankish kingdom. Under his sons, Burgundy, Thuringia, +and Bavaria were conquered. The kingdom, which had been +divided on the death of Chlodowech, was united under the +youngest son, Chlotar I (sole ruler 558-561), again divided +on his death, to be united under Chlotar II (sole ruler 613-628). +In Spain the Suevi, in the northwest, became Catholic +under Carrarich in 550. They were conquered in 585 by the +Visigoths, who in turn became Catholic in 589. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Gregory of Tours, <hi rend='italic'>Historia +Francorum</hi>, II, 30. 31. (MSL, 71:225.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Gregory of Tours (538-593) became bishop of Tours in 573. Placed +in this way in the most important see of France, he was constantly +thrown in contact with the Merovingian royal family and had abundant +opportunity to become acquainted with the course of events at +first hand. His most important work, the <hi rend='italic'>History of the Franks</hi>, is +especially valuable from the fifth book on, as here he is on ground with +which he was personally familiar. In Book II, from which the selection +is taken, Gregory depends upon others, and must be used with caution. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The baptism of Chlodowech was probably the result of a long process +of deliberation, beginning probably before his marriage with +Chrotechildis, a Burgundian princess, who was a Catholic. While +still a pagan he was favorably disposed toward the Catholic Church. +About 496 he was baptized, probably on Christmas Day, at Rheims, by +St. Remigius. The place and date have been much disputed of late. +The earliest references to the conversion are by Nicetus of Trier (<hi rend='italic'>ob. +circa</hi> 566), <hi rend='italic'>Epistula ad Chlodosvindam reginam Longobardorum</hi> +(MSL, 5:375); and Avitus, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula</hi> 41, addressed to Chlodowech +himself. (MSL, 59:257). A careful examination of all the evidence may be +found in A. Hauck, <hi rend='italic'>Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands</hi>, fourth ed., I, +595 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> Hauck concludes that <q>the date, December 25, 496, may be +regarded as almost certainly the date of the baptism of Chlodowech. The +connection as to time between the first war with the Alemanni and the +<pb n='572'/><anchor id='Pg572'/> +baptism may have given occasion to seek for some actual connection between +the two events.</q> The selection is therefore given as the traditional +version and is not to be relied upon as correct in detail. It +represents what was probably the current belief within a few decades +of the event. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 30. The queen (Chrotechildis) ceased not to warn Chlodowech +that he should acknowledge the true God and forsake +idols. But in no way could he be brought to believe these +things. Finally war broke out with the Alemanni. Then by +necessity was he compelled to acknowledge what before he had +denied with his will. The two armies met and there was a +fearful slaughter, and the army of Chlodowech was on the +point of being annihilated. When the king perceived that, +he raised his eyes to heaven, his heart was smitten and he +was moved to tears, and he said: <q>Jesus Christ, whom Chrotechildis +declares to be the Son of the living God, who says that +Thou wilt help those in need and give victory to those who +hope in Thee, humbly I flee to Thee for Thy mighty aid, that +Thou wilt give me victory over these my enemies, and I will +in this way experience Thy power, which the people called +by Thy name claim that they have proved to be in Thee. +Then will I believe on Thee and be baptized in Thy name. +For I have called upon my gods but, as I have seen, they are +far from my help. Therefore, I believe that they have no +power who do not hasten to aid those obedient to them. I +now call upon Thee and I desire to believe on Thee. Only +save me from the hand of my adversaries.</q> As he thus +spoke, the Alemanni turned their backs and began to take +flight. But when they saw that their king was dead, they +submitted to Chlodowech and said: <q>Let not, we pray thee, +a nation perish; now we are thine.</q> Thereupon he put an +end to the war, exhorted the people, and returned home in +peace. He told the queen how by calling upon the name of +Christ he had obtained victory. This happened in the fifteenth +year of his reign (496). +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 31. Thereupon the queen commanded that the holy Remigius, +<pb n='573'/><anchor id='Pg573'/> +bishop of Rheims, be brought secretly to teach the king +the word of salvation. The priest was brought to him secretly +and began to lay before him that he should believe in the true +God, the creator of heaven and earth, and forsake idols, who +could neither help him nor others. But he replied: <q>Gladly +do I listen to thee, most holy Father, but one thing remains, +for the people who follow me suffer me not to forsake their +gods. But I will go and speak to them according to thy +words.</q> When he met his men, and before he began to speak, +all the people cried out together, for the divine power had +anticipated him: <q>We reject the mortal gods, pious king, and +we are ready to follow the immortal God whom Remigius +preaches.</q> These things were reported to the bishop, who +rejoiced greatly and commanded the font to be prepared.… The +king first asked to be baptized by the pontiff. He +went, a new Constantine, into the font to be washed clean +from the old leprosy, and to purify himself in fresh water +from the stains which he had long had. But as he stepped +into the baptismal water, the saint of God began in moving +tone: <q>Bend softly thy head, Sicamber, reverence what thou +hast burnt, and burn what thou hast reverenced.</q>… +</p> + +<p> +Therefore the king confessed Almighty God in Trinity, and +was baptized in the name of the Father and of the Son and of +the Holy Ghost, and was anointed with the holy chrism with +the sign of the cross. Of his army more than three thousand +were baptized. Also his sister Albofledis was baptized.… And +another sister of the king, Lanthechildis by name, who had +fallen into the heresy of the Arians, was converted, and when +she had confessed that the Son and the Holy Ghost were of +the same substance with the Father, she was given the chrism. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Gregory of Tours, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Francorum</hi>, II, 35-38. (MSL, 71:232.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Clovis at the head of the anti-Arian party in Gaul. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 35. When Alarich, the king of the Goths, saw that +King Chlodowech continually conquered the nations, he sent +<pb n='574'/><anchor id='Pg574'/> +messengers to him saying: <q>If my brother wishes, it is also +in my heart that we see each other, if God will.</q> Chlodowech +was not opposed to this and came to him. They met +on an island in the Loire, in the neighborhood of Amboise, +in the territory of Tours, and spake and ate and drank together, +promised mutual friendship, and parted in peace. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 36. But already many Gauls wished with all their +heart to have the Franks for their masters. It therefore happened +that Quintianus, bishop of Rhodez, was driven out of +his city on account of this. For they said to him: <q>You wish +that the rule of the Franks possessed this land.</q> And a few +days after, when a dispute had arisen between him and the +citizens, the rumor reached the Goths who dwelt in the city, +for the citizens asserted that he wished to be subject to the +rule of the Franks; and they took counsel and planned how +they might kill him with the sword. When this was reported +to the man of God, he rose by night, and with the most faithful +of his servants left Rhodez and came to Arverne.… +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 37. Thereupon King Chlodowech said to his men: +<q>It is a great grief to me that these Arians possess a part of +Gaul. Let us go forth with God's aid, conquer them, and +bring this land into our power.</q> And since this speech +pleased all, he marched with his army toward Poitiers, for +there dwelt Alarich at that time.… King Chlodowech met +the king of the Goths, Alarich, in the Campus Vocladensis +[Vouillé or Voulon-sur-Clain] ten miles from Poitiers; and +while the latter fought from afar, the former withstood in hand +to hand combat. But since the Goths, in their fashion, took +to flight, King Chlodowech at length with God's aid won +the victory. He had on his side a son of Sigbert the Lame, +whose name was Chloderich. The same Sigbert, ever since +he fought with the Alemanni near Zulpich [in 496], had +been wounded in the knee and limped. The king killed King +Alarich and put the Goths to flight.… From this battle +Amalrich, Alarich's son, fled to Spain, and by his ability +obtained his father's kingdom. Chlodowech, however, sent +<pb n='575'/><anchor id='Pg575'/> +his son Theuderic to Albi, Rhodez, and Arverne, and departing +he subjugated those cities, from the borders of the +Goths to the borders of the Burgundians, to the rule of his +father. But Alarich reigned twenty-two years. +</p> + +<p> +Chlodowech spent the winter in Bourdeaux, and carried +away the entire treasure of Alarich from Toulouse, and he +went to Angoulême. Such favor did the Lord show him that, +when he looked on the walls, they fell of themselves. Thereupon +when the Goths had been driven from the city he +brought it under his rule. After the accomplishment of these +victories he returned to Tours and dedicated many gifts to +the holy Church of St. Martin. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 38. At that time he received from the Emperor Anastasius +the title of consul, and in the Church of St. Martin he +assumed the purple cloak and put on his head a diadem. He +then mounted a horse and with his own hand scattered among +the people who were present gold and silver in the greatest +profusion, all the way from the door of the porch of the Church +of St. Martin to the city gate. And from this day forward he +was addressed as consul, or Augustus. From Tours Chlodowech +went to Paris and made that the seat of his authority.<note place="foot">It +had been at Soissons after 486, and before that at Tournay.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Third Council of Toledo, A. D. 589, +<hi rend='italic'>Acts</hi>. Mansi, IX, 992.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This council is the most important event in the history of the Visigothic +Church of Spain, marking the abandonment of Arianism by +the ruling race of Spain and the formal acceptance of the doctrine of +the Trinity or the Catholic faith and unity. The Suevi had accepted +Catholicism more than thirty-five years before; see Synod of Braga, +A. D. 563, in Hefele, § 285 (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> also Hahn, § 176, who +gives the text of the anathematisms in which, after a statement of the Catholic doctrine +of the Trinity, the balance of the anathematisms are concerned with +Priscillianism). Reccared, the Visigothic king (586-601), became a +Catholic in 587, and held the council of 589 to effect the conversion of +the nation to his new faith. For a letter of Gregory the Great on the +conversion of Reccared, see PNF, ser. II, vol. XII, pt. 2. p. 87, and +two from Gregory to Reccared himself (<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi>, vol. XIII, pp. +16, 35). The creed, as professed at Toledo, is the first instance of the authorized +use of the term "and the Son" in a creed in connection with the doctrine +<pb n='576'/><anchor id='Pg576'/> +of the <q>procession of the Holy Spirit,</q> the form in which the so-called +Nicene creed came to be used in the West, and the source of +much dispute between the East and the West in the ninth century and +ever since. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>I. From the Speech of Reccared at the Opening of the Council.</head> + +<p> +I judge that you are not ignorant, most reverend priests +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, bishops] that I have called you into our presence for the +restoration of ecclesiastical discipline; and because in time +past the existence of heresy prevented throughout the entire +Catholic Church the transaction of synodical business. God, +who has been pleased by our action to remove the obstacle +of the same heresy, warns us to set in order the ecclesiastical +laws concerning church matters. Therefore let it be a matter +of joy and gladness to you that the canonical order is being +brought back to the lines of the times of our fathers, in the +sight of God and to our glory. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>II. From the Statement of Faith.</head> + +<p> +There is present here all the famous nation of the Goths, +esteemed for their real bravery by nearly all nations, who, +however, by the error of their teachers have been separated +from the faith and unity of the Catholic Church; but now, +agreeing as a whole with me in my assent to the faith, participate +in the communion of that Church which receives in its +maternal bosom a multitude of different nations and nourishes +them with the breasts of charity. Concerning her the +prophet foretelling said: <q>My house shall be called the house +of prayer for all nations.</q> For not only does the conversion +of the Goths add to the amount of our reward, but also an +infinite multitude of the people of the Suevi, whom under the +protection of Heaven we have subjected to our kingdom, led +away into heresy by the fault of an alien,<note place="foot">In +465, under the influence of the Visigoths, the Suevi, formerly Catholic, +had embraced Arianism.</note> we have endeavored +to recall to the source of truth. Therefore, most holy +Fathers, I offer as by your hands to the eternal God, +<pb n='577'/><anchor id='Pg577'/> +as a holy and pleasing offering, these most noble nations, +who have been attached by us to the Lord's possessions. +For it will be to me in the day of the retribution of the +just an unfading crown and joy if these peoples, who now by +our planning have returned to the unity of the Church, remain +founded and established in the same. For as by the +divine determination it has been a matter of our care to bring +these peoples to the unity of the Church of Christ, so it is a +matter of your teaching to instruct them in the Catholic +dogmas, by which they may be instructed in the full knowledge +of the truth, that they may know how to reject totally +the errors of pernicious heresy, to remain in charity in the +ways of the true faith, and to embrace with fervent desire the +communion of the Catholic Church.… As it is of benefit +to us to profess with the mouth what we believe in the heart … +therefore I anathematize Arius with all his doctrines … +so I hold in honor, to the praise and honor and glory of God, +the faith of the holy Council of Nicæa.… I embrace and +hold the faith of the one hundred and fifty Fathers assembled +at Constantinople.… I believe the faith of the first Council +of Ephesus … likewise with all the Catholic Church I +reverently receive the faith of the Council of Chalcedon.… +To this my confession I have added the holy constitutions +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, confessions of faith] of the above-mentioned councils, +and I have subscribed with complete singleness of heart to +the divine testimony. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Here follows the faith of Nicæa, the so-called creed of Constantinople, +with the words relating to the Holy Ghost, <hi rend='italic'>ex Patre et Filio +procedentem</hi> (proceeding from the Father and the Son); the actual form +<hi rend='italic'>filioque</hi> does not here occur. +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>III. From the <hi rend='italic'>Anathemas</hi>, Hahn, § 178.</head> + +<p> +3. Whosoever does not believe in the Holy Ghost and will +not believe that He proceeds from the Father and the Son, and +will not say that He is co-essential with the Father and the +Son, let him be anathema. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='578'/><anchor id='Pg578'/> + +<div> +<head>IV. From the <hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>, Bruns, I, 212.</head> + +<p> +Canon 1. After the damnation of the heresy of Arius and +the exposition of the Catholic faith, this holy council ordered +that, because in the midst of many heretics and heathen +throughout the churches of Spain, the canonical order has +been necessarily neglected (for while liberty of transgressing +abounded, and the desirable discipline was denied, and every +one fostered excesses of heresy in the protection and continuation +of evil times, a strict discipline was far off, but now +the peace of the Church has been restored by the mercy +of Christ), everything which by the authority of early canons +may be forbidden is forbidden, discipline arising again, and +everything is required which they order done. Let the constitutions +of all the councils remain in their force, likewise +all the synodical letters of the holy Roman prelates. Henceforth +let no one aspire unworthily to ecclesiastical promotions +and honors against the canons. Let nothing be done which the +holy Fathers, filled with the Spirit of God, decreed should not +be done. And let those who presume to violate the laws be +restrained by the severity of the earlier canons. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 2. Out of reverence for the most holy faith and to +strengthen the weak minds of men, acting upon the advice of +the most pious and glorious King Reccared<note place="foot"><q>Let all +the churches of Spain and Gallicia observe this rule, that at every +time of offering of the sacrifice and before the communion of the body and +blood of Christ, according to the custom of the Oriental parts, all should repeat +together with a clear voice the most sacred symbol of the faith, that first the +people may speak the faith which they hold, and they may bring hearts purified +by faith to the reception of the body and blood of Christ. For so long as this +constitution be perpetually observed in the Church of God, the entire belief +of the faithful will be confirmed, and the false faith of the infidels be confuted, in +order that one may be very easily inclined to believe what one hears very often +repeated, neither shall any one excuse himself from all blame by pleading ignorance +of the faith, when he knows from the mouth of all what the Catholic +Church holds and believes.</q> (From the Speech of Reccared, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Mansi, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi>)</note> +the synod has ordered that throughout the churches of Spain, Gaul, and +Gallicia, the symbol of the faith be recited according to the +form of the Oriental churches, the symbol of the Council of +Constantinople, that is, of the one hundred and fifty bishops; +<pb n='579'/><anchor id='Pg579'/> +and before the Lord's prayer is said, let it be pronounced to +the people in a clear voice, by which also the true faith may +have a manifest testimony, and the hearts of the people may +approach to the reception of the body and blood of Christ +with hearts purified by faith. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_98"/> +<head>§ 98. The State Church in the Germanic Kingdoms</head> + +<p> +So long as the Germanic rulers remained Arian, the Catholic +Church in their kingdoms was left for the most part alone or +hindered in its synodical activity. But as the kingdoms became +Catholic on the conversion of their kings, the rulers +were necessarily brought into close official relations with the +Church and its administration; and they exercised a strict +control over the ecclesiastical councils and the episcopal elections. +The Merovingians, on their conversion from paganism, +at once became Catholics, and they consequently assumed this +control immediately. With the extension of the Frankish +kingdom, the authority of the king in ecclesiastical affairs +was likewise extended. In Spain the Visigoths were Arians +until 589. On the conversion of the nation at that date, the +king at once assumed an extensive ecclesiastical authority +(for Reccared's confirmation of the Third Synod of Toledo, +589, see Bruns, I, 393), and in the development of the system +the councils of Toledo became at once the parliaments of the +entire nation, now united through its common faith, and the +synods of the Church. This system was cut short by the +Moslem invasion of 711, and the development of the Church +and its relation to the State is to be studied in the Frankish +kingdom in which from this time the ecclesiastical development +of Western Europe is to be traced. The best evidence +for the legal state of the Church under the Germanic rulers is +chiefly in the acts of councils. +</p> + +<p> +But there was also in the Catholic Church in the Germanic +kingdoms a strong monastic spirit which was by no means +willing to see the Church become an <q>establishment.</q> This +<pb n='580'/><anchor id='Pg580'/> +fitted in poorly with the condition of the State Church. It +is illustrated by the career of St. Columbanus. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Council of Orleans, A. D. 511, +<hi rend='italic'>Synodical Letter</hi>. Bruns, II, 160.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The king summons the council and approves its findings. Extract +from the synodical letter in which the canons are sent to Chlodowech. +</quote> + +<p> +To their Lord, the Son of the Catholic Church, Chlodowech, +the most glorious king, all the priests<note place="foot">Here, +as very often, the bishops attending a council are spoken of as +priests. The term <q>priest</q> had not become identified with +<q>presbyter.</q> The bishop was a <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">sacerdos</foreign> or priest. The +presbyter was also a +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">sacerdos</foreign>.</note> +whom you have commanded to come to the council. +</p> + +<p> +Because your great care for the glorious faith so moves you +to reverence for the Catholic religion that from love of the +priesthood you have commanded the bishops to be gathered +together into one that they might treat of necessary things, +according to the proposals of your will and the titles [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, +topics] which you have given, we reply by determining those +things which seem good to us; so that if those things which +we have decreed prove to be right in your judgment, the approval +of so great a king and lord might by a greater authority +cause the determinations of so many bishops to be observed +more strictly. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Council of Orleans, A. D. 549, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns, II, 211.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Canons regarding Episcopal elections. The first instance in canonical +legislation in the West recognizing the necessity of royal consent +to the election of a bishop. For the relation of the Pope to metropolitans, +see in <ref target="Section_99">§ 99</ref> the Epistle of Gregory the Great +to Vigilius of Arles. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 10. That it shall be lawful for no one to obtain +the episcopate by payment or bargaining, but with the permission +of the king, according to the choice of the clergy and +the people, as it is written in the ancient canons, let him be +consecrated by the metropolitan or by him whom he sends in +his place, together with the bishops of the province. That if +<pb n='581'/><anchor id='Pg581'/> +any one violates by purchase the rule of this holy constitution, +we decree that he, who shall have been ordained for money, +shall be deposed. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 11. Likewise as the ancient canons decree, no one +shall be made bishop of those who are unwilling to receive +him, and neither by the force of powerful persons are the citizens +and clergy to be induced to give a testimonial of election.<note place="foot">This +testimonial, or certificate of election, was to be presented to the king +that he might give his assent; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +<ref target="Section_94">§ 94</ref>.</note> +For this is to be regarded as a crime; that if this should be +done, let him, who rather by violence than by legitimate +decree has been ordained bishop, be deposed forever from +the honor of the episcopate which he has obtained. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Paris, A. D. 557, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi>. Bruns, II, 221.</head> + +<p> +Canon 8. No bishop shall be ordained for people against +their will, but only he whom the people and clergy in full +election shall have freely chosen; neither by the command +of the prince nor by any condition whatever against the will +of the metropolitan and the bishops of the province shall he +be forced in. That if any one with so great rashness presumes +by royal appointment<note place="foot">The kings appear to have +attempted to appoint bishops without canonical election. This +was never recognized by the Church as lawful on the part of +the king and was always opposed. See next selection from Gregory +of Tours.</note> to reach the height of this honor, +let him not deserve to be received as a bishop by the bishops +of the province in which the place is located, for they know +that he was ordained improperly. If any of the fellow bishops +of the province presume to receive him against this prohibition, +let him be separated from all his brethren and be deprived +of the charity of all. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Gregory of Tours, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Francorum</hi>, IV, 15. (MSL, 71:280.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The difficulty of the Church in living under the Merovingian monarchs +with their despotism and violence is illustrated by the following +passage. The date of the event is 556. +</quote> + +<pb n='582'/><anchor id='Pg582'/> + +<p> +When the clergy of Tours heard that King Chlothar [511-561; +558-561, as surviving son of Chlodowech, sole ruler of +the Franks] had returned from the slaughter of the Saxons, +they prepared the consensus<note place="foot">Testimonial of +election.</note> that they had chosen the priest +Eufronius bishop and went to the king. When they had +presented the matter, the king answered: <q>I had indeed commanded +that the priest Cato should be ordained there, and +why has our command been disregarded?</q> They answered +him: <q>We have indeed asked him, but he would not come.</q> +And as they said this suddenly the priest Cato appeared and +besought the king to command that Cautinus be removed +and himself be appointed bishop of +Arverne.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +Clermont-Ferrand.</note> But when the +king laughed at this, he besought him again, that he might be +ordained for Tours, which he had before rejected. Then the +king said to him: <q>I have already commanded that you should +be consecrated bishop of Tours, but, as I hear, you have despised +that church; therefore you shall be withheld from the +government of it.</q> Thereupon he departed ashamed. But +when the king asked concerning the holy Eufronius, they said +that he was a nephew of the holy Gregory, whom we have +mentioned above.<note place="foot">See Greg. Tour., III. 19. +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> DCB, art. <q>Gregorius (29).</q> He +was bishop of Langres.</note> The king answered: <q>That is a distinguished +and very great family. Let the will of God and of the +holy Martin<note place="foot">St. Martin of Tours, the patron +saint of the church of Tours.</note> be done; let the election +be confirmed.</q> And after he had given a decree for the +ordination, the holy Eufronius was ordained as the eighth +bishop after St. Martin.<note place="foot">Eufronius was the +predecessor of Gregory of Tours, the author of this passage.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Gregory of Tours, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Franc.</hi>, VIII, 22, (MSL, 71:464.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Royal interference in episcopal elections was not infrequent under +the Merovingians. Confused as the following account is, it is clear +from it that the kings were accustomed to violate the canons and to +exercise a free hand in episcopal appointments. See also the preceding +selection. The date of the event is 585. For the Synod of Maçon, +A. D. 585, see Hefele, § 286. +</quote> + +<pb n='583'/><anchor id='Pg583'/> + +<p> +Laban, Bishop of Eauze,<note place="foot">At one time +metropolis of Novempopulania; when it was destroyed in the +ninth century, the dignity passed to Auch, where it +remained.</note> died that year. Desiderius, a +layman, succeeded him, although the king had promised +with an oath that he would never again ordain a bishop from +the laity. But to what will not the accursed hunger for gold +drive human hearts? Bertchramnus<note place="foot">Bishop of +Bourdeaux.</note> had returned from the synod,<note place="foot">At +Maçon.</note> and on the way was seized with a fever. The +deacon Waldo was summoned, who in baptism had also been +called Bertchramnus, and he committed to him the whole +of his episcopal office, as he also committed to him the provisions +regarding his testament, as well as those who merited +well by him. As he departed the bishop breathed out his +spirit. The deacon returned and with presents and the +consensus<note place="foot">The formal certificate of election.</note> +of the people, went to the king<note place="foot">Guntrum.</note> +but he obtained nothing. Then the king, having issued a mandate, commanded +Gundegisilus, count of Saintes, surnamed Dodo, to be consecrated +bishop; and so it was done. And because many of +the clergy of Saintes before the synod had, in agreement with +Bishop Bertchramnus, written various things against their +Bishop Palladius to humiliate him, after his<note place="foot">Bishop +Bertchramnus's.</note> death they were +arrested by the bishop, severely tortured, and stripped of +their property. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Chlotar II, Capitulary, A. D. 614. MGH, Leges, II. +<hi rend='italic'>Capitularia Regum Francorum</hi>, ed. Boretius, I, 20, MGH, +Leges, 1883.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Not only did the councils admit the right of the king to approve the +candidate for consecration as bishop, but the kings laid down the principle +that their approval was necessary. They also legislated on the +affairs of the Church, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, on the election of bishops. +The text may also be found in Altmann und Bernheim, <hi rend='italic'>Ausgewählte +Urkunden</hi>. Berlin, 1904, p. 1. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 1. It is our decree that the statutes of the canons be +observed in all things, and those of them which have been +<pb n='584'/><anchor id='Pg584'/> +neglected in the past because of the circumstances of the +times shall hereafter be observed perpetually; so that when a +bishop dies one shall be chosen for his place by the clergy +and people, who is to be ordained by the metropolitan and his +provincials; if the person be worthy let him be ordained by +the order of the prince; but if he be chosen from the +palace<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, if he +be one of the court chaplains.</note> +let him be ordained on account of the merit of his person and +his learning. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 2. That no bishop while living shall choose a successor, +but another shall be substituted for him when he become +so indisposed that he cannot rule his church and clergy. +Likewise, that while a bishop is living no one shall presume +to take his place, and if one should seek it, it is on no account +to be given him. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Fredegarius Scholasticus, +<hi rend='italic'>Chronicon</hi>, 75<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> (MSL, 71:653.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Chronicon of Fredegarius is important, as it continues in its +last book the <hi rend='italic'>History of the Franks</hi> by Gregory of Tours. The best +edition is in the MGH, <hi rend='italic'>Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum</hi> II, ed. +Krusch. An account of the work may be found in DCB, art. <q>Fredegarius +Scholasticus.</q> In the Frankish kingdom the higher clergy, especially +the bishops, assembled with the great men of the realm in councils +under the king to discuss affairs of State. These councils have been +called <hi rend='italic'>concilia mixta</hi>. They are, however, to be distinguished from +the strictly ecclesiastical assemblies in which the clergy alone acted. +A change was introduced by Charles the Great. The following passage +shows the king consulting with the bishops, along with the other +nobles. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 75. In the eleventh year of his reign Dagobert came to +the city of Metz, because the Wends at the command of Samo +still manifested their savage fury and often made inroads +from their territory to lay waste the Frankish kingdom, +Thuringia, and other provinces. Dagobert, coming to Metz, +with the counsel of the bishops and nobles, and the consent of +all the great men of his kingdom, made his son, Sigibert, king +of Austrasia, and assigned him Metz as his seat. To Chunibert, +<pb n='585'/><anchor id='Pg585'/> +bishop of Cologne, and the Duke Adalgisel, he committed +the conduct of his palace and kingdom.<note place="foot">Sigibert +appears to have been born 629.</note> Also he +gave to his son sufficient treasure and fitted him out with all +that was appropriate to his high dignity; and whatsoever he +had given him he confirmed by charters specially made out. +Since then the Frankish land was sufficiently defended by the +zeal of the Austrasians against the Wends. +</p> + +<p> +§ 76. When in the twelfth year of his reign a son named +Chlodoveus was born by Queen Nantechilde to Dagobert, +he made, with the counsel and advice of the Neustrians, an +agreement with his Sigibert. All the great men and the bishops +of Austrasia and the other people of Sigibert, holding up +their hands, confirmed it with an oath, that after the death of +Dagobert, Neustria and Burgundy, by an established ordinance, +should fall to Chlodoveus; but Austrasia, because in +population and extent it was equal to those lands, should +belong in its entire extent to Sigibert. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Jonas, <hi rend='italic'>Vita Columbani</hi>, chs. +9, 12, 17, 32, 33, 59, 60. (MSL, 87:1016.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Columbanus (543-615) was the most active and successful of the +Irish missionary monks laboring on the continent of Europe. In 585 +Columbanus left Ireland to preach in the wilder parts of Gaul, and in +590 or 591 founded Luxeuil, which became the parent monastery of a +considerable group of monastic houses. He came into conflict with +the Frankish clergy on account of the Celtic mode of fixing the date of +Easter [see Epistle of Columbanus among the Epistles of Gregory the +Great, to whom it is addressed, Bk. IX, Ep. 127, PNF, ser. II, vol. XIII, +p. 38; two other epistles on the subject in MSL, vol. 80], his monastic +rule [MSL, 80:209], and his condemnatory attitude toward the dissoluteness +of life prevalent in Gaul among the clergy, as well as in the +court. Banished from Burgundy in 610 partly for political reasons, +he worked for a time in the vicinity of Lake Constance. In 612, leaving +his disciple Gallus [see <hi rend='italic'>Vita S. Galli</hi>, by Walafrid Strabo, MSL, +114; English translation by C. W. Bispham, Philadelphia, 1908], he +went to Italy and, having founded Bobbio, died in 615. Gallus (<hi rend='italic'>ob. +circa</hi> 640) subsequently founded the great monastery of St. Gall in +Switzerland, near Lake Constance. The Celtic monks on the continent +abandoned their Celtic peculiarities in the ninth century and +adopted the Benedictine rule. +</quote> + +<pb n='586'/><anchor id='Pg586'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +Jonas, the author of the life of Columbanus, was a monk at Bobbio. +His life of Columbanus was written about 640; see DCB, <q>Jonas (6).</q> +In the following, the divisions and numbering of paragraphs follow +Migne's edition. There is an excellent new edition in the MGH, <hi rend='italic'>Script. +rerum Merovin.</hi>, ed. Krusch, 8vo, 1905. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Columbanus sets forth. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 9. Columbanus gathered such treasures of divine knowledge +that even in his youth he could expound the Psalter in +polished discourse and could make many other discourses, +worthy of being sung and useful to teach. Thereupon he +took pains to be received into the company of monks, and +sought the monastery of Benechor [in Ulster] the head of +which, the blessed Commogellus, was famous for his many +virtues. He was an excellent father of his monks and highly +regarded because of his zeal in religion and the maintenance of +discipline according to the rule. And here he began to give +himself entirely to prayer and fasting and to bear the yoke of +Christ, easy to those who bear it, by denying himself and +taking up his cross and following Christ, that he, who was to +be the teacher of others, might himself learn by teaching, and +by mortification to endure in his own body what he should +abundantly show forth; and he who should teach what by others +ought to be fulfilled, himself first fulfilled. When many years +had passed for him in the cloister, he began to desire to wander +forth, mindful of the command which the Lord gave +Abraham: <q>Get thee out of thy country and from thy kindred +and from thy father's house unto a land that I will +show thee</q> [Gen. 12:1]. He confessed to Commogellus, the +venerable Father, the warm desire of his heart, the desire enkindled +by the fire of the Lord [Luke 12:49]; but he received +no such answer as he wished. For it was a grief to Commogellus +to bear the loss of a man so full of comfort. Finally +Commogellus began to take courage and place it before his +heart that he ought to seek more to advance the benefit of +others than to pursue his own needs. It happened not without +the will of the Almighty, who had trained His pupil for +<pb n='587'/><anchor id='Pg587'/> +future wars, that from his victories he might obtain glorious +triumphs and gain joyful victories over the phalanxes of slain +enemies. The abbot called Columbanus unto him and said +that though it was a grief to him yet he had come to a decision +useful to others, that he would remain in peace with +him, would strengthen him with consolation, and give him +companions for his journey men who were known for their +religion.… +</p> + +<p> +So Columbanus in the twentieth<note place="foot">Rather the thirtieth +according to some MSS., which seems to be more in +accord with what has gone before.</note> year of his life set forth, +and with twelve companions under the leadership of Christ +went down to the shore of the sea. Here they waited the +grace of Almighty God that he would prosper their undertaking, +if it took place with His consent; and they perceived that +the will of the merciful Judge was with them. They embarked +and began the dangerous journey through the straits, and +crossed a smooth sea with a favorable wind, and after a quick +passage reached the coasts of Brittany.… +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Columbanus founds monasteries in Gaul. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 12. At that time there was a wide desert called Vosagus +[the Vosges] in which there lay a castle long since in ruins. +And ancient tradition called it Anagrates [Anegray]. When +the holy man reached this place, in spite of its wild isolation, +its rudeness, and the rocks, he settled there with his companions, +content with meagre support, mindful of the saying +that man lives not by bread alone, but, satisfied with the +Word of Life, he would have abundance and never hunger +again unto eternity. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 17. When the number of the monks had increased rapidly, +he began to think of seeking in the same desert for a +better place, where he might found a monastery. And he +found a place, which had formerly been strongly fortified, at +a distance from the first place about eight miles, and which +was called in ancient times Luxovium.<note place="foot">Luxeuil.</note> +Here there were +<pb n='588'/><anchor id='Pg588'/> +warm baths erected with special art. A multitude of stone +idols stood here in the near-by forest, which in the old heathen +times had been honored with execrable practices and profane +rites. Residing here, therefore, the excellent man began to +found a cloister. On hearing of this the people came to him +from all sides in order to dedicate themselves to the practice +of religion, so that the great crowd of monks gathered together +could hardly be contained in the company of one monastery. +Here the children of nobles pressed to come, that, despising +the scorned adornments of the world and the pomp of present +wealth, they might receive eternal rewards. When +Columbanus perceived this and that from all sides the people +came together for the medicines of penance, and that the +walls of one monastery could not without difficulty hold so +great a body of converts to the religious life, and although +they were of one mind and one heart, yet it was ill fitted to +the intercourse of so great a multitude, he sought out another +place, which was excellent on account of its abundance of +water, and founded a second monastery, which he named +Fontanæ,<note place="foot">Fontenay or Fontaines.</note> +and placed rulers over it, of whose piety none doubted. +As he now settled companies of monks in this place, he dwelt +alternately in each and, filled with the Holy Ghost, he established +a rule which they should observe that the prudent +reader or hearer of it might know by what sort of discipline +a man might become holy. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +The quarrel of Columbanus with the Court. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 32. It happened one day that the holy Columbanus +came to Brunichildis, who was at that time in +Brocariaca.<note place="foot">Near Autun.</note> +When she saw him coming to the court she led to the man of +God the sons of Theuderich, whom he had begotten in adultery. +He asked as he saw them what they wanted of him, and +Brunichildis said: <q>They are the king's sons; strengthen +them with thy blessing.</q> But he answered: <q>Know then that +these will never hold the royal sceptre, for they have sprung +<pb n='589'/><anchor id='Pg589'/> +from unchastity.</q> In furious anger she commanded the +boys to depart. The man of God thereupon left the royal +court, and when he had crossed the threshold there arose a +loud roar so that the whole house shook, and all shuddered +for fear; yet the rage of the miserable woman could not be restrained. +Thereupon she began to plot against the neighboring +monasteries, and she caused a decree to be issued that the +monks should not be allowed to move freely outside the land +of the monastery, and that no one should give them any support +or otherwise assist them with offerings. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 33. Against Columbanus Brunichildis excited the mind +of the king and endeavored to disturb him; and she encouraged +the minds of his princes, his courtiers, and great men to +set the mind of the king against the man of God, and she +began to urge the bishops that by vilifying the religion of +Columbanus they might dishonor the rule he had given his +monks to observe.… +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Columbanus founds Bobbio. +</quote> + +<p> +§ 59. When the blessed Columbanus learned that Theudebert +had been conquered by Theuderich, he left Gaul and +Germany,<note place="foot">What is now Switzerland was +then regarded as a part of Germany, Allemania.</note> +which were under Theuderich, and entered Italy +where he was honorably received by Agilulf the Lombard king, +who gave him permission to dwell where he wished in Italy. +It happened by the will of God that, while he was in Milan, +Columbanus wishing to attack and root out by the use of the +Scripture the errors of the heretics, that is, the false doctrine +of the Arians, lingered and composed an excellent work against +them.<note place="foot">This has not been preserved. But +Bobbio, subsequently founded, became a stronghold of the +Catholic faith against Arianism.</note> +</p> + +<p> +§ 60. While things were thus going on, a man named +Jocundus came before the king and reported to him that he +knew of a church of the blessed Peter, prince of the Apostles, +in a desert region of the Apennines, in which he learned that +<pb n='590'/><anchor id='Pg590'/> +there were many advantages, being uncommonly fruitful and +supplied with water full of fish. It was called in old time +Bobium<note place="foot">Bobbio, twenty-five miles southwest +from Piacenza.</note> +on account of the brook which flowed by it; another +river in the neighborhood was called Trebia, on which +Hannibal, spending a winter, suffered great losses of men, +horses, and elephants. Thither Columbanus removed and +restored with all possible diligence the already half-ruined +church in all its former beauty. The roof and the top of the +temple and the ruins of the walls he repaired and set to work +to construct other things necessary for a monastery. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_99"/> +<head>§ 99. Gregory the Great and the Roman Church in the Second Half of the +Sixth Century</head> + +<p> +Gregory the Great was born about 540. In 573 he was appointed +prefect of the city of Rome, but resigned the following +year to become a monk. Having been ordained deacon, +he was sent in 579 to Constantinople as papal apocrisiarius, or +resident ambassador at the court of the Emperor. In 586 he +was back in Rome and abbot of St. Andrew's, and in 590 he +was elected Pope. As Pope his career was even more brilliant. +He reorganized the papal finances, carried through important +disciplinary measures, and advanced the cause of monasticism. +His work as the organizer of missions in England, his +labors to heal the Istrian schism, his relations with the Lombards, +his dealings with the Church in Gaul, his controversy +with Constantinople in the matter of the title <q>Ecumenical +Patriarch,</q> and other large relations and tasks indicate the +range of his interests and the extent of his activities. As a +theologian Gregory interpreted Augustine for the Middle +Ages and was the most important and influential theologian +of the West after Augustine and before the greater scholastics. +He did much to restore the prestige of his see, which had been +lost in the earlier part of the sixth century. He died 604. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Selections from the writings of Gregory, +including many of his letters, may be found in PNF, ser. II, vols. +<pb n='591'/><anchor id='Pg591'/> +XII and XIII; see also <hi rend='italic'>A Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic +Church</hi> (Oxford). +</quote> + +<p> +The selections under this section are arranged under four +heads: (1) Relations with Gaul; (2) Relations with Constantinople; +(3) Relations with the Schism in Northern Italy; (4) +Relations with the Lombards; for English mission, v. infra, +<ref target="Section_100">§ 100</ref>. +</p> + +<div> +<head>1. Relations with Gaul.</head> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Vigilium</hi>, Reg. V, 53. (MSL, 77:782.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following letter was written in 595 in reply to a letter from +Vigilius, bishop of Arles, asking for the pallium (DCA, art. <q>Pallium,</q> +also <hi rend='italic'>Cath. Encyc.</hi>) and the vicariate. For the relation +of the Roman see to the bishop of Arles as primate of Gaul, see E. Loening, +<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenrechts</hi>. The relation +of the vicariate to the papacy and also to the royal power is indicated by the fact that +the pallium is given in response to the request of the king. The condition +of the church under Childebert is also shown; see <ref target="Section_98">§ 98</ref> +for canons bearing on simony and irregularities in connection with ordination. +</quote> + +<p> +As to thy having asked therein [in a letter of Vigilius to +Gregory] according to ancient custom for the use of the pallium +and the vicariate of the Apostolic See, far be it from me +to suspect that thou hast sought eminence of transitory +power, or the adornment of external worship, in our vicariate +and the pallium. But, since it is known to all whence the +holy faith proceeded in the regions of Gaul, when your fraternity +asks for a repetition of the early custom of the Apostolic +See, what is it but that a good offspring reverts to the +bosom of its mother? With willing mind therefore we grant +what has been requested, lest we should seem either to withhold +from you anything of the honor due to you, or to +despise the petition of our most excellent son, King Childebert.… +</p> + +<p> +I have learned from certain persons informing me that in the +parts of Gaul and Germany no one attains to holy orders +except for a consideration given. If this is so, I say it with +<pb n='592'/><anchor id='Pg592'/> +tears, I declare it with groans, that, when the priestly order +has fallen inwardly, neither will it be able to stand outwardly +for long.… +</p> + +<p> +Another very detestable thing has also been reported to +us, that some persons being laymen, through the desire of +temporal glory, are tonsured on the death of bishops, and all +at once are made priests.… +</p> + +<p> +On this account your fraternity must needs take care to +admonish our most excellent son, King Childebert, that he +remove entirely the stain of this sin from his kingdom, to the +end that Almighty God may give him so much the greater +recompense with himself as He sees him both love what He +loves and shun what He hates. +</p> + +<p> +And so we commit to your fraternity, according to ancient +custom, under God, our vicariate in the churches which are +under the dominion of our most excellent son Childebert, with +the understanding that their proper dignity, according to +primitive usage, be preserved to the several metropolitans. +We have also sent a pallium which thy fraternity will use +within the Church for the solemnization of mass only. Further, +if any of the bishops should by any chance wish to travel +to any considerable distance, let it not be lawful for him to +remove to other places without the authority of thy holiness. +If any question of faith, or it may be relating to other matters, +should have arisen among the bishops, which cannot easily be +settled, let it be ventilated and decided in an assembly of +twelve bishops. But if it cannot be decided after the truth +has been investigated, let it be referred to our judgment. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>2. Relations with Constantinople.</head> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad Johannem +Jejunatorem</hi>, Reg. V, 44. (MSL, 77:738.) <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. +180.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +On the title <q>Ecumenical Patriarch.</q> +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The controversy over the title <q>Ecumenical Patriarch</q> was a result +of Gregory's determination to carry through, as far as possible, the +Petrine rights and duties as he conceived them. The title was probably +<pb n='593'/><anchor id='Pg593'/> +intended to mark the superiority of Constantinople to the other +patriarchates in the East, according to the Eastern principle that the +political rank of a city determined its ecclesiastical rank. It seemed +to Gregory to imply a position of superiority to the see of Peter. As +it certainly might imply that, he consistently opposed it. But it had +been a title in use for nearly a century. (<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +Gieseler, KG, Eng. trans., +vol. I, p. 504.) Justinian in 533 so styled the patriarch of Constantinople +(Cod. I, 1, 7). For the difference in point of view between the +East and the West as to rank of great sees, see Leo's letters on +the 28th canon of Chalcedon, A. D. 451, <hi rend='italic'>supra</hi>, in +<ref target="Section_86">§ 86</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +At the time when your fraternity was advanced in sacerdotal +dignity, you recall what peace and concord of the +churches you found. But, with what daring or with what +swelling of pride I know not, you have attempted to seize +upon a new name for yourself, whereby the hearts of all +your brethren would be offended. I wonder exceedingly at +this, since I remember that in order not to attain to the +episcopal office thou wouldest have fled. But now that thou +hast attained unto it, thou desirest so to exercise it as if +thou hadst run after it with ambitious desire. And thou who +didst confess thyself unworthy to be called a bishop, hast at +length been brought to such a pitch that, despising thy brethren, +thou desirest to be named the only bishop. And in +regard to this matter, weighty letters were sent to thy +holiness by my predecessor Pelagius, of holy memory, and in +them he annulled the acts of the synod,<note place="foot">Evagrius, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, VI. 7.</note> which had been assembled +among you in the case of our former brother and +fellow priest, Gregory, because of that execrable title of pride, +and forbade the archdeacon whom he sent according to +custom to the feet of our +Lord<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, to be +the apocrisiarius at the court of the Emperor.</note> +to celebrate the solemnities +of the mass with thee. But after his death, when I, an unworthy +man, succeeded to the government of the Church, I +took care, formerly through thy representatives, and now +through our common son and deacon, Sabianus, to address thy +fraternity, not indeed in writing, but by word of mouth, desiring +thee to refrain thyself from such presumption; and in +<pb n='594'/><anchor id='Pg594'/> +case thou wouldest not amend I forbade his celebrating the +solemnities of the mass with thee; that so I might appeal to +thy holiness through a certain sense of shame, and then, if +the execrable and profane assumption could not be corrected +through shame, I might resort to canonical and prescribed +measures. And because sores that are to be cut away should +first be stroked with a gentle hand, I beg of thee, I beseech +thee, and, as kindly as I can, I demand of thee that thy fraternity +rebuke all who flatter thee and offer thee this name of +error, and not consent to be called by a foolish and proud +title. For truly I say it weeping, and out of deepest sorrow of +heart attribute it to my sins, that this my brother, who has +been placed in the episcopal order, that he might bring back +the souls of others to humility, has, up to the present time, +been incapable of being brought back to humility; that he +who teaches truth to others has not consented to teach himself, +even when I implore him. +</p> + +<p> +Consider, I pray thee, that by this rash presumption the +peace of the whole Church is disturbed, and that it is in contradiction +to the grace poured out on all in common; in which +grace thou thyself wilt be able to grow so far as thou thyself +wilt determine to do so. And thou wilt become by so much +the greater as thou restrainest thyself from the usurpation of +proud and foolish titles; and thou wilt advance in proportion +as thou art not bent on arrogation by the humiliation of thy +brethren.… Certainly Peter, the first of the Apostles, was +a member of the holy and universal Church; Paul, Andrew, +John—what are they but the heads of particular communities? +And yet all are members under one Head. And to bind all +together in a short phrase, the saints before the Law, the +saints under the Law, the saints under grace, all these making +up the Lord's body were constituted as members of the +Church, and not one of them has ever wished himself to be +called <q>universal.</q>… +</p> + +<p> +Is it not the fact, as your fraternity knows, that the prelates +of this Apostolic See, which by the providence of God I +<pb n='595'/><anchor id='Pg595'/> +serve, had the honor offered them by the venerable Council of +Chalcedon of being called <q>universal</q>?<note place="foot">See +Gieseler, KG, Eng. trans. I, p. 396, n. 72.</note> But yet not one +of them has ever wished to be called by such a title, or +seized upon this rash name, lest, if in virtue of the rank of +the pontificate, he took to himself the glory of singularity, he +might seem to have denied it to all his brethren. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Phocam</hi>, Reg. XIII, 31. (MSL, 77:1281.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Epistle to Phocas congratulating him on his accession. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Phocas (602-610) was a low-born, ignorant centurion whom chance +had placed at the head of a successful rebellion originating in the army +of the Danube. The rebellion was successful, and the Emperor Maurice +was murdered, together with his sons. Maurice had been unsuccessful +in war, unpopular with the army, and his financial measures +had been oppressive. Phocas was utterly incompetent as a ruler, +licentious and sanguinary as a man. His reign was a period of horror +and blood. +</quote> + +<p> +Gregory to Phocas. Glory to God in the highest, who, according +as it is written, changes times, and transfers kingdoms, +because He has made apparent to all what He has vouchsafed +to speak by His prophet, that the most High ruleth in the kingdom +of men, and giveth it to whomsoever He will [Dan. +4:17]. For in the incomprehensible dispensation of Almighty +God there is an alternating control of human life, and sometimes, +when the sins of many are to be smitten, one is raised +up through whose hardness the necks of subjects may be +bowed down under the yoke of tribulation, as in our affliction +we have long had proof. But sometimes, when the merciful +God has decreed to refresh with His consolation the mourning +hearts of many, He advances one to the summit of government, +and through the bowels of His mercy infuses in the +minds of all the grace of exultation in Him. In which abundance +of exultation we believe that we, who rejoice that the +benignity of your piety has arrived at imperial supremacy, +shall speedily be confirmed. <q>Let the heavens rejoice and let +the earth be glad</q> [Psalm 96:11], and let the whole people +<pb n='596'/><anchor id='Pg596'/> +of the republic, hitherto afflicted exceedingly, grow cheerful +for your benignant deeds. Let the proud minds of enemies +be subdued to the yoke of your domination. Let the sad and +depressed spirit of subjects be relieved by your mercy. Let +the power of heavenly grace make you terrible to your enemies; +let piety make you kind to your subjects. Let the +whole republic have rest in your most happy times, since the +pillage of peace under the color of legal processes has been +exposed. Let plottings about testaments cease, and benevolences +extorted by violence end. Let secure possession of +their own goods return to all, that they may rejoice in possessing +without fear what they have acquired without fraud. +Let every single person's liberty be now at length restored +to each one under the yoke of the holy Empire. For there is +this difference between the kings of the nations and the emperors +of the republic: the kings of the nations are lords of +slaves, but the emperors lords of free men. But we shall +better speak of these things by praying than by putting you +in mind of them. May Almighty God keep the heart of your +piety in the hand of His grace in every thought and deed. +Whatsoever things should be done justly, whatever things +with clemency, may the Holy Ghost, who dwells in your +breast direct, that your clemency may both be exalted in a +temporal kingdom and after the course of many years attain +to heavenly kingdoms. Given in the month June, indiction six. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>3. Gregory and the Schism in North Italy.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Among the results of the Fifth General Council of Constantinople, +553, was a wide-spread schism in the northern part of Italy and adjacent +lands. The bishops of the western part of Lombardy, under the lead +of the bishop of Milan, together with the bishops of Venetia, Istria, +and a portion of Illyricum, Rhætia Secunda, and Noricum, under the +bishop of Aquileia, renounced communion with the see of Rome, and +became autocephalic. Even bishops in Tuscany abandoned communion +with the see of Rome because the council and Vigilius had +condemned Theodore, Theodoret, and Ibas (<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_93">§ 93</ref>). Justin II attempted to heal the +schism, and his verbose edict may be found +<pb n='597'/><anchor id='Pg597'/> +in Evagrius, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, V, 4. +A serious problem was presented to the +Roman see. In dealing with them, however, it was possible to treat +each group separately. On account of the Lombard invasion the +bishop of Aquileia removed his see to Grado. Gregory the Great had +some success in drawing the schismatics into more friendly relations. +But not till 612 was the see of Aquileia-Grado in communion with Rome. +A rival bishop was elected, who removed his see to old Aquileia. See +extract from Paulus Diaconus +(<hi rend='italic'><ref target="Section_99_f">f</ref></hi>). +And the opposition was maintained +until about 700. The Milanese portion of the schism had long +since ended. Of Gregory's epistles several bearing on the schism are +available in PNF, ser. II, vols. XII and XIII: Reg. I, 16; II, 46, +51; IV, 2, 38, 39; V, 51; IX, 9, 10; XIII, 33. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Constantium</hi>, Reg. IV, 2. (MSL, 77:669.)</head> + +<p> +Gregory to Constantius, Bishop of Milan. My beloved +son, the deacon Boniface, has given me information from a +private letter of thy fraternity: namely, that three bishops, +having sought out rather than having found an occasion, have +separated themselves from the pious communion of thy fraternity, +saying that thou hast assented to the condemnation +of the three chapters and hast given a solemn pledge. +And, indeed, whether there has been any mention made of the +three chapters in any word or writing whatever, thy fraternity +remembers well; although thy fraternity's predecessor, +Laurentius (<hi rend='italic'>circa</hi> 573), did send a most strict security to the +Apostolic See, and to it a legal number of the most noble men +subscribed; among whom, I also, at that time holding the +prætorship of the city, likewise subscribed; because, when +such a schism had taken place about nothing, it was right that +the Apostolic See should be careful to guard in all respects +the unity of the universal Church in the minds of priests. +But as to its being said that our daughter, Queen +Theodelinda,<note place="foot">Theodelinda held to the schismatic +party in Northern Italy. Gregory is careful to touch this point +very delicately, and not to allow it to become such a point of +contention as might disturb favorable political relations.</note> +after hearing this news has withdrawn herself from thy communion, +it is perfectly evident that though she has been seduced +to some little extent by the words of wicked men, yet +<pb n='598'/><anchor id='Pg598'/> +when Hippolytus the notary and John the abbot arrive, she +will seek in all ways the communion of the fraternity. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Constantium</hi>, Reg. IV, 39. (MSL, 77:713.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In reply to a letter from Constantius of Milan informing Gregory +that the demand had been made upon him by the clergy of Brescia that +he should take an oath that he, Constantius, had not condemned the +Three Chapters, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, had not accepted the Fifth General Council, +Gregory advises him to take no such oath. +</quote> + +<p> +But lest those who have thus written to you should be offended, +send them a letter declaring under an imposition of an +anathema that you neither take away anything from the faith +of the synod of Chalcedon nor receive those who do, and that +you condemn whatsoever it condemned and absolve whatsoever +it absolved. And thus I believe that they may soon be +satisfied.… As to what you have written to the effect that +you are unwilling to transmit my letter to Queen Theodelinda +on the ground that the fifth synod is named in it, for you believed +that she might be offended, you did right not to transmit +it. We are therefore doing now as you recommended, +namely, only expressing approval of the four synods. Yet +as to the synod which was afterward called at Constantinople, +which is called by many the fifth, I would have you +know that it neither ordained nor held anything in opposition +to the four most holy synods, seeing that nothing was done in +it with respect to the faith, but only with respect to three +persons, about whom nothing is contained in the acts of the +Council of Chalcedon;<note place="foot">Gregory is not correct +here. In the eighth, ninth, and tenth sessions of the Council +of Chalcedon, the cases of Theodoret and Ibas were examined, they +were heard in their own defence and were acquitted or excused without censure. +See Hefele, §§ 195, 196. The case of Theodore of Mopsuestia, however, did +not come before the Council of Chalcedon, because he was dead. +<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_93">§ 93</ref>, +the <hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi> of Vigilius.</note> +but after the canons had been promulgated, +discussion arose, and final action was ventilated +concerning persons. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='599'/><anchor id='Pg599'/> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_99_f"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Paulus Diaconus, <hi rend='italic'>Historia +Langobardorum</hi>, IV, 32, 33, 36. (MSL, 95:657.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The continuation of the schism in Istria and the rise of the two +patriarchates of Aquileia. The Emperor Phocas and the title <q>Head +of All the Churches.</q> +</quote> + +<p> +32. In the following month of November [A. D. 605] +King Agilulf concluded peace with the Patrician Smaragdus +for a year, and received from the Romans twelve thousand +solidi. Also the Tuscan cities Balneus Regis [Bagnarea] and +Urbs Vetus [Orvieto] were conquered by the Lombards. Then +appeared in the heavens in the months of April and May a +star which is called a comet. Thereupon King Agilulf again +made a peace with the Romans for three years. +</p> + +<p> +33. In the same days after the death of the patriarch +Severus, the abbot John was made patriarch of old Aquileia +in his place with the approval of the king and Duke Gisulf. +Also in Grados [Grado] the +Roman<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, in +communion with the Roman see.</note> Candidianus was appointed +bishop. In the months of November and December a +comet was again visible. After the death of Candidianus, +Epiphanius, who had formerly been the papal chief notary, +was elected patriarch by the bishops who stood under the +Romans; and since this time there were two patriarchs. +</p> + +<p> +36. Phocas, as also has been related above, after the murder +of Maurice and his sons, obtained the Roman Empire and +ruled for eight years. At the request of Pope +Boniface<note place="foot">Boniface III, 606-607.</note> he +decreed that the seat of the Roman and Apostolic Church +should be the head of all churches +[<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">caput omnium ecclesiarum</foreign>], +because the Church of Constantinople in a proclamation had +named itself first of all. At the request of another Pope +Boniface,<note place="foot">Boniface IV, 607-615.</note> +he commanded that the idolatrous rubbish should be +removed from the old temple which bore the name of the +Pantheon, and from it a church should be made to the holy +Virgin Mary and all martyrs, so that where formerly the service +<pb n='600'/><anchor id='Pg600'/> +not of all gods but of all idols was celebrated, now only +the memory of all saints should be found. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>4. Gregory the Great and the Lombards.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Lombards entered Italy 568, and gradually spread over nearly +all the peninsula. The territories retained by the Emperor from the +conquests of Justinian were only the Exarchate of Ravenna, the Ducatus +Romanus, and the Ducatus Neapolitanus, the extreme southern +parts of the peninsula and Liguria. The Lombards were the last Germanic +tribe to settle within the Empire, and like so many others they +were Arians. Theodelinda, the queen of the Lombards, was a Bavarian +princess and a Catholic. Her second husband, Agilulf, seems to +have been favorably disposed to Catholicism, far more so than Authari, +her first husband. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Paulus Diaconus, <hi rend='italic'>Historia +Langobardorum</hi>, IV, 5-9. (MSL, 95:540.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Paulus Warnefridi, known as Paulus Diaconus (circa 720-circa 800), +was himself a Lombard, and in writing his <hi rend='italic'>History of the Lombards</hi> +shows himself the patriot as well as the loyal son of the Roman Church. +To do this was at times difficult. The work is one of the most attractive +histories written in the Middle Ages. For nearly all of his history, +Paulus is dependent upon older sources, but he restates the older +accounts in clear and careful fashion. The connection between the +various extracts is not always felicitous, yet he has succeeded in +producing one of the great books of history. For an analysis of the +sources, see F. H. B. Daniell, art. <q>Paulus (70) Diaconus</q> in DCB. +The best edition is that by Bethmann and Waitz in the MGH, <hi rend='italic'>Scriptores +rerum Langobardorum et Italicarum sæc.</hi> VI-IX, also in the +8vo edition. There is an English translation of the entire work in the +<hi rend='italic'>Translations and Reprints of the Historical Department +of the University of Pennsylvania</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +5. At that time the learned and pious Pope Gregory, after +he had already written much for the benefit of the holy +Church, wrote also four books concerning the lives of the +saints; these books he called <hi rend='italic'>Dialogus</hi>, that is, conversation, +because in them he has introduced himself speaking with his +deacon Peter. The Pope sent these books to Queen Theodelinda, +whom he knew to be true in the faith in Christ and +abounding in good works. +</p> + +<pb n='601'/><anchor id='Pg601'/> + +<p> +6. Through this queen the Church of God obtained many +and great advantages. For the Lombards, when they were still +held by heathen unbelief, had taken possession of the entire +property of the Church. But, induced by successful requests +of the queen, the king, holding fast to the Catholic +faith,<note place="foot">He was not a professed Catholic. It +probably means either that he held fast to his political +alliance with Rome, or that he was determined to favor +the Catholic faith professed by his spouse.</note> +gave the Church of Christ many possessions and assigned to +the bishops, who had theretofore been oppressed and despised, +their ancient place of honor once more. +</p> + +<p> +7. In these days Tassilo was made king of Bavaria by the +Frankish king Childebert. With an army he immediately +marched into the land of the Slavs, and with great booty returned +to his own land. +</p> + +<p> +9. At the same time the patrician and exarch of Ravenna, +Romanus,<note place="foot">There are several letters written +by Gregory to Romanus available in translation, see above.</note> +went to Rome. On his return to Ravenna he +took possession of the cities which had been taken by the +Lombards. The names of them are: Sutrium [Sutri], Polimarcium +[near Bomarzio and west of Orte], Horta [Orte], +Tuder [Todi], Ameria [Amelia], Perusia [Perugia], Luceoli +[near Gubbio], and several others. When King Agilulf +received word of this, he at once marched forth from +Ticinus with a strong army and pitched before the city +of Perusia. Here he besieged several days the Lombard +duke Marisio, who had gone over to the side of the Romans, +took him prisoner, and without delay had him executed. +On the approach of the king, the holy Pope Gregory +was so filled with fear that, as he himself reports in his homilies, +he broke off the explanation of the temple, to be read +about in Ezekiel; King Agilulf returned to Ticinus after +he had settled the matter, and not long after, chiefly on account +of the entreaties of his wife, Queen Theodelinda, who +had often been advised in letters by the holy Father Gregory +to do so, he concluded with Gregory and the Romans a lasting +<pb n='602'/><anchor id='Pg602'/> +peace. To thank her for this, the venerable priest sent +the following letter to the queen: +</p> + +<p> +Gregory to Theodelinda, queen of the Lombards. How +your excellency has labored earnestly and kindly, as is your +wont, for the conclusion of peace, we have learned from the +report of our son, the abbot Probus. Nor, indeed, was it +otherwise to be expected of your Christianity than that you +would in all ways show assiduity and goodness in the cause of +peace. Wherefore, we give thanks to Almighty God, who so +rules your heart with His lovingkindness that, as He has given +you a right faith, so He also grants you to work always what +is pleasing in His sight. For you may be assured, most excellent +daughter, that for the saving of much bloodshed on both +sides you have acquired no small reward. On this account, +returning thanks for your good-will, we implore the mercy of +God to repay you with good in body and soul here and in the +world to come. Moreover, greeting you with fatherly affection, +we exhort you so to deal with your most excellent consort +that he may not reject the alliance of the Christian republic. +For, as I believe you yourself know, it is in many +ways profitable that he should be inclined to betake himself +to its friendship. Do you then, after your manner, always +strive for what tends to good-will and conciliation between the +parties, and labor wherever an occasion of reaping a reward +presents itself, that you may commend your good deeds the +more before the eyes of Almighty God. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_100"/> +<head>§ 100. The Foundation of the Anglo-Saxon Church</head> + +<p> +The Anglo-Saxon Church owes its foundation to the missionary +zeal and wise direction of Gregory the Great. Augustine, +whom Gregory sent, arrived in the kingdom of Kent +597, and established himself at Canterbury. In 625, Paulinus +began his work at York, and Christianity was accepted by the +Northumbrian king and many nobles. On the death of King +Eadwine, Paulinus was obliged to leave the kingdom. Missionaries +<pb n='603'/><anchor id='Pg603'/> +were brought into Northumbria in 635 from the +Celtic Church, the centre of which was at Iona, where the +new king Oswald had taken refuge on the death of Eadwine. +Aidan now became the leader of the Northern Church. As +the Christianization of the land advanced and Roman customs +were introduced into the northern kingdom, practical +inconveniences as to the different methods of reckoning the +date of Easter, in which the North Irish and the Celts of Scotland +differed from the rest of the Christian Church, came to +a settlement of the difficulty at Streaneshalch, or Whitby, 664. +Colman, Bishop of Lindisfarne, the leader of the Celtic party, +withdrew, and Wilfrid, afterward bishop of York, took the +lead under the influence of the Roman tradition. The Church +of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, now in agreement as to custom, +was organized by Theodore of Canterbury (668-690), and developed +a remarkable intellectual life, becoming, in fact, for +the first part at least of the eighth century, the centre of +Western theological and literary culture. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Ecclesiastical History of the English +People</hi>, for editions, <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_96">§ 96</ref>. This is the best account extant of +the conversion of a nation to Christianity. H. Gee and W. J. Hardy, +<hi rend='italic'>Documents Illustrative of English Church History</hi>, London, 1896; +A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, <hi rend='italic'>Councils and Ecclesiastical +Documents</hi>, 1869 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> +</quote> + +<div> +<anchor id="Section_100_a"/> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 29. +(MSL, 95:69.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The scheme of Gregory the Great for the organization of the English +Church A. D. 601. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Gregory, in planning his mission, seems not to have been aware of +the profound changes in the kingdom resulting from the Anglo-Saxon +invasion. He selected York as the seat of an archbishop, because it +was the ancient capital of the Roman province in the North, and London, +because it was the great city of the South. The rivalry of the two +archbishops caused difficulties for centuries, and was a hinderance to +the efficiency of the ecclesiastical system. By this letter, the British +bishops were to be under the authority of Augustine, a position which +was distasteful to the British, who were extremely hostile to the Anglo-Saxons, +and incomprehensible to them, as they saw no reason or justification +in any such arrangement without their consent. They withdrew +from all intercourse with the new Anglo-Saxon Church and +retired into Wales. +</quote> + +<pb n='604'/><anchor id='Pg604'/> + +<p> +To the most reverend and holy brother and fellow bishop, +Augustine, Gregory, servant of the servants of God. +</p> + +<p> +Although it is certain that the unspeakable rewards of the +eternal kingdom are laid up for those who labor for Almighty +God, yet it is necessary for us to render to them the benefits +of honors, that from this recompense they may be able to +labor more abundantly in the zeal for spiritual work. And +because the new Church of the English has been brought by +thee to the grace of Almighty God, by the bounty of the same +Lord and by your toil, we grant you the use of the pallium, +in the same to perform only the solemnities of the mass, in +order that in the various places you ordain twelve bishops who +shall be under your authority, so that the bishop of the city of +London ought always thereafter to be consecrated by his +own synod and receive the pallium of honor from the holy +Apostolic See, which by God's authority I +serve.<note place="foot">Augustine had been consecrated in +Gaul. His successors in the see of London were to be +consecrated by the suffragans of that archiepiscopal see.</note> Moreover, +we will that you send to York a bishop whom you shall see +fit to ordain, yet so that if the same city shall have received +the word of God along with the neighboring places, he shall +ordain twelve other bishops, and enjoy the honor of metropolitan, +because if our life last, we intend, with the Lord's +favor, to give him the pallium also. And we will that he be +subject to your authority, my brother. But after your decease +he shall preside over the bishops he has ordained, so +that he shall not be subject in anywise to the bishop of London. +Moreover, let there be a distinction of honor between the +bishops of the city of London and of York, in such a way that +he shall take the precedence who has been ordained first. But +let them arrange in concord by common counsel and harmonious +action the things which need to be done for the zeal +for Christ; let them determine rightly and let them accomplish +what they have decided upon without any mutual misunderstandings. +</p> + +<p> +But you, my brother, shall have subject to you not only the +<pb n='605'/><anchor id='Pg605'/> +bishops whom you have ordained and those ordained by the +bishop of York, but also, by the authority of our Lord Jesus +Christ, the priests [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the bishops] of Britain; so that from +the lips of your holiness they may receive the form both of +correct faith and of holy life, and fulfilling the duties of their +office in faith and morals may, when the Lord wills, attain +to the kingdom of heaven. May God keep you safe, most +reverend brother. Dated the 22d June in the nineteenth year +of the reign of Mauritius Tiberius, the most pious Augustus, +in the eighteenth year of the consulship of the same Lord, +indiction four. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 25 +<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> (MSL, 95:158.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Easter dispute and the synod of Whitby. The triumph of the +Roman tradition. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The sharpest dispute between the Celtic and the Roman churches +was on the date of Easter as presenting the most inconveniences. The +principal points were as follows: Both parties agreed that it must +be on Sunday, in the third week of the first lunar month, and the +paschal full moon must not fall before the vernal equinox. But the +Celts placed the vernal equinox on March 25, and the Romans on +March 21. The Celts, furthermore, reckoned as the third week the +14th to the 20th days of the moon inclusive; the Romans the 15th to +the 21st inclusive. The Irish Church in the southern part of Ireland +had already adopted the Roman reckoning at the synod of Leighlin, +630-633 [Hefele, § 289]. The occasion of the difference of custom +was, in reality, that the Romans had adopted in the previous century +a more correct method of reckoning and one that had fewer +practical inconveniences. For a statement by a Celt, see Epistle +of Columbanus to Gregory the Great, in the latter's <hi rend='italic'>Epistolæ</hi>, Reg. +IX, Ep. 127 (PNF, ser. II, vol. XIII, p. 38). In the following +selection space has been saved by omissions which are, however, +indicated. +</quote> + +<p> +At this time [<hi rend='italic'>circa</hi> 652] a great and frequent controversy +happened about the observance of Easter; those that came +from Kent or France asserting that the Scots kept Easter +Sunday contrary to the custom of the universal Church. +Among them was a most zealous defender of the true Easter, +whose name was Ronan, a Scot by nation, but instructed in +ecclesiastical truth, either in France or Italy, who disputed +<pb n='606'/><anchor id='Pg606'/> +with Finan,<note place="foot">Bishop of Lindisfarne, 652-662.</note> +and convinced many, or at least induced them, to +make a stricter inquiry after the truth; yet he could not prevail +upon Finan … James, formerly the deacon of the venerable +archbishop Paulinus … kept the true and Catholic +Easter, with all those that he could persuade to adopt the +right way. Queen Eanfleda [wife of Oswy, king of Northumbria] +and her attendants also observed the same as she +had seen practised in Kent, having with her a Kentish priest +that followed the Catholic mode, whose name was Romanus. +Thus it is said to have happened in those times that Easter +was kept twice in one year;<note place="foot">In 645, 647, 648, +651. It would occur again in 665.</note> and that when the king, +having ended the time of fasting, kept his Easter, the queen +and her attendants were still fasting and celebrating Palm +Sunday.… +</p> + +<p> +After the death of Finan [662] … when Colman, who was +also sent out of Scotland, came to be bishop, a great controversy +arose about the observance of Easter, and the rules of +ecclesiastical life.… This reached the ears of King Oswy +and his son Alfrid; for Oswy, having been instructed and baptized +by the Scots, and being very perfectly skilled in their +language, thought nothing better than what they taught. +But Alfrid, having been instructed in Christianity by Wilfrid, +a most learned man, who had first gone to Rome to learn the +ecclesiastical doctrine, and spent much time at Lyons with +Dalfinus, archbishop of France, from whom he had received +the ecclesiastical tonsure, rightly thought this man's doctrine +ought to be preferred to all the traditions of the Scots.… +</p> + +<p> +The controversy having been started concerning Easter, the +tonsure, and other ecclesiastical matters, it was agreed that a +synod should be held in the monastery of Streaneshalch, +which signifies the bay of the lighthouse, where the Abbess +Hilda, a woman devoted to God, presided; and that there the +controversy should be decided. The kings, both father and +son, came hither. Bishop Colman, with his Scottish clerks, +<pb n='607'/><anchor id='Pg607'/> +and Agilbert,<note place="foot">Bishop of the West Saxons, +temporarily in Northumbria.</note> +and the priests Agatho and Wilfrid. James and +Romanus were on their side. But the Abbess Hilda and her +associates were for the Scots, as was also the venerable bishop +Cedd, long before ordained by the Scots.… Then Colman +said: <q>The Easter which I keep, I received from my elders +who sent me hither as bishop; all our fathers, men beloved of +God, are known to have kept it in the same manner; and that +the same may not seem to any to be contemptible or worthy +of being rejected, it is the same which St. John the Evangelist, +the disciple especially beloved of our Lord, with all the +churches over which he presided, is recorded as having observed.…</q> +</p> + +<p> +Wilfrid, having been ordered by the king to speak, said: +<q>The Easter which we observe we saw celebrated by all at +Rome, where the blessed Apostles, Peter and Paul, lived, +taught, suffered, and were buried; we saw the same done in +Italy and France, when we travelled through those countries +for pilgrimage and prayer. We found the same practised +in Africa, Asia, Egypt, Greece, and in all the world, wherever +the Church of Christ is spread abroad, through several nations +and tongues, at one and the same time … except only +those and their accomplices in obstinacy, I mean the Picts +and the Britons, who foolishly, in these two remote islands of +the world, and only in part of them, oppose all the rest of the +universe.… John, pursuant to the custom of the law, began +the celebration of the feast of Easter on the fourteenth day +of the month, in the evening, not regarding whether the same +happened on a Saturday or any other day.… Thus it appears +that you, Colman, neither follow the example of John, +as you imagine, nor that of Peter, whose traditions you knowingly +contradict.… For John, keeping the paschal time +according to the decree of the Mosaic law, had no regard to +the first day after the Sabbath [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, that it should fall on +Sunday], and you who celebrate Easter only on the first day +after the Sabbath do not practise this. Peter kept Easter +<pb n='608'/><anchor id='Pg608'/> +Sunday between the fifteenth and the twenty-first day of the +moon, and you do not do this, but keep Easter Sunday from +the fourteenth to the twentieth day of the moon, so that you +often begin Easter on the thirteenth moon in the evening … +besides this in your celebration of Easter, you utterly exclude +the twenty-first day of the moon, which the law ordered to be +especially observed.</q> +</p> + +<p> +To this Colman rejoined: <q>Did Anatolius, a holy man, and +much commended in ecclesiastical history, act contrary to +the Law and the Gospel when he wrote that Easter was to +be celebrated from the fourteenth to the twentieth? Is it to +be believed that our most reverend Father Columba and his +successors, men beloved of God, who kept Easter after the +same manner, thought or acted contrary to the divine writings? +Whereas there were many among them whose sanctity +was attested by heavenly signs and the workings of miracles, +whose life, customs, discipline I never cease to follow, not +questioning that they are saints in heaven.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Wilfrid said: <q>It is evident that Anatolius was a most holy +and learned and commendable man; but what have you to do +with him, since you do not observe his decrees? For he, following +the rule of truth in his Easter, appointed a cycle of +nineteen years, which you are either ignorant of, or if you +know yet despise, though it is kept by the whole Church of +Christ.… Concerning your Father Columba and his followers … +I do not deny that they were God's servants, +and beloved by Him, who, with rustic simplicity but pious +intentions, have themselves loved Him.… But as for you +and your companions, you certainly sin, if, having heard the +decrees of the Apostolic See, or rather of the universal Church, +and the same confirmed by Holy Scripture, you refuse to follow +them. For though your Fathers were holy, do you think +that their small number in a corner of the remotest island is +to be preferred before the universal Church of Christ throughout +the world? And if that Columba of yours (and, I may +say, ours also, if he was Christ's servant) was a holy man and +<pb n='609'/><anchor id='Pg609'/> +powerful in miracles, yet could he be preferred before the +most blessed prince of the Apostles, to whom our Lord said: +<q>Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, +and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it, and to thee I +will give the keys of the kingdom of heaven</q>?</q> +</p> + +<p> +When Wilfrid had thus spoken, the king said: <q>Is it true, +Colman, that these words were spoken to Peter by our Lord?</q> +He answered: <q>It is true, O king.</q> Then he said: <q>Can you +show any such power given to your Columba?</q> Colman answered: +<q>None.</q> Then the king added: <q>Do you both agree +that these words were principally directed to Peter, and that +the keys of heaven were given to him by our Lord?</q> They +both answered: <q>We do.</q> Then the king concluded: <q>And I +also say unto you that he is the doorkeeper whom I will not +contradict, but will, as far as I know and am able in all things, +obey his decrees, lest, when I come to the gates of the kingdom +of heaven, there should be one to open them, he being +my adversary who is proved to have the keys.</q> The king +having said this, all present, both small and great, gave their +assent, and renounced the more imperfect institution, and +resolved to conform to that which they found to be better.… +[ch. 26]. Colman, perceiving that his doctrine was +rejected and his sect despised, took with him such as would +not comply with the Catholic Easter and the tonsure (for +there was much controversy about that also) and went back +to Scotland to consult with his people what was to be done +in this case. Cedd, forsaking the practices of the Scots, returned +to his bishopric, having submitted to the Catholic +observance of Easter. This disputation happened in the year +of our Lord's incarnation, 664. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV, 5. +(MSL, 95:180.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Council of Hertford A. D. 673. The organization of the Anglo-Saxon +Church by Theodore. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +As the important synod of Whitby marks the beginning of conformity +of the Anglo-Saxon Church under the leadership of the kingdom +of Northumbria to the customs of the Roman Church, so the +<pb n='610'/><anchor id='Pg610'/> +synod of Hertford brings the internal organization of the Church into +conformity with the diocesan system of the Continent and of the East, +where the principles of the general councils were at this time most completely +enforced. Theodore of Canterbury was a learned Greek who +was sent to England to be archbishop of Canterbury by Pope Vitalian +in 668. The Council of Hertford was the first council of all the Church +among the Anglo-Saxons. For the council, see also Haddan and +Stubbs, <hi rend='italic'>Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents</hi>, III, +118-122. The text given is that of Plummer. +</quote> + +<p> +In the name of our Lord God and Saviour Jesus Christ, +in the perpetual reign of the same Lord Jesus Christ and His +government of His Church. It seemed good that we should +come together according to the prescription of the venerable +canons, to treat of the necessary affairs of the Church. We are +met together on this 24th day of September, the first indiction +in the place called Hertford. I, Theodore, although unworthy, +appointed by the Apostolic See bishop of the church +of Canterbury, and our fellow priest the most reverend Bisi, +bishop of the East Angles, together with our brother and +fellow bishop Wilfrid, bishop of the nation of the Northumbrians, +present by his proper legates, as also our brethren +and fellow bishops, Putta, bishop of the Castle of the Kentishmen +called Rochester, Leutherius, bishop of the West Saxons, +and Winfrid, bishop of the province of the Mercians, were +present. When we were assembled and had taken our places, +each according to his rank, I said: I beseech you, beloved +brethren, for the fear and love of our Redeemer, that we all +labor in common for our faith, that whatsoever has been +decreed and determined by the holy and approved Fathers +may be perfectly followed by us all. I enlarged upon these +and many other things tending unto charity and the preservation +of the unity of the Church. And when I had finished +my speech I asked them singly and in order whether they +consented to observe all things which had been canonically +decreed by the Fathers? To which all our fellow priests +answered: We are all well agreed readily and most cheerfully +to keep whatever the canons of the holy Fathers have prescribed. +<pb n='611'/><anchor id='Pg611'/> +Whereupon I immediately produced the book of +canons,<note place="foot">Coming from Rome under the circumstances +in which he was sent, this book of the canons can be no other than +the collection of Dionysius Exiguus.</note> +and pointed out ten chapters from the same book, +which I had marked, because I knew that they were especially +necessary for us, and proposed that they should be diligently +observed by all, namely: +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 1. That we shall jointly observe Easter day on the +Lord's day after the fourteenth day of the moon in the first +month. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 2. That no bishop invade the diocese of another, but +be content with the government of the people committed to +him. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 3. That no bishop be allowed to trouble in any way +any monasteries consecrated to God, nor to take away by +violence anything that belongs to them. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 4. That the monks themselves go not from place to +place; that is, from one monastery to another, without letters +dismissory of their own abbot;<note place="foot">See below, +<ref target="Section_105">§ 105</ref>.</note> but that they shall continue +in that obedience which they promised at the time of +their conversion. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 5. That no clerk, leaving his own bishop, go up and +down at his own pleasure, nor be received wherever he comes, +without commendatory letters from his bishop; but if he be +once received and refuse to return when he is desired so to +do, both the receiver and the received shall be laid under an +excommunication. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 6. That stranger bishops and clerks be content with +the hospitality that is freely offered them; and none of them +be allowed to exercise any sacerdotal function without permission +of the bishop in whose diocese he is known to be. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 7. That a synod be assembled twice in the year. But, +because many occasions may hinder this, it was jointly agreed +by all that once in the year it be assembled on the first of +August in the place called Clovesho. +</p> + +<pb n='612'/><anchor id='Pg612'/> + +<p> +Ch. 8. That no bishop ambitiously put himself before +another, but that every one observe the time and order of his +consecration. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 9. The ninth chapter was discussed together: That +the number of bishops be increased as the number of the +faithful grew;<note place="foot">Cf. Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Epistula +ad Egberium Episcopum</hi>; Plummer, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, +I. 412 <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></note> but we did nothing as to this point at +present. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 10. As to marriages: That none shall be allowed to +any but what is a lawful marriage. Let none commit incest. +Let none relinquish his own wife but for fornication, as the +holy Gospel teaches. But if any have dismissed a wife united +to him in lawful marriage, let him not be joined to another if +he wish really to be a Christian, but remain as he is or be +reconciled to his own wife. +</p> + +<p> +After we had jointly treated on and discussed these chapters, +that no scandalous contention should arise henceforth +by any of us, and that there be no changes in the publication +of them, it seemed proper that every one should confirm by +the subscription of his own hand whatever had been determined. +I dictated this our definitive sentence to be written +by Titillus, the notary. Done in the month and indiction +above noted. Whosoever, therefore, shall attempt in any way +to oppose or infringe this sentence, confirmed by our present +consent, and the subscription of our hands as agreeable to the +decrees of the canons, let him know that he is deprived of +every sacerdotal function and our society. May the divine +grace preserve us safe living in the unity of the Church. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV, 17. +(MSL, 95:198.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Council of Hatfield, A. D. 680. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +At the Council of Hatfield the Anglo-Saxon Church formally recognized +the binding authority of the five general councils already held, +and rejected Monotheletism in accord with the Roman synod A. D. +649. It seems to have been, as stated in the introduction to the Acts +of the council, a preventive measure. In Plummer's edition of Bede +this chapter is numbered 15. +</quote> + +<pb n='613'/><anchor id='Pg613'/> + +<p> +At this time Theodore, hearing that the faith of the Church +of Constantinople had been much disturbed by the heresy of +Eutyches,<note place="foot">The Monothelete doctrine, which +appeared to be a form of Eutychianism because of its close +connection with Monophysitism. <hi rend='italic'>v. infra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_108">§ 108</ref>.</note> +and being desirous that the churches of the English +over which he ruled should be free from such a stain, having +collected an assembly of venerable priests and very many +doctors, diligently inquired what belief they each held, and +found unanimous agreement of all in the Catholic faith; and +this he took care to commit to a synodical letter for the instruction +and remembrance of posterity. This is the beginning +of the letter: +</p> + +<p> +In the name of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, in the +reign of our most pious lords, Egfrid, king of the Humbrians, +in the tenth year of his reign, on the fifteenth day before the +Kalends of October [September 17] in the eighth indiction, and +Ethelred, king of the Mercians, in the sixth year of his reign; +and Adwulf, king of the Kentishmen, in the seventh year of +his reign; Theodore being president, by the grace of God, +archbishop of the island of Britain and of the city of Canterbury, +and other venerable men sitting with him, bishops of +the island of Britain, with the holy Gospels laid before them, +and in the place which is called by the Saxon name of Hatfield, +we, handling the subject in concert, have made an exposition +of the right and orthodox faith, as our incarnate Lord Jesus +Christ delivered it to His disciples, who saw Him present +and heard His discourses, and as the creed of the holy Fathers +has delivered it, and all the holy and universal synods and all +the chorus of approved doctors of the Catholic Church teach. +We therefore piously and orthodoxly following them and, +making our profession according to their divinely inspired +teaching, believe in unison with it, and confess according to +the holy Fathers that the Father and the Son and the Holy +Ghost are properly and truly a consubstantial Trinity in +unity, and unity in Trinity; that is, in one God in three consubstantial +subsistencies or persons of equal glory and honor. +</p> + +<pb n='614'/><anchor id='Pg614'/> + +<p> +And after many things of this kind that pertained to the +confession of the right faith, the holy synod also adds these +things to its letter: +</p> + +<p> +We have received as holy and universal five synods of the +blessed Fathers acceptable to God; that is, of the three hundred +and eighteen assembled at Nicæa against the most impious +Arius and his tenets; and of the one hundred and fifty +at Constantinople against the madness of Macedonius and +Eudoxius and their tenets; and of the two hundred in the +first Council of Ephesus against the most wicked Nestorius +and his tenets; and of the six hundred and thirty at Chalcedon +against Eutyches and Nestorius and their tenets; and again +of those assembled in a fifth council at Constantinople [A. D. +553], in the time of the younger Justinian, against Theodore +and the epistles of Theodoret and Ibas and their tenets against +Cyril. +</p> + +<p> +And a little after: Also we have received the synod<note place="foot">A. D. +649, Against the Monotheletes, see Hefele, § 307; <hi rend='italic'>v. infra.</hi> +<ref target="Section_108">§ 108</ref>; see Hahn, § 181, for +the Anathematism of the Council; Haddan and Stubbs, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, III. 145-151.</note> that +was held in the city of Rome in the time of the blessed Pope +Martin in the eighth indiction, in the ninth year of the reign +of the most pious Constantine.<note place="foot">Constans II, +also known as Constantine IV; see DCB.</note> And we glorify our Lord +Jesus Christ as they glorified Him, neither adding nor subtracting +anything; and we anathematize with heart and +mouth those whom they anathematized; and those whom they +received we receive, glorifying God the Father without beginning, +and his only begotten Son, begotten of the Father before +the world began, and the Holy Ghost proceeding ineffably +from the Father and the Son, as those holy Apostles, prophets, +and doctors have declared whom we have mentioned above. +And we all who with Theodore have made an exposition of +the Catholic faith have subscribed hereto. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='615'/><anchor id='Pg615'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter III. The Foundation Of The Ecclesiastical Institutions Of The +Middle Ages</head> + +<p> +In the period between the conversion of the Franks and the +rise of the dynasty of Charles Martel, or the period comprising +the sixth and seventh centuries, the foundation was laid +for those ecclesiastical institutions which are peculiar to the +Middle Ages, and found in the mediæval Church their full +embodiment. In the Church the Latin element was still more +or less dominant, and society was only slowly transformed +by the Germanic elements. In the adjustment of Roman institutions +to the new political conditions in which Germanic +factors were dominant, the Germanic and the Roman elements +are accordingly found in constantly varying proportions. +In the case of the diocesan and parochial organization, +only very slowly could the Church in the West attain +that complete organization which had long since been established +in the East, and here Roman ideas were profoundly +modified by Germanic legal principles (<ref target="Section_101">§ 101</ref>). +But at the same time the Church's body of teaching and methods of +moral training were made clearly intelligible and more applicable +to the new conditions of Christian life. The teaching of +Augustine was received only in part at the Council of Orange, +A. D. 529 (<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_85">§ 85</ref>), +and it was profoundly modified by the moralistic type of +theology traceable to Tertullian and even further back +(<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_39">§ 39</ref>). +It was, furthermore, completed +by a clearer and more precise statement of the doctrines +of purgatory and the sacrifice of the mass, and to the +death of Christ was applied unequivocally the doctrine of +merit which had been developed in the West in connection +with the early penitential discipline, and which was seen to +throw a new light upon the sacrifice of Christ upon the cross. +These conceptions served as a foundation for new discussions, +and confirmed tendencies already present in the Church +(<ref target="Section_102">§ 102</ref>). Connected with +this theology was the penitential discipline, which, growing +out of the ancient discipline as +<pb n='616'/><anchor id='Pg616'/> +modified by the earlier form of monastic life, especially in +Ireland, came under the influence of the Germanic legal conceptions +(<ref target="Section_103">§ 103</ref>). In the same period +monasticism was organized upon a new rule by Benedict of Nursia +(<ref target="Section_104">§ 104</ref>), and +the need of provision for the education of the young and for +the training of the clergy was felt and, to some extent, provided +for by monastery schools and other methods of education +(<ref target="Section_105">§ 105</ref>). +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_101"/> +<head>§ 101. Foundation of the Mediæval Diocesan and Parochial Constitution</head> + +<p> +An outline of some of the legislation is here given, whereby +the parish as organized in the West was built up, and the diocese +was made to consist of a number of parishes under the +bishop, who, however, did not exercise an absolute control +over the incomes and position of the priests under him. +</p> + +<p> +The selections are given in chronological order. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Council of Agde, A. D. 506, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns, II, 145.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This is one of the most important councils of the period. Its various +canons have all been embodied in the Canon Law; for the references to +the Decretum of Gratian, in which they appear, see Hefele, § 222. It is +to be noted that it was held under Alarich, the Arian king of the Visigoths. +The preface is, therefore, given as being significant. +</quote> + +<p> +Since this holy synod has been assembled in the name of +the Lord and with the permission of our most glorious, magnificent, +and most pious king in the city of Agde, there, with +knees bent and on the ground, we have prayed for his kingdom, +<pb n='617'/><anchor id='Pg617'/> +his long life, for the people, that the lord who has given +us permission to assemble, may happily extend his kingdom, +that he may govern justly and protect valiantly; we have +assembled in the basilica of St. Andrew to treat of the discipline +and the ordination of pontiffs and other things of utility +to the Church. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 21. If any one wishes to have an oratory in the +fields outside of the parishes, in which the gathering of the +people is lawful and appointed, we permit him to have a mass +there with the proper license on the other festivals, on account +of the weariness of the family [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, in going to the distant +parish church], but on Easter, Christmas, Epiphany, Ascension +Day, Pentecost and the Nativity of St. John the Baptist, +or if there are any other very high festival days observed, let +them hold no masses except in the cities and parishes. But +if the clergy, without the command or permission of the +bishop, hold and perform the masses on the festivals above +mentioned in the oratories, let them be driven from the communion. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 30. Because it is appropriate that the service of +the Church be observed in the same way by all, it is to be +desired that it be done so everywhere. After the antiphones +the collects shall be said in order by the bishops and presbyters, +and the hymns of Matins and Vespers be sung daily; +and at the conclusion of the mass of Matins and +Vespers,<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Matitutinarum vel +vespertinarum missarum.</hi> The term <q>mass</q> is here +applied, not to the eucharist, but to Matins and Vespers. See +Hefele, § 222, on this canon.</note> +after the hymns a chapter of the Psalms shall be read, and the +people who are gathered shall, after the prayer, be dismissed +with a benediction of the bishop until Vespers. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 38. Without letters commendatory of their bishops, +it is not permitted to the clergy to travel. The same rule is to +be observed in the case of monks. If reproof of words does +not correct them, we decree that they shall be beaten with +rods. It is also to be observed in the case of monks that it +<pb n='618'/><anchor id='Pg618'/> +is not permitted them to leave the community for solitary +cells, unless the more severe rule is remitted by their abbot +to them who have been approved in the hermit life, or on +account of the necessity of infirmity; but only then let it be +done so that they remain within the walls of the same monastery, +and they are permitted to have separate cells under the +authority of the abbots. It is not permitted abbots to have +different cells or many monasteries, or except on account of the +inroads of enemies to erect dwellings within walls. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) I Council of Orleans, A. D. 511, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns, II, 160.</head> + +<p> +Canon 15. Concerning those things which in the form of +lands, vineyards, slaves, and other property the faithful have +given to the parishes, the statutes of the ancient canons are +to be observed, so that all things shall be in the control of +the bishop; but of those things which are given at the altar, +a third is to be faithfully given to the bishop. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 17. All churches which in various places have been +built and are daily being built shall, according to the law of +the primitive canons, be in the control of the bishop in whose +territory they are located. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) IV Council of Orleans, A. D. 541, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns, II, 208.</head> + +<p> +Canon 7. In oratories on landed estates, the lords of the +property shall not install wandering clergy against the will +of the bishop to whom the rights of that territory belong, +unless, perchance, they have been approved, and the bishop +has in his discretion appointed them to serve in that place. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 26. If any parishes are established in the houses of +the mighty, and the clergy who serve there have been admonished +by the archdeacon of the city, according to the duty +of his office, and they neglect to do what they ought to do for +the Church, because under the protection of the lord of the +house, let them be corrected according to the ecclesiastical +discipline; and if by the agents of these lords, or by these +<pb n='619'/><anchor id='Pg619'/> +lords themselves of the place, they are prevented from doing +any part of their duty toward the Church, those who do this +iniquity are to be deprived of the sacred rites until, having +made amends, they are received back into the peace of the +Church.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> canon 4, +Council of Clermont, A. D. 535 (Bruns, II, 188): <q>The clergy +are not in any way to be set against their bishops by the secular +potentates.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +Canon 33. If any one has, or asks to have, on his land a +diocese [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, parish], let +him first assign to it sufficient lands +and clergy who may there perform their duties, that suitable +reverence be done to the sacred places. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) V Council of Orleans, A. D. 549, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns, II, 208.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +At this council no less than seven archbishops, forty-three bishops +and representatives of twenty-one other bishops were present. It was, +therefore, a general council of the Frankish Church, although politically +the Frankish territory was divided into three kingdoms held +respectively by Childebert, Chlothar, and Theudebald. Orleans itself +was in the dominion of Childebert. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> preface to the canons of +II Orleans, A. D. 533, which states that that council was attended by +five archbishops and the deputy of a sixth, as well as by bishops from +all parts of Gaul, and was called at the command of the <q>Glorious +kings,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Childebert, Chlothar, and Theudebert. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 13. It is permitted to no one to retain, alienate, or +take away goods or property which has been lawfully given +to a church, monastery, or orphan asylums for any charity; +that if any one does do so he shall, according to the ancient +canons [<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Hefele, §§ 220, 222], be regarded as a slayer of the +poor, and shall be shut out from the thresholds of the Church +so long as those things are not restored which have been taken +away or retained. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Council of Braga, A. D. 572, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns, II, 37.</head> + +<p> +Canon 5. As often as bishops are requested by any of the +faithful to consecrate churches, they shall not, as having a +claim, ask any payment of the founders; but if he wishes to +give him something from a vow he has made, let it not be despised; +<pb n='620'/><anchor id='Pg620'/> +but if poverty or necessity prevent him, let nothing +be demanded of him. This only let each bishop remember, +that he shall not dedicate a church or basilica before he shall +have received the endowment of the basilica and its service +confirmed by an instrument of donation; for it is a not light +rashness for a church to be consecrated, as if it were a private +dwelling, without lights and without the support of those who +are to serve there. +</p> + +<p> +Canon 6. In case of any one who builds a basilica, not +from any faithful devotion, but from the desire of gain, that +whatsoever is there gathered of the offerings of the people he +may share half and half with the clergy, on the ground that +he has built the basilica on his own land, which in various +places is said to be done quite constantly, this therefore ought +hereafter to be observed, that no bishop consent to such +an abominable purpose, that he should dare to consecrate a +basilica which is founded not as the heritage of the saints but +rather under the condition of tribute. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) II Council of Toledo, A. D. 589, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns, I, 217.</head> + +<p> +Canon 19. Many who have built churches demand that +these churches, contrary to the canons, shall be consecrated +in such a way that they shall not allow the endowment, which +they have given the church, to belong to the control of the +bishop; when this has been done in the past, let this be void, +and in the future forbidden; but let all things pertain to the +power and control of the bishop according to the ancient law. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_102"/> +<head>§ 102. Western Piety and Thought in the Period of the Conversion of the +Barbarians</head> + +<p> +In the century following Augustine, the dogmatic interest +of the Church was chiefly absorbed in the Christological controversies +in the East. There were, however, some discussions +in the West arising from the manifest difficulty of reconciling +the doctrine of predestination, as drawn from Augustine, with +<pb n='621'/><anchor id='Pg621'/> +the efficacy of baptism. For the adjustment of the teaching +of Augustine to the sacramental system of the Church and to +baptism more particularly, see the Council of Orange, A. D. +529, of which the principal conclusions are given above +(<ref target="Section_85">§ 85</ref>). +In the sixth century and in the early part of the seventh, doctrines +were clearly enunciated which had been abundantly +foreshadowed by earlier writers, but had not been fitted into +an intelligible and practical system. These were especially +the doctrine of purgatory and the sacrifice of the mass. The +doctrine of purgatory completed the penitential system of the +early Church by making it possible to expiate sin by suffering +in a future existence, in the case of those who had died without +completely doing penance here. By the sacrifice of the +mass the advantages of Christ's death were constantly applied, +not merely to the sin of the world in general, but to +specified objects; the believer was brought into closest contact +with the great act of redemption, and a centre was placed +around which the life of the individual and the authority of +the hierarchy could be brought into relation. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: The works of Gregory the Great, PNF. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Cæsarius of Arles, <hi rend='italic'>Sermon</hi> 104. +(MSL, 39:1947, 1949.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Cæsarius presided at the Council of Orange A. D. 529. He died +in 543. Not a few of his sermons have been mixed up with those of +Augustine, and this sermon is to be found in Appendix to the works of +Augustine in the standard editions of that Father. It should be noted +that this conception of purgatory is not wholly unlike that of St. +Augustine; see his <hi rend='italic'>Enchiridion</hi>, chs. 69, 109 +(<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_84">§ 84</ref>); +also <hi rend='italic'>De Civ. Dei</hi>, 20:25; 21:13. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 4. By continual prayers and frequent fasts and more +generous alms, and especially by forgiveness of those who sin +against us, we diligently redeem our sins, lest by chance when +collected together against us at once they make a great mass +and overwhelm us. Whatsoever of these sins shall not have +been redeemed by us is to be purged by that fire concerning +which the Apostle said: <q>Because it will be revealed by fire, +<pb n='622'/><anchor id='Pg622'/> +and if any man's work is burned he will suffer loss</q> (I Cor. +3:15). If in tribulation we do not give thanks to God, if +by good works we do not redeem our sins, we will remain so +long in that fire of purification<note place="foot">The +employment of the technical term purgatorium to designate the place +and fires of purification is very much later, and not defined until the thirteenth +century as the official and technical word, although used long before that time +in theological discussion.</note> +until the little, trifling sins, +as hay, wood, and stubble are consumed. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 8. All saints who serve God truly strive to give themselves +to reading and prayer, and to perseverance in good +works, and building no mortal sins and no little sins, that is, +wood, hay, and stubble, upon the foundation of Christ; but +good works, that is, gold, silver, and precious stones, will without +injury go through that fire of which the Apostle spoke: +<q>Because it will be revealed by fire.</q> But those who, although +they do not commit capital sins, yet are prone to commit very +little sins and are negligent in redeeming them, will attain +to eternal life because they believed in Christ, but first either +in this life they are purified by bitter tribulation, or certainly +in that fire of which the Apostle speaks they are to be tormented, +that they may come to eternal life without spot or +wrinkle. But those who have committed homicide, sacrilege, +adultery and other similar sins, if there does not come to their +aid suitable penitence, will not deserve to go through that +fire of purification to life, but they will be thrown into death +by eternal fire. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Dialogorum libri +IV, de Vita et Miraculis Patrum Italicorum</hi>, IV, 56. (MPL, 77:425.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The sacrifice of the mass. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +See also the selection below on the doctrine of purgatory. +</quote> + +<p> +It should be considered that it is safer to do to men, while +one is living, the good which one hopes will be done by others +after one's death. It is more blessed to depart free than to +seek liberty after chains. We ought, with our whole mind, +despise the present world, especially since we see it already +<pb n='623'/><anchor id='Pg623'/> +passing away. We ought to immolate to God the daily sacrifice +of our tears, the daily offerings of His flesh and blood. +For this offering peculiarly preserves the soul from eternal +death, and it renews to us in a mystery the death of the Only +begotten, who, although being risen from the dead, dieth no +more, and death hath no more dominion over Him (Rom. 6:9); +yet, while in Himself He liveth immortal and incorruptible, +for us He is immolated again in this mystery of the sacred +oblation. For it is His body that is there given, His flesh +that is divided for the salvation of the people, His blood that +is poured, no longer into the hands of unbelievers, but into the +mouths of the faithful. For this let us ever estimate what +this sacrifice is for us, which for our absolution ever imitates +the passion of the only begotten Son. For what one of the +faithful can have any doubt that at the very hour of the offering +[<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">immolatio</foreign>], +at the word of the priest, the heavens are +opened, the choirs of angels are present at the mystery of +Jesus Christ, the lowest things are united to the highest, +earthly things with heavenly, and from the invisible and the +visible there is made one? +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Dialog.</hi>, +IV, 39. (MSL, 77:393.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The doctrine of purgatory. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Gregory hardly adds anything to Augustine more than a clearer +definition after the lines laid down by Cæsarius of Arles. +</quote> + +<p> +From these sayings [John 12:35; II Cor. 6:2; Eccles. 9:10] +it is evident that as one left the earth so one will appear +before the judgment. Yet still it is to be believed that for +certain slight sins there is to be before that judgment a fire +of purification, because the Truth says that, if one utters blasphemy +against the Holy Ghost, his sin will be forgiven him +neither in this world nor in the future [Matt. 12:31]. From +this saying one is given to understand that some sins can be +forgiven in this life, others in a future life. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>In Evangelia</hi>, +II, 37, 8. (MSL, 76:1279.)</head> + +<pb n='624'/><anchor id='Pg624'/> + +<quote rend="display"> +The application of the sacrifice of the mass to persons in purgatory. +</quote> + +<p> +Not long before our time the case is told of a certain man who, +having been taken captive, was carried far away [<hi rend='italic'>cf. Dialog.</hi>, +IV, 57], and because he was held a long time in chains his +wife, since she had not received him back from that captivity, +believed him to be dead and every week she had the sacrifice +offered for him as already dead. And as often as the sacrifice +was offered by his spouse for the absolution of his soul, the +chains were loosed in his captivity. For having returned a +long time after, greatly astonished he told his wife that on +certain days each week his chains were loosed. His wife +considered the days and hours, and then knew that he was +loosed when, as she remembered, the sacrifice was offered for +him. From that perceive, my dearest brothers, to what extent +the holy sacrifice offered by us is able to loose the bonds +of the heart, if the sacrifice offered by one for another can +loose the chains of the body. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_103"/> +<head>§ 103. The Foundation of the Mediæval Penitential System</head> + +<p> +The penitential system, as it was organized in the Western +Church in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, was but +the carrying out of principles which had appeared elsewhere in +Christendom and were involved in the primitive method of +dealing with moral delinquents by the authorities of the +Church. [See the epistles of Basil the Great to Amphilochius +(Ep. 189, 199, 217) in PNF, ser. II, vol. VIII.] Similar problems +had to be handled everywhere whenever the Church +came to deal with moral conduct, and much the same solution +was found everywhere. There is, however, no known connection +between the earliest penitentials of the Western Church, +those of Ireland, and the similar books of the East. There +is no need of supposing that there was a connection. But +in the case of the works attributed to Theodore of Tarsus, +archbishop of Canterbury, himself a Greek and probably a +<pb n='625'/><anchor id='Pg625'/> +native of Tarsus, there is a provable connection which is +evident to any one reading his work, as he refers to Basil and +others. The characteristics of the Western penitentials are +their minute division of sins, their exact determination of +penances for each sin, and the great extent to which they +were used in the practical work of the Church. They serve +as the first crude beginnings of a moral theology of a practical +character, such as would be needed by the poorly trained +parish clergy of the times in dealing with their flocks. On +account of the nature of these works, it is hardly necessary +or expedient to give more than a few brief extracts in addition +to references to sources. Much of the matter is extremely +offensive to modern taste. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) King Æthelberht, <hi rend='italic'>Laws</hi>. Thorpe, +<hi rend='italic'>Ancient Laws and Institutes</hi> (Rolls Series), 1 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Early Germanic Codes are full of regulations whereby for an +injury the aggrieved party, or his family in case of his death, could be +prevented from retaliating in kind upon the aggressor and his family. +This was effected by a money payment as compensation for damages +sustained, and the amount for each sort of injury was carefully regulated +by law, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, by ancient custom, which was reduced to writing +in the sixth century in some cases. The <hi rend='italic'>Laws of Æthelberht</hi> are +written in Anglo-Saxon and are probably the earliest in a Teutonic language. +For a translation of characteristic portions of the <hi rend='italic'>Salic Law</hi>, +which should be compared with the <hi rend='italic'>Laws of Æthelberht</hi> to show the +universality of the same system, see Henderson, <hi rend='italic'>Select Historical +Documents of the Middle Ages</hi>, p. 176, London, 1892; also Hodgkin, +<hi rend='italic'>Italy and Her Invaders</hi>, VI, 183, for the Lombard law of Rothari, +a little later, but of the same spirit. +</quote> + +<p> +21. If any man slay another, let him make bot with a half +leod-geld of 100 shillings. +</p> + +<p> +22. If any man slay another at an open grave, let him pay +20 shillings and pay the whole leod within 40 days. +</p> + +<p> +23. If a stranger retire from the land, let his kindred pay +a half leod. +</p> + +<p> +24. If any one bind a freeman, let him make bot with 20 +shillings. +</p> + +<pb n='626'/><anchor id='Pg626'/> + +<p> +25. If any one slay a ceorl's hlaf-aeta,<note place="foot">Member +of household, a servant.</note> let him make bot +with 5 shillings. +</p> + +<p> +38. If a shoulder be lamed,<note place="foot">In case of assault and battery.</note> +let bot be made with 12 shillings. +</p> + +<p> +39. If the ear be struck off, let bot be made with 12 shillings. +</p> + +<p> +40. If the other ear hear not, let bot be made with 25 shillings. +</p> + +<p> +41. If an eye be struck out, let bot be made with 50 shillings. +</p> + +<p> +51. For each of the four front teeth, 6 shillings; for the +tooth that stands next to them, 4 shillings; for that which +stands next to that, 3 shillings, and then afterward 1 shilling. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Vinnian, <hi rend='italic'>Penitential</hi>. +Wasserschleben, <hi rend='italic'>Die Bussordnungen der abendländischen Kirche</hi>, +108 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This is one of the earliest of the penitentials and belongs to the Irish +Church. +</quote> + +<p> +1. If one has committed in his heart a sin of thought and +immediately repents of it, let him smite his breast and pray +God for forgiveness and perform satisfaction because he has +sinned. +</p> + +<p> +2. If he has often thought of the sins and thinks of committing +them, and is then victor over the thought or is overcome +by it, let him pray God and fast day and night until +the wicked thought disappears and he is sound again. +</p> + +<p> +3. If he has thought on a sin and determines to commit it, +but is prevented in the execution, so is the sin the same, but +not the penance.<note place="foot">The preceding rules are +clearly matter of moral direction, and indicate the +transition from general advice to a scale of sins and punishments, such as +follows.</note> +</p> + +<p> +6. If a cleric has planned in his heart to smite or kill his +neighbor, he shall do penance half a year on bread and water +according to the prescribed amount, and for a whole year +<pb n='627'/><anchor id='Pg627'/> +abstain from wine and the eating of meat, and then may he +be permitted again to approach the altar. +</p> + +<p> +7. If it is a layman, he shall do penance for a whole week; +for he is a man of this world and his guilt is lighter in this +world and his punishment in the future is less. +</p> + +<p> +8. If a cleric has smitten his brother [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, a clergyman] or +his neighbor and drawn blood … he shall do penance a +whole year on bread and water; he may not fill any clerical +office, but must with tears pray to God for himself. +</p> + +<p> +9. Is he a layman, he shall do penance for 40 days, and +according to the judgment of the priest or some other righteous +man pay a determined sum of money. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Theodore of Tarsus, <hi rend='italic'>Penitential</hi>, +I. Haddan and Stubbs, III, 73 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +For Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury, see W. Stubbs, +art. <q>Theodorus of Tarsus</q> in DCB. That he wrote a penitential is +not certain. But that he was regarded as the author of a penitential is +clear enough. In fact, his name is attached to penitentials in much the +same way as David's name is attached to the whole book of Psalms. +For a discussion of the various works attributed to Theodore, see Haddan +and Stubbs, <hi rend='italic'>Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi> This is +a characteristic penitential and may be regarded as following closely +the decisions and opinions of Theodore. Much of it is unprintable in +English. +</quote> + +<p> +Cap. I. <hi rend='italic'>On drunkenness.</hi> 1. If any bishop or other person +ordained is customarily given to the vice of drunkenness, +let him cease from it or be deposed. +</p> + +<p> +2. If a monk vomit from drunkenness, let him do 30 days' +penance. +</p> + +<p> +3. If a presbyter or deacon do the same, let him do 40 +days' penance. +</p> + +<p> +4. If any one by infirmity or because he has abstained for +a long time, and it is not his habit to drink or eat much, or +for joy at Christmas or at Easter, or for the commemoration +of any of the saints, does this, and he has not taken more than +is decreed by the elders, he has done no wrong. If the bishop +<pb n='628'/><anchor id='Pg628'/> +should have commanded, he does no harm to him unless he +himself does likewise. +</p> + +<p> +5. If a believing layman vomits from drunkenness, let +him do 15 days' penance. +</p> + +<p> +6. He who becomes drunk against the commandment of +the Lord, if he has a vow of holiness let him do penance 7 +days on bread and water, and 70 days without fat; the laity +without beer. +</p> + +<p> +7. Whoever out of malice makes another drunk, let him +do penance 40 days. +</p> + +<p> +8. Whoever vomits from satiety let him do penance 3 +days. +</p> + +<p> +9. If with the sacrifice of the communion, let him do penance +7 days; but if out of infirmity, he is without guilt. +</p> + +<p> +Cap. II. <hi rend='italic'>On fornication.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. III. <hi rend='italic'>On theft.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. IV. <hi rend='italic'>On the killing of men.</hi> [This should be compared +with the secular laws.] +</p> + +<p> +1. If any one out of vengeance for a relative kill a man, +let him do penance as for homicide 7 or 10 years. If, however, +he is willing to return to relatives the money of valuation +[Weregeld, according to the secular rating], the penance +will be lighter, that is by one-half the length. +</p> + +<p> +2. He who kills a man for vengeance for his brother, let +him do penance 3 years; in another place he is said to do +penance 10 years. +</p> + +<p> +3. But homicides 10 or 7 years. +</p> + +<p> +4. If a layman kills another man with thoughts of hatred, +if he does not wish to relinquish his arms, let him do penance +7 years, without flesh and wine 3 years. +</p> + +<p> +5. If any one kills a monk or a clergyman, let him relinquish +his arms and serve God<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +in a monastery.</note> or do 7 years' penance. He +is in the judgment of the bishop. But he who kills a bishop +or a presbyter, the judgment concerning him is in the king. +</p> + +<p> +6. He who by the command of his lord kills a man, let +<pb n='629'/><anchor id='Pg629'/> +him keep away from the church 40 days; and he who kills a +man in a public war, let him do penance 40 days. +</p> + +<p> +7. If out of wrath, 3 years; if by chance, 1 year; if by +drink or any contrivance, 4 years or more; if by strife, let +him do penance 10 years.<note place="foot">Another reading, 4.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. V. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning those who are deceived by a heresy.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. VI. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning perjury.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. VII. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning many and various wrong acts and +those necessary things which are not harmful.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. VIII. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning various failings of the servants of +God.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. IX. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning those who are degraded or cannot be +ordained.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. X. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning those who are baptized twice, how they +shall do penance.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. XI. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning those who violate the Lord's Day and +the appointed fasts of the Church.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. XII. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the communion of the eucharist or +the sacrifice.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. XIII. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning reconciliation.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. XIV. <hi rend='italic'>Especially concerning the penance of those who +marry.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Cap. XV. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the worship of idols.</hi> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Penitential</hi>, ch. XI. +Haddan and Stubbs, <hi rend='italic'>Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents</hi>, III, +32.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Penitential of Bede is to be distinguished from the <hi rend='italic'>Liber de +Remediis Peccatorum</hi> attributed to him, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Haddan and +Stubbs, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, who print the genuine penitential. It +belongs to the period before 725. In not a few points it closely resembles +that of Theodore. The concluding passage here given is to be found in many penitentials +with but little variation. It is probably as early as the work itself, +although apparently not by Bede. It is a method of commuting penances. +In place of fasting inordinate or impossible lengths of time, +other penances could be substituted. In later ages still other forms of +commutation were introduced. Even money payments were used as +commutation of penance. +</quote> + +<pb n='630'/><anchor id='Pg630'/> + +<p> +XI. <hi rend='italic'>On Counsel to be Given.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +We read in the penitential of doing penance on bread and +water, for the great sins one year or two or three years, and +for little sins a month or a week. Likewise in the case of +some the conditions are harsh and difficult. Therefore to him +who cannot do these things we give the counsel that psalms, +prayers, and almsgiving ought to be performed some days in +penance for these; that is, that psalms are for one day when he +ought to do penance on bread and water. Therefore he should +sing fifty psalms on his knees, and if not on his knees seventy +psalms inside the church or in one place. For a week on bread +and water, let him sing on his knees three hundred psalms in +order and in the church or in one place. And for one month +on bread and water, one thousand five hundred psalms kneeling, +or if not kneeling one thousand eight hundred and twenty, +and afterward let him fast every day until the sixth hour and +abstain from flesh and wine; but whatsoever other food God +has given him let him eat, after he has sung the psalms. +And he who does not know psalms ought to do penance and +to fast, and every day let him give to the poor the value of a +denarius, and fast one day until the ninth hour, and the next +until vespers, and after that whatsoever he has let him eat. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_104"/> +<head>§ 104. The New Monasticism and the Rule of Benedict of Nursia</head> + +<p> +In the first centuries of monasticism in the West, the greatest +variety was to be found among the constitutions of the +various monastic houses and the rules drawn up by great +leaders in the ascetic movement. This variety extended even +to the nature of the vows assumed and their obligation. Benedict +of Nursia (circa 480 to circa 544), gave the rule according +to which for some centuries nearly all the monasteries of the +West were ultimately organized. The first great example of +this rule in operation was Benedict's own monastery at Monte +Cassino. For a time the rule of Benedict came into conflict +<pb n='631'/><anchor id='Pg631'/> +with that of Columbanus in Gaul.<note place="foot">For the rule +of Columbanus, see MSL, 80:209 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></note> +But the powerful recommendation +of Gregory the Great, who had introduced it in +Rome, and the intrinsic superiority of the rule itself made the +Benedictine system triumphant. It should be noted that the +Benedictine cloisters were for centuries independent establishments +and only formed into organized groups of monasteries +in the great monastic reforms of the tenth and following +centuries. It is a question how far the Benedictine rule +was introduced into England in the early centuries of the +Anglo-Saxon Church, although it is often taken for granted +that it was introduced by Augustine. Critical edition of the +Benedictine rule by Wölfflin, Leipsic, 1895; in Migne's edition +there is an elaborate commentary with many illustrative +extracts and formulæ, as well as traditional glosses. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: An abbreviated translation of the +Benedictine rule may be found in Henderson, <hi rend='italic'>Select Historical +Documents</hi>, 1892, and in full in Thatcher and McNeal, <hi rend='italic'>A Source +Book for Mediæval History</hi>, 1905. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Benedict of Nursia, <hi rend='italic'>Regula</hi>. +(MSL, 66:246.)</head> + +<p> +1. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the kinds of monks and their modes of living.</hi> +It is manifest that there are four kinds of monks. The +first is that of the cenobites, that is the monastic, serving +under a rule and an abbot. The second kind is that of the +anchorites, that is the hermits, those who have learned to +fight against the devil, not by the new fervor of conversion, +but by a long probation in a monastery, having been taught +already by association with many; and having been well +prepared in the army of the brethren for the solitary fight +of the hermit, and secure now without the encouragement of +another, they are able, God helping them, to fight with their +own hand or arm against the vices of the flesh or of their +thoughts. But a third and very bad kind of monks are the +sarabites, not tried as gold in the furnace by a rule, experience +being their teacher, but softened after the manner of lead; +<pb n='632'/><anchor id='Pg632'/> +keeping faith with the world by their works, they are known +by their tonsure to lie to God. Being shut up by twos and +threes alone and without a shepherd, in their own and not in +the Lord's sheepfold, they have their own desires for a law. +For whatever they think good and choose, that they deem +holy; and what they do not wish, that they consider unlawful. +But the fourth kind of monk is the kind called the <hi rend='italic'>gyrovagi</hi>, +who during their whole life are guests for three or four days +at a time in the cells of different monasteries throughout the +various provinces; they are always wandering and never +stationary, serving their own pleasures and the allurements of +the palate, and in every way worse than the sarabites. Concerning +the most wretched way of all, it is better to keep +silence than to speak. These things, therefore, being omitted, +let us proceed with the aid of God to treat of the best kind, +the cenobites. +</p> + +<p> +2. <hi rend='italic'>What the abbot should be like.</hi> An abbot who is worthy +to preside over a monastery ought always to remember what +he is called and to carry out in his deeds the name of a superior. +For in the monastery he is believed to be Christ's representative, +since he is called by His name, the Apostle saying: +<q>We have received the spirit of adoption of sons, whereby we +cry Abba, Father</q> [Rom. 8:15]. And so the abbot ought +not (and oh that he may not!) teach or decree or order anything +apart from the precepts of the Lord; but his order or +teaching should be sprinkled with the leaven of divine justice +in the minds of his disciples.… No distinctions of +persons shall be made by him in the monastery. One shall +not be loved by him more than another, unless the one +whom he finds excelling in good work and obedience. A free-born +man shall not be preferred to one coming from servitude, +unless there be some reasonable cause. But when it is just +and it seems good to the abbot he shall show preference no +matter what the rank shall be. But otherwise they shall +keep their own places; for, whether we be bound or free, we +are all one in Christ, and under God we perform an equal +<pb n='633'/><anchor id='Pg633'/> +service of subjection; for God is no respecter of persons +[Acts 10:34].… +</p> + +<p> +3. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning calling the brethren to take counsel.</hi> As often as +anything unusual is to be done in the monastery, let the abbot +call together the whole congregation and himself explain the +question before them. And having heard the advice of the +brethren, he shall consider it by himself, and let him do what +he judges most advantageous. And for this reason, moreover, +we have said that all ought to be called to take counsel; +because it is often to a younger person that the Lord reveals +what is best. The brethren, moreover, ought, with all humble +subjection, to give their advice so that they do not too boldly +presume to defend what seems good to them, but it should +rather depend upon the judgment of the abbot; so that, whatever +he decides upon as the more salutary, they should all +agree to it.… +</p> + +<p> +4. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the instruments of good works.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +5. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning obedience.</hi> The first grade of humility is +prompt obedience. This becomes those who, on account of +the holy service which they professed, or on account of the +fear of hell or the glory of eternal life, consider nothing dearer +to them than Christ; so that as soon as anything is commanded +by their superior, they may not know how to suffer delay in +doing it, even as if it were a divine command.… +</p> + +<p> +6. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning silence.</hi> 7. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning +humility.</hi> 8. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the Divine Offices at night.</hi> +9. <hi rend='italic'>How many Psalms are to be said at night.</hi> +10. <hi rend='italic'>How in summer the Nocturnal Praises shall be carried on.</hi> +11. <hi rend='italic'>How Vigils shall be conducted on Sunday.</hi> +12. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the order of Matins on Sunday.</hi> +13. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the order of Matins on week days.</hi> +14. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the order of Vigils on Saints' days.</hi> +15. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the occasions when the Alleluias shall be said.</hi> +16. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the order of Divine Worship during the day.</hi> +17. <hi rend='italic'>On the number of Psalms to be said at these times.</hi> +18. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the order in which the Psalms are to be said.</hi> +19. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the art of singing.</hi> +20. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the reverence in prayer.</hi> +21. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning +<pb n='634'/><anchor id='Pg634'/> +the Deans of monasteries.</hi> 22. <hi rend='italic'>How monks shall sleep.</hi> +23. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning excommunication for faults.</hi> +24. <hi rend='italic'>What ought to be the measure of excommunication.</hi> +25. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning graver faults.</hi> +26. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning those who without being ordered by the Abbot, +associate with the excommunicated.</hi> 27. <hi rend='italic'>What care the Abbot +should exercise with regard to the excommunicated.</hi> 28. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning +those who, being often rebuked, do not amend.</hi> 29. +<hi rend='italic'>Whether brothers who leave the monastery ought to be received +back.</hi> 30. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning boys under age, how they should be +corrected.</hi> 31. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the Cellarer of the monastery, what sort +of person he should be.</hi> 32. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the utensils or property +of the monastery.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +33. <hi rend='italic'>Whether monks should have anything of their own.</hi> More +than anything else is this special vice to be cut off root and +branch from the monastery, that one should presume to give +or receive anything without order from the abbot, or should +have anything of his own; he should have absolutely nothing, +neither a book nor tablets nor a pen, nothing at all—for indeed +it is not allowed to have their own bodies or wills in their own +power. But all things necessary they must receive from the +father of the monastery; nor is it allowable to have anything +which the abbot has not given or permitted.… +</p> + +<p> +34. <hi rend='italic'>Whether all ought to receive necessaries equally.</hi> +35. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the weekly officers of the kitchen.</hi> +36. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning infirm brothers.</hi> +37. <hi rend='italic'>Mitigation of the rule for the very old and the very young.</hi> +38. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the weekly reader.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +39. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the amount of food.</hi> We believe, moreover, +that for the daily refection of the sixth and for that of +the ninth hour as well two cooked dishes, on account of the +infirmities of the different ones, are enough in all months for +all tables; so that whoever, perchance, cannot eat of one may +partake of the other. Therefore let two cooked dishes suffice +for all the brethren; and if it is possible to obtain apples or +fresh vegetables, a third may be added. One full pound of +bread shall suffice for a day, whether there be one refection or +breakfast and supper. But if they are to have supper, the +<pb n='635'/><anchor id='Pg635'/> +third part of that same pound shall be reserved by the cellarer +to be given back to those when they are about to sup. But if +perchance some greater labor shall have been performed, it +shall be in the will and power of the abbot, if it is expedient, +to increase anything.… But to younger boys the same +quantity shall not be served, but less than to the older ones, +as moderation is to be observed in all things. But every one +shall abstain altogether from eating the flesh of four-footed +beasts except alone in the case of the weak and the sick. +</p> + +<p> +40. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the amount of drink.</hi> Each one has his +own gift from God, one in this way and another in that. +Therefore it is with some hesitation that the amount of daily +sustenance for others is fixed by us. Nevertheless, considering +the weakness of the infirm, we believe that a half pint of +wine a day is enough for each one. Those, moreover, to whom +God has given the ability of enduring abstinence should know +that they will have their own reward. But the prior shall +judge if either the needs of the place, or labor, or heat of the +summer require more; considering, in all things, lest satiety or +drunkenness creep in. Indeed, we read that wine is not +suitable for monks at all. But, because in our times it is not +possible to persuade monks of this, let us agree at least as to +the fact that we should not drink until we are sated, but sparingly. +For wine can make even the wise to go astray. Where, +moreover, the limitations of the place are such that the amount +written above cannot be found, but much less or nothing at +all, those who live there shall bless God and shall not murmur. +And we admonish them as to this, above all, that they be +without murmuring. +</p> + +<p> +41. <hi rend='italic'>At what hours the brethren ought to take their refection.</hi> +42. <hi rend='italic'>That after Compline no one shall speak.</hi> +43. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning those who come late to Divine Service or to table.</hi> +44. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning those who are excommunicated and how they shall render +satisfaction.</hi> 45. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning those who make mistakes in the +oratory.</hi> 46. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning those who err in other matters.</hi> 47. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning the announcement of the hour of Divine Service.</hi> +</p> + +<pb n='636'/><anchor id='Pg636'/> + +<p> +48. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the daily manual labor.</hi> Idleness is the +enemy of the soul. Therefore at fixed times the brethren +ought to be occupied in manual labor; and again at fixed +times in sacred reading. Therefore we believe that according +to this disposition both seasons ought to be so arranged +that, from Easter until the first of October, going out early +from the first until about the fourth hour, they shall labor at +what might be necessary. Moreover, from the fourth until +about the sixth hour, they shall give themselves to reading. +After the sixth hour, moreover, rising from table, they shall +rest in their beds with all silence; or perchance he that wishes +to read may so read to himself that he shall not disturb another. +And nones shall be said rather early, about the middle +of the eighth hour; and again they shall work at what is +necessary until vespers. But if the exigency or the poverty +of the place demands that they shall be occupied by themselves +in picking fruits, they shall not be cast down; for +then they are truly monks if they live by the labor of their +hands, as did also our Fathers and the Apostles. +</p> + +<p> +From the first of October until the beginning of Lent, they +shall give themselves unto reading until the second full hour. +At the second hour tierce shall be said, and all shall labor at +the task which is enjoined upon them until the ninth. When +the first signal of the ninth hour shall have been given they +shall each leave off his work and be ready when the second signal +strikes. Moreover, after the refection they shall give +themselves to their reading or to the Psalms. +</p> + +<p> +And in the days of Lent, from dawn until the third full +hour, they shall give themselves to their reading; and until +the tenth hour they shall do the labor that is enjoined upon +them. In the days of Lent they shall all receive separate +books from the library, which they shall read through completely +in order; these books shall be given out on the first +day of Lent. Above all, there shall certainly be appointed +one or two elders to go around the monastery at the hours in +which the brethren are engaged in reading and see to it that +<pb n='637'/><anchor id='Pg637'/> +no troublesome brother is to be found who is given to idleness +and chatting and is not intent upon his reading and is +not only of no use to himself but disturbing the others. If +such an one (and may there not be such!) be found, he shall +be admonished once and a second time. If he does not amend, +he shall be subject under the rule to such punishment that +others may fear. Nor shall the brethren assemble at unsuitable +hours. +</p> + +<p> +On Sundays all shall give themselves to reading except +those who are deputed to various duties. But if any one be +so negligent and lazy that he will not or cannot meditate or +read, some task shall be imposed upon him which he can perform, +so that he be not idle. On feeble and delicate brothers +such a labor or art is to be imposed that they shall neither be +idle nor so oppressed by the burden of labor as to be driven to +take to flight. Their weakness is to be taken into consideration +by the abbot. +</p> + +<p> +49. <hi rend='italic'>The observance of Lent.</hi> 50. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning +brothers who labor far from the oratory or are on a journey.</hi> 51. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning brothers who do not journey very far.</hi> 52. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning the oratory of the monastery.</hi> 53. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning the reception of guests.</hi> 54. <hi rend='italic'>As to +whether a monk should be allowed to receive letters or +anything.</hi> 55. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the Vestiarius and Calciarius.</hi> 56. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning the table of the Abbot.</hi> 57. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning the artificers of the monastery.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +58. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the manner of receiving brethren.</hi> When +any one newly comes for conversion of life, an easy entrance +shall not be granted him, but as the Apostle says: <q>Try the +spirits whether they be of God</q> [I John 4:1]. Therefore if +one who comes perseveres in knocking, and is seen after four +or five days to endure patiently the insults heaped upon him +and the difficulty of ingress and to persist in his request, let +entrance be granted him, and let him be for a few days in the +guest cell. After this let him be in the cell of the novices, +where he shall meditate and eat and sleep. And an elder +shall be appointed for him such as shall be capable of winning +<pb n='638'/><anchor id='Pg638'/> +souls, who shall altogether intently watch him, and be zealous +to see if he in truth seek God, if he be zealous for the work of +God, for obedience, for suffering shame. And above all the +harshness and roughness of the means through which one approaches +God shall be told him in advance. If he promise +perseverance in his steadfastness after the lapse of two months, +this Rule shall be read over to him in order, and it shall be said +to him: Behold the law under which thou didst wish to serve; +if thou canst observe it, enter; but if thou canst not, depart +freely. If he shall have stood firm thus far, then he shall be +led into the aforesaid cell of the novices, and again he shall be +proven with all patience. +</p> + +<p> +And after the lapse of six months, the Rule shall be reread to +him, that he may know upon what he is entering. And +if he persist thus far, after four months the same Rule shall still +again be read to him. If, after deliberating with himself, he +shall promise that he will observe all things and to obey all the +commands laid upon him, then he shall be received into the +congregation, knowing that it is decreed that by the law of +the Rule he shall from that day not be allowed to depart from +the monastery, nor to shake free from his neck the yoke of the +Rule, which after such painful deliberation he was at liberty +to refuse or receive. +</p> + +<p> +He who is to be received shall make in the oratory, in the +presence of all, a promise before God and His saints concerning +his stability [<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">stabilitas loci</foreign>] +and the change in the manner of his life +[<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">conversio morum</foreign>] and obedience +[<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">obedientia</foreign>],<note +place="foot">This with the two preceding are the three vows of the Benedictine +monk.</note> so that if at any time he act contrary he shall know that he +shall be condemned by Him whom he mocks. And concerning +this, his promise, he shall make a petition addressed by name to +the saints whose relics are there, and to the abbot who is +present. And this petition he shall write out with his own +hand; or, if he be really unlearned in letters, let another at +his request write it, and to that the novice shall make his sign. +With his own hand he shall place it upon the altar. And when +<pb n='639'/><anchor id='Pg639'/> +he has placed it there, the novice shall immediately begin +this verse: <q>Receive me O Lord according to Thy promise +and I shall live; and cast me not down from my hope</q> +[Psalm 119:116, Vulgate version]. And this verse the whole +congregation shall repeat three times adding: Glory be to the +Father, etc. Then that brother novice shall prostrate himself +at the feet of each one that they may pray for him. And +already from that day he shall be considered as in the congregation. +</p> + +<p> +If he have any property, he shall first either present it to the +poor or, making a solemn donation, shall confer it on the monastery, +receiving nothing at all for himself; and he shall know +for a fact that from that day he shall have no power even over +his own body. Immediately thereafter, in the monastery, he +shall take off his own garments in which he was clad, and shall +put on the garments of the monastery. Those garments, furthermore, +which he has taken off shall be placed in the vestiary +to be preserved; so that if, at any time, on the devil's +persuasion, he shall wish to go forth from the monastery (and +may it never happen) then, taking off the garments of the +monastery let him be cast out. But the petition he made and +which the abbot took from upon the altar, he shall not receive +again, but it shall be preserved in the monastery. +</p> + +<p> +59. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the sons of nobles and poor men who are presented.</hi> +If by chance any one of the nobles offers his son to +God in the monastery, and the boy himself is a minor in age, +his parents shall make the petition of which we have spoken +above. And with an oblation, they shall wrap the petition +and the hand of the boy in the linen cloth of the altar; and +thus shall they offer him. Concerning their property, either +they shall promise in the present petition, under an oath, that +they will never, either indirectly or otherwise, give him anything +at any time, or furnish him with means of possessing it. Or, +if they be unwilling to do this, and wish to offer something as +alms to the monastery for their salvation, they shall make a +donation of those things which they wish to give to the monastery, +<pb n='640'/><anchor id='Pg640'/> +retaining for themselves the usufruct if they so wish. +And let all things be so observed that no suspicion may remain +with the boy; by which, as we have learned from experience, +being deceived, he might perish (and may it not happen). The +poorer ones shall do likewise. Those who have nothing at all +shall simply make their petitions; and with an oblation they +shall offer their sons before witnesses. +</p> + +<p> +60. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning priests who may wish to dwell in the monastery.</hi> +61. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning pilgrim monks, how they are to be received.</hi> +62. <hi rend='italic'>Ordination of monks as priests.</hi> 63. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning rank in the congregation.</hi> 64. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning the ordination of an Abbot.</hi> 65. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning the Prior of the monastery.</hi> 66. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning the Doorkeepers of the monastery.</hi> 67. +<hi rend='italic'>Concerning brothers sent on a journey.</hi> 68. <hi rend='italic'>If +impossibilities are imposed on a brother.</hi> 69. <hi rend='italic'>That in the +monastery one shall not presume to defend another.</hi> 70. <hi rend='italic'>That no +one shall presume to strike another.</hi> 71. <hi rend='italic'>That they shall be +obedient to one another.</hi> 72. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the good zeal which +monks ought to have.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +73. <hi rend='italic'>Concerning the fact that not every just observance is decreed +in this Rule.</hi> We have written down this Rule, that we +may show those observing it in the monasteries how to have +some honesty of character or beginning of conversion. But +for those who hasten to the perfection of living, there are the +teachings of the holy Fathers; the observance of which leads +a man to the heights of perfection. For what page or what +discourse of divine authority in the Old or New Testament +is not a more perfect rule of human life? Or what book of the +holy and Catholic Fathers does not trumpet forth how by the +right road we shall come to our Creator? +</p> + +<p> +Also the reading aloud of the Fathers, and their decrees +and lives; also the Rule of our holy Father Basil—what else +are they except instruments of virtue for good living and obedient +monks? But to us who are idle and evil livers and negligent +there is the blush of confusion. Thou, therefore, whoever +hastens to the heavenly fatherland, perform with Christ's +aid this Rule written out as the least beginnings; and then at +<pb n='641'/><anchor id='Pg641'/> +length, under God's protection, thou wilt come to the greater +things that we have mentioned—to the summits of teaching +and virtue. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Formulæ.</hi></head> + +<p> +The following <hi rend='italic'>formulæ</hi> are given to illustrate the Rule in its +working. The first group bear upon the vow of <hi rend='italic'>stabilitas loci</hi>. +The case not infrequently arose that a brother wished to go +to a monastery in which the observance of the Rule was +stricter. In case a new foundation was begun anywhere, the +first monks were almost always from another monastery. If +therefore the monk is to remove, he must obtain permission of +his abbot, and this was not regarded as a violation of the vow +of <hi rend='italic'>stabilitas loci</hi> and obedience to his abbot. These +<hi rend='italic'>formulæ</hi> were not uniform throughout the Church, but the following +are given as samples of early practice. +</p> + +<p> +1. <hi rend='italic'>Letters dimissory.</hi> (MSL, 66:859.) +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) To all bishops and all orders of the holy Church, and +to all faithful people. +</p> + +<p> +Be it known unto you that I have given license to this our +brother, John or Paul by name, that where he finds it agreeable +to dwell in order to lead the monastic life, he shall have license +to dwell for the benefit of himself and the monastery. +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Since such a brother desires to dwell in another monastery, +where, as it seems to him, he can save his soul and serve +God, know then that by these letters dimissory, we have +given him license to go to another monastery. +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) From the <hi rend='italic'>Consuetudines</hi> of the +Monastery of St. Paul at Rome. +</p> + +<p> +I, a humble abbot. You should know, beloved, that this +brother, John or Paul by name, has asked us to give him permission +to dwell with you. And, because we know that you +observe the Rule of the order, we assent to his dwelling with +<pb n='642'/><anchor id='Pg642'/> +you. I now commend him to you, that you may treat him +as I would, and for him you are to render an account to God +as I would have had to render. +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Another from the same. +</p> + +<p> +To the venerable father the abbot of ( … ) monastery, +the abbot of ( … ) monastery greeting with a holy kiss. Since +our monastery has been burdened with various embarrassments +and poverty, we beseech your brotherliness that you +will receive our brother to dwell in your monastery, and +we commend him by these letters of commendation and +dismission to your jurisdiction and obedience. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Alternate conclusion: +</quote> + +<p> +We send him from our obedience to serve the Lord under +your obedience. +</p> + +<p> +2. <hi rend='italic'>Offering of a child to a monastery.</hi> (MSL, 66:842.) +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following forms should be compared with chapter 59 of the Rule. +Children so offered were known as <hi rend='italic'>oblati</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, offered. These forms +are from a manuscript of the ninth century. +</quote> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) To offer children to God is sanctioned in the Old and +New Testaments as Abraham<note place="foot">Lacuna in text.</note> … +are related to have done. +Moved by the example of these and many others, I ( … ) +do now, for the salvation of my soul and for the salvation +of the souls of my parents, offer in the presence of the +abbot ( … ) this my son ( … ) to Almighty God and to +St. Mary His mother, according to the Rule of the blessed +Benedict in the Monastery of Mons Major, so that from this +day forth it shall not be lawful for him to withdraw his neck +from the yoke of this service; and I promise never, by myself +or by any agent, to give him in any way opportunity of leaving, +and that this writing may be confirmed I sign it with +my own hand. +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Brief form. +</p> + +<pb n='643'/><anchor id='Pg643'/> + +<p> +I give this boy in devotion to our Lord Jesus Christ, before +God and His saints, that he may remain all the days of his +life and become a monk until his death. +</p> + +<p> +3. <hi rend='italic'>Ceremony of receiving a monk into a Benedictine monastery.</hi> +(MSL, 66:829.) +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) From Peter Boherius, <hi rend='italic'>Commentary on the +Regula S. Benedicti</hi>, ch. 58 of the Rule, <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +When the novice makes his solemn profession, the abbot +vests to say mass, and after the offertory the abbot interrogates +him saying: +</p> + +<p> +Brother (such a one): Is it your will to renounce the world +and all its pomps? +</p> + +<p> +He answers: It is. +</p> + +<p> +Abbot: Will you promise obedience according to the Rule +of St. Benedict? Answer: I will. +</p> + +<p> +Abbot: May God give you his aid. +</p> + +<p> +Then the novice, or some one at his request, reads the aforesaid +profession, and when it has been read he places it upon +his head, and then upon the altar. After this, when he has +prostrated himself on his knees in four directions in the form +of a cross, he says the verse: Receive me, O Lord, etc. And +then the <hi rend='italic'>Gloria Patri</hi>, +the <hi rend='italic'>Kyrie Eleison</hi>, the <hi rend='italic'>Pater Noster</hi> +and the Litany are said, the novice remaining prostrate on the +ground before the altar, until the end of the mass. And the +brothers ought to be in the choir kneeling while the Litany +is said. When the Litany has been said, then shall follow very +devoutly the special prayers as commanded by the Fathers, +and immediately after the communion and before the prayer +is said, the garments of the novice, which have been folded +and placed before the altar, shall be blessed with their proper +prayers; and they shall be anointed and sprinkled with holy +water by the abbot. After <q><hi rend='italic'>Ite, missa est</hi></q><note +place="foot">The conclusion of the mass.</note> the novice rises +from the ground, and having put off his old garments which +were not blessed he puts on those which have been blessed, +while the abbot recites: <hi rend='italic'>Exuat te Dominus</hi>, etc. +</p> + +<pb n='644'/><anchor id='Pg644'/> + +<p> +And when the kiss has been given by the abbot, all the +brothers in turn give him the kiss of peace, and he shall keep +silence for three days continuously after this, going about +with his head covered and receiving the communion every day. +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) From Theodore of Canterbury, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi>, +827. +</p> + +<p> +In the ordination of monks the abbot ought to say mass, +and say three prayers over the head of the novice; and for +seven days he veils his head with his cowl, and on the seventh +day the abbot takes the veil off. +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) The Vow. From another form, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +I promise concerning my stability and conversion of life +and obedience according to the Rule of St. Benedict before +God and His saints. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_105"/> +<head>§ 105. Foundation of Mediæval Culture and Schools</head> + +<p> +Schools never wholly disappeared from Western society, +either during the barbarian invasion or in the even more +troublous times that followed. Secular schools continued +throughout the fifth century. During the sixth century they +gave way for the most part to schools fostered by the Church, +or were thoroughly transformed by ecclesiastical influences. +In the fifth and sixth centuries, the great compends were made +that served as text-books for centuries. Boethius, Cassiodorus, +Isidore of Seville, and Bede represent great steps in the +preparation for the mediæval schools. But, apart from the +survival of old schools, there was a real demand for the establishment +of new schools. The new monasticism needed +them. It required some reading and study every day by +the monks. As children were constantly being received, ordinarily +at the age of seven, these <hi rend='italic'>oblati</hi> needed instruction. +The monastic schools, which thus arose, early made provision +for the instruction of those not destined for the monastic life +in the external schools of the monasteries. Then again, the +need of clergy with some literary training, however simple, +<pb n='645'/><anchor id='Pg645'/> +was felt, especially as the secular schools declined or were +found not convenient, and conciliar action was taken in various +countries to provide for such education. In the conversion +of the English, schools seem very early to have been +established, and the encouragement given these schools by the +learned Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury, bore +splendid fruit, not merely in the great school of Canterbury +but still more in the monastic schools of the North, at Jarrow +and Wearmouth and at York. It was from the schools in +the North that the culture of the Frankish kingdom under +Charles the Great largely came. There was always a marked +difference of opinion as to the value of secular literature in +education, as is shown by the attitude already taken by Gregory +the Great in his letter to Desiderius of Vienne, a letter +which did much to discourage the literary study of the classics. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De Doctrina +Christiana</hi>, II, 40 (§ 60). (MSL, 34:63).</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Christian's use of heathen writers. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The whole book should be examined carefully to see the working out +of the same idea in detail. St. Augustine was a man of literary culture, +although he was imperfectly acquainted with Greek. He speaks +from his own experience of the help he had derived from this culture. +The work <hi rend='italic'>On Christian Doctrine</hi> is, in fact, not +at all a treatise on theology but on pedagogy, and was of immense influence +in the Middle Ages. +</quote> + +<p> +If those who are called philosophers and especially the Platonists +have said anything true and in harmony with the faith, +we ought not only not to shrink from it, but rather to appropriate +it for our own use, taking it from them as from unlawful +possessors. For as the Egyptians had not only the idols +and heavy burdens, which the people of Israel hated and fled +from, but also vessels and ornaments of gold and silver and +clothing which the same people on going out of Egypt secretly +appropriated to themselves as for a better use, not on +their own authority but on the command of God, for the +Egyptians in their ignorance lent those things which they +<pb n='646'/><anchor id='Pg646'/> +themselves were not using well [Ex. 3:22; 12:35]; in the +same way all branches of heathen learning have not only +false and superstitious fancies and heavy burdens of unnecessary +toil which each of us, in going out under the leadership +of Christ from the fellowship of the heathen, ought to +hate and avoid; but they contain also liberal instruction +which it is well to adapt to the use of truth and some most +useful precepts of morality; and some truths in regard even +to the worship of the one God are found among them. Now +these are, so to speak, their gold and silver, which they themselves +did not create, but dug, as it were, out of certain +mines of God's providence, which are everywhere scattered +abroad, and are perversely and unlawfully misused to the +worship of devils. These, therefore, the Christian, when he +separates himself in spirit from the miserable fellowship of +these men, ought to take away from them for their proper +use in preaching the Gospel. Their clothing also, that is, +human institutions, adapted to that intercourse with men +which is indispensable for this life, it is right to take and to +have so as to be turned to Christian use. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) John Cassian. <hi rend='italic'>Institutiones</hi>, +V, 33, 34. (MSL, 49:249.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Cassian, born 360, was one of the leaders of the monastic movement. +He founded monasteries near Marseilles, and did much to spread the +monastic movement in Gaul and Spain. His <hi rend='italic'>Institutiones</hi> +and <hi rend='italic'>Collationes</hi> +were of influence, even after his monasteries had been entirely +supplanted by the Benedictines. The opinion here given is probably +that prevalent in the monasteries in Egypt. It is utterly different +from the spirit of Basil, and the great theologians of Asia Minor who, +in the matter of secular studies, hold the same opinion as the older +Alexandrian school of Clement and Origen. +</quote> + +<p> +Ch. 33. We also saw the abbot Theodore, a man endowed +with the utmost holiness and with perfect knowledge not only +of things of the practical life but also of the meaning of the +Scriptures, which he had acquired, not so much by study and +reading, or secular scholarship, as by purity of heart alone; +<pb n='647'/><anchor id='Pg647'/> +since he was able only with difficulty to understand or speak +even but a few words in the Greek language. This man, when +he was seeking an explanation of some most difficult question, +continued indefatigably seven days and nights in prayer +until, by a revelation of the Lord, he knew the answer to the +question propounded. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 34. This man, therefore, when some of the brethren +were wondering at the splendid light of his knowledge, and +were asking him some meanings of Scripture, said: <q>A monk +desiring to attain to a knowledge of the Scriptures ought in +no wise to spend his labor on the books of the commentators, +but rather to keep all the efforts of his mind and the intentions +of his heart set on purification from carnal vices. When +these are driven out, at once the eyes of the heart, when the +veil of passions has been removed, will begin, as it were, naturally +to gaze on the mysteries of Scripture, since these were +not declared unto us by the grace of the Holy Ghost to remain +unknown and obscure; but they are rendered obscure by our +vices, as the veil of our sins cover the eyes of the heart, and +for these, when restored to their natural health, the mere +reading of Holy Scripture is amply sufficient for the perception +of the true knowledge; nor do they need the instruction +of commentators, just as these eyes of flesh need no +man's assistance to see provided they are free from the dimness +or darkness of blindness.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Gregory the Great, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Desiderium</hi>, Reg. XI, ep. 54. (MSL, 77:1171.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Desiderius was bishop of Vienne. This letter was sent with several +others written in connection with the sending of Mellitus to England; +see Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, I, 27, 29. +</quote> + +<p> +Many good things have been reported to us regarding your +pursuits, and such joy arose in our hearts that we could not +bear to refuse what your fraternity had requested to have +granted you. But afterward it came to our ears, what we cannot +mention without shame, that thy fraternity is in the habit +<pb n='648'/><anchor id='Pg648'/> +of expounding grammar to certain persons. This thing pained +us so and we so strongly disapproved of it that we changed +what had been said before into groaning and sadness, since +the praises of Christ cannot find room in the one mouth with +the praises of Jupiter. And consider thyself what a grave +and heinous offence it is for bishops to sing what is not becoming +even for a religious layman. And, though our most +beloved son Candidus, the presbyter, who was strictly examined +on this matter when he came to us, denied it and endeavored +to excuse you, yet still the thought has not left our +mind that, in proportion as it is execrable for such a thing +to be related of a priest, it ought to be ascertained by strict +and veracious evidence whether or not it be so. If, therefore, +hereafter what has been reported to us should prove to be +evidently false, and it should be clear that you do not apply +yourself to trifles and secular literature, we shall give thanks +to God, who has not permitted your heart to be stained with +the blasphemous phrases of what is abominable; and we will +treat without misgiving or hesitation concerning granting +what you have requested. +</p> + +<p> +We commend to you in all respects the monks whom, together +with our most beloved son Laurentius, the presbyter, +and Mellitus, the abbot, we have sent to our most reverend +brother and fellow-bishop Augustine, that by the help of your +fraternity no delay may hinder their journey. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Council of Vaison, A. D. 529, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 1. Bruns, II, 183.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Vaison is a small see in the province of Arles. The synod was attended +by about a dozen bishops. It is, therefore, not authoritative +for a large district, but when taken in connection with the following +selection indicates a wide-spread custom. +</quote> + +<p> +That presbyters in their parishes shall bring up and instruct +young readers in their houses. It was decided that all +presbyters who are placed in parishes should, according to a +custom which we learn is very beneficially observed throughout +Italy, receive young readers, as many as they have who +<pb n='649'/><anchor id='Pg649'/> +are unmarried, into their house where they dwell, and as good +fathers shall endeavor to bring them up spiritually to render +the Psalms, and to instruct them in the divine readings, and +to educate them in the law of the Lord, that so they may provide +for themselves worthy successors, and receive from the +Lord eternal rewards. But when they come to full age, if +any of them, on account of the weakness of the flesh, wish to +marry, they shall not be denied the right of doing so. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) II Council of Toledo, A. D. 531, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 1. Bruns, I, 207.</head> + +<p> +Concerning those whom their parents voluntarily give in +the first years of their childhood to the office of the clergy, +we have decreed this to be observed; namely, that as soon as +they have been tonsured or have been given to the care of appointed +persons, they ought to be educated by some one set +over them, in the church building, and in the presence of the +bishop. When they have completed their eighteenth year, +they shall be asked by the bishop, in the presence of all the +clergy and people, their will as to seeking marriage. And if +by God's inspiration they have the grace of chastity, and shall +have promised to observe the profession of their chastity +without any necessity of marriage, let these who are more +desirous of the hardest life put on the most gentle yoke of +the Lord, and first let them receive from their twentieth year +the ministry of the subdiaconate, probation having been +made of their profession, that, if blamelessly and without +offence they attain the twenty-fifth year of their age, they +may be promoted to the office of the diaconate, if they have +been proved by their bishop to be able to fulfil it.… +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, III, 18. +(MSL, 95:144.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Sigebert became king of the East Angles about 631 and died 637. +The facts known of him are briefly recorded in DCB. +</quote> + +<p> +At this time the kingdom of the East Angles, after the death +of Earpwald, the successor of Redwald, was subject to his +brother Sigebert, a good and religious man, who long before +<pb n='650'/><anchor id='Pg650'/> +had been baptized in France, whilst he lived in banishment, +flying from the enmity of Redwald; when he returned home +and had ascended the throne he was desirous of imitating the +good institutions which he had seen in France, and he set up a +school for the young to be instructed in letters, and was assisted +therein by Bishop Felix, who had come to him from +Kent and who furnished him with masters and teachers after +the manner of that country. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) Bede, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Ec.</hi>, IV, 2. +(MSL, 95:173.)</head> + +<p> +Theodore arrived at his church the second year after his +consecration, on Sunday, May 27, and held the same twenty-one +years, three months and twenty-six days. Soon after +he visited all the islands, wherever the tribes of the Angles +dwelt, for he was willingly entertained and heard by all persons. +Everywhere he was attended and assisted by Hadrian, +and he taught the right rule of life and the canonical custom +of celebrating Easter.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>V. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_100">§ 100</ref>.</note> This was the first archbishop whom +all the English Church obeyed. And forasmuch as both +of them were, as has been said, well read in sacred and +secular literature, they gathered a crowd of scholars and +there daily flowed from them rivers of knowledge to water +the hearts of their hearers; and together with the books of +the holy Scriptures they also taught them the arts of ecclesiastical +poetry, astronomy, and arithmetic. A testimony of +which is that there are still living at this day [<hi rend='italic'>circa</hi> A. D. 727] +some of their scholars who are as well versed in the Greek and +Latin tongues as in their own, in which they were born. +Never were there happier times since the English came to +Britain; for their kings were brave men and good Christians +and were a terror to all barbarous nations, and the minds of +all men were bent upon the joys of the heavenly kingdom of +which they had just heard. And all who desired instruction +in sacred reading had masters at hand to teach them. From +that time also they began in all the churches of the English +<pb n='651'/><anchor id='Pg651'/> +to learn sacred music which till then had been only known +in Kent. And excepting James, mentioned above, the first +singing-master<note place="foot">Further on, Bede mentions Putta, +bishop of Rochester, who was <q>extraordinarily skilful in the +Roman style of church music, which he had learned from the pupils +of the holy pope Gregory.</q></note> in the churches of the Northumbrians was +Eddi, surnamed Stephen, invited from Kent by the most +reverend Wilfrid, who was the first of the bishops of the English +nation that taught the churches of the English the Catholic +mode of life. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) Council of Clovesho, A. D. 747, +<hi rend='italic'>Canon</hi> 7. Haddan and Stubbs, III, 360.</head> + +<p> +They decreed in the seventh article of agreement that +bishops, abbots, and abbesses should by all means take care +and diligently provide that their families should incessantly +apply their minds to reading, and that knowledge be spread +by the voices of many to the gaining of souls and to the praise +of the eternal King. For it is sad to say how +few<note place="foot">Monasticism had already begun to decline +as the monasteries increased in wealth and numbers. The decline +continued into the next century, when the Church was at its +worst condition about the beginning of the reign of Alfred. The +revival of monasticism was not until the tenth century as a result +of the Cluny Reform.</note> in these +times do heartily love and labor for sacred knowledge and +are willing to take pains in learning, but they are from +their youth up rather employed in divers vanities and the +affectation of vainglory; and they rather pursue the amusements +of this present unstable life than the assiduous study of +holy Scriptures. Therefore let boys be kept and trained +up in such schools, to the love of sacred knowledge, and +that, being by this means well learned, they may become in +all respects useful to the Church of God. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='652'/><anchor id='Pg652'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Chapter IV. The Revolution In The Ecclesiastical And Political Situation Due To The +Rise Of Islam And The Doctrinal Disputes In The Eastern Church</head> + +<p> +In the course of the seventh and eighth centuries, the ecclesiastical +and political situation altered completely. This +change was due, in the first place, to the rise of the religion +and empire of the Moslems, whereby a very large part of the +Eastern Empire was conquered by the followers of the Prophet, +who had rapidly extended their conquests over Syria and the +best African provinces. Reduced in extent and exposed to +ever fresh attacks from a powerful enemy, the Eastern Empire +had to face new political problems. In the second place, as +the provinces overrun contained the greater number of those +dissatisfied with the doctrinal results of the great councils, +the apparently interminable contests over the question as +to the two natures of Christ came to an unexpected end. +This did not take place until a new cause for dispute had arisen +among the adherents of Chalcedon, due to an attempt to win +back the Monophysites by accounting for the unity of the person +of Christ by positing one will in Jesus. Monotheletism at +once became among the adherents of Chalcedon a burning question. +It was finally condemned at the Sixth General Council, +Constantinople, A. D. 683, at which Pope Agatho played a part +very similar to that played by Pope Leo at Chalcedon, but at +the cost of seeing his predecessor, Honorius, condemned as a +Monothelete. It was the last triumph of the West in the dogmatic +controversies of the East. The Eastern ecclesiastics, +irritated at the diplomatic triumph of Rome, expressed their +resentment at the Concilium Quinisextum, in 692, where, in +passing canons to complete the work of the Fifth and Sixth +Councils, an opportunity was embraced of expressly condemning +several Roman practices. In the confusion resulting in +the next century from the attempt of Leo the Isaurian to put +<pb n='653'/><anchor id='Pg653'/> +an end to the use of images in the churches, the Roman see +was able to rid itself of the nominal control which the Emperor +still had over the papacy by means of the exarchate of Ravenna. +When the Lombards pressed too heavily upon the papacy +it was easy for the Bishop of Rome to make an alliance with +the Franks, who on their side saw that it was profitable to +employ the papacy in the advancement of their own schemes. +In this way arose that alliance between the pontiff and the +new Frankish monarchy upon which the ecclesiastical development +of the Middle Ages rests. But Iconoclasm suffered +defeat at the Seventh General Council, 787, in which the +doctrinal system of the East was completed. As this was the +last undisputed general council, it may be taken as marking +the termination of the history of the ancient Church. In +following the further course of the Western Church there is +no longer need of a detailed tracing of the history of the +Eastern Church, which ceased to be a determining factor in +the religious life of the West. The two parts of Christendom +come in contact from time to time, but without formal schism +they have ceased to be organically united. +</p> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_106"/> +<head>§ 106. The Rise and Extension of Islam</head> + +<p> +Mohammed (571-632) began his work as a prophet at +Mecca about 613, having been <q>called</q> about three years +earlier. He was driven from Mecca in 622 and fled to Yathrib, +afterward known as Medina. Here he was able to unite warring +factions and, placing himself at their head, to build up +<pb n='654'/><anchor id='Pg654'/> +despotic authority over the surrounding country. He steadily +increased the territory under his sway, and by conquests and +diplomacy was able to gain Mecca in 629. Before his death +in 632 he had conquered all Arabia. His authority continued +in his family after his death, and the course of conquest went +on. Damascus was conquered in 635; in 636 the Emperor +Heraclius was driven to abandon Syria, which now fell into +the hands of the Moslems. In 637 the Persians were forced +back. In 640 Egypt was taken, and by 650 all between Carthage +and the eastern border of Persia had been acquired for +Islam. In 693, after a period of civil war, the work of conquest +was resumed. In 709 all the African coast as far as +the Straits of Gibraltar was gained, and in 711 the Moslems +entered Spain. They at once made themselves masters of +the peninsula with the exception of a small strip in the north +in the mountains of Asturias, the kingdom of Gallicia. Crossing +the Pyrenees, they attempted to possess Gaul, but were +forced to retreat from central Gaul by Charles Martel at the +battle at Tours and Poitiers in 732. They maintained themselves +north of the Pyrenees until 759 when they were driven +out of Narbonne and across the mountains. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: <hi rend='italic'>The Koran</hi>, standard translation by +E. H. Palmer, in the <hi rend='italic'>Sacred Books of the East</hi>; Stanley Lane-Poole, +<hi rend='italic'>Speeches and Table Talk of the Prophet Mohammed</hi>. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Mohammed, <hi rend='italic'>Koran</hi> (translation +of E. H. Palmer).</head> + +<div> +<head>Surah CXII.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Unity of God. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following surah or chapter of the Koran, entitled <q>The Chapter +of Unity,</q> Mohammed regarded as of value equal to two-thirds of the +whole book. It is one of the shortest and most famous. +</quote> + +<p> +In the name of the merciful and compassionate God, say: +</p> + +<lg> +<l><q rend="pre">He is God alone!</q></l> +<l>God the Eternal.</l> +<l>He begets not and is not begotten!</l> +<l><q rend="post">Nor is there like unto Him any one.</q></l> +</lg> + +</div> + +<pb n='655'/><anchor id='Pg655'/> + +<div> +<head>Surah V, 73, 76, 109 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The teaching as to the nature and mission of Jesus. +</quote> + +<p> +[73.] Verily, those who believe and those who are Jews, +and the Sabæans, and the Christians, whosoever believes in +God and the last day and does what is right, there is no fear +for them, nor shall they grieve. +</p> + +<p> +[76.] They misbelieve who say, <q>Verily, God is the Messiah, +the son of Mary</q>; but the Messiah said, <q>O Children of +Israel, worship God, my Lord and your Lord.</q> Verily he +who associates aught with God, God hath forbidden him paradise, +and his resort is the fire, and the unjust shall have none +to help them. +</p> + +<p> +They misbelieve who say, <q>Verily, God is the third of +three</q>; for there is no God but one, and if they do not desist +from what they say, there shall touch those who misbelieve +amongst them grievous woe. +</p> + +<p> +Will they not turn toward God and ask pardon of Him? +for God is forgiving and merciful. +</p> + +<p> +The Messiah, the son of Mary, is only a prophet; prophets +before him have passed away: and His mother was a confessor. +</p> + +<p> +[109.] When God said, <q rend="pre">O Jesus, son of Mary! remember +my favors towards thee and towards thy mother, when I +aided thee with the Holy Ghost, till thou didst speak to men +in the cradle and when grown up.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend="pre">And when I taught thee the Book and wisdom and the law +and the gospel; when thou didst create of clay, as it were, the +likeness of a bird, by my power, and didst blow thereon, it +became a bird;<note place="foot">See <hi rend='italic'>Arabic Gospel +of the Infancy</hi>, c. 46; ANF, viii, 415.</note> +and thou didst heal the blind from birth, +and the leprous by my permission; and when thou didst +bring forth the dead by my permission; and when I did ward +off the children of Israel from thee, and when thou didst come +to them with manifest signs, and those who misbelieved +among them said: <q>This is naught but obvious magic.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>And when I inspired the Apostles that they should believe +<pb n='656'/><anchor id='Pg656'/> +in Him and in my Apostle, they said, <q>We believe; do thou +bear witness that we are resigned.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +[116.] And when God said, <q>O Jesus, son of Mary! is it +thou who dost say to men, take me and my mother for two +gods, beside God?</q> He said: <q>I celebrate thy praise! what +ails me that I should say what I have no right to? If I had +said it, Thou wouldest have known it; Thou knowest what is +in my soul, but I know not what is in Thy soul; verily Thou +art one who knoweth the unseen. I never told them save +what Thou didst bid me, <q>Worship God, my Lord and your +Lord,</q> and I was a witness against them so long as I was +among them, but when Thou didst take me away to Thyself +Thou wert the watcher over them, for Thou art witness over +all.</q>… +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Surah IV, 152.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Relation of Islam to Judaism and Christianity. +</quote> + +<p> +[152.] The people of the Book will ask thee to bring down +for them a book from heaven; but they asked Moses a greater +thing than that, for they said, <q>Show us God openly</q>; but +the thunderbolt caught them in their injustice. Then they +took a calf, after what had come to them of manifest signs; +but we pardoned that, and gave Moses obvious authority. And +we held over them the mountain at their compact, and said +to them, <q>Enter ye the door adoring,</q> and we said to them, +<q>Transgress not on the Sabbath day,</q> and we took from them +a rigid compact. +</p> + +<p> +But for that they broke their compact, and for their misbelief +in God's signs, and for their killing the prophets undeservedly, +and for their saying, <q>Our hearts are uncircumcised</q>—nay, +God hath stamped on them their misbelief, so that +they cannot believe, except a few—and for their misbelief, +and for their saying about Mary a mighty calumny, and for +their saying, <q>Verily we have killed the Messiah, Jesus the +son of Mary, the apostle of God,</q> but they did not kill Him, +and they did not crucify Him, but a similitude was made for +<pb n='657'/><anchor id='Pg657'/> +them. And verily, those who differ about Him are in doubt +concerning Him; they have no knowledge concerning Him, but +only follow an opinion. They did not kill Him, for sure! nay +God raised Him up unto Himself; for God is mighty and +wise!… +</p> + +<p> +[164.] O ye people of the Book! do not exceed in your religion, +nor say against God save the truth. The Messiah, +Jesus, the son of Mary, is but the apostle of God and His +Word, which He cast into Mary and a spirit from Him; believe +then in God and His apostles, and say not <q>Three.</q> +Have done! it were better for you. God is only one God, +celebrated be His praise that He should beget a Son! +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Surah LVI.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The delights of heaven and the pains of hell. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +This description of the future life has been taken as characteristic +of the religion of Mohammed, but not quite fairly. It is simply the +Bedouin's idea of complete happiness, and is by no means characteristic +of the religion as the whole. +</quote> + +<p> +In the name of the merciful and compassionate God. +</p> + +<p> +When the inevitable [day of judgment] happens; none shall +call its happening a lie!—abasing—exalting! +</p> + +<p> +When the earth shall quake, quaking! and the mountains +shall crumble, crumbling, and become like motes dispersed! +</p> + +<p> +And ye shall be three sorts; +</p> + +<p> +And the fellows of the right hand—what right lucky fellows! +</p> + +<p> +And the fellows of the left hand—what unlucky fellows! +</p> + +<p> +And the foremost foremost! +</p> + +<p> +These are they who are brought nigh, +</p> + +<p> +In gardens of pleasure! +</p> + +<p> +A crowd of those of yore, and a few of those of the latter day! +</p> + +<p> +And gold-weft couches, reclining on them face to face. +</p> + +<p> +Around them shall go eternal youths, with goblets and +ewers and a cup of flowing wine; no headache shall feed +therefrom, nor shall their wits be dimmed! +</p> + +<p> +And fruits such as they deem the best; +</p> + +<p> +And flesh of fowl as they desire; +</p> + +<pb n='658'/><anchor id='Pg658'/> + +<p> +And bright and large-eyed maids like hidden pearls; +</p> + +<p> +A reward for that which they have done! +</p> + +<p> +They shall hear no folly there and no sin; +</p> + +<p> +Only the speech, <q>Peace, Peace!</q> +</p> + +<p> +And the fellows of the right—what right lucky fellows! +</p> + +<p> +Amid thornless lote trees. +</p> + +<p> +And tal'h<note place="foot">Probably banana is meant.</note> trees with piles of fruit; +</p> + +<p> +And outspread shade, +</p> + +<p> +And water poured out; +</p> + +<p> +And fruit in abundance, neither failing nor forbidden; +</p> + +<p> +And beds upraised! +</p> + +<p> +Verily we have produced them<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +the celestial damsels.</note> a production, +</p> + +<p> +And made them virgins, darlings of equal age (with their +spouses) for the fellows of the right! +</p> + +<p> +A crowd of those of yore, and a crowd of those of the latter +day! +</p> + +<p> +And the fellows of the left—what unlucky fellows! +</p> + +<p> +In hot blasts and boiling water; +</p> + +<p> +And a shade of pitchy smoke, +</p> + +<p> +Neither cool nor generous! +</p> + +<p> +Verily they were affluent ere this, and did persist in mighty +crime; and used to say, <q>What, when we die, have become +dust and bones, shall we indeed be raised? or our fathers of +yore?</q> +</p> + +<p> +Say, <q>Verily, those of yore and those of the latter days +shall surely be gathered together unto the tryst of the well-known +day.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Then ye, O ye who err! who say it is a lie! shall eat of the +Zaqqum<note place="foot">An intensely bitter tree.</note> +tree and fill your bellies with it! a drink of boiling +water! and drink as drinks the thirsty camel!</q> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Paulus Diaconus, <hi rend='italic'>Historia +Langobardorum</hi>, VI, 46 ff. (MSL, 95:654.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Advance of the Saracens. +</quote> + +<pb n='659'/><anchor id='Pg659'/> + +<p> +Ch. 46. At that time [A. D. 711] the people of the Saracens, +crossing over from Africa at a place which is called +Ceuta, invaded all Spain. Then after ten years, coming with +their wives and children, they invaded as if to settle in +Aquitania, a province of Gaul. Charles<note place="foot">Charles +Martel.</note> had at that time a +dispute with Eudo, prince of Aquitania. But they came to +an agreement and fought with perfect harmony against the +Saracens. For the Franks fell upon them<note place="foot">A. D. 732, +Battle of Tours and Poitiers.</note> and slew three +hundred and seventy-five thousand of them; but on the side +of the Franks only fifteen hundred fell. Eudo with his men +broke into their camp and slew many and laid waste all. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 47. At the same time [A. D. 717], the same people of +the Saracens with an immense army came and encompassed +Constantinople and for three years besieged it until, when +the people had called upon God with great earnestness, many +of the enemy perished from hunger and cold and by war and +pestilence and so wearied out they abandoned the siege. +When they had left they carried on war against the people of +the Bulgarians who were beyond the Danube, but, vanquished +by them also, they fled back to their ships. But when they +had put out to the deep sea, a sudden storm fell upon them +and many were drowned and their vessels were destroyed. +But in Constantinople three hundred thousand men died of +the pestilence. +</p> + +<p> +Ch. 48. Now when Liutprand heard that the Saracens, +when Sardinia had been laid waste, had also polluted those +places where the bones of the holy bishop Augustine, on account +of the devastation of the barbarians, had formerly been +transported and solemnly buried, he sent thither and when he +had given a large sum obtained them and transported them to +the city of Pavia, where he buried them with the honor due so +great a father.<note place="foot">The shrine of later construction +may still be seen in the Cathedral of Pavia. It is not improbable +that the genuine relics of St. Augustine are here.</note> +In these days the city of Narnia was conquered +by the Lombards. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='660'/><anchor id='Pg660'/> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_107"/> +<head>§ 107. The Monothelete Controversy and the Sixth General Council, Constantinople +A. D. 681</head> + +<p> +The Monothelete controversy was the natural outcome of +the earlier Christological controversies. With the assertion +of the two complete and persisting natures of Christ, the question +must sooner or later arise as to whether there was one will +or two in Christ. If there were two wills, it seemed to lead +back to Nestorianism; if there was but one, either the humanity +was incomplete or the position led to virtual monophysitism. +But political causes played even a greater part than +the theological dialectic. The Emperor Heraclius, in attempting +to win back the Monophysite churches, on account of the +war with Persia and later on account of the advancing Moslems, +proposed that a union should be effected on the basis of +a formula which asserted that there was but one will in the +God-man. This had been suggested to him in 622 by +Sergius, patriarch of Constantinople [Hefele, §§ 291, 295]. +In 633 Cyrus of Phasis, since 630 patriarch of Alexandria, +brought about a union between the Orthodox Church and the +Egyptian Monophysites on the basis of a Monothelete formula, +<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, a statement that there was but one will or energy +in Christ. At once a violent controversy broke out. The +formula was supported by Honorius of Rome, but attacked +by Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem, and after the fall of +Jerusalem in 638, by the monk Maximus Confessor. In 638 +Heraclius tried to end the controversy by an <hi rend='italic'>Ecthesis</hi> +[<hi rend='italic'>Hefele</hi>, § 299], and Constans II +(641-668) attempted the same in 648, by his <hi rend='italic'>Typos</hi>. +But at the Lateran Council of 649, under Martin I, Monotheletism +as well as the <hi rend='italic'>Ecthesis</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Typos</hi> +were condemned. For this Martin was ultimately banished, dying in +misery, 654, in the Chersonesus, and Maximus, after a long, +cruel imprisonment, and horrible torture and mutilation, died +in exile, 662. But Constantius Pogonatus (668-685), the successor +of Constans II, determined to settle the matter by a +<pb n='661'/><anchor id='Pg661'/> +general council. Pope Agatho (678-682) thereupon held a +great council at Rome, 679, at which it was decided to insist +at the coming general council upon the strictest maintenance +of the decisions of the Roman Council of 649. On this basis +Agatho dictated the formula which was accepted by the Council +of Constantinople, A. D. 681, which sent its proceedings and +conclusions to the Pope to be approved. Along with them was +an express condemnation of Honorius. Leo II (682-683), +Agatho's successor, approved the council with special mention +of Honorius as condemned for his heresy. +</p> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Cyrus of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Formula of +Union</hi>, A. D. 633, Hahn, § 232.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The author of this formula, known also as Cyrus of Phasis, under +which name he was condemned at Constantinople, A. D. 680, attempted +to win over the Monophysites in Alexandria and met with great success +on account of his formula of union. The first five anathemas, +the form in which the formula is composed, are clearly based upon the +first four councils. The sixth is slightly different; and the seventh, the +most important, is clearly tending toward Monotheletism. The document +is to be found in the proceedings of the Sixth General Council in +Mansi, and also in Hardouin. For a synopsis, see Hefele, § 293, who +is most valuable for the whole controversy. +</quote> + +<p> +6. If any one does not confess the one Christ, the one +Son, to be of two natures, that is, divinity and humanity, +one nature become flesh<note place="foot">Note that this is not +<q>the one nature of the Word of God become flesh,</q> +the formula most commonly employed by Cyril, and to be distinguished from +this, though Cyril sometimes appears to use the two contrary to his own +distinction.</note> of God the Word, according to the +holy Cyril, unmixed, unchanged, unchangeable, that is to say, +one synthetic hypostasis, who is the same, our Lord Jesus +Christ, being one of the holy homoousian Triad, let such an +one be anathema. +</p> + +<p> +7. If any one, saying that our one Lord Jesus Christ is to +be regarded in two natures, does not confess that He is one +of the Holy Triad, God the Word, eternally begotten of the +Father, in the last times of the world made flesh and born of +our all-holy and spotless lady, the Theotokos and ever-virgin +<pb n='662'/><anchor id='Pg662'/> +Mary; but is this and another and not one and the same, +according to the most wise Cyril, perfect in deity and the +same perfect in humanity, and accordingly only to be thought +of as in two natures; the same suffering and not suffering, +according to one or the other nature, as the same holy Cyril +said, suffering as a man in the flesh, inasmuch as he was a +man, remaining as God without suffering in the sufferings of +His own flesh; and the one and the same Christ energizing +the divine and the human things with the one theandric +energy,<note place="foot">The phrase of Dionysius was not +<q>one theandric energy</q> but <q>a new theandric energy.</q></note> +according to the holy Dionysius; distinguishing only +in thought those things from which the union has taken place, +and viewing these in the mind as remaining unchanged, unalterable, +and unmixed after their union according to nature +and hypostasis; and recognizing in these without division or +separation the one and the same Christ and Son, inasmuch as +he regards in his mind two as brought together to each other +without commingling, making the theory of them as a matter +of fact, but not by a lying imagination and vain combinations +of the mind; but in nowise separating them, since now +the division into two has been destroyed on account of the +indescribable and incomprehensible union; saying with the +holy Athanasius, for there is now flesh and again the flesh of +God the Word, now flesh animated and intelligent, and again +the flesh of the animated and intelligent God the Word; but +should under such expressions understand a distinction into +parts, let such an one be anathema. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Constans II, <hi rend='italic'>Typos</hi>, A. D. 648, +Mansi, X, 1029. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Kirch, nn. 972 +<hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The attempt to end the controversy by returning to the condition +of things before the controversy broke out, an entirely futile undertaking. +The question having been raised had to be discussed and settled +by rational processes. See Hefele, § 306. +</quote> + +<p> +Since it is our custom to do everything and to consider +everything which can serve the welfare of the Christian State, +<pb n='663'/><anchor id='Pg663'/> +and especially what concerns our true faith, by which we believe +all our happiness is brought about, we perceive that +our orthodox people are greatly disturbed, because some +in respect to the Economy<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +the incarnation, term so used constantly in Greek theology.</note> +of our great God and Saviour +Jesus Christ assert that there is only one will, and that +one and the same affects both the divine and human deeds; +but others teach two wills and two operations in the same dispensation +of the incarnate Word. The former defend their +views by asserting that our Lord Jesus Christ was only one +person in two natures, and therefore without confusion or +separation, working and willing as well the divine as the human +deeds. The others say that because in one and the same person +two natures are joined without any separation, so their +differences from each other remain, and according to the character +of each nature one and the same Christ works as well +the divine as the human; and from this our Christian State +has been brought to much dissension and confusion, so that +differing from one another they do not agree, and from this +the State must in many ways needs suffer. +</p> + +<p> +We believe that, under God's guidance, we must extinguish +the flames enkindled by discord, and we ought not to permit +them further to destroy human souls. We decree, therefore, +that our subjects who hold our immaculate and orthodox +Christian faith, and who are of the Catholic and Apostolic +Church, shall from the present moment on have no longer +any permission to raise any sort of dispute and quarrel or +strife with one another over the one will and energy, or over +two wills and two energies. We order that this is not in any +way to take anything from the pious teaching, which the holy +and approved Fathers have taught concerning the incarnation +of God the Word, but with the purpose that all further +strife in regard to the aforesaid questions cease, and in this +matter we follow and hold as sufficient only the Holy Scriptures +and the tradition of the five holy general councils and the +simple statements and unquestioned usage and expressions of +<pb n='664'/><anchor id='Pg664'/> +the approved Fathers (of which the dogmas, rules, and laws +of God's holy Catholic and Apostolic Church consists), without +adding to or taking from them anything, or without explaining +them against their proper meaning, but everywhere +shall be preserved the former customs, as before the disputes +broke out, as if no such dispute had existed. As to those +who have hitherto taught one will and one energy or +two wills and two energies, there shall be no accusation on +this account; excepting only those who have been cast forth +as heretics, together with their impious doctrines and writings, +by the five holy universal councils and other approved +orthodox Fathers. But to complete the unity and fellowship +of the churches of God, and that there remain no further opportunity +or occasion to those who are eager for endless dispute, +we order that the document,<note place="foot">The +<hi rend='italic'>Ecthesis</hi>.</note> which for a long time has +been posted up in the narthex of the most holy principal +church of this our God-preserved royal city, and which +touches upon the points in dispute, shall be taken down. +Whoever dares to transgress this command is subject before +all to the fearful judgment of Almighty God, and then also +will be liable to the punishment for such as despise the imperial +commands. If he be a bishop or clergyman, he will altogether +be deposed from his priesthood or clerical order; if a monk, +excommunicated and driven out of his residence; if a civil or +military officer, he shall lose his rank and office; if a private +citizen, he shall, if noble, be punished pecuniarily, if of lower +rank, be subjected to corporal punishment and perpetual exile. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Council of Rome, A. D. 649, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>, Mansi, X, 1150. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Denziger, nn. +254 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Condemnation of Monotheletism, the <hi rend='italic'>Ecthesis</hi>, and the +<hi rend='italic'>Typos</hi>, by Martin I. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +Text of canons or anathematisms and abstract of proceedings in +Hefele, § 307. +</quote> + +<p> +Canon 18. If any one does not, according to the holy +Fathers, and in company with us, reject and anathematize +<pb n='665'/><anchor id='Pg665'/> +with mind and mouth all those whom as most wicked heretics +the holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of God, that is, the +five universal synods and likewise all approved Fathers of the +Church, rejects and anathematizes, with all their impious +writings even to each point, that is, Sabellius, etc. … and +justly with these, as like them and in equal error … Cyrus +of Alexandria, Sergius of Constantinople, and his successors +Pyrrhus and Paul, persisting in their pride, and all their +impious writings, and those who to the end agreed with them +in their thought, or do so agree, that there is one will and one +operation of the deity and manhood of Christ; and in addition +to these the most impious <hi rend='italic'>Ecthesis</hi>, which, by the persuasion +of the same Sergius, was put forth by the former Emperor +Heraclius against the orthodox faith, defining, by way +of adjustment, one will in Christ our God, and one operation +to be venerated; also all those things which were impiously +written or done by them; and those who received it, or any +of those things which were written or done for it; and along +with these, furthermore, the wicked <hi rend='italic'>Typos</hi>, +which, on the persuasion of the aforesaid Paul, was recently issued by our most +serene prince Constans against the Catholic Church, inasmuch +as it equally denies and excludes from discussion the two +natural wills and operations, a divine and a human, which +are piously taught by the holy Fathers to be in Christ, +our God, and also our Saviour, and also the one will and +operation, which by the heretics is impiously venerated in +Him, and therefore declaring that with the holy Fathers +also the wicked heretics are unjustly freed from all rebuke +and condemnation, to the destruction of the definitions of +the Catholic Church and its rule of faith … let him be +condemned. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Sixth General Council, Constantinople, A. D. 681, +<hi rend='italic'>Definition of Faith</hi>. Mansi, XI, 636 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The concluding, more strictly dogmatic portion of this symbol is to +be found in Greek in Hahn, § 150, and in Latin and Greek in Denziger, +nn. 289, <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> See also PNF, ser. II, vol. XIV. +</quote> + +<pb n='666'/><anchor id='Pg666'/> + +<p> +The holy, great, and ecumenical synod assembled by the +grace of God and the religious decree of the most religious, +faithful, and mighty Emperor Constantine, in this God-preserved +and royal city of Constantinople, New Rome, in the hall +of the imperial palace called Trullus, has decreed as follows: +</p> + +<p> +The only begotten Son and Word of God the Father, who +was made man, like unto us in all things, without sin, Christ +our true God, has declared expressly in the words of the Gospel: +<q>I am the light of the world; he that followeth Me shall +not walk in darkness, but shall have the light of life</q> [John +8:12]; and again: <q>My peace I leave with you, My peace I +give unto you</q> [John 14:27]. Our most gracious Emperor, +the champion of orthodoxy and opponent of evil doctrine, +being reverentially led by this divinely uttered doctrine of +peace, and having assembled this our holy and ecumenical +synod, has united the judgment of the whole Church. Wherefore +this our holy and ecumenical synod, having driven away +the impious error which has prevailed for a certain time until +now, and following closely the straight path of the holy and +approved Fathers, has piously given its assent to the five holy +and ecumenical synods—that is to say, to that of the three +hundred and eighteen holy Fathers assembled at Nicæa +against the insane Arius; and the next at Constantinople of +the one hundred and fifty God-inspired men against Macedonius, +the adversary of the Spirit, and the impious Apollinaris; +and also the first at Ephesus of two hundred venerable +men assembled against Nestorius, the Judaizer; and that in +Chalcedon of six hundred and thirty God-inspired Fathers +against Eutyches and Dioscurus, hated of God; and in addition +to these the last, that is the fifth, holy synod assembled in +this place against Theodore of Mopsuestia, Origen, Didymus, +and Evagrius, and the writings of Theodoret against the +twelve chapters of the celebrated Cyril, and the epistle which +was said to have been written by Ibas to Maris the Persian—without +alteration this synod renews in all points the ancient +decrees of religion, chasing away the impious doctrines of +<pb n='667'/><anchor id='Pg667'/> +irreligion. And this our holy and ecumenical synod, inspired +of God, has set its seal to the creed of the three hundred and +eighteen Fathers, and again religiously confirmed by the one +hundred and fifty, which also the other holy synods gladly +received and ratified for the removal of every soul-destroying +heresy. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Then follow: +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Nicene Creed of the three hundred and eighteen holy Fathers. +<hi rend='italic'>We believe</hi>, etc. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The Creed of the one hundred and fifty holy Fathers assembled at +Constantinople. <hi rend='italic'>We believe</hi>, etc., but without the +<hi rend='italic'>filioque</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +The holy and ecumenical synod further says that this pious +and orthodox creed of the divine grace would be sufficient for +the full knowledge and confirmation of the orthodox faith. +But as the author of evil, who in the beginning availed himself +of the aid of the serpent, and by it brought the poison of +death upon the human race, has not desisted, but in like manner +now, having found suitable instruments for the accomplishment +of his will—that is to say, Theodorus, who was bishop of +Pharan; Sergius, Pyrrhus, Paul and Peter, who were prelates +of this royal city; and also Honorius, who was pope of Old +Rome; Cyrus, bishop of Alexandria, Marcarius, lately bishop +of Antioch, and Stephen, his disciple—has not ceased with their +<pb n='668'/><anchor id='Pg668'/> +declaration of orthodoxy by this our God-assembled and holy +synod; for according to the sentence spoken of God: <q>Where +two or three are gathered together in My name, there am I in +the midst of them</q> [Matt. 18:20], the present<note place="foot">From +here text in Denziger.</note> holy and ecumenical +synod, faithfully receiving and saluting with uplifted +hands also the suggestion which by the most holy and blessed +Pope Agatho, Pope of Old Rome, was sent to our most pious +and faithful Emperor Constantine, which rejected by name +those who taught or preached one will and operation in the +dispensation of the incarnation of Christ<note place="foot">Latin +reads: <hi rend='italic'>our Lord Jesus Christ</hi>.</note> our very God, has +likewise adopted that other synodal suggestion which was sent +by the council held under the same most holy Pope, composed +of one hundred and twenty-five bishops beloved of +God,<note place="foot">For this council, see Hefele, § 314.</note> to +his God-instructed tranquillity [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the Emperor], as consonant +to the holy Council of Chalcedon and the <hi rend='italic'>Tome</hi> of the +most holy and blessed Leo, Pope of the same Old Rome, which +was directed to the holy Flavian, which also the council +called the pillar of a right faith; and also agrees with the +synodical letters written by the blessed Cyril against the +impious Nestorius and addressed to the Oriental bishops. +</p> + +<p> +Following<note place="foot">From here the text may be found also in Hahn, § 150.</note> +the five holy and ecumenical synods and the +most holy and approved Fathers, with one voice defining that +our Lord Jesus Christ must be confessed to be our very God, +one of the holy and consubstantial and life-giving Trinity, +perfect in deity and the same perfect in humanity, truly God +and truly man, of a reasonable soul and body; consubstantial +with His Father as to His godhead, and consubstantial with us +as to His manhood; in all things like unto us, without sin +[Heb. 4:15]; begotten of His Father before the ages according +to His godhead, but in these last days for us men and for +our salvation begotten of the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin +Mary, strictly and in truth Theotokos, according to the flesh; +one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only begotten, in two +<pb n='669'/><anchor id='Pg669'/> +natures unconfusedly, unchangeably, inseparably, indivisibly +to be recognized; the peculiarities of neither nature lost +by the union, but rather the properties of each nature preserved, +concurring in one person,<note place="foot"><foreign +lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">Prosopon</foreign>, and so throughout.</note> +and in one subsistence,<note place="foot"><foreign lang="el" +rend="font-style: italic">Hypostasis</foreign>, and so throughout.</note> +not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same +only begotten Son, the Word of God,<note place="foot">Latin: +<hi rend='italic'>God the Word</hi>.</note> the Lord Jesus Christ, +according as the prophets of old have taught, and as Jesus +Christ Himself hath taught, and the creed of the holy Fathers +hath delivered to us;<note place="foot">The preceding is but a +recapitulation of Chalcedon; see above, <ref target="Section_90">§ 90</ref>.</note> +we likewise declare that in Him are +two natural wills or willings and two natural operations indivisibly, +unchangeably, inseparably, unconfusedly, according +to the teaching of the holy Fathers. And these two natural +wills are not contrary one to the other (which God forbid), as +the impious heretics say, but His human will follows, not as +resisting or reluctant, but rather therefore as subject to His +divine and omnipotent will. For it was right that the will +of the flesh should be moved, but be subject to the divine will, +according to the most wise Athanasius. For as His flesh is +called and is the flesh of God the Word, so also the natural +will of His flesh is called and is the proper will of God the Word, +as He Himself says: <q>I came down from heaven, not to do +Mine own will, but the will of the Father which sent Me,</q> [John +6:38], wherein he calls His own will the will of the flesh, +inasmuch as His flesh was also His own. For as His most +holy and immaculately animated flesh was not destroyed because +it was deified [θεωθεῖσα], but continued in its own state +and nature, so also His human will, although deified, was not +taken away, but rather was preserved according to the saying +of Gregory the Theologian:<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +Gregory Nazianzus.</note> <q>His will, namely that of the +Saviour, is not contrary to God, but altogether deified.</q> +</p> + +<p> +We glorify two natural operations, indivisibly, unchangeably, +inseparably, unconfusedly, in the same our Lord Jesus +Christ, our true God, that is to say, a divine operation and a +<pb n='670'/><anchor id='Pg670'/> +human operation, according to the divine preacher Leo, who +most distinctly says as follows: <q>For each form does in communion +with the other what pertains to it, namely the Word +doing what pertains to the Word, and the flesh what pertains +to the flesh.</q><note place="foot">Leo, <hi rend='italic'>Ep. ad +Flavianum</hi>, ch. 4: Agit enim utraque forma cum alterius communione +quod proprium est, Verbo scilicet operante quod Verbi est, et carne +exsequente quod carnis est; unum horum coruscat miraculis, aliud succumbit +iniuriis; <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_90_b">§ 90, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi></ref>.</note> +For we will not admit one natural operation +of God and of the creature, that we may not exalt into the +divine essence what is created, nor will we bring down the +glory of the divine nature to the place suited for those things +which have been made. We recognize the miracles and the +sufferings as of one and the same person, but of one or of the +other nature of which He is, and in which He has His existence, +as the admirable Cyril said. Preserving in all respects, +therefore, the unconfusedness and indivisibility, we express +all in brief phrase: Believing that our Lord Jesus Christ, one +of the Trinity also after the incarnation, is our true God, we +say that His two natures shone forth in His one subsistence +[hypostasis], in which were both the miracles and the suffering +throughout the whole incarnate life,<note place="foot">Greek: +<hi rend='italic'>economic life</hi>.</note> not in appearance merely +but in reality, the difference as to nature being recognized +in one and the same subsistence; for, although joined together, +each nature wills and operates the things proper to it.<note +place="foot">Latin adds: <hi rend='italic'>indivisibly and unconfusedly</hi>.</note> +For this reason we glorify two natural<note place="foot">Here, as +elsewhere, <q>natural will</q> means such a will as belongs to a +nature, divine or human.</note> wills and operations concurring +most fitly in Him for the salvation of the human race. +</p> + +<p> +Since these things have been formulated by us with all +diligence and care, we decree that to no one shall it be permitted +to bring forward or write or to compose or to think +or to teach otherwise. Whosoever shall presume to compose +a different faith or to propose, or to teach, or to hand to those +wishing to be converted to the knowledge of the truth from +the heathen or the Jews or from any heresy any different symbol, +or to introduce a new mode of expression to subvert +<pb n='671'/><anchor id='Pg671'/> +these things which have now been determined by us, all these, +if they be bishops or clergy, shall be deposed, the bishops from +the episcopate, the clergy from the clerical office; but if they +be monks or laymen, they shall be anathematized. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Council of Constantinople, A. D. 681, +<hi rend='italic'>Sessio</hi> XIII. Mansi, XI, 1050. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Mirbt, +n. 188.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The condemnation of the Monotheletes, including Honorius of Rome. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The condemnation of Honorius has become a <hi rend='italic'>cause célèbre</hi>, +especially in connection with the doctrine of papal infallibility. It should +be observed, however, that the doctrine of papal infallibility, as defined +at the Vatican Council, A. D. 1870 (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 509), requires +that only when the Pope speaks <hi rend='italic'>ex cathedra</hi> is he infallible, +and it has not been shown that any opinion whatever held by Honorius was +an <hi rend='italic'>ex cathedra</hi> definition of faith and morals according to +the Vatican Council. The matter is therefore a mere question of fact and may be +treated apart from the Vatican dogma. It should be borne in mind, +further, that the Sixth General Council was approved by Pope Leo II, +A. D. 682 (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 189), who included Honorius by name among +those whose condemnation was approved. That he did so approve +it is also stated in the <hi rend='italic'>Liber Pontificalis</hi> +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 190), and according to the +<hi rend='italic'>Liber Diurnus</hi>, the official book of formulæ used in +the papal business, the Pope took an oath recognizing among others +the Sixth General Council, and condemning Honorius among other +heretics (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Mirbt, n. 191). That Honorius was actually +a heretic is still another matter; for it seems not at all unlikely that he misunderstood +the point at issue and his language is quite unscientific. The +text of the letters of Honorius may be found in Kirch, nn. 949-965, and +in Hefele in a translation, §§ 296, 298. On the condemnation of Honorius, +see Hefele, § 324. +</quote> + +<p> +The holy council said: After we had reconsidered, according +to our promise made to your highness,<note place="foot">The Emperor +to whom the report is made.</note> the doctrinal letter +written by Sergius, at one time patriarch of this royal God-preserved +city, to Cyrus, who was then bishop of Phasis, +and to Honorius, sometime Pope of Old Rome, as well as the +letter of the latter to the same Sergius, and finding that the +documents are quite foreign to the apostolic dogmas, to the +definitions of the holy councils, and to all the approved Fathers, +and that they follow the false teachings of the heretics, we +entirely reject them, and execrate them as hurtful to the soul. +</p> + +<pb n='672'/><anchor id='Pg672'/> + +<p> +But the names of those men whom we execrate must also be +thrust forth from the holy Church of God, namely, that of +Sergius, sometime bishop of this God-preserved royal city, +who was the first to write on this impious doctrine; also that +of Cyrus of Alexandria, of Pyrrhus, Paul, and Peter, who died +bishops of this God-preserved city, and were like-minded with +them; and that of Theodore, sometime bishop of Pharan, all +of whom the most holy and thrice-blessed Agatho, Pope of +Old Rome, in his suggestion to our most pious and God-preserved +lord and mighty Emperor, rejected because they were +minded contrary to our orthodox faith, all of whom we declare +are subject to anathema. And with these we decree +that there shall be expelled from the holy Church of God and +anathematized Honorius, who was Pope of Old Rome, because +of what we found written by him to Sergius, that in all +respects he followed his view and confirmed his impious doctrine. +</p> + +<p> +We have also examined the synodal letter<note place="foot">The most +important parts of this are to be found in Hahn, § 235.</note> of Sophronius, +of holy memory, sometime patriarch of the holy city of our +God, Jerusalem, and have found it in accordance with the +true faith and with apostolic teachings, and with the teachings +of the holy and approved Fathers. Therefore, we have +received it as orthodox and salutary to the holy and Catholic +and Apostolic Church, and have decreed that it is right that +his name be inserted in the diptychs of the holy churches. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_108"/> +<head>§ 108. Rome, Constantinople, and the Lombard State Church in the Seventh +Century</head> + +<p> +The Sixth General Council was the last great diplomatic +triumph of Rome in the East in matters of faith, though two +centuries after, in the matter of Photius, Rome played a brilliant +part in the internal affairs of the Eastern Church. Immediately +after the council of 681, it was felt that the West, +of which the Greeks had grown very jealous, had triumphed +<pb n='673'/><anchor id='Pg673'/> +over the East, especially as several of the leading patriarchs +had been condemned. Monotheletism, furthermore, was too +strongly intrenched in the East to be removed by a single +conciliar action. It was felt necessary to take action to confirm +the results of Constantinople in 681. The fifth and +sixth general councils had been occupied entirely with doctrinal +matters and had not issued any disciplinary canons. +A new council might be gathered to complete the work of the +Sixth General Council, not only to reaffirm it, but in connection +with some much-needed legislation to retort upon the +West by condemning some Roman practices. In this way +the Second Trullan Council, or Concilium Quinisextum, came +about in 692. The Roman see, in the meanwhile, although it +had triumphed at Constantinople in 681, did not enjoy an +independent political position in Italy. It was still under the +Roman Emperor at Constantinople, as had been most painfully +perceived in the treatment of Martin I by Constans. +Although the Pope had his apocrisiarius, or nuncio, at Constantinople, +he came into immediate contact with the exarch +of Ravenna, the Emperor's representative in Italy. In Italy, +furthermore, the Arian heresy long persisted among the Lombards, +although greater toleration was shown the Catholic +Church. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: The canons of the Quinisext Council +may be found complete in Percival, <hi rend='italic'>Seven Ecumenical Councils</hi>, PNF, +ser. II, vol. XIV. +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) Concilium Quinisextum, A. D. 692, +<hi rend='italic'>Canons</hi>. Bruns, I, 34, <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This council was commonly regarded as the continuation of the +Sixth General Council, and has been received in the East, not as a +separate council, but as a part of the sixth. The West has never accepted +this opinion and has only to a limited extent admitted the authority +of its canons, though some have been current in the West because, +like much conciliar action, they were re-enactments of older +canons. Occasionally some of the canons have been cited by popes +as belonging to the Sixth Council. The canons given here are, for the +most part, those which were in some point in opposition to the Roman +practice. +</quote> + +<pb n='674'/><anchor id='Pg674'/> + +<div> +<head>Canon 1. <hi rend='italic'>Renewal of the Condemnations of the Sixth +Council.</hi></head> + +<p> +We, by divine grace at the beginning of our decrees, +define that the faith set forth by the God-chosen Apostles, +who themselves had both seen the Word and were ministers +of the Word, shall be preserved without any innovation, unchanged +and inviolate. Moreover the faith of the three hundred +and eighteen holy and blessed Fathers, etc. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +[Here follows a detailed statement of the first five general councils.] +</quote> + +<p> +Also we agree to guard untouched the faith of the Sixth +Holy Synod, which first assembled in this royal city in the time +of Constantine, our Emperor, of blessed memory, which faith +received still greater confirmation from the fact that the pious +Emperor ratified with his own signet what was written, for +the security of every future age. And again we confess that +we should guard the faith unaltered and openly acknowledged; +that in the Economy of the incarnation of our one Lord Jesus +Christ, the true God, there are two natural wills or volitions +and two natural operations; and have condemned by a just +sentence those who adulterated the true doctrine and taught +the people that in the one Lord, our God, Jesus Christ, there is +but one will and operation, that is to say, Theodore of Pharan, +Cyrus of Alexandria, Honorius of Rome, Sergius, Pyrrhus, +Paul, and Peter, who were bishops of this God-preserved city, +Macarius, who was bishop of Antioch, Stephen who was his +disciple, and the insane Polychronius, depriving them henceforth +of the communion of the body of Christ our God.… +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Canon 2. <hi rend='italic'>On the Sources of Canon Law.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This canon opposed Rome in two respects: it accepted eighty-five +Apostolic Canons, whereas Rome received but fifty; it drew up a list +of councils and of Fathers whose writings should have authority as +canons, and omitted the important Western councils, except Carthage, +and all the papal decrees. With this canon should be compared the +decretal of Gelasius, <hi rend='italic'>De Libris Recipiendis, +v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_92">§ 92</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +It has also seemed good to this holy synod that the eighty-five +canons received and ratified by the holy and blessed +<pb n='675'/><anchor id='Pg675'/> +Fathers before us, and also handed down to us in the name of +the holy and glorious Apostles, should from this time forth +remain firm and unshaken for the cure of souls and the healing +of disorders. And since in these canons we are bidden to +receive the <hi rend='italic'>Constitutions of the Holy Apostles</hi> by Clement, +in which, in old time, certain spurious matter entirely contrary +to piety was introduced by heterodox persons for the polluting +of the Church, which obscures to us the elegance and +beauty of the divine decrees; we, therefore, for the edification +and security of the most Christian flock, reject properly such +constitutions; by no means admitting the offspring of heretical +error, and cleaving to the pure and perfect doctrine of the +Apostles. But we set our seal likewise upon all the other +holy canons set forth by our holy and blessed Fathers, that is, +by the three hundred and eighteen God-fearing Fathers +assembled at Nicæa, and those at Ancyra; further, those at +Neo-Cæsarea and at Gangra, and besides these those at Antioch +in Syria [A. D. 341], those too at Laodicea in Phrygia, +and likewise those of the one hundred and fifty assembled +in this God-preserved imperial city and of the two hundred, +who assembled for the first time in the metropolis of the +Ephesians, and of the six hundred and thirty holy and blessed +Fathers at Chalcedon; in like manner those of Sardica and +those of Carthage; those also who assembled in this God-preserved +imperial city under Nectarius [A. D. 394], and under +Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria; likewise too the +canons<note place="foot">Decretal letters.</note> +of Dionysius, formerly archbishop of the great city +of Alexandria, and of Peter, archbishop of Alexandria, and +martyr; of Gregory the Wonder-worker, archbishop of Neo-Cæsarea; +of Athanasius, archbishop of Alexandria; of Basil, +archbishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia; of Gregory, bishop of +Nyssa; of Gregory the Theologian;<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, +Gregory Nazianzus.</note> of Amphilochius of +Iconium; of Timothy, archbishop of Alexandria; of the first +Theophilus, archbishop of the same metropolis of Alexandria; +of Gennadius, patriarch of the God-preserved imperial city; +<pb n='676'/><anchor id='Pg676'/> +moreover the canons set forth by Cyprian, archbishop of the +country of the Africans, and martyr, and by the synod under +him,<note place="foot">Probably that of 256.</note> +which have been kept in the country of the aforesaid +bishops and only according to the custom delivered down to +them. And that no one be allowed to transgress the aforesaid +canons, or to receive other canons besides them, supposititiously +set forth by some who have attempted to make a traffic of +the truth. But should any one be convicted of innovating +upon them, or attempting to overturn any of the aforementioned +canons, he shall be condemned to receive the penalty +which the canon imposes and so to be cured of his transgressions. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Canon 13. <hi rend='italic'>On the Marriage of the Clergy.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following canon permits subdeacons and priests if married +before ordination to continue to live in marriage relations with their +wives. But they are not allowed to marry a second time or to marry a +widow. Neither are bishops to remain married; but if they are married +when elected, their wives must enter a monastery at a distance. +With this canon should be compared the earlier legislation of Nicæa, <hi rend='italic'>v. +supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_78">§ 78</ref>, and also the law of Justinian, +<hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, <ref target="Section_94">§ 94</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +Since we know that it is handed down in the canonical discipline +in the Roman Church that those who are about to be +deemed worthy of ordination to the diaconate or presbyterate +should promise no longer to live maritally with their wives, +we, pursuing the ancient rule of apostolic discipline and order, +will that henceforth the lawful marriage of men in holy orders +remain firm, by no means dissolving their union with their +wives, nor depriving them of intercourse with each other at a +convenient season.… Therefore, if any one shall have +dared, contrary to the Apostolic Canons, to deprive any one +in holy orders, that is, any presbyter, deacon, or subdeacon, +of cohabitation and intercourse with his lawful wife, let him +be deposed; likewise also if any presbyter or deacon, on pretence +of piety, puts away his wife, let him be excluded from +communion; but if he persists let him be deposed. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='677'/><anchor id='Pg677'/> + +<div> +<head>Canon 36. <hi rend='italic'>On the Rank of the Patriarchal Sees.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Rome always rejected the claim of Constantinople to rank as second. +<hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Leo's opinion, <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_87">§ 87</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +Renewing the enactments of the one hundred and fifty +Fathers assembled in the God-preserved and imperial city, +and the six hundred and thirty assembled at Chalcedon, we +decree that the see of Constantinople shall enjoy equal privilege +with the see of Old Rome, and in ecclesiastical matters +shall be as highly regarded as that is, and second after it. +And after this [Constantinople] shall be ranked the see of the +great city of Alexandria, and after that the see of Antioch, +and after that the see of Jerusalem. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Canon 37. <hi rend='italic'>On Bishops of Sees among Infidels.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This canon is cited here, though not entering into the controversy +between the East and the West, because it is significant of the changed +position of the Eastern Church at this time, due to the Moslem and +other conquests. The Monophysite bishops in Egypt and Syria were +not molested by the Moslems. This canon marks the beginning of +the practice of ordaining bishops <hi rend='italic'>in partibus infidelium</hi>. +</quote> + +<p> +Since at different times there have been invasions of the +barbarians, and consequently very many cities have come into +the possession of the infidels, so that as a consequence the +prelate of a city may not be able, after he has been ordained, +to take possession of his see and to be settled in it in sacerdotal +order, and so to perform and manage, according to custom, +the ordinations and all other things which appertain to the +bishop; we, preserving the honor and veneration of the priesthood, +and in nowise wishing to make use of the heathen +injury to the ruin of ecclesiastical rights, have decreed that +they who have been thus ordained, and for the aforesaid +causes have not settled in their sees, may be kept from any +prejudice from this thing, so that they may canonically perform +the ordination of the different clerics and use the authority +of their offices according to proper limits, and that whatever +administration proceeds from them may be valid and +<pb n='678'/><anchor id='Pg678'/> +legitimate. For the exercise of his office shall not be circumscribed +by reason of necessity, when the exact observance +of the law is circumscribed. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Canon 55. <hi rend='italic'>On Fasts in Lent.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +As stated in the canon, this enactment is aimed at the Roman +usage, and refers to the 64th Apostolic Canon, which Rome rejected. +For the Apostolic Canons, see ANF, VII, 504. +</quote> + +<p> +Since we have learned that in the city of the Romans, in +the holy fast of Lent, they fast on the +Sabbaths<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, Saturdays.</note> +contrary to the traditional ecclesiastical observance, it seemed good to +the holy synod that also in the Church of the Romans the +canons shall be in force without wavering which says: If any +cleric shall be found to fast on Sunday or on the Sabbath +except on one occasion only,<note place="foot">See canon 69 of +the Apostolic Canons, which prescribed fasting on the Saturday +before Easter, or the Preparation.</note> he shall be deposed; and if a +layman he shall be excommunicated. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Canon 67. <hi rend='italic'>On Eating Blood.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +This canon is less distinctly aimed at Rome. In the West the prohibition +against eating blood seems to have been little observed, as it +had been given another interpretation. At the time of the Second +Trullan Council the practice was very common. Augustine, it might +be said, did not consider the apostolic command as binding except in +the special circumstance in which it was issued. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Augustine, +<hi rend='italic'>Contra Faustum</hi>, 32:13. +</quote> + +<p> +The divine Scriptures command us to abstain from blood, +from things strangled, and from fornication. Those, therefore, +who, on account of a dainty stomach, prepare by any +art for food the blood of animals and so eat it, we punish suitably. +If any one henceforth venture to eat in any way the +blood of an animal, if he be a clergyman let him be deposed; +if a layman, let him be excommunicated. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Canon 82. <hi rend='italic'>On Pictures of the Lamb of God.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +The custom which is here condemned was prevalent in the West. +</quote> + +<pb n='679'/><anchor id='Pg679'/> + +<p> +In some pictures of the holy icons, a lamb is painted to which +the Forerunner<note place="foot">John the Baptist.</note> +points his finger, and this is received to serve +as a type of grace, indicating beforehand through the Law our +true lamb, Christ our God. Embracing therefore the ancient +types and shadows as symbols and patterns of the truth, which +have been given to the Church, we prefer <q>grace and truth,</q> +receiving it as the fulfilment of the Law. In order, therefore, +that what is perfect may be delineated to the eyes of all, at +least in colored expression, we decree that the figure of the +lamb who taketh away the sin of the world, Christ our God, +be henceforth exhibited according to human form in the icons, +instead of the ancient lamb, so that all may understand, by +means of it, the depth of the humiliation of the Word of God, +and that we may recall to our memory His life in the flesh, +His passion and salutary death, and the redemption resulting +therefrom for the whole world. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Liber Diurnus Romanorum +Pontificum</hi>, n. 58.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Notification to the Emperor of an Election of a Pontiff. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The <hi rend='italic'>Liber Diurnus</hi> was the book of official formulæ +used on occasions such as elections of pontiffs and the conferring of the +pallium. It was composed between 685 and 751, and was employed in the papal +chancellery down to the eleventh century, when it became antiquated on +account of the changes in the position of the popes. The modern +editions of the book are by Rozière, Paris, 1869, and by Sickel, Vienna, +1889. The text may be found in Mirbt, n. 195, where may also be +found numerous other useful extracts. +</quote> + +<p> +Although it has not been without the merciful divine ordering +that, after the death of the supreme pontiff, the votes of +all should agree in the election of one, and that there be perfect +harmony so that no one at all is to be found who would +oppose it, it is yet necessary that we ought obediently to pour +forth the prayers of our petitions to our most serene and most +pious lord, who is known to rejoice in the concord of his subjects, +and graciously to grant what has been asked by them in +unanimity. And so when our Pope (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>) of most blessed +<pb n='680'/><anchor id='Pg680'/> +memory died, the assent of all was given, by the will of God, +to the election of (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), the venerable archdeacon of the +Apostolic See, because from the beginning of his life he had so +served the same church, and in all things shown himself so +able that he ought deservedly to be placed, with the divine +approval, over the ecclesiastical government, especially since +by his constant association with the aforesaid most blessed +pontiff (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), he has been able to attain to the same +distinctions of so great merit, by which the same prelate of holy +memory is known to have been adorned, who by his words +always stirred up his mind, being desirous of heavenly joys, +so that whatsoever good we have lost in his predecessor we +are confident that we have certainly found in him. Therefore, +in tears, all we your servants pray that the piety of the lords +may deign to hear the supplication of their servants, and the +desires of their petitioners may be granted by the command +of their piety, for the benefit of the Empire, that command +may be given for his ordination; so that when we have been +placed by your sacred and exalted clemency under him as our +pastor, we may always pray for the life and empire of our +most serene lords to the Lord Almighty and to the blessed +Peter, prince of the Apostles, to whose church it has been +granted that a worthy ruler be ordained. +</p> + +<p> +Subscription of the priests. +</p> + +<p> +I (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), by the mercy of God, presbyter of the holy Roman +Church, consenting to this action made by us in regard to +(<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), the venerable archdeacon of the holy Apostolic See +and our elected Pope, have subscribed. +</p> + +<p> +Subscription of the laity. +</p> + +<p> +I (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), servant of your piety, consenting to this action +drawn up by us in regard to (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), the venerable archdeacon +of the holy Apostolic See and our elected Pope, have subscribed. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Liber Diurnus Romanorum +Pontificum</hi>, ch. 60.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Notification of the Election of a Pontiff to the Exarch of Ravenna. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The text may be found in part in Mirbt, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi> +</quote> + +<pb n='681'/><anchor id='Pg681'/> + +<p> +To the most excellent and exalted lord, graciously to be +preserved to us for a long life in his princely office (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), +exarch of Italy, the priests, deacons, and all the clergy of Rome, +the magistrates, the army, and the people of this city of Rome +as suppliants send greeting. +</p> + +<p> +Providence is able to give aid in human affairs and to +change the weeping and groaning of the sorrowing into rejoicing.… +</p> + +<p> +Inasmuch as (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), of pontifical memory, has been called +from present cares to eternal rest, as is the lot of mortals, a +great load of sorrow oppressed us, for as guardians we were +deprived of our own guardian. But the accustomed kindness +of our God did not permit us to remain long in this affliction +because we hoped in Him. For after we had humbly spent +three days in prayer that the heavenly kindness might, for +the merits of all, make known whom as worthy it commanded +to be elected to succeed to the apostolic office, with the aid +of His grace which inspired the minds of all; and after we had +assembled as is customary, that is, the clergy and the people +of Rome with the presence of the nobility and the army, from +the least to the greatest, so to speak; and the election, with +the help of God and the aid of the holy Apostles, fell upon the +person of (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), the most holy archdeacon of this holy Apostolic +See of the Roman Church. The good and chaste life +of this man, beloved of God, was in the opinion of all so deserving +that none opposed his election, no one was absent, +and none dissented from it. For why should not men agree +unanimously upon him whom the incomparable and unfailing +providence of our God had foreordained to this office? +For without doubt this had been determined upon in the +presence of God. So solemnly performing his decrees and +confirming with our signatures the desires of hearts concerning +his election, we have sent you our fellow-servants as the +bearers of this letter (<hi rend='italic'>names</hi>), most holy bishop +(<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), venerable presbyter (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), +regionary notary (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), regionary +subdeacons (<hi rend='italic'>names</hi>), honorable citizens, and from the most +<pb n='682'/><anchor id='Pg682'/> +flourishing and successful Roman army (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), most eminent +consul, and (<hi rend='italic'>names</hi>) chief men, tribunes of the army, begging +and praying together that your excellency, whom may God +preserve, may with your accustomed goodness agree with our +pious choice; because he, who has been unanimously elected +by our humility, is such that so far as human discernment is +able to see, no spot of reproach appears in him. And therefore +we beg and beseech you, by God's inspiration, to grant +our petition quickly, because there are many questions and +other matters arising daily which require for remedy the care +of pontifical favor. And the affairs of the province and the +need of causes connected therewith also seek and await the +control of due authority. Besides we need some one to keep +the neighboring enemy in check, which can only be done by +the power of God, and of the Prince of the Apostles through +his vicar, the bishop of Rome; since it is well known that at +various times the bishop of Rome has driven off enemies by +his warnings, and at other times he has turned aside and restrained +them by his prayers; so that by his words alone, on +account of their reverence for the Prince of the Apostles, they +have offered voluntary obedience, and thus they, whom the +force of arms had not overcome, have yielded to the warnings +and prayers of the Pope. +</p> + +<p> +Since these things are so, we again and again beseech you, +our exalted lord, preserved by God, that, with the aid and inspiration +of God in your heart, you may quickly give orders +to adorn the Apostolic See by the completed ordination of +the same, our father. And we, your humble servants, on seeing +our desires fulfilled, may then give unceasing thanks to +God and to you, and with our spiritual pastor, our bishop, +enthroned in the Apostolic Seat, we may pour out prayers +for the life and health and complete victories of our most +exalted and Christian lords (<hi rend='italic'>names</hi>), the great and victorious +emperors, that the merciful God may give manifold victories +to their royal courage, and cause them to triumph over all +peoples, and that God may give them joy of heart, because the +<pb n='683'/><anchor id='Pg683'/> +ancient rule of Rome has been restored. For we know that he +whom we have elected Pope can, with his prayers, influence +the divine omnipotence; and he has prepared a joyful increase +for the Roman Empire, and he will aid you in this, in the +government of this province of Italy, which is subject to you, +and will aid and protect all of us, your servants, through many +years. +</p> + +<p> +Subscription of the priests. +</p> + +<p> +I, (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), the humble archpriest of the holy Roman Church, +have with full consent subscribed to this document which +we have made concerning (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), most holy archdeacon, our +bishop elect. +</p> + +<p> +And the subscription of the laity. +</p> + +<p> +I, (<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), in the name of God, consul, have with full consent +subscribed to this document which we have made concerning +(<hi rend='italic'>name</hi>), most holy archdeacon, our bishop-elect. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Paulus Diaconus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. +Langobardorum</hi>, IV, 44. (MSL, 95:581.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Agilulf may have been a convert to the Catholic faith, <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_99">§ 99</ref>. His successors were not. In fact, not until +653, when Aribert, the nephew of Theodelinda, ascended the throne, were the Lombards +permanently under Catholic rulers. +</quote> + +<p> +44. After Ariwald (626-636) had reigned twelve years over +the Lombards he departed this life, and Rothari of the family +of Arodus took the kingdom of the Lombards. He was a +strong, brave man, and walked in the paths of justice; in +Christian faith, however, he did not hold to the right way, +but was polluted by the unbelief of the Arian heresy. The +Arians say, to their confusion, that the Son is inferior to the +Father and, in the same way, the Holy Ghost is inferior to +the Father and the Son; we, Catholic Christians, on the contrary, +confess that the Father and the Son and the Holy +Ghost are one true God in three persons, equal in power and +glory. In the times of Rothari there were in nearly all the +cities of his kingdom two bishops, a Catholic and an Arian. +</p> + +<pb n='684'/><anchor id='Pg684'/> + +<p> +To this very day there is shown in the city of Ticinus [Pavia] +the place where the Arian bishop resided, at the church of St. +Eusebius, and held the baptistery while the Catholic bishop was +at the head of another church. The Arian bishop, however, +who was in this city, whose name was Anastasius, accepted the +Catholic faith and afterward ruled the Church of Christ. +This king Rothari caused the laws of the Lombards to be reduced +to writing and named the book <hi rend='italic'>The Edict</hi>; the law of +the Lombards up to that time had been retained merely in +memory and by their use in the courts. This took place, as +the king in the preface to his law-book says, in the seventy-seventh +year<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>The Edict</hi> says seventy-sixth year.</note> +after the Lombards came into Italy. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<anchor id="Section_109"/> +<head>§ 109. Rome, Constantinople, and the Lombards in the +Period of the First Iconoclastic Controversy; +the Seventh General Council, Nicæa, A. D. 787</head> + +<p> +By the eight century the veneration of pictures or icons +had become wide-spread throughout the Eastern Church. +Apart from their due place in the cultus, grave abuses and +superstitions had arisen in many parts of the Church in connection +with the icons. To Leo III the Isaurian (717-741), +and to the army, the veneration of the icons, as practised +by the populace, and especially by the monks, seemed but +little removed from the grossest idolatry. Accordingly, in +an edict issued in 726, Leo attempted to put an end to the +abuses by preventing all veneration of the icons. Meeting +with opposition, his measures passed from moderate to +severe. In Italy, although the use of icons was not developed +to the same extent as in the East, sympathy was entirely +against the Iconoclasts. Gregory II (715-731) and Gregory +III (731-741) bitterly reproached and denounced the action +of the Emperor. Nearly all the exarchate willingly passed +under the power of the Lombards. Other parts of northern +Italy also broke with the Emperor. Leo retaliated by annexing +<pb n='685'/><anchor id='Pg685'/> +Illyricum to the see of Constantinople and confiscating the +papal revenues in southern Italy. From that time the connection +between the Pope and the Emperor was very slight. +The Emperor Constantine V Copronymus (741-775) was more +severe than his father, and in many respects even fiercely +brutal in his treatment of the monks. A synod was assembled +at Constantinople, 754, attended by three hundred and thirty-eight +bishops, who, as was customary in Eastern synods, supported +the Emperor. His son, Leo IV Chazarus (775-780) +was less energetic and disposed to tolerate the use of icons in +private. But his widow, Irene, the guardian of her infant +son, Constantine VI, was determined to restore the images or +icons. A synod held at Constantinople in 786 was broken up +by the soldiery of the capital. In 787 at Nicæa, a council was +called at a safe distance and Iconoclasm was condemned. +</p> + +<quote rend="display"> +Additional source material: <hi rend='italic'>St. John Damascene on Holy Images</hi>, +Eng. trans. by Mary H. Allies, 1898; St. John of Damascus, <hi rend='italic'>Exposition +of the Orthodox Faith</hi>, PNF, ser. II, vol. IX; Percival, <hi rend='italic'>Seven +Ecumenical Councils</hi> (PNF). +</quote> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Liber Pontificalis, Vita +Gregorii</hi> II. Ed. Duchesne, I, 403.</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Disorders in Italy consequent upon Iconoclasm. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +The following passage from the <hi rend='italic'>Liber Pontificalis</hi> gives a vivid +and, on the whole, accurate picture of the confusion in Italy during the last +years of the authority of the Eastern Roman Empire in the peninsula. +It is hardly likely that the Emperor ordered the death of the pontiff +as recorded, and more probable that his over-officious representatives +regarded it as a means of ingratiating themselves with their master. +The passage is strictly contemporaneous, as the <hi rend='italic'>Liber +Pontificalis</hi>, at least in this part, is composed of brief biographies +of Popes written immediately after their decease and in some instances during +their lives. For a fuller statement of the whole period, see Hefele, §§ 332 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, who gives an abstract of the following and also of +two letters alleged to have been written by Gregory II to the Emperor, which +Hefele accepts as genuine. For a criticism of these letters, see Hodgkin, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, VI, 501-505. Hodgkin gives an excellent account of +King Liutprand in ch. XII of the same volume, pp. 437-508, and throws much light on +the following passage. +</quote> + +<quote rend="display"> +For the events immediately preceding this, see Paulus Diaconus, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. Langobardorum</hi>, VI, 46-48, given above in +<ref target="Section_106">§ 106</ref>. Paulus refers +<pb n='686'/><anchor id='Pg686'/> +to the capture of Narnia in the last sentence of ch. 48. and his next +chapter is apparently a condensation of the following sections of the +official papal biography. +</quote> + +<p> +At that time [<hi rend='italic'>circa</hi> A. D. 725] +Narnia<note place="foot">In the duchy of Spoleto.</note> was taken by the +Lombards. And Liutprand, the king of the Lombards, advanced +upon Ravenna with his entire army, and besieged it +for some days. Taking the fortress of Classis, he bore off +many captives and immense booty. After some time the +duke Basilius, the chartularius Jordanes, and the subdeacon +John, surnamed Lurion, conspired to kill the Pope; and +Marinus, the imperial spatarius, who at that time held the +government of the duchy of Rome, having been sent by the +command of the Emperor to the royal city, joined their conspiracy. +But they could not find an opportunity. The plot +was broken up by the judgment of God, and he therefore left +Rome. Later Paulus, the patrician, was sent as exarch to +Italy, who planned how at length he might accomplish the +crime; but their plans were disclosed to the Romans, These +were so enraged that they killed Jordanes and John Lurion. +Basilius, however, became a monk and ended his life hidden +in a certain place. But the exarch Paulus, on the command of +the Emperor, tried to kill the pontiff because he hindered the +levying of a tax upon the province, intending to strip the +churches of their property, as was done in other places, and to +appoint another [Pope] in his place. After this another spatarius +was sent with commands to remove the pontiff from his +seat. Then again the patrician Paulus sent, for the accomplishment +of this crime, such soldiers as he could withdraw +from Ravenna, with his guard and some from the camps. +But the Romans were aroused, and from all sides the Lombards +gathered for the defence of the pontiff at the bridge +of Solario, in the district of Spoleto, and the dukes of the +Lombards, surrounding the Roman territories, prevented this +crime. +</p> + +<p> +In a decree afterward sent, the Emperor ordered that there +<pb n='687'/><anchor id='Pg687'/> +no longer should be in any church an +image<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, a picture, +and not a statue, for these had been forbidden long since.</note> of any saint, or +martyr, or angel (for he said that all these were accursed); +and if the pontiff assented he should enjoy his favor, but if +he prevented the accomplishment of this also he should fall +from his position. The pious man, despising therefore the profane +command of the prince, armed himself against the Emperor +as against an enemy, rejecting this heresy and writing +everywhere to warn Christians of the impiety which had arisen. +</p> + +<p> +Aroused by this, the inhabitants of the Pentapolis<note place="foot">Rimini, +Pesaro, Fano, Sinigaglia, and Ancona.</note> and +the armies of Venetia resisted the command of the Emperor, +saying that they would never assent to the murder of the pontiff, +but on the contrary would strive manfully for his defence. +They anathematized the exarch Paulus, him who had sent +him, and those who sided with him, refusing to obey them; +and throughout Italy all chose leaders<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Duces</hi> +can hardly mean dukes here.</note> for themselves, so +eager were all concerning the pontiff and his safety. When +the iniquities of the Emperor were known, all Italy started +to choose for itself an emperor and conduct him to Constantinople, +but the pontiff prevented this plan, hoping for the +conversion of the prince. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile, in those days, the duke Exhiliratus,<note place="foot">Governor +of Naples under the Emperor.</note> deceived +by the instigation of the devil, with his son Adrian, occupied +parts of Campania, persuading the people to obey the Emperor +and kill the pontiff. Then all the Romans pursued after +him, took him, and killed both him and his son. After this +they chased away the duke Peter [governor of Rome under +the Emperor], saying that he had written against the pontiff +to the Emperor. When, therefore, a dissension arose in and +about Ravenna, some consenting to the wickedness of the +Emperor and some holding to the pontiff and those faithful +to him, a great fight took place between them and they killed +the patrician Paulus [exarch at that time]. And the cities +of Castra Æmilia, Ferrorianus, Montebelli, Verabulum, with +<pb n='688'/><anchor id='Pg688'/> +its towns, Buxo, Persiceta, the Pentapolis, and Auximanum, +surrendered to the Lombards.<note place="foot">These names are +not all to be identified. Auximanum, however, is Osimo, +south of Ancona; Ferronianus is Fregnano, near Modena; Montebelli or Monte +Veglio is west of Bologna; Persiceta is also near Bologna, which Paulus Diaconus +says was taken by the Lombards, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, VI, 49.</note> +After this the Emperor sent +to Naples Eutychius Fratricius, the eunuch, who had formerly +been exarch, to accomplish what the exarch Paulus, the spatarii, +and the other evil counsellors had been unable to do. +But by God's ordering his miserable craft was not so hidden +but that his most wicked plot was disclosed to all, that he +would attempt to violate the churches of Christ, to destroy +all, and to take away the property of all. When he had sent +one of his own men to Rome with written instructions, among +other things, that the pontiff should be killed, together with +the chief men of Rome, this most bloody outrage was discovered, +and the Romans would at once have killed the messenger +of the patrician if the opposition of the Pope had not +prevented them. But they anathematized the same exarch +Eutychius, binding themselves, great and small, by an oath, +never to permit the pontiff, the zealous guardian of the Christian +faith and the defender of the churches, to be killed or removed, +but to be ready all to die for his safety. Thereupon +the patrician [Eutychius], promising many gifts to the dukes +and to the king of the Lombards, attempted to persuade them +by his messengers to abandon the support of the pontiff. But +they despised the man's detestable wiles contained in his letters; +and the Romans and the Lombards bound themselves +as brothers in the bond of faith, all desiring to suffer a glorious +death for the pontiff, and never to permit him to receive any +harm, contending for the true faith and the salvation of +Christians. While they were doing this that father chose, +as a stronger protection, to distribute with his own hand such +alms to the poor as he found; giving himself to prayers and +fastings, he besought the Lord daily with litanies, and he remained +always more supported by this hope than by men; +however, he thanked the people for their offer, and with gentle +<pb n='689'/><anchor id='Pg689'/> +words he besought all to serve God with good deeds and to +remain steadfast in the faith; and he admonished them not +to renounce their love and fidelity to the Roman Emperor. +</p> + +<p> +At that time in the eleventh indiction,<note place="foot">From +Sept. 1, A. D. 727, to Sept. 1, A. D. 728.</note> the castle of Sutri +was taken by the Lombards by craft, and was held by them +for a period of forty days,<note place="foot">One hundred and forty, +according to another reading.</note> but urged by the constant letters +of the pontiff and warnings sent to the king, when very +many gifts had been made, as a gift at least for all the +towns, the king of the Lombards restored them and gave +them as a donation to the most blessed Apostles Peter and +Paul. At the same time, in the twelfth indiction [A. D. 729], +in the month of January, for ten days and more, a star, called +Gold-bearing,<note place="foot">Aurifer, or, according to another +reading, Lucifer.</note> with rays, appeared in the west. Its rays were +toward the north and reached to the midst of the heavens. +At that time, also, the patrician Eutychius and King Liutprand +made a most wicked agreement, that when an army had been +gathered the king should subject Spoleto and Beneventum,<note place="foot">Both +duchies were nominally under the king of the Lombards, but it is very +probable that they were attempting to free themselves from his rule.</note> +and the exarch of Rome, and they should carry out what was +already commanded concerning the pontiff. When the king +came to Spoleto, oaths and hostages were received from both +[<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, the dukes of Spoleto and Beneventum], and he came with +all his troops to the Campus Neronis.<note place="foot">The +Campus Neronis was outside the walls of Rome, as they then extended +and adjoined the Vatican.</note> The pontiff went +forth and presented himself before him and endeavored to the +extent of his ability to soften the mind of the king by pious +warnings, so that the king threw himself at his feet and promised +to harm no one; and he was so moved to compunction +by the pious warnings that he abandoned his undertaking +and laid on the grave of the Apostle his mantle, his military +cloak, his sword belt, his short two-edged sword, and his golden +sword, as well as a golden crown and a silver cross. After +prayer he besought the pontiff to consent to make peace with +<pb n='690'/><anchor id='Pg690'/> +the exarch, which also was done. So he departed, for the king +forsook the bad designs with which he had entered into the +plot with the exarch. While the exarch remained in Rome, +there came into Tuscany to Castrum Maturianense,<note place="foot">Barberino, +fifteen miles east of Civita Vecchia.</note> a certain +deceiver, Tiberius by name, called also Petasius,<note place="foot">This +was his real name.</note> who attempted +to usurp the rule of the Roman Empire and deceived some of the +less important, so that Maturianum, Luna, and Blera [Bieda] +took oath to him. The exarch, hearing of this, was troubled, +but the most holy Pope supported him, and, sending with him +his chief men and an army, he advanced and came to Castrum +Maturianense. Petasius was killed, his head was cut off and +sent to Constantinople, to the prince; nevertheless the Emperor +showed no great favor to the Romans. +</p> + +<p> +After these things the malice of the Emperor became evident, +on account of which he had persecuted the pontiff. For +he compelled all the inhabitants of Constantinople, by force +and persuasion, to displace the images of the Saviour as well +as of His holy mother, and of all saints, wherever they were, +and (what is horrible to tell) to burn them in the fire in the +middle of the city, and to whitewash all the painted churches. +Because very many of the people of the city withstood the +commission of such an enormity, they were subjected to +punishment; some were beheaded, others lost a part of their +body. For this reason also, because Germanus, the prelate +of the church of Constantinople, was unwilling to consent to +this, the Emperor deprived him of his pontifical position, and +appointed in his place the presbyter Anastasius, an accomplice. +Anastasius sent to the Pope a synodical letter, but when that +holy man saw that he held the same error, he did not regard +him as brother and fellow-priest, but wrote him warning letters, +commanding him to be put out of his sacerdotal office +unless he returned to the Catholic faith. He also charged the +Emperor, urging wholesome advice, that he should desist from +such execrable wickedness, and he warned him by letter.<note place="foot">See +introduction to this extract.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='691'/><anchor id='Pg691'/> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) John of Damascus, <hi rend='italic'>De Fide +Orthodoxa</hi>, IV, 16. (MSG, 94:1168.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +John of Damascus (<hi rend='italic'>ob. ante</hi> 754) was the last of the Church Fathers +of the East. He became the classical representative of the theology +of the Eastern Church, and his system forms the conclusion and summing +up of the results of all the great controversies that had distracted +that part of the Church. His greatest work, <hi rend='italic'>De Fide Orthodoxa</hi>, +may be found translated in PNF. In the following chapter John sums up +briefly the arguments which he uses in his three orations <hi rend='italic'>In Defence +of Images</hi> (to be found in MSG, 94:1227 <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>; for translation +see head of section). By images one should understand pictures rather than +statues. The latter were never common and fell entirely out of use +and were forbidden. They seemed too closely akin to idols. In the +translation, the phrase <q>to show reverence</q> is the equivalent of the +Greek προσκυνέω. +</quote> + +<p> +Since some find fault with us for showing reverence and honoring +the image of our Saviour and that of our Lady, and also +of the rest of the saints and servants of Christ, let them hear +that from the beginning God made man after His own image. +On what other grounds, then, do we show reverence to each +other than that we are made after God's image? For as +Basil, that most learned expounder of divine things, says: <q>The +honor given to the image passes over to the prototype.</q><note place="foot">See +next selection.</note> Now +a prototype is that which is imaged, from which the form is +derived. Why was it that the Mosaic people showed reverence +round about the tabernacle which bore an image and type of +heavenly things, or rather the whole creation? God, indeed, +said to Moses: <q>Look that thou make all things after the pattern +which was shewed thee in the mount</q> [Ex. 33:10]. The +Cherubim, also, which overshadowed the mercy-seat, are they +not the work of men's hands? What is the renowned temple +at Jerusalem? Is it not made by hands and fashioned by the +skill of men? The divine Scriptures, however, blame those +who show reverence to graven images, but also those who +sacrifice to demons. The Greeks sacrificed and the Jews also +sacrificed; but the Greeks to demons; the Jews, however, to +God. And the sacrifice of the Greeks was rejected and condemned, +<pb n='692'/><anchor id='Pg692'/> +but the sacrifice of the just was acceptable to God. +For Noah sacrificed, and God smelled a sweet savor of a good +purpose, receiving, also, the fragrance of a good-will toward +Him. And so the graven images of the Greeks, since they +were the images of demon deities, were rejected and forbidden. +</p> + +<p> +But besides this, who can make an imitation of the invisible, +incorporeal, uncircumscribed, and formless God? Therefore +to give form to the Deity is the height of folly and impiety. +And therefore in the Old Testament the use of images was +repressed. But after God, in the bowels of His mercy, became +for our salvation in truth man, not as He was seen by Abraham +in the semblance of a man, or by the prophets, but He became +in truth man, according to substance, and after He lived upon +earth and dwelt among men, worked miracles, suffered, and was +crucified, He rose again, and was received up into heaven; since +all these things actually took place and were seen by men, +they were written for the remembrance and instruction of us +who were not present at that time, in order that, though we +saw not, we may still, hearing and believing, obtain the blessing +of the Lord. But since all have not a knowledge of letters +nor time for reading, it appeared good to the Fathers +that those events, as acts of heroism, should be depicted on +images<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, in pictures.</note> +to be a brief memorial of them. Often, doubtless, +when we have not the Lord's passion in mind and see the image +of Christ's crucifixion, we remember the passion and we fall +down and show reverence not to the material but to that +which is imaged; just as we do not show reverence to the +material of the Gospel, nor to the material of the cross, but that +which these typify.<note place="foot">John had a strong argument +here as the Iconoclasts reverenced the true cross.</note> +For wherein does the cross that typifies +the Lord differ from a cross that does not do so? It is the +same also as to the case of the Mother of God.<note place="foot"> +θεομήτως, not θεοτόκος.</note> For the honor +which is given her is referred to Him who was incarnate of her. +And similarly also the brave acts of holy men stir us to bravery +<pb n='693'/><anchor id='Pg693'/> +and to emulation and imitation of their valor and to the glory +of God. For, as we said, the honor that is given to the best +of fellow servants is a proof of good-will toward our common +lady, and the honor rendered the image passes over to the +prototype. But this is an unwritten tradition, just as is also +to show reverence toward the East and to the cross, and very +many similar things.<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> +Basil, <hi rend='italic'>De Spiritu</hi>, ch. 27; <hi rend='italic'>v. supra</hi>, +<ref target="Section_87">§ 87</ref>, for Basil on the force of tradition.</note> +</p> + +<p> +A certain tale is told also that when Augarus [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>, Abgarus] +was king over the city of the Edessenes, he sent a portrait-painter +to paint a likeness of the Lord; and when the painter +could not paint because of the brightness that shone from His +countenance, the Lord himself put a garment over His divine +and life-giving face and impressed on it an image of Himself, +and sent this to Augarus to satisfy in this way his desire. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, that the Apostles handed down much that was +unwritten, Paul the Apostle of the Gentiles writes: Therefore, +brethren, stand fast and hold the traditions which ye have +been taught of us, whether by word or by epistles [II Thess. +2:14]. And to the Corinthians he writes: Now I praise you, +brethren, that ye remembered me in all things and keep the +traditions as I have delivered them to you [I Cor. 2:2]. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Basil the Great, <hi rend='italic'>De Spiritu +Sancto</hi>, ch. 18. (MSG, 32:149.)</head> + +<quote rend="display"> +Basil is speaking of the three persons of the Trinity, and says that +although we speak of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, we must not +count up <q>by way of addition gradually increasing from unity to multitude,</q> +but that number must be understood otherwise in speaking +of the three divine persons. +</quote> + +<p> +How then, if one and one, are there not two Gods? Because +we speak of a king and of the king's image, and not of two +kings. The power is not parted nor the glory divided. The +power ruling over us is one, and the authority one, and so also +the doxology ascribed by us is one and not plural; because +the honor paid to the image passes over to the prototype. +</p> + +<pb n='694'/><anchor id='Pg694'/> + +<p> +Now what in the one case the image is by reason of imitation, +that in the other case the Son is by nature; and as in works of +art the likeness is dependent upon the form, so in the case of +the divine and uncompounded nature the union consists in +the communion of the godhead. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) The Seventh General Council, Nicæa, A. D. 787, +<hi rend='italic'>Definition of Faith</hi>. Mansi, XIII, 398 +<hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></head> + +<quote rend="display"> +In addition to Hefele, and PNF, ser. II. vol. XIV, see Mendham, +<hi rend='italic'>The Seventh General Council, the Second of Nicæa, in which the Worship +of Images was Established; with copious notes from the <q>Caroline +Books,</q> compiled by order of Charlemagne for its Confutation</hi>, London, +n. d. +</quote> + +<p> +The holy, great and ecumenical synod which, by the grace +of God and the command of the pious and Christ-loving +Emperors, Constantine, and Irene his mother, was gathered +together for the second time at Nicæa, the illustrious metropolis +of the eparchy of Bithynia, in the holy Church of God +which is named Sophia, having followed the tradition of the +Catholic Church, hath defined as follows: +</p> + +<p> +Christ our Lord, who hath bestowed upon us the light of +the knowledge of Himself, and hath redeemed us from the +darkness of idolatrous madness, having espoused to Himself +His holy Catholic Church without spot or defect, promised +that He would so preserve her; and assured His holy disciples, +saying, <q>I am with you always, even unto the end of the +world</q> [Matt. 28:20], which promise He made, not only to +them, but to us also who through them should believe in His +name. But some, not considering this gift, and having +become fickle through the temptation of the wily enemy, have +fallen from the right faith; for, withdrawing from the tradition +of the Catholic Church, they have erred from the knowledge +of the truth, and as the proverb saith: <q>The husbandmen +have gone astray in their own husbandry, and have +gathered in their hands sterility,</q> because certain priests in +deed, but not priests in reality, had dared to slander the God-approved +ornaments of the sacred monuments. Of whom God +<pb n='695'/><anchor id='Pg695'/> +cries aloud through the prophet: <q>Many pastors have corrupted +my vineyard, they have polluted my portion</q> [Jer. +12:10; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> LXX]. And, forsooth, following profane men, +trusting to their own senses, they have calumniated His holy +Church espoused to Christ our God, and have not distinguished +between holy and profane, styling the images of the +Lord and of His saints by the same name as the statute of +diabolical idols. Seeing which things, our Lord God (not +willing to behold His people corrupted by such manner of +plague) hath of His good pleasure called us together, the chief +of His priests, from every quarter, moved with a divine zeal +and brought hither by the will of our Emperors, Constantine +and Irene, to the end that the divine tradition of the Catholic +Church may receive stability by our common decree. Therefore, +with all diligence, making a thorough examination and +investigation, and following the trend of the truth, diminishing +naught, adding naught, we preserve unchanged all +things which pertain to the Catholic Church, and following +the six ecumenical synods, especially that which met in this +illustrious metropolis of Nicæa, as also that which was afterward +gathered together in the God-preserved royal city. +</p> + +<p> +We believe in one God … life of the world to come. Amen.<note place="foot">The +creed of Nicæa is not here recited, only the so-called creed of Constantinople, +but without the <hi rend='italic'>filioque</hi> in the Greek.</note> +</p> + +<p> +We detest and anathematize Arius and all who agree with +him and share his absurd opinion; also Macedonius and those +who, following him, are well styled foes of the +Spirit.<note place="foot">Pneumatomachians.</note> We +confess that our lady, St. Mary, is properly and truly the +Theotokos, because she bore, after the flesh, one of the Holy +Trinity, to wit, Christ our God, as the Council of Ephesus has +already defined, when it cast out of the Church the impious +Nestorius with his allies, because he introduced a personal +[προσωπικὴν] duality [in Christ]. With the Fathers of this +synod we confess the two natures of Him who was incarnate +for us of the immaculate Theotokos and ever-Virgin Mary, +<pb n='696'/><anchor id='Pg696'/> +recognizing Him as perfect God and perfect man, as also the +Council of Chalcedon hath promulgated, expelling from the +divine Atrium as blasphemers, Eutyches and Dioscurus; and +placing with them Severus, Peter, and a number of others +blaspheming in divers fashions. Moreover, with these we +anathematize the fables of Origen, Evagrius, and Didymus, +in accordance with the decision of the Fifth Council held at +Constantinople. We affirm that in Christ there are two wills +and operations according to the reality of each nature, as also +the Sixth Council held at Constantinople taught, casting out +Sergius, Honorius, Cyrus, Pyrrhus, Macarius, and those +who are unwilling to be reverent and who agree with these. +</p> + +<p> +To make our confession short, we keep unchanged all the +ecclesiastical traditions handed down to us, written or unwritten, +and of these one is the making of pictorial representations, +agreeable to the history of the preaching of the Gospel, +a tradition useful in many respects, but especially in this, +that so the incarnation of the Word of God is shown forth as +real and not merely fantastic, for these have mutual indications, +and without doubt have also mutual significations. +</p> + +<p> +We, therefore, following the royal pathway and the divinely +inspired authority of our holy Fathers and the traditions of +the Catholic Church for, as we all know, the Holy Spirit +dwells in her, define with all certitude and accuracy, that just +as the figure of the precious and life-giving cross, so also the +venerable and holy images, as well in painting and mosaic, +as of other fit materials, should be set forth in the holy churches +of God, and on the sacred vessels and on the vestments and +on hangings and in tablets both in houses and by the wayside, +to wit, the figure of our Lord God and Saviour Jesus Christ, +of our spotless lady, the Theotokos, of the venerable angels, +of all saints, and of all pious people. For by so much the more +frequently as they are seen in artistic representation, by so +much the more readily are men lifted up to the memory of +their prototypes, and to a longing after them; and to these +should be given due salutation and honorable reverence +<pb n='697'/><anchor id='Pg697'/> +[ἀσπασμὸν καὶ τιμητικὴν προσκύνησιν], not indeed that true +worship [τὴν ἀληθινὴν λατρείαν] which pertains alone to the divine +nature; but to these, as to the figure of the precious and +life-giving cross, and to the book of the Gospels and to other +holy objects, incense and lights may be offered according to +ancient pious custom. For the honor which is paid to the +image passes on to that which the image represents, and he +who shows reverence [προσκυνεῖ] to the image shows reverence +to the subject represented in it. For thus the teaching of our +holy Fathers, which is called the tradition of the Catholic +Church, which from one end of the earth to the other hath +received the Gospel, is strengthened. Thus we follow Paul, +who spake in Christ, and the whole divine Apostolic company +and the holy Fathers, holding fast the traditions which we +have received. So we sing prophetically the triumphal hymns +of the Church: Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Sion; Shout, +O daughter of Jerusalem. Rejoice and be glad with all thy +heart. The Lord hath taken away from thee the oppression +of thy adversaries; thou art redeemed from the hand of thy +enemies: The Lord is a king in the midst of thee; thou shalt +not see evil any more, and peace be unto thee forever. +</p> + +<p> +Those, therefore, who dare to think or teach otherwise, or +as wicked heretics dare to spurn the traditions of the Church +and to invent some novelty, or else to reject some of those +things which the Church hath received, to wit, the book of +the Gospels, or the image of the cross, or the pictorial icons, +or the holy relics of a martyr, or evilly and sharply to devise +anything subversive of the lawful traditions of the Catholic +Church, or to turn to common uses the sacred vessels and the +venerable monasteries, if they be bishops or clerics we command +that they be deposed; if +religious<note place="foot"><hi rend='italic'>I.e.</hi>, monks.</note> +or laics, that they be +cut off from communion. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='699'/><anchor id='Pg699'/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Index</head> + +<p> +The Analytical Table of Contents at the opening of this volume should be +used to supplement this Index. +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Acacius of Constantinople, <ref target="Pg526">526</ref>, <ref target="Pg536">536</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adoptionists, <ref target="Pg172">172</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Advent, second. See <ref target="Index-Chiliasm"><q>Chiliasm.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ælia Capitolina, <ref target="Pg361">361</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Æons. See <ref target="Index-Gnosticism"><q>Gnosticism,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Basilides"><q>Basilides,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Valentinus"><q>Valentinus.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Africa, North, Church of, <ref target="Pg157">157</ref>, <ref target="Pg281">281</ref>.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">See also <ref target="Index-Tertullian"><q>Tertullian,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Cyprian"><q>Cyprian,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Donatus"><q>Donatism,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Augustine"><q>Augustine.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Agape</hi>, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agatho of Rome, <ref target="Pg652">652</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agde, council of (A. D. 506), canons, <ref target="Pg616">616</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexander of Alexandria, <ref target="Pg300">300</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg302">302</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexander of Jerusalem, <ref target="Pg207">207</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexandria, catechetical school of, <ref target="Pg189">189-202</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexandria, councils of (A. D. 320), <ref target="Pg304">304</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 362), <ref target="Pg349">349-352</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 430), anathematisms, <ref target="Pg505">505</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Allegorism, or Allegorical Exegesis, <ref target="Pg015">15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg120">120</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Origen on, <ref target="Pg199">199</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Nepos on, <ref target="Pg219">219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Methodius on, <ref target="Pg230">230</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Augustine on, <ref target="Pg442">442</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alms, as expiation of sin, <ref target="Pg048">48</ref>, <ref target="Pg169">169-171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ambrose of Milan, reply to Symmachus, <ref target="Pg342">342-346</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">epistle to Theodosius, <ref target="Pg390">390</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">invocation of saints, <ref target="Pg397">397</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">patron of monasticism, <ref target="Pg409">409</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Fall of Man, <ref target="Pg438">438</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anastasius, emp., <ref target="Pg527">527</ref>, <ref target="Pg530">530</ref>, <ref target="Pg575">575</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anastasius of Rome, condemnation of Origen, <ref target="Pg487">487</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ancyra, council of (A. D. 358), <ref target="Pg348">348</ref>, <ref target="Pg412">412</ref>, <ref target="Pg675">675</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angels, invocation of, <ref target="Pg400">400</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anicetus of Rome, <ref target="Pg164">164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anointing, <ref target="Pg484">484</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anthony, hermit, <ref target="Pg248">248-251</ref>, <ref target="Pg409">409</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antioch, council of (A. D. 269), <ref target="Pg225">225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 341), creed, <ref target="Pg313">313</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">canons, <ref target="Pg362">362-364</ref>, <ref target="Pg675">675</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antioch, school of, <ref target="Pg504">504</ref>, <ref target="Pg511">511</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apelles, <ref target="Pg105">105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aphthartodocetism, <ref target="Pg553">553</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apollinaris the Elder, <ref target="Pg334">334</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Apollinaris"/> +<l>Apollinaris of Laodicæa, <ref target="Pg354">354</ref>, <ref target="Pg494">494</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg498">498</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apollinarius of Hierapolis, <ref target="Pg111">111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apollonius, Antimontanist, <ref target="Pg108">108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apologist, <ref target="Pg069">69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">theology of, <ref target="Pg130">130</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apostles, <ref target="Pg008">8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg040">40</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apostles' Creed, <ref target="Pg123">123-126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apostolic Age, <ref target="Pg005">5-12</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apostolic churches, <ref target="Pg111">111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apostolic Fathers, <ref target="Pg013">13</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apostolic succession, <ref target="Pg112">112-115</ref>, <ref target="Pg122">122</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Appeals to Emperor, <ref target="Pg359">359</ref>, <ref target="Pg370">370</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">to Rome, Sardica on, <ref target="Pg364">364-366</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">rescript of Gratian and Valentinian on, <ref target="Pg366">366</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Archelaus, <ref target="Pg082">82</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arian controversy, <ref target="Pg297">297-320</ref>, <ref target="Pg348">348-356</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arianism among the Germans: among the Goths, <ref target="Pg426">426</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">among the Lombards, <ref target="Pg683">683</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aristides, Apology of, <ref target="Pg069">69-72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aristotelian philosophy, <ref target="Pg174">174</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arius, <ref target="Pg269">269</ref>, <ref target="Pg293">293</ref>, <ref target="Pg299">299</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">epistle to Eusebius of Nicomedia, <ref target="Pg302">302</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2"><hi rend='italic'>Thalia</hi>, <ref target="Pg303">303</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">confession, <ref target="Pg307">307</ref>, <ref target="Pg308">308</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arles, council of, <ref target="Pg289">289-292</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Artemon, <ref target="Pg173">173</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asceticism, <ref target="Pg046">46</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg105">105</ref>, <ref target="Pg248">248</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asia Minor, theology of, <ref target="Pg030">30-32</ref>, <ref target="Pg135">135-139</ref>, <ref target="Pg229">229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Askidas, Theodore of, <ref target="Pg546">546</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athanasius, on Sabellianism, <ref target="Pg180">180</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Dionysius of Alexandria, <ref target="Pg223">223-225</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">exile, <ref target="Pg308">308</ref>, <ref target="Pg310">310</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athenagoras, <ref target="Pg133">133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='700'/><anchor id='Pg700'/> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Audentia"/> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Audientia Episcopalis</hi>, <ref target="Pg380">380</ref>, <ref target="Pg382">382</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Augustine of Canterbury, <ref target="Pg602">602-605</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Augustine"/> +<l>Augustine of Hippo, life and conversion, <ref target="Pg433">433-436</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">his type of piety, <ref target="Pg437">437</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Fall of Man and original sin, <ref target="Pg438">438</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">predestination, <ref target="Pg440">440</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">allegory, <ref target="Pg442">442</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">merit, <ref target="Pg444">444</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on baptism, <ref target="Pg448">448</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">sacraments, <ref target="Pg449">449</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">repression of heresy, <ref target="Pg450">450-453</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aurelian, emp., <ref target="Pg227">227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Baptism"/> +<l>Baptism, <ref target="Pg039">39</ref>, <ref target="Pg116">116</ref>, <ref target="Pg167">167</ref>, <ref target="Pg179">179</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg184">184</ref>, <ref target="Pg186">186</ref>, <ref target="Pg213">213</ref>, <ref target="Pg231">231-234</ref>, <ref target="Pg292">292</ref>, <ref target="Pg447">447</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg450">450</ref>, <ref target="Pg452">452</ref>, <ref target="Pg464">464</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baptism, rite of, <ref target="Pg033">33</ref>, <ref target="Pg038">38</ref>, <ref target="Pg232">232</ref>, <ref target="Pg484">484</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Baptism-Heretics"/> +<l>Baptism of heretics, <ref target="Pg243">243</ref>, <ref target="Pg245">245-248</ref>, <ref target="Pg292">292</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barbarian invasions, <ref target="Pg420">420-423</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bardesanes, <ref target="Pg054">54</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Barnabas, epistle of</hi>, <ref target="Pg014">14</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bartholomew, Apostle, <ref target="Pg055">55</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Basil"/> +<l>Basil of Cæsarea, on Sabellianism, <ref target="Pg181">181</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">his charities, <ref target="Pg395">395</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">monastic rule, <ref target="Pg405">405</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on tradition, <ref target="Pg484">484</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on reverence shown images, <ref target="Pg693">693</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Basilides"/> +<l>Basilides the Gnostic, <ref target="Pg082">82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg089">89</ref>, <ref target="Pg091">91</ref>, <ref target="Pg120">120</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Basiliscus"/> +<l>Basiliscus, emp., <hi rend='italic'>Encyclion</hi> of, <ref target="Pg523">523-526</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bede, the Venerable, <ref target="Pg566">566</ref>, <ref target="Pg569">569</ref>, <ref target="Pg603">603</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">his Penitential, <ref target="Pg629">629</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Benedict"/> +<l>Benedict of Nursia, <hi rend='italic'>Rule</hi> of, <ref target="Pg631">631-641</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bishops, apostolic appointment of, <ref target="Pg037">37</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">authority of, <ref target="Pg031">31</ref>, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref>, <ref target="Pg042">42</ref>, <ref target="Pg237">237-239</ref>, <ref target="Pg265">265-270</ref>, <ref target="Pg361">361-364</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">election of, <ref target="Pg556">556</ref>, <ref target="Pg580">580</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">State service of, <ref target="Pg383">383</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">succession of, <ref target="Pg111">111</ref>, <ref target="Pg115">115</ref>, <ref target="Pg122">122</ref>, <ref target="Pg128">128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boniface II of Rome, <ref target="Pg473">473</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Braga, council of (A. D. 572), <ref target="Pg619">619</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Britain, Church in, <ref target="Pg053">53</ref>, <ref target="Pg566">566-570</ref>, <ref target="Pg602">602-614</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cælestinus, the Pelagian, <ref target="Pg455">455</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg460">460</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cæsarius of Arles, <ref target="Pg621">621</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cæsaropapism, <ref target="Pg552">552</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caius of Rome, <ref target="Pg008">8</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Callistus of Rome, <ref target="Pg069">69</ref>, <ref target="Pg175">175-177</ref>, <ref target="Pg186">186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canon. See <ref target="Index-Councils"><q>Council.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canon law, Quinisext Council on, <ref target="Pg674">674-676</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canon of New Testament, <ref target="Pg117">117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg120">120</ref>, <ref target="Pg122">122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg532">532</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caracalla, emp., <ref target="Pg142">142</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg149">149</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carthage, councils of (A. D. 256), <ref target="Pg238">238</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 390), <ref target="Pg417">417</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 418), <ref target="Pg463">463-466</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cassian, on grace, <ref target="Pg467">467-469</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on secular studies, <ref target="Pg646">646</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cassiodorus, <ref target="Pg530">530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cassius, Dio, <ref target="Pg011">11</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cataphrygians. See <ref target="Index-Montanus"><q>Montanists.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cathari. See <ref target="Index-Novatian"><q>Novatians.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celestinus of Rome, <ref target="Pg374">374</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celibacy, laws permitting, <ref target="Pg285">285</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">of clergy, <ref target="Pg411">411-418</ref>, <ref target="Pg676">676</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celsus, <ref target="Pg055">55-59</ref>, <ref target="Pg158">158</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celtic Church in British Isles, <ref target="Pg566">566-570</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Cerdo"/> +<l>Cerdo, <ref target="Pg102">102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cerinthus, <ref target="Pg081">81</ref>, <ref target="Pg114">114</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chalcedon, council of (A. D. 451), <ref target="Pg511">511-522</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Character, doctrine of, <ref target="Pg452">452</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Charity"/> +<l>Charity, <ref target="Pg024">24</ref>, <ref target="Pg035">35</ref>, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref>, <ref target="Pg048">48</ref>, <ref target="Pg071">71</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg145">145</ref>, <ref target="Pg157">157</ref>, <ref target="Pg333">333</ref>, <ref target="Pg394">394</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chastity, <ref target="Pg047">47</ref>, <ref target="Pg344">344</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Chiliasm"/> +<l>Chiliasm, <ref target="Pg025">25-27</ref>, <ref target="Pg219">219-221</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Chorepiscopoi</hi>, <ref target="Pg364">364</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christology. See <ref target="Index-Apollinaris"><q>Apollinaris,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Logos"><q>Logos,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Monarchian"><q>Monarchians,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Monophysite"><q>Monophysites,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Monothelite"><q>Monotheletes,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Sabellius"><q>Sabellius.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christotokos, Mary as the, <ref target="Pg501">501</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chrysostom, John, <ref target="Pg372">372</ref>, <ref target="Pg491">491</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Church, authority of, Augustine on, <ref target="Pg454">454</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Church, organization of, Post-Apostolic age, <ref target="Pg036">36-42</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Church and State, mutual relations, <ref target="Pg530">530</ref>, <ref target="Pg554">554</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Circumcelliones</hi>, <ref target="Pg323">323</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Classical Literature, Christian use of, <ref target="Pg334">334</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg645">645-648</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clemens, Flavius, <ref target="Pg011">11</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clement of Alexandria, on Gnosticism, <ref target="Pg084">84</ref>, <ref target="Pg089">89</ref>, <ref target="Pg092">92</ref>, <ref target="Pg189">189</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Greek philosophy, <ref target="Pg190">190</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Christian Gnosticism, <ref target="Pg191">191</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clement of Rome, <ref target="Pg007">7</ref>, <ref target="Pg024">24</ref>, <ref target="Pg036">36</ref>, <ref target="Pg047">47</ref>, <ref target="Pg129">129</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clergy, distinguished from laity, <ref target="Pg167">167</ref>, <ref target="Pg181">181</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">exemption from civil burdens, <ref target="Pg283">283</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">subjection to bishops, <ref target="Pg361">361</ref>.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">See <ref target="Index-Ordination"><q>Ordination.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clovesho, council of (A. D. 747), <ref target="Pg611">611</ref>, <ref target="Pg621">621</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='701'/><anchor id='Pg701'/> + +<lg> +<l>Clovis, king, <ref target="Pg570">570-575</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Code, of Justinian, <ref target="Pg541">541</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">of Theodosius II, <ref target="Pg424">424</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cœnobites, <ref target="Pg405">405</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Columba, <ref target="Pg569">569</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Columbanus"/> +<l>Columbanus, <ref target="Pg585">585-590</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Commodus, emp., <ref target="Pg069">69</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Confession, auricular, <ref target="Pg384">384</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">public, see <ref target="Index-Discipline"><q>Penitential Discipline.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constans II, <hi rend='italic'>Typos</hi> of, <ref target="Pg662">662-664</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine I, Edict of Milan, <ref target="Pg263">263</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">fiscal policy, <ref target="Pg277">277-281</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">ecclesiastical patronage, <ref target="Pg281">281-285</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">repression of heathenism, <ref target="Pg285">285-287</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">ecclesiastical policy, <ref target="Pg289">289-296</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantinople, councils of (A. D. 381), <ref target="Pg353">353</ref>, <ref target="Pg369">369</ref>, <ref target="Pg480">480</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 382), <ref target="Pg359">359</ref>, <ref target="Pg498">498</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 448), <ref target="Pg512">512</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 553), <ref target="Pg551">551</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 681), <ref target="Pg665">665-671</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 691), <ref target="Pg673">673-679</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantinople, see of, <ref target="Pg354">354</ref>, <ref target="Pg477">477-480</ref>, <ref target="Pg521">521</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantius, emp., <ref target="Pg326">326-329</ref>, <ref target="Pg331">331</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corinth, church of, <ref target="Pg007">7-9</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cornelius of Rome, <ref target="Pg157">157</ref>, <ref target="Pg217">217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Councils"/> +<l>Councils, ecclesiastical, <ref target="Pg110">110</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg157">157</ref>, <ref target="Pg177">177</ref>, <ref target="Pg289">289</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">general, in North Africa, <ref target="Pg463">463</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">provincial, <ref target="Pg359">359</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">relation of, to secular rulers, <ref target="Pg369">369</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg580">580</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Creed, forms approximating to the Apostles', <ref target="Pg032">32</ref>, <ref target="Pg123">123-126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Creeds"/> +<l>Creeds and confessions of faith, of Gregory Thaumaturgus, <ref target="Pg222">222</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">of Eusebius of Cæesarea, <ref target="Pg305">305</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">of Nicæa (A. D. 325), <ref target="Pg305">305</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">of Arius, <ref target="Pg307">307</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">II Antioch (A. D. 341), <ref target="Pg313">313</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">IV Antioch (A. D. 341), <ref target="Pg314">314</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Nice (A. D. 359), <ref target="Pg318">318</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Cyril of Jerusalem, <ref target="Pg354">354</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Epiphanius of Salamis, <ref target="Pg355">355</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Ulfilas, <ref target="Pg426">426</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Antioch (A. D. 433), <ref target="Pg510">510</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Cyprian"/> +<l>Cyprian, on almsgiving, <ref target="Pg169">169-171</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on the lapsed, <ref target="Pg208">208-210</ref>, <ref target="Pg214">214-217</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on the eucharist, <ref target="Pg234">234-237</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on the episcopate, <ref target="Pg237">237-242</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on the unity of the Church, <ref target="Pg240">240-245</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on baptism by heretics, <ref target="Pg245">245-248</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyril of Alexandria, <ref target="Pg373">373</ref>, <ref target="Pg494">494</ref>, <ref target="Pg504">504</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">anathematisms against Nestorius, <ref target="Pg505">505-507</ref>, <ref target="Pg510">510</ref>, <ref target="Pg520">520</ref>, note.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyril of Jerusalem, <ref target="Pg348">348</ref>, <ref target="Pg354">354</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyrus of Alexandria, <ref target="Pg520">520</ref>, <ref target="Pg660">660</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">formula of union, <ref target="Pg661">661</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dacia, Church in, <ref target="Pg053">53</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Damasus of Rome, <ref target="Pg270">270</ref>, <ref target="Pg366">366</ref>, <ref target="Pg380">380</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deacon, <ref target="Pg035">35</ref>, <ref target="Pg037">37</ref>, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deaconess, <ref target="Pg021">21</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dead, prayers for, <ref target="Pg169">169</ref>, <ref target="Pg444">444</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg624">624</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Decius, emp., persecution under, <ref target="Pg206">206-212</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Decretals, Siricius on the force of, <ref target="Pg417">417</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Decretum Gelasii</hi>, <ref target="Pg532">532-536</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Demiurge, <ref target="Pg090">90</ref>, <ref target="Pg096">96</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deposition, <ref target="Pg230">230</ref>, <ref target="Pg363">363</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Didache</hi>, <ref target="Pg037">37</ref>, <ref target="Pg046">46</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dio Cassius, on Domitian persecution, <ref target="Pg011">11</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diocese, <ref target="Pg354">354</ref>, <ref target="Pg362">362</ref>, <ref target="Pg611">611</ref>, <ref target="Pg616">616-620</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diocletian, reorganization of the Empire, <ref target="Pg257">257</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diocletian persecution, <ref target="Pg258">258-262</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Diognetus, Epistle to</hi>, <ref target="Pg028">28</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dionysius of Alexandria, <ref target="Pg219">219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg223">223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Dionysius-Areopagite"/> +<l>Dionysius the Areopagite, <ref target="Pg560">560-564</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dionysius of Corinth, <ref target="Pg009">9</ref>, <ref target="Pg024">24</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dionysius Exiguus, <ref target="Pg530">530</ref>, <ref target="Pg611">611</ref>, note.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dionysius of Rome, <ref target="Pg223">223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg226">226</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dioscurus of Alexandria, <ref target="Pg511">511</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Discipline"/> +<l>Discipline, penitential, <ref target="Pg042">42-49</ref>, <ref target="Pg166">166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg169">169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg183">183-188</ref>, <ref target="Pg213">213</ref>, <ref target="Pg215">215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg362">362</ref>, <ref target="Pg384">384</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg624">624-630</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divorce, <ref target="Pg169">169</ref>, <ref target="Pg391">391</ref>, <ref target="Pg393">393</ref>, <ref target="Pg612">612</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Docetism, <ref target="Pg032">32</ref>, <ref target="Pg092">92</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Domitian, emp., <ref target="Pg007">7</ref>, <ref target="Pg011">11</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Donatus"/> +<l>Donatus and Donatism, <ref target="Pg245">245</ref>, <ref target="Pg287">287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg289">289</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg322">322-325</ref>, <ref target="Pg445">445-454</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dynamistic Monarchianism, <ref target="Pg172">172-175</ref>, <ref target="Pg221">221</ref>, <ref target="Pg225">225-229</ref>, <ref target="Pg298">298</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Easter, worship on, <ref target="Pg164">164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Easter, controversy as to date, <ref target="Pg161">161-165</ref>, <ref target="Pg291">291</ref>, <ref target="Pg295">295</ref>, <ref target="Pg375">375</ref>, <ref target="Pg570">570</ref>, <ref target="Pg605">605</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ecumenical Patriarch, Gregory the Great on the title, <ref target="Pg592">592-595</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Edessa, Christianity in, <ref target="Pg054">54</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elvira, council of (A. D. 309), <ref target="Pg386">386</ref>, <ref target="Pg415">415</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Emanations, Gnostic theory of, <ref target="Pg085">85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg094">94</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Encratites, <ref target="Pg105">105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Encyclion</hi>. See <ref target="Index-Basiliscus"><q>Basiliscus.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ephesus, church of, <ref target="Pg009">9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg116">116</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ephesus, council of (A. D. 431), <ref target="Pg507">507-509</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 449), <ref target="Pg512">512</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Epiphanius of Salamis, <ref target="Pg228">228</ref>, <ref target="Pg355">355</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='702'/><anchor id='Pg702'/> + +<lg> +<l>Episcopal courts of arbitration. See <ref target="Index-Audentia"><q><hi rend='italic'>Audientia Episcopalis</hi>.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Episcopate, <ref target="Pg237">237-239</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Epistula pacis</hi>, <ref target="Pg215">215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Eucharist"/> +<l>Eucharist, <ref target="Pg018">18</ref>, <ref target="Pg021">21</ref>, <ref target="Pg030">30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg034">34</ref>, <ref target="Pg038">38</ref>, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref>, <ref target="Pg042">42</ref>, <ref target="Pg116">116</ref>, <ref target="Pg138">138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg231">231-237</ref>, <ref target="Pg449">449</ref>, <ref target="Pg622">622-624</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eusebius of Cæsarea, <ref target="Pg008">8</ref>, <ref target="Pg305">305</ref>, <ref target="Pg309">309</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eusebius of Nicomedia, <ref target="Pg299">299</ref>, <ref target="Pg302">302</ref>, <ref target="Pg308">308</ref>, <ref target="Pg310">310</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eusebius of Rome, <ref target="Pg270">270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eustathius, <ref target="Pg309">309</ref>, <ref target="Pg348">348</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eutyches and Eutychian controversy, <ref target="Pg511">511-522</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Evagrius Scholasticus, <ref target="Pg274">274</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Exomologesis</hi>, <ref target="Pg185">185</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Extension of Christianity, <ref target="Pg018">18</ref>, <ref target="Pg052">52-55</ref>, <ref target="Pg156">156-159</ref>, <ref target="Pg425">425-429</ref>, <ref target="Pg566">566-570</ref>, <ref target="Pg570">570-573</ref>, <ref target="Pg602">602-605</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fasting, <ref target="Pg033">33</ref>, <ref target="Pg038">38</ref>, <ref target="Pg048">48</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg071">71</ref>, <ref target="Pg099">99</ref>, <ref target="Pg166">166</ref>, <ref target="Pg171">171</ref>, <ref target="Pg232">232</ref>, <ref target="Pg678">678</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Felicissimus"/> +<l>Felicissimus, <ref target="Pg212">212</ref>, <ref target="Pg215">215-217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Felicitas. See <ref target="Index-Perpetua"><q>Perpetua.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Felix of Aptunga, <ref target="Pg291">291</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Fihrist</hi> of An Nadim, on Mani, <ref target="Pg252">252-256</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Filioque</hi>, addition of, to the Creed, <ref target="Pg577">577</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Firmilian, epistle of, on Stephen of Rome, <ref target="Pg242">242-245</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flavian of Constantinople, <ref target="Pg512">512</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flora, Epistle of Ptolemæus to, <ref target="Pg095">95-102</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Formula Macrostichos</hi>, <ref target="Pg180">180</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Franks, conversion of, <ref target="Pg570">570</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Galen, <ref target="Pg174">174</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Galerius, emp., <ref target="Pg260">260</ref>, <ref target="Pg262">262</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gangra, council of, canons, <ref target="Pg386">386</ref>, <ref target="Pg413">413</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gelasius of Rome, <ref target="Pg531">531</ref>, <ref target="Pg532">532-536</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Germans, Christianity among, <ref target="Pg053">53</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Germanic State Church, <ref target="Pg579">579-589</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gladiatorial combats, abolishment of, <ref target="Pg389">389</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Gnosticism"/> +<l>Gnosticism, <ref target="Pg050">50</ref>, <ref target="Pg075">75-106</ref>, <ref target="Pg126">126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi> See also <ref target="Index-Simon"><q>Simon,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Menander"><q>Menander,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Cerdo"><q>Cerdo,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Basilides"><q>Basilides,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Valentinus"><q>Valentinus,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Ptolemaeus"><q>Ptolemæus.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gospels, <ref target="Pg035">35</ref>, <ref target="Pg118">118</ref>, <ref target="Pg120">120</ref>, <ref target="Pg123">123</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grace, controversy on. See <ref target="Index-Augustine"><q>Augustine,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Pelagian"><q>Pelagian Controversy,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Semi-Pelagians"><q>Semi-Pelagian Controversy.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gratian, emp., <ref target="Pg366">366</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gregory of Nazianzus, <ref target="Pg353">353</ref>, <ref target="Pg496">496</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gregory of Nyssa, <ref target="Pg502">502</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gregory of Tours, <ref target="Pg571">571</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg581">581</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gregory Thaumaturgus, <ref target="Pg221">221</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gregory the Great, <ref target="Pg388">388</ref>, <ref target="Pg590">590-602</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hadrian, emp., <ref target="Pg153">153</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hatfield, council of (A. D. 680), <ref target="Pg612">612</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heathen slanders against Christianity, <ref target="Pg061">61-64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heathenism, repression of, <ref target="Pg285">285-287</ref>, <ref target="Pg320">320-322</ref>, <ref target="Pg346">346</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg370">370-374</ref>, <ref target="Pg557">557</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heathenism, revival of, <ref target="Pg330">330-336</ref>, <ref target="Pg339">339</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heathenism in the Church, <ref target="Pg396">396</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg400">400</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heliogabalus, emp., religious policy of, <ref target="Pg152">152</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Henoticon</hi> of Zeno, <ref target="Pg526">526-529</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heraclius, emp., <ref target="Pg540">540</ref>, <ref target="Pg660">660</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Heraclius"/> +<l>Heraclius, schism of, <ref target="Pg270">270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heresy, laws against, <ref target="Pg368">368</ref>, <ref target="Pg372">372</ref>, <ref target="Pg450">450-453</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heretics, baptism of. See <ref target="Index-Baptism-Heretics"><q>Baptism.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hermas, <ref target="Pg043">43</ref>, <ref target="Pg047">47</ref>, <ref target="Pg048">48</ref>, <ref target="Pg184">184</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hertford, council of (A. D. 672), <ref target="Pg609">609</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hierapolis, council of, <ref target="Pg110">110</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hierarchy, <ref target="Pg128">128</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg237">237</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg360">360</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg562">562</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hieronymus. See <ref target="Index-Jerome"><q>Jerome.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hilary of Poitiers, <ref target="Pg316">316</ref>, <ref target="Pg319">319</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hippolytus, <ref target="Pg068">68</ref>, <ref target="Pg105">105</ref>, <ref target="Pg108">108</ref>, <ref target="Pg175">175-178</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Homoiousian party, rise of, <ref target="Pg315">315-320</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Homoiousios</hi>, <ref target="Pg316">316</ref>, <ref target="Pg319">319</ref>, <ref target="Pg348">348</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Homoousios</hi>, <ref target="Pg306">306</ref>, <ref target="Pg309">309</ref>, <ref target="Pg316">316</ref>, <ref target="Pg319">319</ref>, <ref target="Pg348">348</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honorius, emp., <ref target="Pg420">420</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honorius of Rome, <ref target="Pg671">671</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hormisdas of Rome, <ref target="Pg536">536</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hosius, <ref target="Pg299">299</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hospitality, <ref target="Pg040">40</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hylics, <ref target="Pg092">92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hymns, Christian, <ref target="Pg021">21</ref>, <ref target="Pg173">173</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hypatia, <ref target="Pg373">373</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Hypostasis</hi>, <ref target="Pg193">193</ref>, <ref target="Pg300">300</ref>, <ref target="Pg306">306</ref>, <ref target="Pg309">309</ref>, <ref target="Pg315">315</ref>, <ref target="Pg319">319</ref>, <ref target="Pg349">349</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ibas. See <ref target="Index-Three-Chapters"><q>Three Chapters, controversy on.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Iconoclasm"/> +<l>Iconoclasm, <ref target="Pg684">684</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ignatius of Antioch, <ref target="Pg022">22</ref>, <ref target="Pg030">30</ref>, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Images, controversy on, <ref target="Pg684">684</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Incorruptibility, <ref target="Pg136">136</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>India, Christianity in, <ref target="Pg055">55</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='703'/><anchor id='Pg703'/> + +<lg> +<l>Irenæus, on John, <ref target="Pg026">26</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Gnosticism, <ref target="Pg078">78-81</ref>, <ref target="Pg085">85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg092">92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on apostolic tradition and churches, <ref target="Pg112">112-114</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on the gospels, <ref target="Pg120">120</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Apostles' Creed, <ref target="Pg123">123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on redemption, <ref target="Pg136">136-138</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on eucharist, <ref target="Pg139">139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Easter controversy, <ref target="Pg163">163</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Irene, empress, <ref target="Pg685">685</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Istrian"/> +<l>Istrian schism, <ref target="Pg596">596-600</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Jerome"/> +<l>Jerome, on fall of Rome, <ref target="Pg421">421-423</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on text of New Testament, <ref target="Pg485">485</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Origen, <ref target="Pg486">486</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jews, relation of, to the Christians, <ref target="Pg014">14-18</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John, Apostle, death of, <ref target="Pg009">9</ref>, <ref target="Pg010">10</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">chiliastic teaching, <ref target="Pg026">26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">in Ephesus, <ref target="Pg114">114</ref>, <ref target="Pg116">116</ref>, <ref target="Pg118">118</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">founds order of bishops, <ref target="Pg122">122</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John of Damascus on images, <ref target="Pg691">691-693</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jovian, emp., <ref target="Pg337">337</ref>, <ref target="Pg339">339</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Julia Mammæa, <ref target="Pg153">153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Julian, emp., early life, <ref target="Pg325">325-329</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">habits, <ref target="Pg329">329</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">opens temples, <ref target="Pg330">330</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">his ecclesiastical and religious policy, <ref target="Pg330">330-334</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">forbids Christians to teach classics, <ref target="Pg334">334-336</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Julius of Rome, <ref target="Pg310">310</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">epistle of, <ref target="Pg311">311</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">appeals allowed to, <ref target="Pg364">364</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justin Martyr, on Jews, <ref target="Pg016">16</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">extension of Christianity, <ref target="Pg018">18</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">chiliastic views, <ref target="Pg027">27</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Christian worship, <ref target="Pg032">32-35</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">defence of Christianity, <ref target="Pg072">72-75</ref>, <ref target="Pg135">135</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justin I, emp., <ref target="Pg540">540</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justinian I, emp., <ref target="Pg541">541</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">anathematisms against Origen, <ref target="Pg542">542</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Aphthartodocetism, <ref target="Pg553">553</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">ecclesiastical legislation, <ref target="Pg383">383</ref>, <ref target="Pg554">554-560</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lactantius, <ref target="Pg206">206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lamb as image of Christ, <ref target="Pg678">678</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laodicæa, council of (c. A. D. 343), <ref target="Pg399">399</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Lapsi</hi>, <ref target="Pg208">208-212</ref>, <ref target="Pg214">214-217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Law, Mosaic, Gnostic conception of, <ref target="Pg095">95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg104">104</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laws against Christianity, <ref target="Pg019">19-22</ref>, <ref target="Pg056">56</ref>, <ref target="Pg145">145</ref>, <ref target="Pg211">211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laws in favor of the Church, <ref target="Pg281">281-285</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Legacy-hunting by clergy forbidden, <ref target="Pg381">381</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Legislation, influence of the Church on, <ref target="Pg284">284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg385">385</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leo of Rome, on the Priscillianists, <ref target="Pg378">378</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on auricular confession, <ref target="Pg384">384</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on clerical celibacy, <ref target="Pg417">417</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">represents Roman people, <ref target="Pg476">476</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Petrine prerogatives, <ref target="Pg476">476</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">condemns 28th canon of Chalcedon, <ref target="Pg478">478</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on apostolic sees, <ref target="Pg480">480</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">his course in Eutychian controversy, <ref target="Pg511">511</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">his <hi rend='italic'>Tome</hi>, <ref target="Pg514">514</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Libellatici</hi>, <ref target="Pg158">158</ref>, <ref target="Pg209">209</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg214">214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Libelli pacis</hi>, <ref target="Pg187">187</ref>, <ref target="Pg215">215</ref>, <ref target="Pg292">292</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Libri pœnitentiales</hi>, <ref target="Pg626">626-630</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Licinius, emp., <ref target="Pg263">263-265</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Little Labyrinth</hi>, <ref target="Pg173">173-175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Liutprand, king, <ref target="Pg659">659</ref>, <ref target="Pg686">686-690</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Logos"/> +<l>Logos, <ref target="Pg072">72</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg130">130-132</ref>, <ref target="Pg171">171</ref>, <ref target="Pg176">176</ref>, <ref target="Pg193">193</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg227">227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg298">298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg304">304</ref>, <ref target="Pg313">313</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lombard Church, <ref target="Pg597">597</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg683">683</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lombards, <ref target="Pg589">589</ref>, <ref target="Pg600">600-602</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lord's Day, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref>, <ref target="Pg232">232</ref>, <ref target="Pg284">284</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lord's Prayer with Doxology, <ref target="Pg038">38</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lord's Supper. See <ref target="Index-Eucharist"><q>Eucharist.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lucian of Samosata, <ref target="Pg055">55</ref>, <ref target="Pg059">59-61</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lucian the martyr, <ref target="Pg303">303</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">creed of, <ref target="Pg313">313</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luke, Gospel of, mutilated by Marcion, <ref target="Pg103">103</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luxeuil, foundation of, <ref target="Pg587">587</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macedonian heresy, <ref target="Pg353">353</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg524">524</ref>, <ref target="Pg552">552</ref>, <ref target="Pg666">666</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magic among the Gnostics, <ref target="Pg080">80</ref>, <ref target="Pg087">87</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malchion, <ref target="Pg225">225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mani and Manichæanism, <ref target="Pg127">127</ref>, <ref target="Pg252">252-256</ref>, <ref target="Pg372">372</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">laws against, <ref target="Pg375">375</ref>, <ref target="Pg559">559</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">persecution of, <ref target="Pg376">376</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Augustine on, <ref target="Pg454">454</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marcellus of Ancyra, <ref target="Pg310">310</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marcia, concubine of Commodus, <ref target="Pg069">69</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marcian, emp., <ref target="Pg510">510</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marcion, Gnostic, <ref target="Pg103">103-106</ref>, <ref target="Pg114">114</ref>, <ref target="Pg119">119</ref>, <ref target="Pg122">122</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marcionites, <ref target="Pg127">127</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marius Mercator, on Pelagianism, <ref target="Pg460">460</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mark, Gospel of, <ref target="Pg123">123</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marriage, Christian, <ref target="Pg106">106</ref>, <ref target="Pg108">108</ref>, <ref target="Pg168">168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">compared with virginity, <ref target="Pg168">168</ref>, <ref target="Pg393">393</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">indissolubility of, <ref target="Pg043">43</ref>, <ref target="Pg169">169</ref>, <ref target="Pg392">392</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg612">612</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">second, <ref target="Pg047">47</ref>, <ref target="Pg169">169</ref>, <ref target="Pg182">182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Martin of Rome, <ref target="Pg660">660</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Martin of Tours, <ref target="Pg410">410</ref>, <ref target="Pg427">427</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='704'/><anchor id='Pg704'/> + +<lg> +<l>Martyrdom, <ref target="Pg065">65</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg066">66-68</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Martyrs, anniversaries of, <ref target="Pg401">401</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">merits of, <ref target="Pg167">167</ref>, <ref target="Pg187">187</ref>, <ref target="Pg212">212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">intercession of, <ref target="Pg399">399</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mary, the Virgin, <ref target="Pg030">30</ref>, <ref target="Pg070">70</ref>, <ref target="Pg081">81</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">is Theotokos, <ref target="Pg505">505</ref>, <ref target="Pg511">511</ref>, <ref target="Pg518">518</ref>, <ref target="Pg520">520</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Massilians, <ref target="Pg467">467</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maximilla, Montanist prophetess, <ref target="Pg107">107</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg110">110</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maximinus Thrax, emp., persecution under, <ref target="Pg154">154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maximus the Confessor, <ref target="Pg660">660</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melchizedek, <ref target="Pg173">173</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Meletius"/> +<l>Meletius and the Meletian schism, <ref target="Pg266">266-270</ref>, <ref target="Pg293">293</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meletius, Bishop of Antioch, <ref target="Pg349">349</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Memnon of Ephesus, <ref target="Pg504">504</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Menander"/> +<l>Menander, <ref target="Pg081">81</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Merovingian Church, <ref target="Pg581">581</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Methodius of Olympus, his theory of recapitulation, <ref target="Pg229">229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on the resurrection of the body, <ref target="Pg230">230</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Metropolitans, <ref target="Pg361">361</ref>, <ref target="Pg363">363</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milan, church of, <ref target="Pg596">596</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milan, edict of, <ref target="Pg263">263-265</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Minucius Felix, <ref target="Pg061">61-64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Miracles, Christian, <ref target="Pg056">56</ref>, <ref target="Pg153">153</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mithras, <ref target="Pg034">34</ref>, <ref target="Pg150">150</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Monarchian"/> +<l>Monarchian controversies, <ref target="Pg171">171-181</ref>, <ref target="Pg221">221-229</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monasteries, subject to bishops, <ref target="Pg407">407</ref>.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">See also <ref target="Index-Monasticism"><q>Monasticism.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monastic rules. See <ref target="Index-Basil"><q>Basil,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Benedict"><q>Benedict of Nursia,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Pachomius"><q>Pachomius,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Columbanus"><q>Columbanus.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Monasticism"/> +<l>Monasticism, <ref target="Pg248">248-251</ref>, <ref target="Pg401">401-411</ref>, <ref target="Pg586">586</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg617">617</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg630">630-644</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monophysite churches, <ref target="Pg538">538</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Monophysite"/> +<l>Monophysite controversies, <ref target="Pg511">511-514</ref>, <ref target="Pg516">516</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg522">522-529</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Monothelite"/> +<l>Monothelete controversy, <ref target="Pg516">516</ref>, <ref target="Pg539">539</ref>, <ref target="Pg652">652</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg660">660-672</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montanism in the West, <ref target="Pg145">145</ref>, <ref target="Pg179">179</ref>, <ref target="Pg181">181</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Montanus"/> +<l>Montanus and Montanism, <ref target="Pg106">106</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg109">109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg120">120</ref>, <ref target="Pg127">127</ref>, <ref target="Pg372">372</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moralism and moralistic Christianity, <ref target="Pg045">45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg134">134</ref>, <ref target="Pg165">165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morality, Christian, <ref target="Pg028">28</ref>, <ref target="Pg070">70</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg188">188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morality, double, <ref target="Pg046">46</ref>, <ref target="Pg048">48</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moslems, <ref target="Pg653">653-659</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Muratorian Fragment</hi>, <ref target="Pg117">117-120</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Natalius, confessor, <ref target="Pg174">174</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neo-Platonism, <ref target="Pg202">202-204</ref>, <ref target="Pg430">430</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nepos, schism of, <ref target="Pg219">219-221</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nero, emp., persecution by, <ref target="Pg005">5-7</ref>, <ref target="Pg009">9</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nestorian controversy, <ref target="Pg504">504-511</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nestorius, fragments on the doctrine of, <ref target="Pg501">501</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New-Nicene Party, <ref target="Pg348">348</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicæa, council of (A. D. 325), <ref target="Pg292">292-295</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">creed of, confirmed at Constantinople, A. D. 381, <ref target="Pg353">353</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">canons of, <ref target="Pg360">360-362</ref>, <ref target="Pg412">412</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">doctrine of, enforced by law, <ref target="Pg368">368</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Goths present at, <ref target="Pg425">425</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 787), definition of, <ref target="Pg694">694-697</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nice, Creed of, <ref target="Pg318">318</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ninian, <ref target="Pg569">569</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Noetus, <ref target="Pg109">109</ref>, <ref target="Pg175">175</ref>, <ref target="Pg178">178</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Novatian"/> +<l>Novatian and Novatians, <ref target="Pg217">217</ref>, <ref target="Pg245">245</ref>, <ref target="Pg247">247</ref>, <ref target="Pg295">295</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg374">374</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oak, synod of the, <ref target="Pg492">492</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Oblati</hi>, <ref target="Pg639">639</ref>, <ref target="Pg642">642</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oblation, <ref target="Pg168">168</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Offerings, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Optatus, on sacraments and the Catholic Church, <ref target="Pg446">446</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orange, council of (A. D. 529), canons of, against Pelagianism, <ref target="Pg472">472-476</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Ordination"/> +<l>Ordination, of clergy, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">of bishops, <ref target="Pg239">239</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Origen, <ref target="Pg144">144</ref>, <ref target="Pg153">153</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on eternal generation of the Son, <ref target="Pg193">193</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">eternal creation, <ref target="Pg194">194</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">pre-existence of souls, <ref target="Pg195">195</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">redemption, <ref target="Pg196">196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">universal salvation, <ref target="Pg198">198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">allegorism, <ref target="Pg199">199</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">persecution, <ref target="Pg206">206</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">martyrdom, <ref target="Pg212">212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">errors of, <ref target="Pg486">486</ref>, <ref target="Pg489">489</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">condemnation of by Anastasius, <ref target="Pg487">487</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Origenistic controversies, first, <ref target="Pg483">483</ref>, <ref target="Pg486">486-493</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">second, <ref target="Pg541">541</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Original Sin, Augustine on, <ref target="Pg438">438-440</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Pelagius on, <ref target="Pg458">458</ref>, <ref target="Pg460">460</ref>, <ref target="Pg464">464</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">council of Orange, <ref target="Pg473">473-475</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orleans, council of (A. D. 511), <ref target="Pg580">580</ref>, <ref target="Pg618">618</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 541), <ref target="Pg618">618</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 549), <ref target="Pg580">580</ref>, <ref target="Pg619">619</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orthodoxy, enforcement of, <ref target="Pg367">367</ref>, <ref target="Pg370">370</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ostrogoths, Church under, <ref target="Pg529">529</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Ousia</hi> distinguished from <hi rend='italic'>hypostasis</hi>, <ref target="Pg348">348</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='705'/><anchor id='Pg705'/> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Pachomius"/> +<l>Pachomius, <hi rend='italic'>Rule</hi> of, <ref target="Pg402">402-405</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palladius, bishop in Ireland, <ref target="Pg567">567</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pallium, <ref target="Pg591">591</ref>, <ref target="Pg604">604</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pantænus, <ref target="Pg055">55</ref>, <ref target="Pg189">189</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papias, chiliastic ideas of, <ref target="Pg025">25</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paris, council of (A. D. 557), <ref target="Pg581">581</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parish, <ref target="Pg616">616-620</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patriarchates, <ref target="Pg354">354</ref>, <ref target="Pg359">359</ref>, <ref target="Pg361">361</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patrick, Irish missionary, <ref target="Pg567">567-569</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patripassianism, <ref target="Pg125">125</ref>, <ref target="Pg175">175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paul, Apostle, death of, <ref target="Pg008">8</ref>, <ref target="Pg009">9</ref>, <ref target="Pg023">23</ref>, <ref target="Pg112">112</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg116">116</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">epistles of, <ref target="Pg068">68</ref>, <ref target="Pg103">103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg119">119</ref>, <ref target="Pg122">122</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paul of Samosata, <ref target="Pg221">221</ref>, <ref target="Pg225">225-229</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paulinus of Antioch, <ref target="Pg349">349</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paulus Diaconus, <ref target="Pg600">600</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Pelagian"/> +<l>Pelagian controversy, <ref target="Pg455">455-466</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pelagius, <ref target="Pg455">455</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Augustine on, <ref target="Pg456">456</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">statement of position, <ref target="Pg457">457</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">epistle to Demetrias, <ref target="Pg458">458-460</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">his confession of faith, <ref target="Pg461">461</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">condemnation at Carthage, <ref target="Pg463">463-465</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">condemnation at Ephesus, <ref target="Pg508">508</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Penances, <ref target="Pg626">626-630</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Penitential discipline. See <ref target="Index-Discipline"><q>Discipline, penitential.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pentecost, feast of, <ref target="Pg165">165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peregrinus Proteus, <ref target="Pg059">59-61</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Perpetua"/> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Perpetua and Felicitas, Passion of</hi>, <ref target="Pg145">145-149</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persecution. See under name of Emperor.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persia, Christians in, <ref target="Pg054">54</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peter, Apostle, death of, <ref target="Pg008">8</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">at Rome, <ref target="Pg009">9</ref>, <ref target="Pg023">23</ref>, <ref target="Pg112">112</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg116">116</ref>, <ref target="Pg123">123</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peter of Alexandria, <ref target="Pg270">270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peter Fullo, <ref target="Pg535">535</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peter Mongus, <ref target="Pg535">535</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Petrine authority, <ref target="Pg180">180</ref>, <ref target="Pg186">186</ref>, <ref target="Pg243">243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg447">447</ref>, <ref target="Pg477">477-481</ref>, <ref target="Pg532">532</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philip, Apostle, death of, <ref target="Pg011">11</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philip the Arabian, emp., religious policy of, <ref target="Pg156">156</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philippopolis, council of (A. D. 343), <ref target="Pg364">364</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philo Judæus, <ref target="Pg135">135</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philosophy, <ref target="Pg072">72</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg078">78</ref>, <ref target="Pg174">174</ref>, <ref target="Pg190">190</ref>, <ref target="Pg192">192</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phocas, emp., <ref target="Pg595">595</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phrygian heresy, <ref target="Pg375">375</ref>. See <ref target="Index-Montanus"><q>Montanism.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pictures. See <ref target="Index-Iconoclasm"><q>Icons.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plato, <ref target="Pg073">73</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pleroma, Gnostic doctrine of, <ref target="Pg090">90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pliny the Younger, epistle to Trajan, <ref target="Pg019">19</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pneumatics, <ref target="Pg093">93</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polycarp, <ref target="Pg113">113</ref>, <ref target="Pg129">129</ref>, <ref target="Pg163">163</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polycrates, <ref target="Pg010">10</ref>, <ref target="Pg162">162</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poor. See <ref target="Index-Charity"><q>Charity.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pope. See <ref target="Index-Rome-Bishops"><q>Rome, Bishop of,</q></ref> also name of individual popes.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pope, title of, <ref target="Pg215">215</ref>, <ref target="Pg408">408</ref>, note.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Porphyry, epistle to Marcella, <ref target="Pg202">202-204</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Praxeas, <ref target="Pg125">125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg178">178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prayer, <ref target="Pg033">33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg038">38</ref>, <ref target="Pg072">72</ref>, <ref target="Pg165">165</ref>, <ref target="Pg184">184</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prayer, times of, <ref target="Pg038">38</ref>, <ref target="Pg166">166</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prayers to saints, <ref target="Pg397">397-399</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Predestination, <ref target="Pg136">136</ref>, <ref target="Pg440">440-442</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Presbyter, <ref target="Pg031">31</ref>, <ref target="Pg037">37</ref>, <ref target="Pg041">41</ref>, <ref target="Pg082">82</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priscilla, Montanist, <ref target="Pg107">107</ref>, <ref target="Pg110">110</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priscillianists, <ref target="Pg375">375</ref>, <ref target="Pg378">378</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prophecy, argument from Hebrew, <ref target="Pg074">74</ref>, <ref target="Pg134">134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prophets, Christian, <ref target="Pg040">40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prosecution of Christians, <ref target="Pg020">20</ref>, <ref target="Pg066">66-68</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pseudo-Dionysius. See <ref target="Index-Dionysius-Areopagite"><q>Dionysius the Areopagite.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Psychics, <ref target="Pg092">92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemæus, martyr, <ref target="Pg065">65</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Ptolemaeus"/> +<l>Ptolemæus, <ref target="Pg093">93</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">epistle to Flora, <ref target="Pg095">95-102</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pulcheria, empress, <ref target="Pg512">512</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quartodecimans, <ref target="Pg108">108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quinisext Council (A. D. 692), <ref target="Pg413">413-415</ref>, <ref target="Pg673">673-679</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ravenna, exarchate of, <ref target="Pg653">653</ref>, <ref target="Pg680">680</ref>, <ref target="Pg684">684</ref>, <ref target="Pg686">686</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Real Presence, <ref target="Pg031">31</ref>, <ref target="Pg034">34</ref>, <ref target="Pg231">231</ref>, <ref target="Pg235">235</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reccared, Visigothic king, <ref target="Pg575">575-579</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Redemption, Asia Minor conception of, <ref target="Pg136">136</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Origen's conception, <ref target="Pg196">196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Regula fidei</hi>, <ref target="Pg125">125</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Relics, <ref target="Pg398">398</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Remission of sin after baptism, <ref target="Pg044">44</ref>, <ref target="Pg184">184</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resurrection of Christ, <ref target="Pg059">59</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resurrection of the body, <ref target="Pg116">116</ref>, <ref target="Pg230">230</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhodon, <ref target="Pg104">104</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Robber synod of Ephesus (A. D. 449), <ref target="Pg512">512</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roman government, attitude of, toward +<pb n='706'/><anchor id='Pg706'/> +Christians, <ref target="Pg020">20-22</ref>, <ref target="Pg064">64-69</ref>, <ref target="Pg142">142-145</ref>, <ref target="Pg151">151-154</ref>, <ref target="Pg205">205-208</ref>, <ref target="Pg258">258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, appeals to, <ref target="Pg364">364-366</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Rome-Bishops"/> +<l>Rome, bishops of, list of, <ref target="Pg113">113</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">election of, <ref target="Pg679">679-683</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, councils of, under Cornelius, <ref target="Pg217">217</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">under Julius, <ref target="Pg310">310</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">under Martin, <ref target="Pg614">614</ref>, <ref target="Pg664">664</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, see of, and the Unity of the Church, <ref target="Pg240">240-245</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, see of, authority of, <hi rend='italic'>potior principalitas</hi>, <ref target="Pg113">113</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">statement of Siricius on, <ref target="Pg416">416</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2"><hi rend='italic'>causa finita est</hi>, <ref target="Pg462">462</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">statement of Leo the Great, <ref target="Pg480">480</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">of Gelasius, <ref target="Pg532">532</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, see of, separation from the Churches of Asia Minor, <ref target="Pg161">161-165</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rufinus, <ref target="Pg489">489</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Sabellius"/> +<l>Sabellius and Sabellianism, <ref target="Pg180">180</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg223">223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg300">300</ref>, <ref target="Pg309">309</ref>, <ref target="Pg352">352</ref>, <ref target="Pg354">354</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacraments, nature of, <ref target="Pg447">447</ref>, <ref target="Pg449">449</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg564">564</ref>.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">See also <ref target="Index-Baptism"><q>Baptism</q></ref> and <ref target="Index-Eucharist"><q>Eucharist.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrifice of the mass, <ref target="Pg622">622</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saints, prayers to, <ref target="Pg397">397</ref>, <ref target="Pg399">399</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sardica, council of (A. D. 343), canons, <ref target="Pg364">364</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saturninus, Gnostic, <ref target="Pg106">106</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schism. See under <ref target="Index-Novatian"><q>Novatian,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Felicissimus"><q>Felicissimus,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Meletius"><q>Meletius,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Heraclius"><q>Heraclius,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Donatus"><q>Donatism,</q></ref> <ref target="Index-Istrian"><q>Istrian.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schools, mediæval, <ref target="Pg644">644</ref>, <ref target="Pg650">650</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scilitan Martyrs, <ref target="Pg066">66-68</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Semi-Arians, <ref target="Pg316">316</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Semi-Pelagians"/> +<l>Semi-Pelagians, <ref target="Pg466">466-476</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Severus, Alexander, emp., religious policy of, <ref target="Pg152">152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Severus, Septimius. emp., <ref target="Pg141">141-149</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Simon"/> +<l>Simon Magus, <ref target="Pg078">78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg103">103</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siricius of Rome, decretal of, <ref target="Pg415">415-417</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sirmium, council and creed of (A. D. 357), <ref target="Pg316">316</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Sixtus"/> +<l>Sixtus of Rome, <ref target="Pg211">211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slaves, manumission of, <ref target="Pg385">385</ref>, <ref target="Pg387">387</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">canons on treatment of, <ref target="Pg386">386-388</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Socrates, Greek philosopher, <ref target="Pg072">72</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg131">131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Socrates, ecclesiastical historian, <ref target="Pg274">274</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soter of Rome, <ref target="Pg024">24</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sozomen, ecclesiastical historian, <ref target="Pg274">274</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spain, Church in, <ref target="Pg053">53</ref>, <ref target="Pg158">158</ref>, <ref target="Pg575">575</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spirit, Holy, <ref target="Pg133">133</ref>, <ref target="Pg187">187</ref>, <ref target="Pg349">349</ref>, <ref target="Pg351">351</ref>, <ref target="Pg353">353</ref>, <ref target="Pg577">577</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi> See also <ref target="Index-Trinity"><q>Trinity.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>State Church, <ref target="Pg356">356</ref>, <ref target="Pg358">358-384</ref>, <ref target="Pg553">553-557</ref>, <ref target="Pg579">579-585</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stephen of Rome, <ref target="Pg242">242-245</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Subintroductæ</hi>, <ref target="Pg226">226</ref>, <ref target="Pg412">412</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Suevi, <ref target="Pg571">571</ref>, <ref target="Pg575">575</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sulpicius Severus, <ref target="Pg410">410</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg427">427</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sunday, <ref target="Pg035">35</ref>, <ref target="Pg284">284</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sylvester of Rome, <ref target="Pg291">291</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Symbol. See <ref target="Index-Creeds"><q>Creed.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Symmachus of Rome, <ref target="Pg530">530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Symmachus, prefect of Rome, <ref target="Pg339">339-342</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Synods. See <ref target="Index-Councils"><q>Council</q></ref> and under place-name.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syria, Christianity in, <ref target="Pg054">54</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syzygies, Gnostic doctrine of, <ref target="Pg090">90</ref>, <ref target="Pg094">94</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tabenna, first cloister, <ref target="Pg402">402</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tacitus on Christians, <ref target="Pg006">6</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tatian, <ref target="Pg106">106</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Telemachus, monk, <ref target="Pg389">389</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temples, destruction of, <ref target="Pg372">372</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Tertullian"/> +<l>Tertullian, on extension of Christianity, <ref target="Pg052">52-54</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Gnostics, <ref target="Pg077">77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Marcion, <ref target="Pg104">104</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on apostolic churches, <ref target="Pg114">114-116</ref>, <ref target="Pg122">122</ref>, <ref target="Pg129">129</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on the creed, <ref target="Pg125">125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">in defence of Christians, <ref target="Pg142">142</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg145">145</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on prayer, <ref target="Pg165">165</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on fasting, <ref target="Pg166">166</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on baptism, <ref target="Pg167">167</ref>, <ref target="Pg232">232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on merit, <ref target="Pg167">167</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on marriage, <ref target="Pg168">168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">against Praxeas, <ref target="Pg178">178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on discipline, <ref target="Pg184">184-188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodelinda, Lombard queen, <ref target="Pg597">597</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodore of Canterbury, organization of English Church, <ref target="Pg609">609-614</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">penitential, <ref target="Pg627">627-629</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">founds schools, <ref target="Pg650">650</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodore of Mopsuestia, his creed, <ref target="Pg498">498-500</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">fragments on Christology, <ref target="Pg500">500</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">See also <ref target="Index-Three-Chapters"><q>Three Chapters.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodoret of Cyrus, <ref target="Pg127">127</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">creed, <ref target="Pg510">510</ref>.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">See also <ref target="Index-Three-Chapters"><q>Three Chapters.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodosius I, ecclesiastical policy, <ref target="Pg352">352</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">requires orthodoxy, <ref target="Pg367">367</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">represses heathenism, <ref target="Pg368">368</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">massacre at Thessalonica, <ref target="Pg300">300</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">dynasty of, <ref target="Pg420">420</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodosius II, issues Theodosian code, <ref target="Pg424">424</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">engages in Nestorian controversy, <ref target="Pg504">504</ref>, <ref target="Pg510">510</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">in Eutychian controversy, <ref target="Pg511">511</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='707'/><anchor id='Pg707'/> + +<lg> +<l>Theodotus of Byzantium, <ref target="Pg172">172</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodotus the leather-worker, <ref target="Pg110">110</ref>, <ref target="Pg173">173</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theopaschites, <ref target="Pg523">523</ref>, <ref target="Pg541">541</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theophilus of Alexandria, attacks Chrysostom, <ref target="Pg491">491-493</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theophilus of Antioch, on Logos doctrine, <ref target="Pg132">132</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on Trinity, <ref target="Pg134">134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theotokos, Mary as the, <ref target="Pg505">505</ref>, <ref target="Pg511">511</ref>, <ref target="Pg518">518</ref>, <ref target="Pg520">520</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Three-Chapters"/> +<l>Three Chapters, controversy on, <ref target="Pg544">544-552</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">condemnation of, <ref target="Pg551">551</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">schisms resulting from condemnation, <ref target="Pg596">596</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toledo, council of (A. D. 531), on schools, <ref target="Pg649">649</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">(A. D. 589), conversion of Visigoths, <ref target="Pg575">575-579</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toleration of Christians by Edict of Milan, <ref target="Pg263">263</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tradition, <ref target="Pg109">109</ref>, <ref target="Pg111">111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Basil on, <ref target="Pg484">484</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Traditores</hi>, <ref target="Pg291">291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trajan, emp., epistle to Pliny, <ref target="Pg022">22</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Trinity"/> +<l>Trinity, <ref target="Pg112">112</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg171">171-181</ref>, <ref target="Pg222">222-225</ref>, <ref target="Pg368">368</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Trisagion</hi>, <ref target="Pg541">541</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>True Word</hi> of Celsus, <ref target="Pg056">56-59</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Typos</hi> of Constans II, <ref target="Pg662">662-664</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ulfilas, <ref target="Pg425">425-427</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">his creed, <ref target="Pg426">426</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unity of the Church, <ref target="Pg240">240-245</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Universal salvation, <ref target="Pg198">198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valens, emp., <ref target="Pg337">337</ref>, <ref target="Pg339">339</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valentinian I, emp., <ref target="Pg337">337</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id="Index-Valentinus"/> +<l>Valentinus, Gnostic, <ref target="Pg078">78</ref>, <ref target="Pg088">88-95</ref>, <ref target="Pg106">106</ref>, <ref target="Pg120">120</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valerian, emp., persecution under, <ref target="Pg205">205</ref>, <ref target="Pg210">210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vicariate of Arles, <ref target="Pg591">591</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Victor of Rome, <ref target="Pg162">162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>, <ref target="Pg174">174</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Victorinus, philosopher, <ref target="Pg431">431-433</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vigilantius, <ref target="Pg397">397</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vigilius of Rome, his <hi rend='italic'>Judicatum</hi>, <ref target="Pg544">544</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">oath to Justinian, <ref target="Pg545">545</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2"><hi rend='italic'>Constitutum</hi>, <ref target="Pg547">547-551</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vincent of Lerins, rule of Catholic faith, <ref target="Pg471">471</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">on grace, <ref target="Pg472">472</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virgin-birth of Jesus, <ref target="Pg030">30</ref>, <ref target="Pg031">31</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virginity compared with marriage, <ref target="Pg168">168</ref>, <ref target="Pg393">393</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Visigothic Church, <ref target="Pg575">575-579</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whitby, council of, <ref target="Pg605">605</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Will, freedom of, Theophilus on, <ref target="Pg134">134</ref>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Pelagius on, <ref target="Pg457">457</ref> <hi rend='italic'>ff.</hi>;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">John Cassian on, <ref target="Pg469">469</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Worship, Christian, <ref target="Pg021">21</ref>, <ref target="Pg032">32-35</ref>, <ref target="Pg038">38</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi>, <ref target="Pg156">156</ref>, <ref target="Pg165">165</ref>, <ref target="Pg231">231-237</ref>, <ref target="Pg578">578</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xystus of Rome. See <ref target="Index-Sixtus"><q>Sixtus.</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zeno, emp., <hi rend='italic'>Henoticon</hi>, <ref target="Pg526">526-529</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zephyrinus of Rome, <ref target="Pg176">176</ref> <hi rend='italic'>f.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zosimus of Rome, on Pelagius, <ref target="Pg463">463</ref>.</l> +</lg> +</lg> + +</div> + +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + <divGen type="footnotes"/> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: right"> + <divGen type="pgfooter" /> + </div> +</back> +</text> +</TEI.2> |