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text-indent: 1em;} + .figure p.in, .figcenter p.in, .figright p.in, .figleft p.in + {margin: 0; text-indent: 8em;} + .figcenter p.poem + {margin-left: 1em; text-align: left; text-indent: 0;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft {float: left;} + img.middle { border: none; vertical-align: middle } + + // --> + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Variation of Animals and Plants Under +Domestication, Vol. I., by Charles Darwin + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication, Vol. I. + +Author: Charles Darwin + +Release Date: March 27, 2008 [EBook #24923] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Gibbs, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h2>THE VARIATION</h2> + +<p class="cenhead">OF</p> + +<h1>ANIMALS AND PLANTS</h1> + +<h2>UNDER DOMESTICATION.</h2> + +<h3><span class="sc">By</span> CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., &c.</h3> + +<h3>IN TWO VOLUMES.—<span class="sc">Vol</span>. I.</h3> + +<h4>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.</h4> + +<h3>LONDON:</h3> + +<h3>JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.</h3> + +<h3>1868.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The right of Translation is reserved.</i></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h3>BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</h3> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p>ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION; or The <span + class="sc">Preservation</span> of <span class="sc">Favoured Races</span> + in the <span class="sc">Struggle</span> for <span class="sc">Life</span>. + Fourth Edition (<i>Eighth Thousand</i>), with Additions and Corrections. + 1866. ... <span class="sc">Murray</span>.</p> + + <p>A NATURALIST'S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD; or, A <span class="sc">Journal + of Researches</span> into the <span class="sc">Natural History</span> and + <span class="sc">Geology</span> of the <span class="sc">Countries</span> + visited during the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, under the Command of Capt. + <span class="sc">Fitz-Roy</span>, R.N. <i>Tenth Thousand</i>. ... <span + class="sc">Murray</span>.</p> + + <p>ON THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS. ... <span + class="sc">Smith, Elder</span>, & Co.</p> + + <p>GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON VOLCANIC ISLANDS. ... <span + class="sc">Smith, Elder</span>, & Co.</p> + + <p>GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH AMERICA. ... <span class="sc">Smith, + Elder</span>, & Co.</p> + + <p>A MONOGRAPH OF THE CIRRIPEDIA. With numerous Illustrations. 2 vols. + 8vo. ... <span class="sc">Hardwicke</span>.</p> + + <p>ON THE VARIOUS CONTRIVANCES BY WHICH BRITISH AND FOREIGN ORCHIDS ARE + FERTILISED BY INSECTS; and on the <span class="sc">Good Effects</span> of + <span class="sc">Crossing</span>. With numerous Woodcuts. ... <span + class="sc">Murray</span>.</p> + + <p>ON THE MOVEMENTS and HABITS of CLIMBING PLANTS. With Woodcuts. ... + <span class="sc">Williams & Norgate</span>.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + +<p class="cenhead">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, +AND CHARING CROSS.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page iii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiii"></a>{iii}</span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.</h2> + + <p>INTRODUCTION ... Page <a href="#page1">1</a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DOMESTIC DOGS AND CATS.</p> + + <p><span class="scac">ANCIENT VARIETIES OF THE DOG</span>—<span + class="scac">RESEMBLANCE OF DOMESTIC DOGS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES TO NATIVE + CANINE SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">ANIMALS NOT ACQUAINTED + WITH MAN AT FIRST FEARLESS</span>—<span class="scac">DOGS + RESEMBLING WOLVES AND JACKALS</span>—<span class="scac">HABIT OF + BARKING ACQUIRED AND LOST</span>—<span class="scac">FERAL + DOGS</span>—<span class="scac">TAN-COLOURED + EYE-SPOTS</span>—<span class="scac">PERIOD OF + GESTATION</span>—<span class="scac">OFFENSIVE + ODOUR</span>—<span class="scac">FERTILITY OF THE RACES WHEN + CROSSED</span>—<span class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE SEVERAL RACES + IN PART DUE TO DESCENT FROM DISTINCT SPECIES</span>—<span + class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE SKULL AND TEETH</span>—<span + class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE BODY, IN CONSTITUTION</span>—<span + class="scac">FEW IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES HAVE BEEN FIXED BY + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">DIRECT ACTION OF + CLIMATE</span>—<span class="scac">WATER-DOGS WITH PALMATED + FEET</span>—<span class="scac">HISTORY OF THE CHANGES WHICH CERTAIN + ENGLISH RACES OF THE DOG HAVE GRADUALLY UNDERGONE THROUGH + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">EXTINCTION OF THE LESS IMPROVED + SUB-BREEDS.</span></p> + + <p><b>CATS</b>, <span class="scac">CROSSED WITH SEVERAL + SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">DIFFERENT BREEDS FOUND ONLY IN + SEPARATED COUNTRIES</span>—<span class="scac">DIRECT EFFECTS OF THE + CONDITIONS OF LIFE</span>—<span class="scac">FERAL + CATS</span>—<span class="scac">INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY</span> ... + Page <a href="#page15">15</a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">HORSES AND ASSES.</p> + + <p><b>HORSE.</b>—<span class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE + BREEDS</span>—<span class="scac">INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY + OF</span>—<span class="scac">DIRECT EFFECTS OF THE CONDITIONS OF + LIFE</span>—<span class="scac">CAN WITHSTAND MUCH + COLD</span>—<span class="scac">BREEDS MUCH MODIFIED BY + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">COLOURS OF THE + HORSE</span>—<span class="scac">DAPPLING</span>—<span + class="scac">DARK STRIPES ON THE SPINE, LEGS, SHOULDERS, AND + FOREHEAD</span>—<span class="scac">DUN-COLOURED HORSES MOST + FREQUENTLY STRIPED</span>—<span class="scac">STRIPES PROBABLY DUE + TO REVERSION TO THE PRIMITIVE STATE OF THE HORSE.</span></p> + + <p><b>ASSES.</b>—<span class="scac">BREEDS OF</span>—<span + class="scac">COLOUR OF</span>—<span class="scac">LEG- AND + SHOULDER-STRIPES</span>—<span class="scac">SHOULDER-STRIPES + SOMETIMES ABSENT, SOMETIMES FORKED</span> ... Page <a + href="#page49">49</a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">PIGS—CATTLE—SHEEP—GOATS.</p> + + <p><b>PIGS</b> <span class="scac">BELONG TO TWO DISTINCT TYPES, SUS + SCROFA AND INDICA</span>—<span + class="scac">TORF-SCHWEIN</span>—<span class="scac">JAPAN + PIG</span>—<span class="scac">FERTILITY OF CROSSED + PIGS</span>—<span class="scac">CHANGES IN THE SKULL OF THE HIGHLY + CULTIVATED RACES</span>—<span class="scac">CONVERGENCE OF + CHARACTER</span>—<span class="scac">GESTATION</span>—<span + class="scac">SOLID-HOOFED SWINE</span>—<span class="scac">CURIOUS + APPENDAGES TO THE JAWS</span>—<span class="scac">DECREASE IN SIZE + OF THE TUSKS</span>—<span class="scac">YOUNG PIGS LONGITUDINALLY + STRIPED</span>—<span class="scac">FERAL PIGS</span>—<span + class="scac">CROSSED BREEDS.</span></p> + + <p><b>CATTLE.</b>—<span class="scac">ZEBU A DISTINCT + SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">EUROPEAN CATTLE PROBABLY + DESCENDED FROM THREE WILD FORMS</span>—<span class="scac">ALL THE + RACES NOW FERTILE TOGETHER</span>—<span class="scac">BRITISH PARK + CATTLE</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE COLOUR OF THE ABORIGINAL + SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">CONSTITUTIONAL + DIFFERENCES</span>—<span class="scac">SOUTH AFRICAN + RACES</span>—<span class="scac">SOUTH AMERICAN + RACES</span>—<span class="scac">NIATA CATTLE</span>—<span + class="scac">ORIGIN OF THE VARIOUS RACES OF CATTLE.</span> <!-- Page iv + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiv"></a>{iv}</span></p> + + <p><b>SHEEP.</b>—<span class="scac">REMARKABLE RACES + OF</span>—<span class="scac">VARIATIONS ATTACHED TO THE MALE + SEX</span>—<span class="scac">ADAPTATIONS TO VARIOUS + CONDITIONS</span>—<span class="scac">GESTATION + OF</span>—<span class="scac">CHANGES IN THE WOOL</span>—<span + class="scac">SEMI-MONSTROUS BREEDS.</span></p> + + <p><b>GOATS.</b>—<span class="scac">REMARKABLE VARIATIONS OF</span> + ... Page <a href="#page65">65</a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DOMESTIC RABBITS.</p> + + <p><span class="scac">DOMESTIC RABBITS DESCENDED FROM THE COMMON WILD + RABBIT</span>—<span class="scac">ANCIENT + DOMESTICATION</span>—<span class="scac">ANCIENT + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">LARGE LOP-EARED + RABBITS</span>—<span class="scac">VARIOUS BREEDS</span>—<span + class="scac">FLUCTUATING CHARACTERS</span>—<span + class="scac">ORIGIN OF THE HIMALAYAN BREED</span>—<span + class="scac">CURIOUS CASE OF INHERITANCE</span>—<span + class="scac">FERAL RABBITS IN JAMAICA AND THE FALKLAND + ISLANDS</span>—<span class="scac">PORTO SANTO FERAL + RABBITS</span>—<span class="scac">OSTEOLOGICAL + CHARACTERS</span>—<span class="scac">SKULL</span>—<span + class="scac">SKULL OF HALF-LOP RABBITS</span>—<span + class="scac">VARIATIONS IN THE SKULL ANALOGOUS TO DIFFERENCES IN + DIFFERENT SPECIES OF HARES</span>—<span + class="scac">VERTEBRÆ</span>—<span + class="scac">STERNUM</span>—<span + class="scac">SCAPULA</span>—<span class="scac">EFFECTS OF USE AND + DISUSE ON THE PROPORTIONS OF THE LIMBS AND BODY</span>—<span + class="scac">CAPACITY OF THE SKULL AND REDUCED SIZE OF THE + BRAIN</span>—<span class="scac">SUMMARY ON THE MODIFICATIONS OF + DOMESTICATED RABBITS</span> ... Page <a href="#page103">103</a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DOMESTIC PIGEONS.</p> + + <p><span class="scac">ENUMERATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL + BREEDS</span>—<span class="scac">INDIVIDUAL + VARIABILITY</span>—<span class="scac">VARIATIONS OF A REMARKABLE + NATURE</span>—<span class="scac">OSTEOLOGICAL CHARACTERS: SKULL, + LOWER JAW, NUMBER OF VERTEBRÆ</span>—<span class="scac">CORRELATION + OF GROWTH: TONGUE WITH BEAK; EYELIDS AND NOSTRILS WITH WATTLED + SKIN</span>—<span class="scac">NUMBER OF WING-FEATHERS, AND LENGTH + OF WING</span>—<span class="scac">COLOUR AND + DOWN</span>—<span class="scac">WEBBED AND FEATHERED + FEET</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE EFFECTS OF + DISUSE</span>—<span class="scac">LENGTH OF FEET IN CORRELATION WITH + LENGTH OF BEAK</span>—<span class="scac">LENGTH OF STERNUM, + SCAPULA, AND FURCULA</span>—<span class="scac">LENGTH OF + WINGS</span>—<span class="scac">SUMMARY ON THE POINTS OF DIFFERENCE + IN THE SEVERAL BREEDS</span> ... Page <a href="#page131">131</a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">PIGEONS—<i>continued</i>.</p> + + <p><span class="scac">ON THE ABORIGINAL PARENT-STOCK OF THE SEVERAL + DOMESTIC RACES</span>—<span class="scac">HABITS OF + LIFE</span>—<span class="scac">WILD RACES OF THE + ROCK-PIGEON</span>—<span + class="scac">DOVECOT-PIGEONS</span>—<span class="scac">PROOFS OF + THE DESCENT OF THE SEVERAL RACES FROM COLUMBA LIVIA</span>—<span + class="scac">FERTILITY OF THE RACES WHEN CROSSED</span>—<span + class="scac">REVERSION TO THE PLUMAGE OF THE WILD + ROCK-PIGEON</span>—<span class="scac">CIRCUMSTANCES FAVOURABLE TO + THE FORMATION OF THE RACES</span>—<span class="scac">ANTIQUITY AND + HISTORY OF THE PRINCIPAL RACES</span>—<span class="scac">MANNER OF + THEIR FORMATION</span>—<span + class="scac">SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">UNCONSCIOUS + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">CARE TAKEN BY FANCIERS IN + SELECTING THEIR BIRDS</span>—<span class="scac">SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT + STRAINS GRADUALLY CHANGE INTO WELL-MARKED BREEDS</span>—<span + class="scac">EXTINCTION OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS</span>—<span + class="scac">CERTAIN BREEDS REMAIN PERMANENT, WHILST OTHERS + CHANGE</span>—<span class="scac">SUMMARY</span> ... Page <a + href="#page180">180</a></p> + +<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"></a>{v}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">FOWLS.</p> + + <p><span class="scac">BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE CHIEF + BREEDS</span>—<span class="scac">ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF THEIR + DESCENT FROM SEVERAL SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">ARGUMENTS IN + FAVOUR OF ALL THE BREEDS HAVING DESCENDED FROM GALLUS + BANKIVA</span>—<span class="scac">-REVERSION TO THE PARENT-STOCK IN + COLOUR</span>—<span class="scac">ANALOGOUS + VARIATIONS</span>—<span class="scac">ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE + FOWL</span>—<span class="scac">EXTERNAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE + SEVERAL BREEDS</span>—<span class="scac">EGGS</span>—<span + class="scac">CHICKENS</span>—<span class="scac">SECONDARY SEXUAL + CHARACTERS</span>—<span class="scac">WING- AND TAIL-FEATHERS, + VOICE, DISPOSITION, ETC.</span>—<span class="scac">OSTEOLOGICAL + DIFFERENCES IN THE SKULL, VERTEBRÆ, ETC.</span>—<span + class="scac">EFFECTS OF USE AND DISUSE ON CERTAIN + PARTS</span>—<span class="scac">CORRELATION OF GROWTH</span> ... + Page <a href="#page225">225</a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DUCKS—GOOSE—PEACOCK—TURKEY—GUINEA-FOWL—CANARY-BIRD—GOLD-FISH—HIVE-BEES—SILK-MOTHS.</p> + + <p><b>DUCKS</b>, <span class="scac">SEVERAL BREEDS OF</span>—<span + class="scac">PROGRESS OF DOMESTICATION</span>—<span + class="scac">ORIGIN OF, FROM THE COMMON WILD-DUCK</span>—<span + class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE DIFFERENT BREEDS</span>—<span + class="scac">OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES</span>—<span + class="scac">EFFECTS OF USE AND DISUSE ON THE LIMB-BONES.</span></p> + + <p><b>GOOSE</b>, <span class="scac">ANCIENTLY + DOMESTICATED</span>—<span class="scac">LITTLE VARIATION + OF</span>—<span class="scac">SEBASTOPOL BREED.</span></p> + + <p><b>PEACOCK</b>, <span class="scac">ORIGIN OF BLACK-SHOULDERED + BREED.</span></p> + + <p><b>TURKEY</b>, <span class="scac">BREEDS OF</span>—<span + class="scac">CROSSED WITH THE UNITED STATES SPECIES</span>—<span + class="scac">EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON.</span></p> + + <p><b>GUINEA-FOWL, CANARY-BIRD, GOLD-FISH, HIVE-BEES.</b></p> + + <p><b>SILK-MOTHS</b>, <span class="scac">SPECIES AND BREEDS + OF</span>—<span class="scac">ANCIENTLY + DOMESTICATED</span>—<span class="scac">CARE IN THEIR + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE DIFFERENT + RACES</span>—<span class="scac">IN THE EGG, CATERPILLAR, AND COCOON + STATES</span>—<span class="scac">INHERITANCE OF + CHARACTERS</span>—<span class="scac">IMPERFECT + WINGS</span>—<span class="scac">LOST INSTINCTS</span>—<span + class="scac">CORRELATED CHARACTERS</span> ... Page <a + href="#page276">276</a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">CULTIVATED PLANTS: CEREAL AND CULINARY PLANTS.</p> + + <p><b>PRELIMINARY REMARKS</b> <span class="scac">ON THE NUMBER AND + PARENTAGE OF CULTIVATED PLANTS</span>—<span class="scac">FIRST + STEPS IN CULTIVATION</span>—<span class="scac">GEOGRAPHICAL + DISTRIBUTION OF CULTIVATED PLANTS.</span></p> + + <p><b>CEREALIA.</b>—<span class="scac">DOUBTS ON THE NUMBER OF + SPECIES.</span>—<span class="scac">WHEAT: VARIETIES + OF</span>—<span class="scac">INDIVIDUAL + VARIABILITY</span>—<span class="scac">CHANGED + HABITS</span>—<span class="scac">SELECTION</span>—<span + class="scac">ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE VARIETIES.</span>—<span + class="scac">MAIZE: GREAT VARIATION OF</span>—<span + class="scac">DIRECT ACTION OF CLIMATE ON.</span></p> + + <p><b>CULINARY PLANTS.</b>—<span class="scac">CABBAGES: VARIETIES + OF, IN FOLIAGE AND STEMS, BUT NOT IN OTHER PARTS</span>—<span + class="scac">PARENTAGE OF</span>—<span class="scac">OTHER SPECIES + OF BRASSICA.</span>—<span class="scac">PEAS: AMOUNT OF DIFFERENCE + IN THE SEVERAL KINDS, CHIEFLY IN THE PODS AND SEED</span>—<span + class="scac">SOME VARIETIES CONSTANT, SOME HIGHLY + VARIABLE</span>—<span class="scac">DO NOT + INTERCROSS.</span>—<span class="scac">BEANS.</span>—<span + class="scac">POTATOES: NUMEROUS VARIETIES OF</span>—<span + class="scac">DIFFERING LITTLE, EXCEPT IN THE TUBERS</span>—<span + class="scac">CHARACTERS INHERITED</span> ... Page <a + href="#page305">305</a></p> + +<p><!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi"></a>{vi}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER X.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">PLANTS <i>continued</i>—FRUITS—ORNAMENTAL TREES—FLOWERS.</p> + + <p><b>FRUITS.</b>—<span class="scac">GRAPES</span>—<span + class="scac">VARY IN ODD AND TRIFLING PARTICULARS.</span>—<span + class="scac">MULBERRY.</span>—<span class="scac">THE ORANGE + GROUP</span>—<span class="scac">SINGULAR RESULTS FROM + CROSSING.</span>—<span class="scac">PEACH AND + NECTARINE</span>—<span + class="scac">BUD-VARIATION</span>—<span class="scac">ANALOGOUS + VARIATION</span>—<span class="scac">RELATION TO THE + ALMOND.</span>—<span class="scac">APRICOT.</span>—<span + class="scac">PLUMS</span>—<span class="scac">VARIATION IN THEIR + STONES.</span>—<span class="scac">CHERRIES</span>—<span + class="scac">SINGULAR VARIETIES OF.</span>—<span + class="scac">APPLE.</span>—<span + class="scac">PEAR.</span>—<span + class="scac">STRAWBERRY</span>—<span class="scac">INTERBLENDING OF + THE ORIGINAL FORMS.</span>—<span + class="scac">GOOSEBERRY</span>—<span class="scac">STEADY INCREASE + IN SIZE OF THE FRUIT</span>—<span class="scac">VARIETIES + OF.</span>—<span class="scac">WALNUT.</span>—<span + class="scac">NUT.</span>—<span class="scac">CUCURBITACEOUS + PLANTS</span>—<span class="scac">WONDERFUL VARIATION OF.</span></p> + + <p><b>ORNAMENTAL TREES</b>—<span class="scac">THEIR VARIATION IN + DEGREE AND KIND</span>—<span + class="scac">ASH-TREE</span>—<span + class="scac">SCOTCH-FIR</span>—<span + class="scac">HAWTHORN.</span></p> + + <p><b>FLOWERS</b>—<span class="scac">MULTIPLE ORIGIN OF MANY + KINDS</span>—<span class="scac">VARIATION IN CONSTITUTIONAL + PECULIARITIES</span>—<span class="scac">KIND OF + VARIATION.</span>—<span class="scac">ROSES</span>—<span + class="scac">SEVERAL SPECIES CULTIVATED.</span>—<span + class="scac">PANSY.</span>—<span + class="scac">DAHLIA.</span>—<span class="scac">HYACINTH, HISTORY + AND VARIATION OF</span> ... Page <a href="#page332">332</a></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON BUD-VARIATION, AND ON CERTAIN ANOMALOUS MODES OF REPRODUCTION AND VARIATION.</p> + + <p><span class="scac">BUD-VARIATIONS IN THE PEACH, PLUM, CHERRY, VINE, + GOOSEBERRY, CURRANT, AND BANANA, AS SHOWN BY THE MODIFIED + FRUIT</span>—<span class="scac">IN FLOWERS: CAMELLIAS, AZALEAS, + CHRYSANTHEMUMS, ROSES, ETC.</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE + RUNNING OF THE COLOUR IN CARNATIONS</span>—<span + class="scac">BUD-VARIATIONS IN LEAVES</span>—<span + class="scac">VARIATIONS BY SUCKERS, TUBERS, AND BULBS</span>—<span + class="scac">ON THE BREAKING OF TULIPS</span>—<span + class="scac">BUD-VARIATIONS GRADUATE INTO CHANGES CONSEQUENT ON CHANGED + CONDITIONS OF LIFE</span>—<span class="scac">CYTISUS ADAMI, ITS + ORIGIN AND TRANSFORMATION</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE UNION OF + TWO DIFFERENT EMBRYOS IN ONE SEED</span>—<span class="scac">THE + TRIFACIAL ORANGE</span>—<span class="scac">ON REVERSION BY BUDS IN + HYBRIDS AND MONGRELS</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE PRODUCTION OF + MODIFIED BUDS BY THE GRAFTING OF ONE VARIETY OR SPECIES ON + ANOTHER</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE DIRECT OR IMMEDIATE ACTION + OF FOREIGN POLLEN ON THE MOTHER-PLANT</span>—<span class="scac">ON + THE EFFECTS IN FEMALE ANIMALS OF A FIRST IMPREGNATION ON THE SUBSEQUENT + OFFSPRING</span>—<span class="scac">CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY</span> + ... Page <a href="#page373">373</a></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii"></a>{vii}</span></p> + +<h3>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. <span class="sc">Dun Devonshire Pony, with shoulder, spinal, and leg stripes</span> ... <span class="scac">PAGE</span> <a href="#page56">56</a></p> + <p>2. <span class="sc">Head of Japan or Masked Pig</span> ... <a href="#page69">69</a></p> + <p>3. <span class="sc">Head of Wild Boar, and of "Golden Days," a pig of the Yorkshire large breed</span> ... <a href="#page72">72</a></p> + <p>4. <span class="sc">Old Irish Pig, with jaw-appendages</span> ... <a href="#page75">75</a></p> + <p>5. <span class="sc">Half-lop Rabbit</span> ... <a href="#page108">108</a></p> + <p>6. <span class="sc">Skull of Wild Rabbit</span> ... <a href="#page117">117</a></p> + <p>7. <span class="sc">Skull of large Lop-eared Rabbit</span> ... <a href="#page117">117</a></p> + <p>8. <span class="sc">Part of Zygomatic Arch, showing the projecting end of the malar-bone, and the auditory meatus, of Rabbits</span> ... <a href="#page118">118</a></p> + <p>9. <span class="sc">Posterior end of Skull, showing the inter-parietal bone, of Rabbits</span> ... <a href="#page118">118</a></p> + <p>10. <span class="sc">Occipital Foramen of Rabbits</span> ... <a href="#page118">118</a></p> + <p>11. <span class="sc">Skull of Half-lop Rabbit</span> ... <a href="#page119">119</a></p> + <p>12. <span class="sc">Atlas Vertebræ of Rabbits</span> ... <a href="#page121">121</a></p> + <p>13. <span class="sc">Third Cervical Vertebræ of Rabbits</span> ... <a href="#page121">121</a></p> + <p>14. <span class="sc">Dorsal Vertebræ, from sixth to tenth inclusive, of Rabbits</span> ... <a href="#page122">122</a></p> + <p>15. <span class="sc">Terminal Bone of Sternum of Rabbits</span> ... <a href="#page123">123</a></p> + <p>16. <span class="sc">Acromion of Scapula of Rabbits</span> ... <a href="#page123">123</a></p> + <p>17. <span class="sc">The Rock-Pigeon, or Columbia Livia</span> ... <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>18. <span class="sc">English Pouter</span> ... <a href="#page137">137</a></p> + <p>19. <span class="sc">English Carrier</span> ... <a href="#page140">140</a></p> + <p>20. <span class="sc">English Barb</span> ... <a href="#page145">145</a></p> + <p>21. <span class="sc">English Fantail</span> ... <a href="#page147">147</a></p> + <p>22. <span class="sc">African Owl</span> ... <a href="#page149">149</a></p> + <p>23. <span class="sc">Short-faced English Tumbler</span> ... <a href="#page152">152</a></p> + <p>24. <span class="sc">Skulls of Pigeons, viewed laterally</span> ... <a href="#page163">163</a></p> + <p>25. <span class="sc">Lower Jaws of Pigeons, seen from above</span> ... <a href="#page164">164</a></p> + <p>26. <span class="sc">Skull of Runt, seen from above</span> ... <a href="#page165">165</a></p> + <p>27. <span class="sc">Lateral view of Jaws of Pigeons</span> ... <a href="#page165">165</a></p> + <p>28. <span class="sc">Scapulæ of Pigeons</span> ... <a href="#page167">167</a></p> + <p>29. <span class="sc">Furculæ of Pigeons</span> ... <a href="#page167">167</a></p> + <p>30. <span class="sc">Spanish Fowl</span> ... <a href="#page226">226</a></p> + <p>31. <span class="sc">Hamburgh Fowl</span> ... <a href="#page228">228</a></p> + <p>32. <span class="sc">Polish Fowl</span> ... <a href="#page229">229</a></p> + <p>33. <span class="sc">Occipital Foramen of the Skulls of Fowls</span> ... <a href="#page261">261</a></p> +<!-- Page viii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii"></a>{viii}</span> + <p>34. <span class="sc">Skulls of Fowls, viewed from above, a little obliquely</span> ... <a href="#page262">262</a></p> + <p>35. <span class="sc">Longitudinal sections of Skulls of Fowls, viewed laterally</span> ... <a href="#page263">263</a></p> + <p>36. <span class="sc">Skull of Horned Fowl, viewed from above, a little obliquely</span> ... <a href="#page265">265</a></p> + <p>37. <span class="sc">Sixth Cervical Vertebræ of Fowls, viewed laterally</span> ... <a href="#page267">267</a></p> + <p>38. <span class="sc">Extremity of the Furcula of Fowls, viewed laterally</span> ... <a href="#page268">268</a></p> + <p>39. <span class="sc">Skulls of Ducks, viewed laterally, reduced to two-thirds of the natural size</span> ... <a href="#page282">282</a></p> + <p>40. <span class="sc">Cervical Vertebræ of Ducks, of natural size</span> ... <a href="#page283">283</a></p> + <p>41. <span class="sc">Pods of the Common Pea</span> ... <a href="#page328">328</a></p> + <p>42. <span class="sc">Peach and Almond Stones, of natural size, viewed edgeways</span> ... <a href="#page337">337</a></p> + <p>43. <span class="sc">Plum Stones, of natural size, viewed laterally</span> ... <a href="#page345">345</a></p> + </div> + </div> +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>{1}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">THE</p> + +<h2>VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS</h2> + +<h3>UNDER DOMESTICATION.</h3> + +<hr class="short" > + +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + + <p>The object of this work is not to describe all the many races of + animals which have been domesticated by man, and of the plants which have + been cultivated by him; even if I possessed the requisite knowledge, so + gigantic an undertaking would be here superfluous. It is my intention to + give under the head of each species only such facts as I have been able + to collect or observe, showing the amount and nature of the changes which + animals and plants have undergone whilst under man's dominion, or which + bear on the general principles of variation. In one case alone, namely in + that of the domestic pigeon, I will describe fully all the chief races, + their history, the amount and nature of their differences, and the + probable steps by which they have been formed. I have selected this case, + because, as we shall hereafter see, the materials are better than in any + other; and one case fully described will in fact illustrate all others. + But I shall also describe domesticated rabbits, fowls, and ducks, with + considerable fullness.</p> + + <p>The subjects discussed in this volume are so connected that it is not + a little difficult to decide how they can be best arranged. I have + determined in the first part to give, under the heads of the various + animals and plants, a large body of facts, some of which may at first + appear but little related to our subject, and to devote the latter part + to general discussions. Whenever I have found it necessary to give + numerous details, in support of any proposition or conclusion, small type + has been used. The reader <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page2"></a>{2}</span>will, I think, find this plan a convenience, + for, if he does not doubt the conclusion or care about the details, he + can easily pass them over; yet I may be permitted to say that some of the + discussions thus printed deserve attention, at least from the professed + naturalist.</p> + + <p>It may be useful to those who have read nothing about Natural + Selection, if I here give a brief sketch of the whole subject and of its + bearing on the origin of species.<a name="NtA_1" + href="#Nt_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> This is the more desirable, as it is + impossible in the present work to avoid many allusions to questions which + will be fully discussed in future volumes.</p> + + <p>From a remote period, in all parts of the world, man has subjected + many animals and plants to domestication or culture. Man has no power of + altering the absolute conditions of life; he cannot change the climate of + any country; he adds no new element to the soil; but he can remove an + animal or plant from one climate or soil to another, and give it food on + which it did not subsist in its natural state. It is an error to speak of + man "tampering with nature" and causing variability. If organic beings + had not possessed an inherent tendency to vary, man could have done + nothing.<a name="NtA_2" href="#Nt_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> He + unintentionally exposes his animals and plants to various conditions of + life, and variability supervenes, which he cannot even prevent or check. + Consider the simple case of a plant which has been cultivated during a + long time in its native country, and which consequently has not been + subjected to any change of climate. It has been protected to a certain + extent from the competing roots of plants of other kinds; it has + generally been grown in manured soil, but probably not richer than that + of many an alluvial flat; and lastly, it has been exposed to changes in + its conditions, being grown sometimes in one district and sometimes in + another, in different soils. Under such circumstances, <!-- Page 3 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>{3}</span>scarcely a plant + can be named, though cultivated in the rudest manner, which has not given + birth to several varieties. It can hardly be maintained that during the + many changes which this earth has undergone, and during the natural + migrations of plants from one land or island to another, tenanted by + different species, that such plants will not often have been subjected to + changes in their conditions analogous to those which almost inevitably + cause cultivated plants to vary. No doubt man selects varying + individuals, sows their seeds, and again selects their varying offspring. + But the initial variation on which man works, and without which he can do + nothing, is caused by slight changes in the conditions of life, which + must often have occurred under nature. Man, therefore, may be said to + have been trying an experiment on a gigantic scale; and it is an + experiment which nature during the long lapse of time has incessantly + tried. Hence it follows that the principles of domestication are + important for us. The main result is that organic beings thus treated + have varied largely, and the variations have been inherited. This has + apparently been one chief cause of the belief long held by some few + naturalists that species in a state of nature undergo change.</p> + + <p>I shall in this volume treat, as fully as my materials permit, the + whole subject of variation under domestication. We may thus hope to + obtain some light, little though it be, on the causes of + variability,—on the laws which govern it, such as the direct action + of climate and food, the effects of use and disuse, and of correlation of + growth,—and on the amount of change to which domesticated organisms + are liable. We shall learn something on the laws of inheritance, on the + effects of crossing different breeds, and on that sterility which often + supervenes when organic beings are removed from their natural conditions + of life, and likewise when they are too closely interbred. During this + investigation we shall see that the principle of Selection is all + important. Although man does not cause variability and cannot even + prevent it, he can select, preserve, and accumulate the variations given + to him by the hand of nature in any way which he chooses; and thus he can + certainly produce a great result. Selection may be followed either + methodically and intentionally, or unconsciously and unintentionally. Man + <!-- Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>{4}</span>may + select and preserve each successive variation, with the distinct + intention of improving and altering a breed, in accordance with a + preconceived idea; and by thus adding up variations, often so slight as + to be imperceptible by an uneducated eye, he has effected wonderful + changes and improvements. It can, also, be clearly shown that man, + without any intention or thought of improving the breed, by preserving in + each successive generation the individuals which he prizes most, and by + destroying the worthless individuals, slowly, though surely, induces + great changes. As the will of man thus comes into play, we can understand + how it is that domesticated breeds show adaptation to his wants and + pleasures. We can further understand how it is that domestic races of + animals and cultivated races of plants often exhibit an abnormal + character, as compared with natural species; for they have been modified + not for their own benefit, but for that of man.</p> + + <p>In a second work I shall discuss the variability of organic beings in + a state of nature; namely, the individual differences presented by + animals and plants, and those slightly greater and generally inherited + differences which are ranked by naturalists as varieties or geographical + races. We shall see how difficult, or rather how impossible it often is, + to distinguish between races and sub-species, as the less well-marked + forms have sometimes been denominated; and again between sub-species and + true species. I shall further attempt to show that it is the common and + widely ranging, or, as they may be called, the dominant species, which + most frequently vary; and that it is the large and flourishing genera + which include the greatest number of varying species. Varieties, as we + shall see, may justly be called incipient species.</p> + + <p>But it may be urged, granting that organic beings in a state of nature + present some varieties,—that their organization is in some slight + degree plastic; granting that many animals and plants have varied greatly + under domestication, and that man by his power of selection has gone on + accumulating such variations until he has made strongly marked and firmly + inherited races; granting all this, how, it may be asked, have species + arisen in a state of nature? The differences between natural varieties + are slight; whereas the differences are <!-- Page 5 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page5"></a>{5}</span>considerable between the + species of the same genus, and great between the species of distinct + genera. How do these lesser differences become augmented into the greater + difference? How do varieties, or as I have called them incipient species, + become converted into true and well-defined species? How has each new + species been adapted to the surrounding physical conditions, and to the + other forms of life on which it in any way depends? We see on every side + of us innumerable adaptations and contrivances, which have justly excited + in the mind of every observer the highest admiration. There is, for + instance, a fly (Cecidomyia)<a name="NtA_3" + href="#Nt_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> which deposits its eggs within the + stamens of a Scrophularia, and secretes a poison which produces a gall, + on which the larva feeds; but there is another insect (Misocampus) which + deposits its eggs within the body of the larva within the gall, and is + thus nourished by its living prey; so that here a hymenopterous insect + depends on a dipterous insect, and this depends on its power of producing + a monstrous growth in a particular organ of a particular plant. So it is, + in a more or less plainly marked manner, in thousands and tens of + thousands of cases, with the lowest as well as with the highest + productions of nature.</p> + + <p>This problem of the conversion of varieties into species,—that + is, the augmentation of the slight differences characteristic of + varieties into the greater differences characteristic of species and + genera, including the admirable adaptations of each being to its complex + organic and inorganic conditions of life,—will form the main + subject of my second work. We shall therein see that all organic beings, + without exception, tend to increase at so high a ratio, that no district, + no station, not even the whole surface of the land or the whole ocean, + would hold the progeny of a single pair after a certain number of + generations. The inevitable result is an ever-recurrent Struggle for + Existence. It has truly been said that all nature is at war; the + strongest ultimately prevail, the weakest fail; and we well know that + myriads of forms have disappeared from the face of the earth. If then + organic beings in a state of nature vary even in a slight degree, owing + to changes in the surrounding <!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page6"></a>{6}</span>conditions, of which we have abundant + geological evidence, or from any other cause; if, in the long course of + ages, inheritable variations ever arise in any way advantageous to any + being under its excessively complex and changing relations of life; and + it would be a strange fact if beneficial variations did never arise, + seeing how many have arisen which man has taken advantage of for his own + profit or pleasure; if then these contingencies ever occur, and I do not + see how the probability of their occurrence can be doubted, then the + severe and often-recurrent struggle for existence will determine that + those variations, however slight, which are favourable shall be preserved + or selected, and those which are unfavourable shall be destroyed.</p> + + <p>This preservation, during the battle for life, of varieties which + possess any advantage in structure, constitution, or instinct, I have + called Natural Selection; and Mr. Herbert Spencer has well expressed the + same idea by the Survival of the Fittest. The term "natural selection" is + in some respects a bad one, as it seems to imply conscious choice; but + this will be disregarded after a little familiarity. No one objects to + chemists speaking of "elective affinity;" and certainly an acid has no + more choice in combining with a base, than the conditions of life have in + determining whether or not a new form be selected or preserved. The term + is so far a good one as it brings into connection the production of + domestic races by man's power of selection, and the natural preservation + of varieties and species in a state of nature. For brevity sake I + sometimes speak of natural selection as an intelligent power;—in + the same way as astronomers speak of the attraction of gravity as ruling + the movements of the planets, or as agriculturists speak of man making + domestic races by his power of selection. In the one case, as in the + other, selection does nothing without variability, and this depends in + some manner on the action of the surrounding circumstances on the + organism. I have, also, often personified the word Nature; for I have + found it difficult to avoid this ambiguity; but I mean by nature only the + aggregate action and product of many natural laws,—and by laws only + the ascertained sequence of events. <!-- Page 7 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>{7}</span></p> + + <p>In the chapter devoted to natural selection I shall show from + experiment and from a multitude of facts, that the greatest amount of + life can be supported on each spot by great diversification or divergence + in the structure and constitution of its inhabitants. We shall, also, see + that the continued production of new forms through natural selection, + which implies that each new variety has some advantage over others, + almost inevitably leads to the extermination of the older and less + improved forms. These latter are almost necessarily intermediate in + structure as well as in descent between the last-produced forms and their + original parent-species. Now, if we suppose a species to produce two or + more varieties, and these in the course of time to produce other + varieties, the principle of good being derived from diversification of + structure will generally lead to the preservation of the most divergent + varieties; thus the lesser differences characteristic of varieties come + to be augmented into the greater differences characteristic of species, + and, by the extermination of the older intermediate forms, new species + come to be distinctly defined objects. Thus, also, we shall see how it is + that organic beings can be classed by what is called a natural method in + distinct groups—species under genera, and genera under + families.</p> + + <p>As all the inhabitants of each country may be said, owing to their + high rate of reproduction, to be striving to increase in numbers; as each + form is related to many other forms in the struggle for life,—for + destroy any one and its place will be seized by others; as every part of + the organization occasionally varies in some slight degree, and as + natural selection acts exclusively by the preservation of variations + which are advantageous under the excessively complex conditions to which + each being is exposed, no limit exists to the number, singularity, and + perfection of the contrivances and co-adaptations which may thus be + produced. An animal or a plant may thus slowly become related in its + structure and habits in the most intricate manner to many other animals + and plants, and to the physical conditions of its home. Variations in the + organization will in some cases be aided by habit, or by the use and + disuse of parts, and they will be governed by the direct action <!-- Page + 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>{8}</span>of the + surrounding physical conditions and by correlation of growth.</p> + + <p>On the principles here briefly sketched out, there is no innate or + necessary tendency in each being to its own advancement in the scale of + organization. We are almost compelled to look at the specialization or + differentiation of parts or organs for different functions as the best or + even sole standard of advancement; for by such division of labour each + function of body and mind is better performed. And, as natural selection + acts exclusively through the preservation of profitable modifications of + structure, and as the conditions of life in each area generally become + more and more complex, from the increasing number of different forms + which inhabit it and from most of these forms acquiring a more and more + perfect structure, we may confidently believe, that, on the whole, + organization advances. Nevertheless a very simple form fitted for very + simple conditions of life might remain for indefinite ages unaltered or + unimproved; for what would it profit an infusorial animalcule, for + instance, or an intestinal worm, to become highly organized? Members of a + high group might even become, and this apparently has occurred, fitted + for simpler conditions of life; and in this case natural selection would + tend to simplify or degrade the organization, for complicated mechanism + for simple actions would be useless or even disadvantageous.</p> + + <p>In a second work, after treating of the Variation of organisms in a + state of nature, of the Struggle for Existence and the principle of + Natural Selection, I shall discuss the difficulties which are opposed to + the theory. These difficulties may be classed under the following + heads:—the apparent impossibility in some cases of a very simple + organ graduating by small steps into a highly perfect organ; the + marvellous facts of Instinct; the whole question of Hybridity; and, + lastly, the absence, at the present time and in our geological + formations, of innumerable links connecting all allied species. Although + some of these difficulties are of great weight, we shall see that many of + them are explicable on the theory of natural selection, and are otherwise + inexplicable.</p> + + <p>In scientific investigations it is permitted to invent any hypothesis, + and if it explains various large and independent classes of facts it + rises to the rank of a well-grounded theory. The <!-- Page 9 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>{9}</span>undulations of the ether + and even its existence are hypothetical, yet every one now admits the + undulatory theory of light. The principle of natural selection may be + looked at as a mere hypothesis, but rendered in some degree probable by + what we positively know of the variability of organic beings in a state + of nature,—by what we positively know of the struggle for + existence, and the consequent almost inevitable preservation of + favourable variations,—and from the analogical formation of + domestic races. Now this hypothesis may be tested,—and this seems + to me the only fair and legitimate manner of considering the whole + question,—by trying whether it explains several large and + independent classes of facts; such as the geological succession of + organic beings, their distribution in past and present times, and their + mutual affinities and homologies. If the principle of natural selection + does explain these and other large bodies of facts, it ought to be + received. On the ordinary view of each species having been independently + created, we gain no scientific explanation of any one of these facts. We + can only say that it has so pleased the Creator to command that the past + and present inhabitants of the world should appear in a certain order and + in certain areas; that He has impressed on them the most extraordinary + resemblances, and has classed them in groups subordinate to groups. But + by such statements we gain no new knowledge; we do not connect together + facts and laws; we explain nothing.</p> + + <p>In a third work I shall try the principle of natural selection by + seeing how far it will give a fair explanation of the several classes of + facts just alluded to. It was the consideration of these facts which + first led me to take up the present subject. When I visited, during the + voyage of H.M.S. <i>Beagle</i>, the Galapagos Archipelago, situated in + the Pacific Ocean about 500 miles from the shore of South America, I + found myself surrounded by peculiar species of birds, reptiles, and + plants, existing nowhere else in the world. Yet they nearly all bore an + American stamp. In the song of the mocking-thrush, in the harsh cry of + the carrion-hawk, in the great candlestick-like opuntias, I clearly + perceived the neighbourhood of America, though the islands were separated + by so many miles of ocean from the mainland, and differed much from it in + their geological <!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page10"></a>{10}</span>constitution and climate. Still more + surprising was the fact that most of the inhabitants of each separate + island in this small archipelago were specifically different, though most + closely related to each other. The archipelago, with its innumerable + craters and bare streams of lava, appeared to be of recent origin; and + thus I fancied myself brought near to the very act of creation. I often + asked myself how these many peculiar animals and plants had been + produced: the simplest answer seemed to be that the inhabitants of the + several islands had descended from each other, undergoing modification in + the course of their descent; and that all the inhabitants of the + archipelago had descended from those of the nearest land, namely America, + whence colonists would naturally have been derived. But it long remained + to me an inexplicable problem how the necessary degree of modification + could have been effected, and it would have thus remained for ever, had I + not studied domestic productions, and thus acquired a just idea of the + power of Selection. As soon as I had fully realized this idea, I saw, on + reading Malthus on Population, that Natural Selection was the inevitable + result of the rapid increase of all organic beings; for I was prepared to + appreciate the struggle for existence by having long studied the habits + of animals.</p> + + <p>Before visiting the Galapagos I had collected many animals whilst + travelling from north to south on both sides of America, and everywhere, + under conditions of life as different as it is possible to conceive, + American forms were met with—species replacing species of the same + peculiar genera. Thus it was when the Cordilleras were ascended, or the + thick tropical forests penetrated, or the fresh waters of America + searched. Subsequently I visited other countries, which in all the + conditions of life were incomparably more like to parts of South America, + than the different parts of that continent were to each other; yet in + these countries, as in Australia or Southern Africa, the traveller cannot + fail to be struck with the entire difference of their productions. Again + the reflection was forced on me that community of descent from the early + inhabitants or colonists of South America would alone explain the wide + prevalence of American types of structure throughout that immense + area.</p> + + <p>To exhume with one's own hands the bones of extinct and <!-- Page 11 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>{11}</span>gigantic + quadrupeds brings the whole question of the succession of species vividly + before one's mind; and I had found in South America great pieces of + tesselated armour exactly like, but on a magnificent scale, that covering + the pigmy armadillo; I had found great teeth like those of the living + sloth, and bones like those of the cavy. An analogous succession of + allied forms had been previously observed in Australia. Here then we see + the prevalence, as if by descent, in time as in space, of the same types + in the same areas; and in neither case does the similarity of the + conditions by any means seem sufficient to account for the similarity of + the forms of life. It is notorious that the fossil remains of closely + consecutive formations are closely allied in structure, and we can at + once understand the fact if they are likewise closely allied by descent. + The succession of the many distinct species of the same genus throughout + the long series of geological formations seems to have been unbroken or + continuous. New species come in gradually one by one. Ancient and extinct + forms of life often show combined or intermediate characters, like the + words of a dead language with respect to its several offshoots or living + tongues. All these and other such facts seemed to me to point to descent + with modification as the method of production of new groups of + species.</p> + + <p>The innumerable past and present inhabitants of the world are + connected together by the most singular and complex affinities, and can + be classed in groups under groups, in the same manner as varieties can be + classed under species and sub-varieties under varieties, but with much + higher grades of difference. It will be seen in my third work that these + complex affinities and the rules for classification receive a rational + explanation on the principle of descent, together with modifications + acquired through natural selection, entailing divergence of character and + the extinction of intermediate forms. How inexplicable is the similar + pattern of the hand of a man, the foot of a dog, the wing of a bat, the + flipper of a seal, on the doctrine of independent acts of creation! how + simply explained on the principle of the natural selection of successive + slight variations in the diverging descendants from <!-- Page 12 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>{12}</span>a single progenitor! So + it is, if we look to the structure of an individual animal or plant, when + we see the fore and hind limbs, the skull and vertebræ, the jaws and legs + of a crab, the petals, stamens, and pistils of a flower, built on the + same type or pattern. During the many changes to which in the course of + time all organic beings have been subjected, certain organs or parts have + occasionally become at first of little use and ultimately superfluous; + and the retention of such parts in a rudimentary and utterly useless + condition can, on the descent-theory, be simply understood. On the + principle of modifications being inherited at the same age in the child, + at which each successive variation first appeared in the parent, we shall + see why rudimentary parts and organs are generally well developed in the + individual at a very early age. On the same principle of inheritance at + corresponding ages, and on the principle of variations not generally + supervening at a very early period of embryonic growth (and both these + principles can be shown to be probable from direct evidence), that most + wonderful fact in the whole round of natural history, namely, the + similarity of members of the same great class in their embryonic + condition,—the embryo, for instance, of a mammal, bird, reptile, + and fish being barely distinguishable,—becomes simply + intelligible.</p> + + <p>It is the consideration and explanation of such facts as these which + has convinced me that the theory of descent with modification by means of + natural selection is in the main true. These facts have as yet received + no explanation on the theory of independent Creations; they cannot be + grouped together under one point of view, but each has to be considered + as an ultimate fact. As the first origin of life on this earth, as well + as the continued life of each individual, is at present quite beyond the + scope of science, I do not wish to lay much stress on the greater + simplicity of the view of a few forms, or of only one form, having been + originally created, instead of innumerable miraculous creations having + been necessary at innumerable periods; though this more simple view + accords well with Maupertuis's philosophical axiom "of least action."</p> + + <p>In considering how far the theory of natural selection may be <!-- + Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page13"></a>{13}</span>extended,—that is, in determining from + how many progenitors the inhabitants of the world have + descended,—we may conclude that at least all the members of the + same class have descended from a single ancestor. A number of organic + beings are included in the same class, because they present, + independently of their habits of life, the same fundamental type of + structure, and because they graduate into each other. Moreover, members + of the same class can in most cases be shown to be closely alike at an + early embryonic age. These facts can be explained on the belief of their + descent from a common form; therefore it may be safely admitted that all + the members of the same class have descended from one progenitor. But as + the members of quite distinct classes have something in common in + structure and much in common in constitution, analogy and the simplicity + of the view would lead us one step further, and to infer as probable that + all living creatures have descended from a single prototype.</p> + + <p>I hope that the reader will pause before coming to any final and + hostile conclusion on the theory of natural selection. It is the facts + and views to be hereafter given which have convinced me of the truth of + the theory. The reader may consult my 'Origin of Species,' for a general + sketch of the whole subject; but in that work he has to take many + statements on trust. In considering the theory of natural selection, he + will assuredly meet with weighty difficulties, but these difficulties + relate chiefly to subjects—such as the degree of perfection of the + geological record, the means of distribution, the possibility of + transitions in organs, &c.—on which we are confessedly + ignorant; nor do we know how ignorant we are. If we are much more + ignorant than is generally supposed, most of these difficulties wholly + disappear. Let the reader reflect on the difficulty of looking at whole + classes of facts from a new point of view. Let him observe how slowly, + but surely, the noble views of Lyell on the gradual changes now in + progress on the earth's surface have been accepted as sufficient to + account for all that we see in its past history. The present action of + natural selection may seem more or less probable; but I believe in the + truth of the theory, <!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page14"></a>{14}</span>because it collects under one point of view, + and gives a rational explanation of, many apparently independent classes + of facts.<a name="NtA_4" href="#Nt_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a></p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page15"></a>{15}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DOMESTIC DOGS AND CATS.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><span class="scac">ANCIENT VARIETIES OF THE DOG</span>—<span + class="scac">RESEMBLANCE OF DOMESTIC DOGS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES TO NATIVE + CANINE SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">ANIMALS NOT ACQUAINTED + WITH MAN AT FIRST FEARLESS</span>—<span class="scac">DOGS + RESEMBLING WOLVES AND JACKALS</span>—<span class="scac">HABIT OF + BARKING ACQUIRED AND LOST</span>—<span class="scac">FERAL + DOGS</span>—<span class="scac">TAN-COLOURED EYE-SPOTS PERIOD OF + GESTATION</span>—<span class="scac">OFFENSIVE + ODOUR</span>—<span class="scac">FERTILITY OF THE RACES WHEN + CROSSED</span>—<span class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE SEVERAL RACES + IN PART DUE TO DESCENT FROM DISTINCT SPECIES</span>—<span + class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE SKULL AND TEETH</span>—<span + class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE BODY, IN CONSTITUTION</span>—<span + class="scac">FEW IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES HAVE BEEN FIXED BY + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">DIRECT ACTION OF + CLIMATE</span>—<span class="scac">WATER-DOGS WITH PALMATED + FEET</span>—<span class="scac">HISTORY OF THE CHANGES WHICH CERTAIN + ENGLISH RACES OF THE DOG HAVE GRADUALLY UNDERGONE THROUGH + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">EXTINCTION OF THE LESS IMPROVED + SUB-BREEDS.</span></p> + + <p>CATS, <span class="scac">CROSSED WITH SEVERAL + SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">DIFFERENT BREEDS FOUND ONLY IN + SEPARATED COUNTRIES</span>—<span class="scac">DIRECT EFFECTS OF THE + CONDITIONS OF LIFE</span>—<span class="scac">FERAL + CATS</span>—<span class="scac">INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY.</span></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The first and chief point of interest in this chapter is, whether the + numerous domesticated varieties of the dog have descended from a single + wild species, or from several. Some authors believe that all have + descended from the wolf, or from the jackal, or from an unknown and + extinct species. Others again believe, and this of late has been the + favourite tenet, that they have descended from several species, extinct + and recent, more or less commingled together. We shall probably never be + able to ascertain their origin with certainty. Palæontology<a + name="NtA_5" href="#Nt_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> does not throw much light on + the question, owing, on the one hand, to the close similarity of the + skulls of extinct as well as living wolves and jackals, and owing on the + other hand to the great dissimilarity of the skulls of the several breeds + of the domestic dogs. It seems, however, that remains have been found in + the <!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page16"></a>{16}</span>later tertiary deposits more like those of a + large dog than of a wolf, which favours the belief of De Blainville that + our dogs are the descendants of a single extinct species. On the other + hand, some authors go so far as to assert that every chief domestic breed + must have had its wild prototype. This latter view is extremely + improbable; it allows nothing for variation; it passes over the almost + monstrous character of some of the breeds; and it almost necessarily + assumes, that a large number of species have become extinct since man + domesticated the dog; whereas we plainly see that the members of the + dog-family are extirpated by human agency with much difficulty; even so + recently as 1710 the wolf existed in so small an island as Ireland.</p> + + <p>The reasons which have led various authors to infer that our dogs have + descended from more than one wild species are as follows.<a name="NtA_6" + href="#Nt_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> Firstly, the great difference between the + several breeds; but this will appear of comparatively little weight, + after we shall have seen how great are the differences between the + several races of various domesticated animals which certainly have + descended from a single parent-form. Secondly, the more important fact + that, at the most anciently known historical periods, several breeds of + the dog existed, very unlike each other, and closely resembling or + identical with breeds still alive.</p> + + <p>We will briefly run back through the historical records. The materials + are remarkably deficient between the fourteenth century and the Roman + classical period.<a name="NtA_7" href="#Nt_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> At this + earlier period <!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page17"></a>{17}</span>various breeds, namely hounds, house-dogs, + lapdogs, &c., existed; but as Dr. Walther has remarked it is + impossible to recognise the greater number with any certainty. Youatt, + however, gives a drawing of a beautiful sculpture of two greyhound + puppies from the Villa of Antoninus. On an Assyrian monument, about 640 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, an enormous mastiff<a name="NtA_8" + href="#Nt_8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> is figured; and according to Sir H. + Rawlinson (as I was informed at the British Museum), similar dogs are + still imported into this same country. I have looked through the + magnificent works of Lepsius and Rosellini, and on the monuments from the + fourth to the twelfth dynasties (<i>i.e.</i> from about 3400 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> to 2100 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) several + varieties of the dog are represented; most of them are allied to + greyhounds; at the later of these periods a dog resembling a hound is + figured, with drooping ears, but with a longer back and more pointed head + than in our hounds. There is, also, a turnspit, with short and crooked + legs, closely resembling the existing variety; but this kind of + monstrosity is so common with various animals, as with the ancon sheep, + and even, according to Rengger, with jaguars in Paraguay, that it would + be rash to look at the monumental animal as the parent of all our + turnspits: Colonel Sykes<a name="NtA_9" href="#Nt_9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> + also has described an Indian Pariah dog as presenting the same monstrous + character. The most ancient dog represented on the Egyptian monuments is + one of the most singular; it resembles a greyhound, but has long pointed + ears and a short curled tail: a closely allied variety still exists in + Northern Africa; for Mr. E. Vernon Harcourt<a name="NtA_10" + href="#Nt_10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> states that the Arab boar-hound is "an + eccentric hieroglyphic animal, such as Cheops once hunted with, somewhat + resembling the rough Scotch deer-hound; their tails are curled tight + round on their backs, <!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page18"></a>{18}</span>and their ears stick out at right angles." + With this most ancient variety a pariah-like dog coexisted.</p> + + <p>We thus see that, at a period between four and five thousand years + ago, various breeds, viz. pariah dogs, greyhounds, common hounds, + mastiffs, house-dogs, lapdogs, and turnspits, existed, more or less + closely resembling our present breeds. But there is not sufficient + evidence that any of these ancient dogs belonged to the same identical + sub-varieties with our present dogs.<a name="NtA_11" + href="#Nt_11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> As long as man was believed to have + existed on this earth only about 6000 years, this fact of the great + diversity of the breeds at so early a period was an argument of much + weight that they had proceeded from several wild sources, for there would + not have been sufficient time for their divergence and modification. But + now that we know, from the discovery of flint tools embedded with the + remains of extinct animals in districts which have since undergone great + geographical changes, that man has existed for an incomparably longer + period, and bearing in mind that the most barbarous nations possess + domestic dogs, the argument from insufficient time falls away greatly in + value.</p> + + <p>Long before the period of any historical record the dog was + domesticated in Europe. In the Danish Middens of the Neolithic or Newer + Stone period, bones of a canine animal are imbedded, and Steenstrup + ingeniously argues that these belonged to a domestic dog; for a very + large proportion of the bones of birds preserved in the refuse, consists + of long bones, which it was found on trial dogs cannot devour.<a + name="NtA_12" href="#Nt_12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> This ancient dog was + succeeded in Denmark during the Bronze period by a larger kind, + presenting certain differences, and this again during the Iron period, by + a still larger kind. In Switzerland, we hear <!-- Page 19 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page19"></a>{19}</span>from Prof. Rütimeyer,<a + name="NtA_13" href="#Nt_13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> that during the Neolithic + period a domesticated dog of middle size existed, which in its skull was + about equally remote from the wolf and jackal, and partook of the + characters of our hounds and setters or spaniels (Jagdhund und + Wachtelhund). Rütimeyer insists strongly on the constancy of form during + a very long period of time of this the most ancient known dog. During the + Bronze period a larger dog appeared, and this closely resembled in its + jaw a dog of the same age in Denmark. Remains of two notably distinct + varieties of the dog were found by Schmerling in a cave;<a name="NtA_14" + href="#Nt_14"><sup>[14]</sup></a> but their age cannot be positively + determined.</p> + + <p>The existence of a single race, remarkably constant in form during the + whole Neolithic period, is an interesting fact in contrast with what we + see of the changes which the races underwent during the period of the + successive Egyptian monuments, and in contrast with our existing dogs. + The character of this animal during the Neolithic period, as given by + Rütimeyer, supports De Blainville's view that our varieties have + descended from an unknown and extinct form. But we should not forget that + we know nothing with respect to the antiquity of man in the warmer parts + of the world. The succession of the different kinds of dogs in + Switzerland and Denmark is thought to be due to the immigration of + conquering tribes bringing with them their dogs; and this view accords + with the belief that different wild canine animals were domesticated in + different regions. Independently of the immigration of new races of man, + we know from the wide-spread presence of bronze, composed of an alloy of + tin, how much commerce there must have been throughout Europe at an + extremely remote period, and dogs would then probably have been bartered. + At the present time, amongst the savages of the interior of Guiana, the + Taruma Indians are considered the best trainers of dogs, and possess a + large breed, which they barter at a high price with other tribes.<a + name="NtA_15" href="#Nt_15"><sup>[15]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The main argument in favour of the several breeds of the <!-- Page 20 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"></a>{20}</span>dog being the + descendants of distinct wild stocks, is their resemblance in various + countries to distinct species still existing there. It must, however, be + admitted that the comparison between the wild and domesticated animal has + been made but in few cases with sufficient exactness. Before entering on + details, it will be well to show that there is no a priori difficulty in + the belief that several canine species have been domesticated; for there + is much difficulty in this respect with some other domestic quadrupeds + and birds. Members of the dog family inhabit nearly the whole world; and + several species agree pretty closely in habits and structure with our + several domesticated dogs. Mr. Galton has shown<a name="NtA_16" + href="#Nt_16"><sup>[16]</sup></a> how fond savages are of keeping and + taming animals of all kinds. Social animals are the most easily + subjugated by man, and several species of Canidæ hunt in packs. It + deserves notice, as bearing on other animals as well as on the dog, that + at an extremely ancient period, when man first entered any country, the + animals living there would have felt no instinctive or inherited fear of + him, and would consequently have been tamed far more easily than at + present. For instance, when the Falkland Islands were first visited by + man, the large wolf-like dog (<i>Canis antarcticus</i>) fearlessly came + to meet Byron's sailors, who, mistaking this ignorant curiosity for + ferocity, ran into the water to avoid them: even recently a man, by + holding a piece of meat in one hand and a knife in the other, could + sometimes stick them at night. On an island in the Sea of Aral, when + first discovered by Butakoff, the saigak antelopes, which are "generally + very timid and watchful, did not fly from us, but on the contrary looked + at us with a sort of curiosity." So, again, on the shores of the + Mauritius, the manatee was not at first in the least afraid of man, and + thus it has been in several quarters of the world with seals and the + morse. I have elsewhere shown<a name="NtA_17" + href="#Nt_17"><sup>[17]</sup></a> how slowly the native birds of several + islands have acquired and inherited a salutary dread of man: at the + Galapagos Archipelago I pushed with the muzzle of my gun hawks from a + branch, and <!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page21"></a>{21}</span>held out a pitcher of water for other birds + to alight on and drink. Quadrupeds and birds which have seldom been + disturbed by man, dread him no more than do our English birds the cows or + horses grazing in the fields.</p> + + <p>It is a more important consideration that several canine species + evince (as will be shown in a future chapter) no strong repugnance or + inability to breed under confinement; and the incapacity to breed under + confinement is one of the commonest bars to domestication. Lastly, + savages set the highest value, as we shall see in the chapter on + Selection, on dogs: even half-tamed animals are highly useful to them: + the Indians of North America cross their half-wild dogs with wolves, and + thus render them even wilder than before, but bolder: the savages of + Guiana catch and partially tame and use the whelps of two wild species of + <i>Canis</i>, as do the savages of Australia those of the wild Dingo. Mr. + Philip King informs me that he once trained a wild Dingo puppy to drive + cattle, and found it very useful. From these several considerations we + see that there is no difficulty in believing that man might have + domesticated various canine species in different countries. It would + indeed have been a strange fact if one species alone had been + domesticated throughout the world.</p> + + <p>We will now enter into details. The accurate and sagacious Richardson + says, "The resemblance between the Northern American wolves (<i>Canis + lupus, var. occidentalis</i>) and the domestic dogs of the Indians is so + great that the size and strength of the wolf seems to be the only + difference. I have more than once mistaken a band of wolves for the dogs + of a party of Indians; and the howl of the animals of both species is + prolonged so exactly in the same key that even the practised ear of the + Indian fails at times to discriminate them." He adds that the more + northern Esquimaux dogs are not only extremely like the grey wolves of + the Arctic circle in form and colour, but also nearly equal them in size. + Dr. Kane has often seen in his teams of sledge-dogs the oblique eye (a + character on which some naturalists lay great stress), the drooping tail, + and scared look of the wolf. In disposition the Esquimaux dogs differ + little from wolves, and, according to Dr. Hayes, they are capable of no + attachment to man, and are so savage, that <!-- Page 22 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page22"></a>{22}</span>when hungry they will + attack even their masters. According to Kane they readily become feral. + Their affinity is so close with wolves that they frequently cross with + them, and the Indians take the whelps of wolves "to improve the breed of + their dogs." The half-bred wolves sometimes (Lamare-Picquot) cannot be + tamed, "though this case is rare;" but they do not become thoroughly well + broken in till the second or third generation. These facts show that + there can be but little, if any, sterility between the Esquimaux dog and + the wolf, for otherwise they would not be used to improve the breed. As + Dr. Hayes says of these dogs, "reclaimed wolves they doubtless are."<a + name="NtA_18" href="#Nt_18"><sup>[18]</sup></a></p> + + <p>North America is inhabited by a second kind of wolf, the prairie-wolf + (<i>Canis latrans</i>), which is now looked at by all naturalists as + specifically distinct from the common wolf; and is, according to Mr. J. + K. Lord, in some respects intermediate in habits between a wolf and a + fox. Sir J. Richardson, after describing the Hare Indian dog, which + differs in many respects from the Esquimaux dog, says, "It bears the same + relation to the prairie wolf that the Esquimaux dog does to the great + grey wolf." He could, in fact, detect no marked difference between them; + and Messrs. Nott and Gliddon give additional details showing their close + resemblance. The dogs derived from the above two aboriginal sources cross + together and with the wild wolves, at least with the <i>C. + occidentalis</i>, and with European dogs. In Florida, according to + Bartram, the black wolf-dog of the Indians differs in nothing from the + wolves of that country except in barking.<a name="NtA_19" + href="#Nt_19"><sup>[19]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>{23}</span></p> + + <p>Turning to the southern parts of the New World, Columbus found two + kinds of dogs in the West Indies; and Fernandez<a name="NtA_20" + href="#Nt_20"><sup>[20]</sup></a> describes three in Mexico: some of + these native dogs were dumb—that is, did not bark. In Guiana it has + been known since the time of Buffon that the natives cross their dogs + with an aboriginal species, apparently the <i>Canis cancrivorus</i>. Sir + R. Schomburgk, who has so carefully explored these regions, writes to me, + "I have been repeatedly told by the Arawaak Indians, who reside near the + coast, that they cross their dogs with a wild species to improve the + breed, and individual dogs have been shown to me which certainly + resembled the <i>C. cancrivorus</i> much more than the common breed. It + is but seldom that the Indians keep the <i>C. cancrivorus</i> for + domestic purposes, nor is the Ai, another species of wild dog, and which + I consider to be identical with the <i>Dusicyon silvestris</i> of H. + Smith, now much used by the Arecunas for the purpose of hunting. The dogs + of the Taruma Indians are quite distinct, and resemble Buffon's St. + Domingo greyhound." It thus appears that the natives of Guiana have + partially domesticated two aboriginal species, and still cross their dogs + with them; these two species belong to a quite different type from the + North American and European wolves. A careful observer, Rengger,<a + name="NtA_21" href="#Nt_21"><sup>[21]</sup></a> gives reasons for + believing that a hairless dog was domesticated when America was first + visited by Europeans: some of these dogs in Paraguay are still dumb, and + Tschudi<a name="NtA_22" href="#Nt_22"><sup>[22]</sup></a> states that + they suffer from cold in the Cordillera. This naked dog is, however, + quite distinct from that found preserved in the ancient Peruvian + burial-places, and described by Tschudi, under the name of <i>Canis + Ingæ</i>, as withstanding cold well and as barking. It is not known + whether these two distinct kinds of dog are the descendants of native + species, and it might be argued that when man first migrated into America + he brought with him from the Asiatic continent dogs <!-- Page 24 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page24"></a>{24}</span>which had not learned to + bark; but this view does not seem probable, as the natives along the line + of their march from the north reclaimed, as we have seen, at least two N. + American species of Canidæ.</p> + + <p>Turning to the Old World, some European dogs closely resemble the + wolf; thus the shepherd dog of the plains of Hungary is white or + reddish-brown, has a sharp nose, short, erect ears, shaggy coat, and + bushy tail, and so much resembles a wolf that Mr. Paget, who gives this + description, says he has known a Hungarian mistake a wolf for one of his + own dogs. Jeitteles, also, remarks on the close similarity of the + Hungarian dog and wolf. Shepherd dogs in Italy must anciently have + closely resembled wolves, for Columella (vii. 12) advises that white dogs + be kept, adding, "pastor album probat, ne pro lupo canem feriat." Several + accounts have been given of dogs and wolves crossing naturally; and Pliny + asserts that the Gauls tied their female dogs in the woods that they + might cross with wolves.<a name="NtA_23" + href="#Nt_23"><sup>[23]</sup></a> The European wolf differs slightly from + that of North America, and has been ranked by many naturalists as a + distinct species. The common wolf of India is also by some esteemed as a + third species, and here again we find a marked resemblance between the + pariah dogs of certain districts of India and the Indian wolf.<a + name="NtA_24" href="#Nt_24"><sup>[24]</sup></a></p> + + <p>With respect to Jackals, Isidore Geoffroy Saint Hilaire<a + name="NtA_25" href="#Nt_25"><sup>[25]</sup></a> says that not one + constant difference can be pointed out between their structure and that + of the smaller races of dogs. They agree closely in habits: jackals, when + tamed and called by their <!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page25"></a>{25}</span>master, wag their tails, crouch, and throw + themselves on their backs; they smell at the tails of dogs, and void + their urine sideways.<a name="NtA_26" href="#Nt_26"><sup>[26]</sup></a> A + number of excellent naturalists, from the time of Güldenstädt to that of + Ehrenberg, Hemprich, and Cretzschmar, have expressed themselves in the + strongest terms with respect to the resemblance of the half-domestic dogs + of Asia and Egypt to jackals. M. Nordmann, for instance, says, "Les + chiens d'Awhasie ressemblent étonnamment à des chacals." Ehrenberg<a + name="NtA_27" href="#Nt_27"><sup>[27]</sup></a> asserts that the domestic + dogs of Lower Egypt, and certain mummied dogs, have for their wild type a + species of wolf (<i>C. lupaster</i>) of the country; whereas the domestic + dogs of Nubia and certain other mummied dogs have the closest relation to + a wild species of the same country, viz. <i>C. sabbar</i>, which is only + a form of the common jackal. Pallas asserts that jackals and dogs + sometimes naturally cross in the East; and a case is on record in + Algeria.<a name="NtA_28" href="#Nt_28"><sup>[28]</sup></a> The greater + number of naturalists divide the jackals of Asia and Africa into several + species, but some few rank them all as one.</p> + + <p>I may add that the domestic dogs on the coast of Guinea are fox-like + animals, and are dumb.<a name="NtA_29" href="#Nt_29"><sup>[29]</sup></a> + On the east coast of Africa, between lat. 4° and 6° south, and about ten + days' journey in the interior, a semi-domestic dog, as the Rev. S. + Erhardt informs me, is kept, which the natives assert is derived from a + similar wild animal. Lichtenstein<a name="NtA_30" + href="#Nt_30"><sup>[30]</sup></a> says that the dogs of the Bosjemans + present a striking resemblance even in colour (excepting the black stripe + down the back) with the <i>C. mesomelas</i> of South Africa. Mr. E. + Layard informs me that he has seen a Caffre dog which closely resembled + an Esquimaux dog. In Australia the Dingo is both domesticated and wild; + though this animal may have been introduced aboriginally by man, yet it + must be considered as almost an endemic form, for its remains have been + found in a similar state of preservation and associated with <!-- Page 26 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"></a>{26}</span>extinct mammals, + so that its introduction must have been ancient.<a name="NtA_31" + href="#Nt_31"><sup>[31]</sup></a></p> + + <p>From this resemblance in several countries of the half-domesticated + dogs to the wild species still living there,—from the facility with + which they can often be crossed together,—from even half-tamed + animals being so much valued by savages,—and from the other + circumstances previously remarked on which favour their domestication, it + is highly probable that the domestic dogs of the world have descended + from two good species of wolf (viz. <i>C. lupus</i> and <i>C. + latrans</i>), and from two or three other doubtful species of wolves + (namely, the European, Indian, and North African forms); from at least + one or two South American canine species; from several races or species + of the jackal; and perhaps from one or more extinct species. Those + authors who attribute great influence to the action of climate by itself + may thus account for the resemblance of the domesticated dogs and native + animals in the same countries; but I know of no facts supporting the + belief in so powerful an action of climate.</p> + + <p>It cannot be objected to the view of several canine species having + been anciently domesticated, that these animals are tamed with + difficulty: facts have been already given on this head, but I may add + that the young of the <i>Canis primævus</i> of India were tamed by Mr. + Hodgson,<a name="NtA_32" href="#Nt_32"><sup>[32]</sup></a> and became as + sensible to caresses, and manifested as much intelligence, as any + sporting dog of the same age. There is not much difference, as we have + already shown and shall immediately further see, in habits between the + domestic dogs of the North American Indians and the wolves of that + country, or between the Eastern pariah dogs and jackals, or between the + dogs which have run wild in various countries and the several natural + species of the family. The habit of barking, however, which is almost + universal with domesticated <!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page27"></a>{27}</span>dogs, and which does not characterise a + single natural species of the family, seems an exception; but this habit + is soon lost and soon reacquired. The case of the wild dogs on the island + of Juan Fernandez having become dumb has often been quoted, and there is + reason to believe<a name="NtA_33" href="#Nt_33"><sup>[33]</sup></a> that + the dumbness ensued in the course of thirty-three years; on the other + hand, dogs taken from this island by Ulloa slowly reacquired the habit of + barking. The Mackenzie-river dogs, of the <i>Canis latrans</i> type, when + brought to England, never learned to bark properly; but one born in the + Zoological Gardens<a name="NtA_34" href="#Nt_34"><sup>[34]</sup></a> + "made his voice sound as loudly as any other dog of the same age and + size." According to Professor Nillson,<a name="NtA_35" + href="#Nt_35"><sup>[35]</sup></a> a wolf-whelp reared by a bitch barks. + I. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire exhibited a jackal which barked with the same + tone as any common dog.<a name="NtA_36" href="#Nt_36"><sup>[36]</sup></a> + An interesting account has been given by Mr. G. Clarke<a name="NtA_37" + href="#Nt_37"><sup>[37]</sup></a> of some dogs run wild on Juan de Nova, + in the Indian Ocean; "they had entirely lost the faculty of barking; they + had no inclination for the company of other dogs, nor did they acquire + their voice," during a captivity of several months. On the island they + "congregate in vast packs, and catch sea-birds with as much address as + foxes could display." The feral dogs of La Plata have not become dumb; + they are of large size, hunt single or in packs, and burrow holes for + their young.<a name="NtA_38" href="#Nt_38"><sup>[38]</sup></a> In these + habits the feral dogs of La Plata resemble wolves and jackals; both of + which hunt either singly or in packs, and burrow holes.<a name="NtA_39" + href="#Nt_39"><sup>[39]</sup></a> These feral dogs have not become + uniform in colour on Juan Fernandez, Juan de Nova, or La Plata.<a + name="NtA_40" href="#Nt_40"><sup>[40]</sup></a> In Cuba the feral dogs + are described by Poeppig as nearly all mouse-coloured, with short ears + and light-blue eyes. <!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page28"></a>{28}</span>In St. Domingo, Col. Ham. Smith says<a + name="NtA_41" href="#Nt_41"><sup>[41]</sup></a> that the feral dogs are + very large, like greyhounds, of a uniform pale blue-ash, with small ears, + and large light-brown eyes. Even the wild Dingo, though so anciently + naturalised in Australia, "varies considerably in colour," as I am + informed by Mr. P. P. King: a half-bred Dingo reared in England<a + name="NtA_42" href="#Nt_42"><sup>[42]</sup></a> showed signs of wishing + to burrow.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>From the several foregoing facts we see that reversion in the feral + state gives no indication of the colour or size of the aboriginal + parent-species. One fact, however, with respect to the colouring of + domestic dogs, I at one time hoped might have thrown some light on their + origin; and it is worth giving, as showing how colouring follows laws, + even in so anciently and thoroughly domesticated an animal as the dog. + Black dogs with tan-coloured feet, whatever breed they may belong to, + almost invariably have a tan-coloured spot on the upper and inner corners + of each eye, and their lips are generally thus coloured. I have seen only + two exceptions to this rule, namely, in a spaniel and terrier. Dogs of a + light-brown colour often have a lighter, yellowish-brown spot over the + eyes; sometimes the spot is white, and in a mongrel terrier the spot was + black. Mr. Waring kindly examined for me a stud of fifteen greyhounds in + Suffolk: eleven of them were black, or black and white, or brindled, and + these had no eye-spots; but three were red and one slaty-blue, and these + four had dark-coloured spots over their eyes. Although the spots thus + sometimes differ in colour, they strongly tend to be tan-coloured; this + is proved by my having seen four spaniels, a setter, two Yorkshire + shepherd dogs, a large mongrel, and some fox-hounds, coloured black and + white, with not a trace of tan-colour, excepting the spots over the eyes, + and sometimes a little on the feet. These latter cases, and many others, + show plainly that the colour of the feet and the eye-spots are in some + way correlated. I have noticed, in various breeds, every gradation, from + the whole face being tan-coloured, to a complete ring round the eyes, to + a minute spot over the inner and upper corners. The spots occur in + various sub-breeds of terriers and spaniels; in setters; in hounds of + various kinds, including the turnspit-like German badger-hound; in + shepherd dogs; in a mongrel, of which neither parent had the spots; in + one pure bulldog, though the spots were in this case almost white; and in + greyhounds,—but true black-and-tan greyhounds are excessively rare; + nevertheless I have been assured by Mr. Warwick, that one ran at the + Caledonian Champion meeting of April, 1860, and was "marked precisely + like a black-and-tan terrier." Mr. Swinhoe at my request looked at the + dogs in China, at Amoy, and he soon noticed a brown dog with yellow spots + over the eyes. Colonel H. Smith<a name="NtA_43" + href="#Nt_43"><sup>[43]</sup></a> figures the magnificent black mastiff + of Thibet with a <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page29"></a>{29}</span>tan-coloured stripe over the eyes, feet, and + chaps; and what is more singular, he figures the Alco, or native domestic + dog of Mexico, as black and white, with narrow tan-coloured rings round + the eyes; at the Exhibition of dogs in London, May, 1863, a so-called + forest-dog from North-West Mexico was shown, which had pale tan-coloured + spots over the eyes. The occurrence of these tan-coloured spots in dogs + of such extremely different breeds, living in various parts of the world, + makes the fact highly remarkable.</p> + + <p>We shall hereafter see, especially in the chapter on Pigeons, that + coloured marks are strongly inherited, and that they often aid us in + discovering the primitive forms of our domestic races. Hence, if any wild + canine species had distinctly exhibited the tan-coloured spots over the + eyes, it might have been argued that this was the parent-form of nearly + all our domestic races. But after looking at many coloured plates, and + through the whole collection of skins in the British Museum, I can find + no species thus marked. It is no doubt possible that some extinct species + was thus coloured. On the other hand, in looking at the various species, + there seems to be a tolerably plain correlation between tan-coloured legs + and face; and less frequently between black legs and a black face; and + this general rule of colouring explains to a certain extent the + above-given cases of correlation between the eye-spots and the colour of + the feet. Moreover, some jackals and foxes have a trace of a white ring + round their eyes, as in <i>C. mesomelas</i>, <i>C. aureus</i>, and + (judging from Colonel Ham. Smith's drawing) in <i>C. alopex</i> and <i>C. + thaleb</i>. Other species have a trace of a black line over the corners + of the eyes, as in <i>C. variegatus</i>, <i>cinereo-variegatus</i>, and + <i>fulvus</i>, and the wild Dingo. Hence I am inclined to conclude that a + tendency for tan-coloured spots to appear over the eyes in the various + breeds of dogs, is analogous to the case observed by Desmarest, namely, + that when any white appears on a dog the tip of the tail is always white, + "de manière a rappeler la tacho terminale de même couleur, qui + caractérise la plupart des Canidées sauvages."<a name="NtA_44" + href="#Nt_44"><sup>[44]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>It has been objected that our domestic dogs cannot be descended from + wolves or jackals, because their periods of gestation are different. The + supposed difference rests on statements made by Buffon, Gilibert, + Bechstein, and others; but these are now known to be erroneous; and the + period is found to agree in the wolf, jackal, and dog, as closely as + could be expected, for it is often in some degree variable.<a + name="NtA_45" href="#Nt_45"><sup>[45]</sup></a> Tessier, who <!-- Page 30 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>{30}</span>has closely + attended to this subject, allows a difference of four days in the + gestation of the dog. The Rev. W. D. Fox has given me three carefully + recorded cases of retrievers, in which the bitch was put only once to the + dog; and not counting this day, but counting that of parturition, the + periods were fifty-nine, sixty-two, and sixty-seven days. The average + period is sixty-three days; but Bellingeri states that this holds good + only with large dogs; and that for small races it is from sixty to + sixty-three days; Mr. Eyton of Eyton, who has had much experience with + dogs, also informs me that the time is apt to be longer with large than + with small dogs.</p> + + <p>F. Cuvier has objected that the jackal would not have been + domesticated on account of its offensive smell; but savages are not + sensitive in this respect. The degree of odour, also, differs in the + different kinds of jackal;<a name="NtA_46" + href="#Nt_46"><sup>[46]</sup></a> and Colonel H. Smith makes a sectional + division of the group with one character dependent on not being + offensive. On the other hand, dogs—for instance, rough and smooth + terriers—differ much in this respect; and M. Godron states that the + hairless so-called Turkish dog is more odoriferous than other dogs. + Isidore Geoffroy<a name="NtA_47" href="#Nt_47"><sup>[47]</sup></a> gave + to a dog the same odour as that from a jackal by feeding it on raw + flesh.</p> + + <p>The belief that our dogs are descended from wolves, jackals, South + American Canidæ, and other species, suggests a far more important + difficulty. These animals in their undomesticated state, judging from a + widely-spread analogy, would have been in some degree sterile if + intercrossed; and such sterility will be admitted as almost certain by + all those who believe that the lessened fertility of crossed forms is an + infallible criterion of specific distinctness. Anyhow these animals keep + distinct in the countries which they inhabit in common. On the other + hand, all domestic dogs, which are here supposed to be descended <!-- + Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>{31}</span>from + several distinct species, are, as far as is known, mutually fertile + together. But, as Broca has well remarked,<a name="NtA_48" + href="#Nt_48"><sup>[48]</sup></a> the fertility of successive generations + of mongrel dogs has never been scrutinised with that care which is + thought indispensable when species are crossed. The few facts leading to + the conclusion that the sexual feelings and reproductive powers differ in + the several races of the dog when crossed are (passing over mere size as + rendering propagation difficult) as follows: the Mexican Alco<a + name="NtA_49" href="#Nt_49"><sup>[49]</sup></a> apparently dislikes dogs + of other kinds, but this perhaps is not strictly a sexual feeling; the + hairless endemic dog of Paraguay, according to Rengger, mixes less with + the European races than these do with each other; the Spitz-dog in + Germany is said to receive the fox more readily than do other breeds; and + Dr. Hodgkin states that a female Dingo in England attracted the male wild + foxes. If these latter statements can be trusted, they prove some degree + of sexual difference in the breeds of the dog. But the fact remains that + our domestic dogs, differing so widely as they do in external structure, + are far more fertile together than we have reason to believe their + supposed wild parents would have been. Pallas assumes<a name="NtA_50" + href="#Nt_50"><sup>[50]</sup></a> that a long course of domestication + eliminates that sterility which the parent-species would have exhibited + if only lately captured; no distinct facts are recorded in support of + this hypothesis; but the evidence seems to me so strong (independently of + the evidence derived from other domesticated animals) in favour of our + domestic dogs having descended from several wild stocks, that I am led to + admit the truth of this hypothesis.</p> + + <p>There is another and closely allied difficulty consequent on the + doctrine of the descent of our domestic dogs from several wild species, + namely, that they do not seem to be perfectly fertile with their supposed + parents. But the experiment has not been quite fairly tried; the + Hungarian dog, for instance, <!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page32"></a>{32}</span>which in external appearance so closely + resembles the European wolf, ought to be crossed with this wolf; and the + pariah-dogs of India with Indian wolves and jackals; and so in other + cases. That the sterility is very slight between certain dogs and wolves + and other Canidæ is shown by savages taking the trouble to cross them. + Buffon got four successive generations from the wolf and dog, and the + mongrels were perfectly fertile together.<a name="NtA_51" + href="#Nt_51"><sup>[51]</sup></a> But more lately M. Flourens states + positively as the result of his numerous experiments that hybrids from + the wolf and dog, crossed <i>inter se</i>, become sterile at the third + generation, and those from the jackal and dog at the fourth generation.<a + name="NtA_52" href="#Nt_52"><sup>[52]</sup></a> But these animals were + closely confined; and many wild animals, as we shall see in a future + chapter, are rendered by confinement in some degree or even utterly + sterile. The Dingo, which breeds freely in Australia with our imported + dogs, would not breed though repeatedly crossed in the Jardin des + Plantes.<a name="NtA_53" href="#Nt_53"><sup>[53]</sup></a> Some hounds + from Central Africa, brought home by Major Denham, never bred in the + Tower of London;<a name="NtA_54" href="#Nt_54"><sup>[54]</sup></a> and a + similar tendency to sterility might be transmitted to the hybrid + offspring of a wild animal. Moreover, it appears that in M. Flourens' + experiments the hybrids were closely bred in and in for three or four + generations; but this circumstance, although it would almost certainly + increase the tendency to sterility, would hardly account for the final + result, even though aided by close confinement, unless there had been + some original tendency to lessened fertility. Several years ago I saw + confined in the Zoological Gardens of London a female hybrid from an + English dog and jackal, which even in this the first generation was so + sterile that, as I was assured by <!-- Page 33 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>{33}</span>her keeper, she did not + fully exhibit her proper periods; but this case, from the numerous + instances of fertile hybrids from these two animals, was certainly + exceptional. In almost all experiments on the crossing of animals there + are so many causes of doubt, that it is extremely difficult to come to + any positive conclusion. It would, however, appear, that those who + believe that our dogs are descended from several species will have not + only to admit that their offspring after a long course of domestication + generally lose all tendency to sterility when crossed together; but that + between certain breeds of dogs and some of their supposed aboriginal + parents a certain degree of sterility has been retained or possibly even + acquired.</p> + + <p>Notwithstanding the difficulties in regard to fertility given in the + last two paragraphs, when we reflect on the inherent improbability of man + having domesticated throughout the world one single species alone of so + widely distributed, so easily tamed, and so useful a group as the Canidæ; + when we reflect on the extreme antiquity of the different breeds; and + especially when we reflect on the close similarity, both in external + structure and habits, between the domestic dogs of various countries and + the wild species still inhabiting these same countries, the balance of + evidence is strongly in favour of the multiple origin of our dogs.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p><i>Differences between the several Breeds of the Dog.</i>—If the + several breeds have descended from several wild stocks, their difference + can obviously in part be explained by that of their parent-species. For + instance, the form of the greyhound may be partly accounted for by + descent from some such animal as the slim Abyssinian <i>Canis + simensis</i>,<a name="NtA_55" href="#Nt_55"><sup>[55]</sup></a> with its + elongated muzzle; that of the larger dogs from the larger wolves, and the + smaller and slighter dogs from jackals: and thus perhaps we may account + for certain constitutional and climatal differences. But it would be a + great error to suppose that there has not been in addition<a + name="NtA_56" href="#Nt_56"><sup>[56]</sup></a> a large amount of + variation. The intercrossing of the several aboriginal wild stocks, and + of the subsequently formed <!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page34"></a>{34}</span>races, has probably increased the total + number of breeds, and, as we shall presently see, has greatly modified + some of them. But we cannot explain by crossing the origin of such + extreme forms as thoroughbred greyhounds, bloodhounds, bulldogs, Blenheim + spaniels, terriers, pugs, &c., unless we believe that forms equally + or more strongly characterised in these different respects once existed + in nature. But hardly any one has been bold enough to suppose that such + unnatural forms ever did or could exist in a wild state. When compared + with all known members of the family of Canidæ they betray a distinct and + abnormal origin. No instance is on record of such dogs as bloodhounds, + spaniels, true greyhounds having been kept by savages: they are the + product of long-continued civilization.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>The number of breeds and sub-breeds of the dog is great: Youatt, for + instance, describes twelve kinds of greyhounds. I will not attempt to + enumerate or describe the varieties, for we cannot discriminate how much + of their difference is due to variation, and how much to descent from + different aboriginal stocks. But it may be worth while briefly to mention + some points. Commencing with the skull, Cuvier has admitted<a + name="NtA_57" href="#Nt_57"><sup>[57]</sup></a> that in form the + differences are "plus fortes que celles d'aucunes espèces sauvages d'un + même genre naturel." The proportions of the different bones; the + curvature of the lower jaw, the position of the condyles with respect to + the plane of the teeth (on which F. Cuvier founded his classification), + and in mastiffs the shape of its posterior branch; the shape of the + zygomatic arch, and of the temporal fossæ; the position of the + occiput—all vary considerably.<a name="NtA_58" + href="#Nt_58"><sup>[58]</sup></a> The dog has properly six pairs of molar + teeth in the upper jaw, and seven in the lower; but several naturalists + have seen not rarely an additional pair in the upper jaw;<a name="NtA_59" + href="#Nt_59"><sup>[59]</sup></a> and Professor Gervais says that there + are dogs "qui ont sept paires de dents supérieures et huit inférieures.". + De Blainville<a name="NtA_60" href="#Nt_60"><sup>[60]</sup></a> has given + full particulars on the frequency of these deviations in the number of + the teeth, and has shown that it is not always the same tooth which is + supernumerary. In short-muzzled races, according to H. Müller,<a + name="NtA_61" href="#Nt_61"><sup>[61]</sup></a> the molar teeth stand + obliquely, whilst in long-muzzled races they are placed longitudinally, + with open spaces between them. The naked, so-called Egyptian or Turkish + dog is extremely deficient in its <!-- Page 35 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>{35}</span>teeth,<a name="NtA_62" + href="#Nt_62"><sup>[62]</sup></a>—sometimes having none except one + molar on each side; but this, though characteristic of the breed, must be + considered as a monstrosity. M. Girard,<a name="NtA_63" + href="#Nt_63"><sup>[63]</sup></a> who seems to have attended closely to + the subject, says that the period of the appearance of the permanent + teeth differs in different dogs, being earlier in large dogs; thus the + mastiff assumes its adult teeth in four or five months, whilst in the + spaniel the period is sometimes more than seven or eight months.</p> + + <p>With respect to minor differences little need be said. Isidore + Geoffroy has shown<a name="NtA_64" href="#Nt_64"><sup>[64]</sup></a> that + in size some dogs are six times as long (the tail being excluded) as + others; and that the height relatively to the length of the body varies + from between one to two, and one to nearly four. In the Scotch deer-hound + there is a striking and remarkable difference in the size of the male and + female.<a name="NtA_65" href="#Nt_65"><sup>[65]</sup></a> Every one knows + how the ears vary in size in different breeds, and with their great + development their muscles become atrophied. Certain breeds of dogs are + described as having a deep furrow between the nostrils and lips. The + caudal vertebræ, according to F. Cuvier, on whose authority the two last + statements rest, vary in number; and the tail in shepherd dogs is almost + absent. The mammæ vary from seven to ten in number; Daubenton, having + examined twenty-one dogs, found eight with five mammæ on each side; eight + with four on each side; and the others with an unequal number on the two + sides.<a name="NtA_66" href="#Nt_66"><sup>[66]</sup></a> Dogs have + properly five toes in front and four behind, but a fifth toe is often + added; and F. Cuvier states that, when a fifth toe is present, a fourth + cuneiform bone is developed; and, in this case, sometimes the great + cuneiform bone is raised, and gives on its inner side a large articular + surface to the astragalus; so that even the relative connection of the + bones, the most constant of all characters, varies. These modifications, + however, in the feet of dogs are not important, because they ought to be + ranked, as De Blainville has shown,<a name="NtA_67" + href="#Nt_67"><sup>[67]</sup></a> as monstrosities. Nevertheless they are + interesting from being correlated with the size of the body, for they + occur much more frequently with mastiffs and other large breeds than with + small dogs. Closely allied varieties, however, sometimes differ in this + respect; thus Mr. Hodgson states that the black-and-tan Lassa variety of + the Thibet mastiff has the fifth digit, whilst the Mustang sub-variety is + not thus characterised. The extent to which the skin is developed between + the toes varies much; but we shall return to this point. The degree to + which the various breeds differ in the perfection of their senses, + dispositions, and inherited habits is notorious to every one. The breeds + present some constitutional differences: the pulse, says Youatt,<a + name="NtA_68" href="#Nt_68"><sup>[68]</sup></a> "varies materially + according to the breed, as well <!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page36"></a>{36}</span>as to the size of the animal." Different + breeds of dogs are subject in different degrees to various diseases. They + certainly become adapted to different climates under which they have long + existed. It is notorious that most of our best European breeds + deteriorate in India.<a name="NtA_69" href="#Nt_69"><sup>[69]</sup></a> + The Rev. R. Everest<a name="NtA_70" href="#Nt_70"><sup>[70]</sup></a> + believes that no one has succeeded in keeping the Newfoundland dog long + alive in India; so it is, according to Lichtenstein,<a name="NtA_71" + href="#Nt_71"><sup>[71]</sup></a> even at the Cape of Good Hope. The + Thibet mastiff degenerates on the plains of India, and can live only on + the mountains.<a name="NtA_72" href="#Nt_72"><sup>[72]</sup></a> Lloyd<a + name="NtA_73" href="#Nt_73"><sup>[73]</sup></a> asserts that our + bloodhounds and bulldogs have been tried, and cannot withstand the cold + of the northern European forests.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Seeing in how many characters the races of the dog differ from each + other, and remembering Cuvier's admission that their skulls differ more + than do those of the species of any natural genus, and bearing in mind + how closely the bones of wolves, jackals, foxes, and other Canidæ agree, + it is remarkable that we meet with the statement, repeated over and over + again, that the races of the dog differ in no important characters. A + highly competent judge, Prof. Gervais,<a name="NtA_74" + href="#Nt_74"><sup>[74]</sup></a> admits, "si l'on prenait sans contrôle + les altérations dont chacun de ces organes est susceptible, on pourrait + croire qu'il y a entre les chiens domestiques des différences plus + grandes que celles qui séparent ailleurs les espèces, quelquefois même + les genres." Some of the differences above enumerated are in one respect + of comparatively little value, for they are not characteristic of + distinct breeds: no one pretends that such is the case with the + additional molar teeth or with the number of mammæ; the additional digit + is generally present with mastiffs, and some of the more important + differences in the skull and lower jaw are more or less characteristic of + various breeds. But we must not forget that the predominant power of + selection has not been applied in any of these cases; we have variability + in important parts, but the differences have not been fixed by selection. + Man <!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page37"></a>{37}</span>cares for the form and fleetness of his + greyhounds, for the size of his mastiffs, for the strength of the jaw in + his bulldogs, &c.; but he cares nothing about the number of their + molar teeth or mammæ or digits; nor do we know that differences in these + organs are correlated with, or owe their development to, differences in + other parts of the body about which man does care. Those who have + attended to the subject of selection will admit that, nature having given + variability, man, if he so chose, could fix five toes to the hinder feet + of certain breeds of dogs, as certainly as to the feet of his + Dorking-fowls: he could probably fix, but with much more difficulty, an + additional pair of molar teeth in either jaw, in the same way as he has + given additional horns to certain breeds of sheep; if he wished to + produce a toothless breed of dogs, having the so-called Turkish dog with + its imperfect teeth to work on, he could probably do so, for he has + succeeded in making hornless breeds of cattle and sheep.</p> + + <p>With respect to the precise causes and steps by which the several + races of dogs have come to differ so greatly from each other, we are, as + in most other cases, profoundly ignorant. We may attribute part of the + difference in external form and constitution to inheritance from distinct + wild stocks, that is to changes effected under nature before + domestication. We must attribute something to the crossing of the several + domestic and natural races. I shall, however, soon recur to the crossing + of races. We have already seen how often savages cross their dogs with + wild native species; and Pennant gives a curious account<a name="NtA_75" + href="#Nt_75"><sup>[75]</sup></a> of the manner in which Fochabers, in + Scotland, was stocked "with a multitude of curs of a most wolfish aspect" + from a single hybrid-wolf brought into that district.</p> + + <p>It would appear that climate to a certain extent directly modifies the + forms of dogs. We have lately seen that several of our English breeds + cannot live in India, and it is positively asserted that when bred there + for a few generations they degenerate not only in their mental faculties, + but in form. Captain Williamson,<a name="NtA_76" + href="#Nt_76"><sup>[76]</sup></a> who carefully attended to this subject, + states that "hounds are the most rapid in their decline;" "greyhounds and + <!-- Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page38"></a>{38}</span>pointers, also, rapidly decline." But + spaniels, after eight or nine generations, and without a cross from + Europe, are as good as their ancestors. Dr. Falconer informs me that + bulldogs, which have been known, when first brought into the country, to + pin down even an elephant by its trunk, not only fall off after two of + three generations in pluck and ferocity, but lose the under-hung + character of their lower jaws; their muzzles become finer and their + bodies lighter. English dogs imported into India are so valuable that + probably due care has been taken to prevent their crossing with native + dogs; so that the deterioration cannot be thus accounted for. The Rev. R. + Everest informs me that he obtained a pair of setters, born in India, + which perfectly resembled their Scotch parents: he raised several litters + from them in Delhi, taking the most stringent precautions to prevent a + cross, but he never succeeded, though this was only the second generation + in India, in obtaining a single young dog like its parents in size or + make; their nostrils were more contracted, their noses more pointed, + their size inferior, and their limbs more slender. This remarkable + tendency to rapid deterioration in European dogs subjected to the climate + of India, may perhaps partly be accounted for by the tendency to + reversion to a primordial condition which many animals exhibit, as we + shall see in a future chapter, when exposed to new conditions of + life.</p> + + <p>Some of the peculiarities characteristic of the several breeds of the + dog have probably arisen suddenly, and, though strictly inherited, may be + called monstrosities; for instance, the shape of the legs and body in the + turnspit of Europe and India; the shape of the head and the under-hanging + jaw in the bull and pug-dog, so alike in this one respect and so unlike + in all others. A peculiarity suddenly arising, and therefore in one sense + deserving to be called a monstrosity, may, however, be increased and + fixed by man's selection. We can hardly doubt that long-continued + training, as with the greyhound in coursing hares, as with water-dogs in + swimming—and the want of exercise, in the case of + lapdogs—must have produced some direct effect on their structure + and instincts. But we shall immediately see that the most potent cause of + change has probably been the selection, both methodical and unconscious, + of slight individual differences,—the <!-- Page 39 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>{39}</span>latter kind of selection + resulting from the occasional preservation, during hundreds of + generations, of those individual dogs which were the most useful to man + for certain purposes and under certain conditions of life. In a future + chapter on Selection I shall show that even barbarians attend closely to + the qualities of their dogs. This unconscious selection by man would lie + aided by a kind of natural selection; for the dogs of savages have partly + to gain their own subsistence; for instance, in Australia, as we hear + from Mr. Nind,<a name="NtA_77" href="#Nt_77"><sup>[77]</sup></a> the dogs + are sometimes compelled by want to leave their masters and provide for + themselves; but in a few days they generally return. And we may infer + that dogs of different shapes, sizes, and habits, would have best chance + of surviving under different circumstances,—on open, sterile + plains, where they have to run down their own prey,—on rocky + coasts, where they have to feed on crabs and fish left in the tidal + pools, as in the case of New Guinea and Tierra del Fuego. In this latter + country, as I am informed by Mr. Bridges, the Catechist to the Mission, + the dogs turn over the stones on the shore to catch the crustaceans which + lie beneath, and they "are clever enough to knock off the shell-fish at a + first blow;" for if this be not done, shell-fish are well known to have + an almost invincible power of adhesion.</p> + + <p>It has already been remarked that dogs differ in the degree to which + their feet are webbed. In dogs of the Newfoundland breed, which are + eminently aquatic in their habits, the skin, according to Isidore + Geoffroy,<a name="NtA_78" href="#Nt_78"><sup>[78]</sup></a> extends to + the third phalanges, whilst in ordinary dogs it extends only to the + second. In two Newfoundland dogs which I examined, when the toes were + stretched apart and viewed on the under side, the skin extended in a + nearly straight line between the outer margins of the balls of the toes; + whereas, in two terriers of distinct sub-breeds, the skin viewed in the + same manner was deeply scooped out. In Canada there is a dog which is + peculiar to the country and common there, and this has "half-webbed feet + and is fond of the water."<a name="NtA_79" + href="#Nt_79"><sup>[79]</sup></a> English otter-hounds are said to have + webbed feet: a friend examined for me the feet of two, in comparison <!-- + Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>{40}</span>with the + feet of some harriers and bloodhounds; he found the skin variable in + extent in all, but more developed in the otter than in the other + hounds.<a name="NtA_80" href="#Nt_80"><sup>[80]</sup></a> As aquatic + animals which belong to quite different orders have webbed feet, there + can be no doubt that this structure would be serviceable to dogs that + frequent the water. We may confidently infer that no man ever selected + his water-dogs by the extent to which the skin was developed between + their toes; but what he does, is to preserve and breed from those + individuals which hunt best in the water, or best retrieve wounded game, + and thus he unconsciously selects dogs with feet slightly better webbed. + Man thus closely imitates Natural Selection. We have an excellent + illustration of this same process in North America, where, according to + Sir J. Richardson,<a name="NtA_81" href="#Nt_81"><sup>[81]</sup></a> all + the wolves, foxes, and aboriginal domestic dogs have their feet broader + than in the corresponding species of the Old World, and "well calculated + for running on the snow." Now, in these Arctic regions, the life or death + of every animal will often depend on its success in hunting over the snow + when softened; and this will in part depend on the feet being broad; yet + they must not be so broad as to interfere with the activity of the animal + when the ground is sticky, or with its power of burrowing holes, or with + other habits of life.</p> + + <p>As changes in domestic breeds which take place so slowly as not to be + noticed at any one period, whether due to the selection of individual + variations or of differences resulting from crosses, are most important + in understanding the origin of our domestic productions, and likewise in + throwing indirect light on the changes effected under nature, I will give + in detail such cases as I have been able to collect. Lawrence,<a + name="NtA_82" href="#Nt_82"><sup>[82]</sup></a> who paid particular + attention to the history of the foxhound, writing in 1829, says that + between eighty and ninety years before "an entirely new foxhound was + raised through the breeder's art," the ears of the old southern hound + being reduced, the bone and bulk lightened, the waist increased in + length, and the stature <!-- Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page41"></a>{41}</span>somewhat added to. It is believed that this + was effected by a cross with the greyhound. With respect to this latter + dog, Youatt,<a name="NtA_83" href="#Nt_83"><sup>[83]</sup></a> who is + generally cautious in his statements, says that the greyhound within the + last fifty years, that is before the commencement of the present century, + "assumed a somewhat different character from that which he once + possessed. He is now distinguished by a beautiful symmetry of form, of + which he could not once boast, and he has even superior speed to that + which he formerly exhibited. He is no longer used to struggle with deer, + but contends with his fellows over a shorter and speedier course." An + able writer<a name="NtA_84" href="#Nt_84"><sup>[84]</sup></a> believes + that our English greyhounds are the descendants, <i>progressively + improved</i>, of the large rough greyhounds which existed in Scotland so + early as the third century. A cross at some former period with the + Italian greyhound has been suspected; but this seems hardly probable, + considering the feebleness of this latter breed. Lord Orford, as is well + known, crossed his famous greyhounds, which failed in courage, with a + bulldog—this breed being-chosen from being deficient in the power + of scent; "after the sixth or seventh generation," says Youatt, "there + was not a vestige left of the form of the bulldog, but his courage and + indomitable perseverance remained."</p> + + <p>Youatt infers, from a comparison of an old picture of King Charles's + spaniels with the living dog, that "the breed of the present day is + materially altered for the worse:" the muzzle has become shorter, the + forehead more prominent, and the eyes larger: the changes in this case + have probably been due to simple selection. The setter, as this author + remarks in another place, "is evidently the large spaniel improved to his + present peculiar size and beauty, and taught another way of marking his + game. If the form of the dog were not sufficiently satisfactory on this + point, we might have recourse to history:" he then refers to a document + dated 1685 bearing on this subject, and adds that the pure Irish setter + shows no signs of a cross with the pointer, which some authors suspect + has been the case with the English setter. Another writer<a name="NtA_85" + href="#Nt_85"><sup>[85]</sup></a> remarks <!-- Page 42 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page42"></a>{42}</span>that, if the mastiff and + English bulldog had formerly been as distinct as they are at the present + time (<i>i.e.</i> 1828), so accurate an observer as the poet Gay (who was + the author of 'Rural Sports' in 1711) would have spoken in his Fable of + the <i>Bull and the Bulldog</i>, and not of the <i>Bull and the + Mastiff</i>. There can be no doubt that the fancy bulldogs of the present + day, now that they are not used for bull-baiting, have become greatly + reduced in size, without any express intention on the part of the + breeder. Our pointers are certainly descended from a Spanish breed, as + even their names, Don, Ponto, Carlos, &c., would show: it is said + that they were not known in England before the Revolution in 1688;<a + name="NtA_86" href="#Nt_86"><sup>[86]</sup></a> but the breed since its + introduction has been much modified, for Mr. Borrow, who is a sportsman + and knows Spain intimately well, informs me that he has not seen in that + country any breed "corresponding in figure with the English pointer; but + there are genuine pointers near Xeres which have been imported by English + gentlemen." A nearly parallel case is offered by the Newfoundland dog, + which was certainly brought into England from that country, but which has + since been so much modified that, as several writers have observed, it + does not now closely resemble any existing native dog in Newfoundland.<a + name="NtA_87" href="#Nt_87"><sup>[87]</sup></a></p> + + <p>These several cases of slow and gradual changes in our English dogs + possess some interest; for though the changes have generally, but not + invariably, been caused by one or two crosses with a distinct breed, yet + we may feel sure, from the well-known extreme variability of crossed + breeds, that rigorous and long-continued selection must have been + practised, in order to improve them in a definite manner. As soon as any + strain or family became slightly improved or better adapted to altered + circumstances, it would tend to supplant the older and less improved + strains. For instance, as soon as the old foxhound was improved by a + cross with the greyhound, or by simple selection, and assumed its present + character—and the change was probably required by <!-- Page 43 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page43"></a>{43}</span>the increased + fleetness of our hunters—it rapidly spread throughout the country, + and is now everywhere nearly uniform. But the process of improvement is + still going on, for every one tries to improve his strain by occasionally + procuring dogs from the best kennels. Through this process of gradual + substitution the old English hound has been lost; and so it has been with + the old Irish greyhound and apparently with the old English bulldog. But + the extinction of former breeds is apparently aided by another cause; for + whenever a breed is kept in scanty numbers, as at present with the + bloodhound, it is reared with difficulty, and this apparently is due to + the evil effects of long-continued close interbreeding. As several breeds + of the dog have been slightly but sensibly modified within so short a + period as the last one or two centuries, by the selection of the best + individual dogs, modified in many cases by crosses with other breeds; and + as we shall hereafter see that the breeding of dogs was attended to in + ancient times, as it still is by savages, we may conclude that we have in + selection, even if only occasionally practised, a potent means of + modification.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Domestic Cats.</span></p> + + <p>Cats have been domesticated in the East from an ancient period; Mr. + Blyth informs me that they are mentioned in a Sanskrit writing 2000 years + old, and in Egypt their antiquity is known to be even greater, as shown + by monumental drawings and their mummied bodies. These mummies, according + to De Blainville<a name="NtA_88" href="#Nt_88"><sup>[88]</sup></a> who + has particularly studied the subject, belong to no less than three + species, namely, <i>F. caligulata</i>, <i>bubastes</i>, and <i>chaus</i>. + The two former species are said to be still found, both wild and + domesticated, in parts of Egypt. <i>F. caligulata</i> presents a + difference in the first inferior milk molar tooth, as compared with the + domestic cats of Europe, which makes De Blainville conclude that it is + not one of the parent-forms of our cats. Several naturalists, as Pallas, + Temminck, Blyth, believe that domestic cats are the descendants of + several species <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page44"></a>{44}</span>commingled: it is certain that cats cross + readily with various wild species, and it would appear that the character + of the domestic breeds has, at least in some cases, been thus affected. + Sir W. Jardine has no doubt that, "in the north of Scotland, there has + been occasional crossing with our native species (<i>F. sylvestris</i>), + and that the result of these crosses has been kept in our houses. I have + seen," he adds, "many cats very closely resembling the wild cat, and one + or two that could scarcely be distinguished from it." Mr. Blyth<a + name="NtA_89" href="#Nt_89"><sup>[89]</sup></a> remarks on this passage, + "but such cats are never seen in the southern parts of England; still, as + compared with any Indian tame cat, the affinity of the ordinary British + cat to <i>F. sylvestris</i> is manifest; and due I suspect to frequent + intermixture at a time when the tame cat was first introduced into + Britain and continued rare, while the wild species was far more abundant + than at present." In Hungary, Jeitteles<a name="NtA_90" + href="#Nt_90"><sup>[90]</sup></a> was assured on trustworthy authority + that a wild male cat crossed with a female domestic cat, and that the + hybrids long lived in a domesticated state. In Algiers the domestic cat + has crossed with the wild cat (<i>F. Lybica</i>) of that country.<a + name="NtA_91" href="#Nt_91"><sup>[91]</sup></a> In South Africa, as Mr. + E. Layard informs me, the domestic cat intermingles freely with the wild + <i>F. caffra</i>; he has seen a pair of hybrids which were quite tame and + particularly attached to the lady who brought them up; and Mr. Fry has + found that these hybrids are fertile. In India the domestic cat, + according to Mr. Blyth, has crossed with four Indian species. With + respect to one of these species, <i>F. chaus</i>, an excellent observer, + Sir W. Elliot, informs me that he once killed, near Madras, a wild brood, + which were evidently hybrids from the domestic cat; these young animals + had a thick lynx-like tail and the broad brown bar on the inside of the + forearm characteristic of <i>F. chaus</i>. Sir W. Elliot adds that he has + often observed this same mark on the forearms of domestic cats in India. + Mr. Blyth states that domestic cats coloured nearly like <i>F. chaus</i>, + but not resembling that species in shape, abound in <!-- Page 45 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>{45}</span>Bengal; he adds, "such a + colouration is utterly unknown in European cats, and the proper tabby + markings (pale streaks on a black ground, peculiarly and symmetrically + disposed), so common in English cats, are never seen in those of India." + Dr. D. Short has assured Mr. Blyth<a name="NtA_92" + href="#Nt_92"><sup>[92]</sup></a> that at Hansi hybrids between the + common cat and <i>F. ornata</i> (or <i>torquata</i>) occur, "and that + many of the domestic cats of that part of India were undistinguishable + from the wild <i>F. ornata</i>." Azara states, but only on the authority + of the inhabitants, that in Paraguay the cat has crossed with two native + species. From these several cases we see that in Europe, Asia, Africa, + and America, the common cat, which lives a freer life than most other + domesticated animals, has crossed with various wild species; and that in + some instances the crossing has been sufficiently frequent to affect the + character of the breed.</p> + + <p>Whether domestic cats have descended from several distinct species, or + have only been modified by occasional crosses, their fertility, as far as + is known, is unimpaired. The large Angora or Persian cat is the most + distinct in structure and habits of all the domestic breeds; and is + believed by Pallas, but on no distinct evidence, to be descended from the + <i>F. manul</i> of middle Asia; but I am assured by Mr. Blyth that this + cat breeds freely with Indian cats, which, as we have already seen, have + apparently been much crossed with <i>F. chaus</i>. In England half-bred + Angora cats are perfectly fertile with the common cat; I do not know + whether the half-breeds are fertile one with another; but as they are + common in some parts of Europe, any marked degree of sterility could + hardly fail to have been noticed.</p> + + <p>Within the same country we do not meet with distinct races of the cat, + as we do of dogs and of most other domestic animals; though the cats of + the same country present a considerable amount of fluctuating + variability. The explanation obviously is that, from their nocturnal and + rambling habits, indiscriminate crossing cannot without much trouble be + prevented. Selection cannot be brought into play to produce distinct + breeds, or to keep those distinct which have been imported from foreign + lands. On the other hand, in islands and <!-- Page 46 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page46"></a>{46}</span>in countries completely + separated from each other, we meet with breeds more or less distinct; and + these cases are worth giving as showing that the scarcity of distinct + races in the same country is not caused by a deficiency of variability in + the animal. The tail-less cats of the Isle of Man are said to differ from + common cats not only in the want of a tail, but in the greater length of + their hind legs, in the size of their heads, and in habits. The Creole + cat of Antigua, as I am informed by Mr. Nicholson, is smaller, and has a + more elongated head, than the British cat. In Ceylon, as Mr. Thwaites + writes to me, every one at first notices the different appearance of the + native cat from the English animal; it is of small size, with closely + lying hairs; its head is small, with a receding forehead; but the ears + are large and sharp; altogether it has what is there called a "low-caste" + appearance. Rengger<a name="NtA_93" href="#Nt_93"><sup>[93]</sup></a> + says that the domestic cat, which has been bred for 300 years in + Paraguay, presents a striking difference from the European cat; it is + smaller by a fourth, has a more lanky body, its hair is short, shining, + scanty, and lies close, especially on the tail: he adds that the change + has been less at Ascension, the capital of Paraguay, owing to the + continual crossing with newly imported cats; and this fact well + illustrates the importance of separation. The conditions of life in + Paraguay appear not to be highly favourable to the cat, for, though they + have run half-wild, they do not become thoroughly feral, like so many + other European animals. In another part of South America, according to + Roulin,<a name="NtA_94" href="#Nt_94"><sup>[94]</sup></a> the introduced + cat has lost the habit of uttering its hideous nocturnal howl. The Rev. + W. D. Fox purchased a cat in Portsmouth, which he was told came from the + coast of Guinea; its skin was black and wrinkled, fur bluish-grey and + short, its ears rather bare, legs long, and whole aspect peculiar. This + "negro" cat was fertile with common cats. On the opposite coast of + Africa, at Mombas, Captain Owen, R.N.,<a name="NtA_95" + href="#Nt_95"><sup>[95]</sup></a> states that all the cats are covered + with short stiff hair instead of fur: he gives a curious account of a cat + from Algoa Bay, which had been kept for some time on board and could be + identified with certainty; this <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page47"></a>{47}</span>animal was left for only eight weeks at + Mombas, but during that short period it "underwent a complete + metamorphosis, having parted with its sandy-coloured fur." A cat from the + Cape of Good Hope has been described by Desmarest as remarkable from a + red stripe extending along the whole length of its back. Throughout an + immense area, namely, the Malayan archipelago, Siam, Pegu, and Burmah, + all the cats have truncated tails about half the proper length,<a + name="NtA_96" href="#Nt_96"><sup>[96]</sup></a> often with a sort of knot + at the end. In the Caroline archipelago the cats have very long legs, and + are of a reddish-yellow colour.<a name="NtA_97" + href="#Nt_97"><sup>[97]</sup></a> In China a breed has drooping ears. At + Tobolsk, according to Gmelin, there is a red-coloured breed. In Asia, + also, we find the well-known Angora or Persian breed.</p> + + <p>The domestic cat has run wild in several countries, and everywhere + assumes, as far as can be judged by the short recorded descriptions, a + uniform character. Near Maldonado, in La Plata, I shot one which seemed + perfectly wild; it was carefully examined by Mr. Waterhouse,<a + name="NtA_98" href="#Nt_98"><sup>[98]</sup></a> who found nothing + remarkable in it, excepting its great size. In New Zealand, according to + Dieffenbach, the feral cats assume a streaky grey colour like that of + wild cats; and this is the case with the half-wild cats of the Scotch + Highlands.</p> + + <p>We have seen that distant countries possess distinct domestic races of + the cat. The differences may be in part due to descent from several + aboriginal species, or at least to crosses with them. In some cases, as + in Paraguay, Mombas, and Antigua, the differences seem due to the direct + action of different conditions of life. In other cases some slight effect + may possibly be attributed to natural selection, as cats in many cases + have largely to support themselves and to escape diverse dangers. But + man, owing to the difficulty of pairing cats, has done nothing by + methodical selection; and probably very little by unintentional + selection; though in each litter he generally saves the prettiest, <!-- + Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>{48}</span>and + values most a good breed of mouse or rat-catchers. Those cats which have + a strong tendency to prowl after game, generally get destroyed by traps. + As cats are so much petted, a breed bearing the same relation to other + cats, that lapdogs bear to larger dogs, would have been much valued; and + if selection could have been applied, we should certainly have had many + breeds in each long-civilized country, for there is plenty of variability + to work upon.</p> + + <p>We see in this country considerable diversity in size, some in the + proportions of the body, and extreme variability in colouring. I have + only lately attended to this subject, but have already heard of some + singular cases of variation; one of a cat born in the West Indies + toothless, and remaining so all its life. Mr. Tegetmeier has shown me the + skull of a female cat with its canines so much developed that they + protruded uncovered beyond the lips; the tooth with the fang being .95, + and the part projecting from the gum .6 of an inch in length. I have + heard of a family of six-toed cats. The tail varies greatly in length; I + have seen a cat which always carried its tail flat on its back when + pleased. The ears vary in shape, and certain strains, in England, inherit + a pencil-like tuft of hairs, above a quarter of an inch in length, on the + tips of their ears; and this same peculiarity, according to Mr. Blyth, + characterises some cats in India. The great variability in the length of + the tail and the lynx-like tufts of hairs on the ears are apparently + analogous to differences in certain wild species of the genus. A much + more important difference, according to Daubenton,<a name="NtA_99" + href="#Nt_99"><sup>[99]</sup></a> is that the intestines of domestic cats + are wider, and a third longer, than in wild cats of the same size; and + this apparently has been caused by their less strictly carnivorous + diet.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page49"></a>{49}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">HORSES AND ASSES.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>HORSE.—<span class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE + BREEDS</span>—<span class="scac">INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY + OF</span>—<span class="scac">DIRECT EFFECTS OF THE CONDITIONS OF + LIFE</span>—<span class="scac">CAN WITHSTAND MUCH + COLD</span>—<span class="scac">BREEDS MUCH MODIFIED BY + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">COLOURS OF THE + HORSE</span>—<span class="scac">DAPPLING</span>—<span + class="scac">DARK STRIPES ON THE SPINE, LEGS, SHOULDERS, AND + FOREHEAD</span>—<span class="scac">DUN-COLOURED HORSES MOST + FREQUENTLY STRIPED</span>—<span class="scac">STRIPES PROBABLY DUE + TO REVERSION TO THE PRIMITIVE STATE OF THE HORSE.</span></p> + + <p>ASSES.—<span class="scac">BREEDS OF</span>—<span + class="scac">COLOUR OF</span>—<span class="scac">LEG- AND SHOULDER- + STRIPES</span>—<span class="scac">SHOULDER-STRIPES SOMETIMES + ABSENT, SOMETIMES FORKED.</span></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The history of the Horse is lost in antiquity. Remains of this animal + in a domesticated condition have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings, + belonging to the latter part of the Stone period.<a name="NtA_100" + href="#Nt_100"><sup>[100]</sup></a> At the present time the number of + breeds is great, as may be seen by consulting any treatise on the + Horse.<a name="NtA_101" href="#Nt_101"><sup>[101]</sup></a> Looking only + to the native ponies of Great Britain, those of the Shetland Isles, + Wales, the New Forest, and Devonshire are distinguishable; and so it is + with each separate island in the great Malay archipelago.<a + name="NtA_102" href="#Nt_102"><sup>[102]</sup></a> Some of the breeds + present great differences in size, shape of ears, length of mane, + proportions of the body, form of the withers and hind quarters, and + especially in the head. Compare the race-horse, dray-horse, and a + Shetland pony in size, configuration, and disposition; and see how much + greater the difference is than between the six or seven other living + species of the genus Equus.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page50"></a>{50}</span></p> + + <p>Of individual variations not known to characterise particular breeds, + and not great or injurious enough to be called monstrosities, I have not + collected many cases. Mr. G. Brown, of the Cirencester Agricultural + College, who has particularly attended to the dentition of our domestic + animals, writes to me that he has "several times noticed eight permanent + incisors instead of six in the jaw." Male horses alone properly have + canines, but they are occasionally found in the mare, though of small + size.<a name="NtA_103" href="#Nt_103"><sup>[103]</sup></a> The number of + ribs is properly eighteen, but Youatt<a name="NtA_104" + href="#Nt_104"><sup>[104]</sup></a> asserts that not unfrequently there + are nineteen on each side, the additional one being always the posterior + rib. I have seen several notices of variations in the bones of the leg; + thus Mr. Price<a name="NtA_105" href="#Nt_105"><sup>[105]</sup></a> + speaks of an additional bone in the hock, and of certain abnormal + appearances between the tibia and astragalus, as quite common in Irish + horses, and not due to disease. Horses have often been observed, + according to M. Gaudry,<a name="NtA_106" + href="#Nt_106"><sup>[106]</sup></a> to possess a trapezium and a rudiment + of a fifth metacarpal bone, so that "one sees appearing by monstrosity, + in the foot of the horse, structures which normally exist in the foot of + the Hipparion,"—an allied and extinct animal. In various countries + horn-like projections have been observed on the frontal bones of the + horse: in one case described by Mr. Percival they arose about two inches + above the orbital processes, and were "very like those in a calf from + five to six months old," being from half to three-quarters of an inch in + length.<a name="NtA_107" href="#Nt_107"><sup>[107]</sup></a> Azara has + described two cases in South America in which the projections were + between three and four inches in length: other instances have occurred in + Spain.</p> + + <p>That there has been much inherited variation in the horse cannot be + doubted, when we reflect on the number of the breeds existing throughout + the world or even within the same country, and when we know that they + have largely increased in number <!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page51"></a>{51}</span>since the earliest known records.<a + name="NtA_108" href="#Nt_108"><sup>[108]</sup></a> Even in so fleeting a + character as colour, Hofacker<a name="NtA_109" + href="#Nt_109"><sup>[109]</sup></a> found that, out of two hundred and + sixteen cases in which horses of the same colour were paired, only eleven + pairs produced foals of a quite different colour. As Professor Low<a + name="NtA_110" href="#Nt_110"><sup>[110]</sup></a> has remarked, the + English race-horse offers the best possible evidence of inheritance. The + pedigree of a race-horse is of more value in judging of its probable + success than its appearance: "King Herod" gained in prizes + 201,505<i>l.</i> sterling, and begot 497 winners; "Eclipse" begot 334 + winners.</p> + + <p>Whether the whole amount of difference between the various breeds be + due to variation is doubtful. From the fertility of the most distinct + breeds<a name="NtA_111" href="#Nt_111"><sup>[111]</sup></a> when crossed, + naturalists have generally looked at all the breeds as having descended + from a single species. Few will agree with Colonel H. Smith, who believes + that they have descended from no less than five primitive and differently + coloured stocks.<a name="NtA_112" href="#Nt_112"><sup>[112]</sup></a> But + as several species and varieties of the horse existed<a name="NtA_113" + href="#Nt_113"><sup>[113]</sup></a> during the later tertiary periods, + and as Rütimeyer found differences in the size and form of the skull in + the earliest known domesticated horses,<a name="NtA_114" + href="#Nt_114"><sup>[114]</sup></a> we ought not to feel sure that all + our breeds have descended from a single species. As we see that the + savages of North and South America easily reclaim the feral horses, there + is no improbability in savages in various quarters of the world having + domesticated more than one native species or natural race. No aboriginal + or truly wild horse is positively known now to exist; for it is thought + by some authors that the wild horses of the East are escaped domestic + animals.<a name="NtA_115" href="#Nt_115"><sup>[115]</sup></a> If our + domestic breeds have descended from several <!-- Page 52 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>{52}</span>species or natural races, + these apparently have all become extinct in the wild state. With our + present knowledge, the common view that all have descended from a single + species is, perhaps, the most probable.</p> + + <p>With respect to the causes of the modifications which horses have + undergone, the conditions of life seem to produce a considerable direct + effect. Mr. D. Forbes, who has had excellent opportunities of comparing + the horses of Spain with those of South America, informs me that the + horses of Chile, which have lived under nearly the same conditions as + their progenitors in Andalusia, remain unaltered, whilst the Pampas + horses and the Puno ponies are considerably modified. There can be no + doubt that horses become greatly reduced in size and altered in + appearance by living on mountains and islands; and this apparently is due + to want of nutritious or varied food. Every one knows how small and + rugged the ponies are on the Northern islands and on the mountains of + Europe. Corsica and Sardinia have their native ponies; and there were,<a + name="NtA_116" href="#Nt_116"><sup>[116]</sup></a> or still are, on some + islands on the coast of Virginia, ponies like those of the Shetland + Islands, which are believed to have originated through exposure to + unfavourable conditions. The Puno ponies, which inhabit the lofty regions + of the Cordillera, are, as I hear from Mr. D. Forbes, strange little + creatures, very unlike their Spanish progenitors. Further south, in the + Falkland Islands, the offspring of the horses imported in 1764 have + already so much deteriorated in size<a name="NtA_117" + href="#Nt_117"><sup>[117]</sup></a> and strength that they are unfitted + for catching wild cattle with the lasso; so that fresh horses have to be + brought for this purpose from La Plata at a great expense. The reduced + size of the horses bred on both southern and northern islands, and on + several mountain-chains, can hardly have been caused by the cold, as a + similar reduction has occurred on the Virginian and Mediterranean + islands. The horse can withstand intense cold, for wild troops live on + the plains of Siberia under lat. 56°,<a name="NtA_118" + href="#Nt_118"><sup>[118]</sup></a> and aboriginally the horse must <!-- + Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>{53}</span>have + inhabited countries annually covered with snow, for he long retains the + instinct of scraping it away to get at the herbage beneath. The wild + tarpans in the East have this instinct; and, as I am informed by Admiral + Sulivan, this is likewise the case with the horses which have run wild on + the Falkland Islands; now this is the more remarkable as the progenitors + of these horses could not have followed this instinct during many + generations in La Plata: the wild cattle of the Falklands never scrape + away the snow, and perish when the ground is long covered. In the + northern parts of America the horses, descended from those introduced by + the Spanish conquerors of Mexico, have the same habit, as have the native + bisons, but not so the cattle introduced from Europe.<a name="NtA_119" + href="#Nt_119"><sup>[119]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The horse can flourish under intense heat as well as under intense + cold, for he is known to come to the highest perfection, though not + attaining a large size, in Arabia and northern Africa. Much humidity is + apparently more injurious to the horse than heat or cold. In the Falkland + Islands, horses suffer much from the dampness; and this same circumstance + may perhaps partly account for the singular fact that to the eastward of + the Bay of Bengal,<a name="NtA_120" href="#Nt_120"><sup>[120]</sup></a> + over an enormous and humid area, in Ava, Pegu, Siam, the Malayan + archipelago, the Loo Choo Islands, and a large part of China, no + full-sized horse is found. When we advance as far eastward as Japan, the + horse reacquires his full size.<a name="NtA_121" + href="#Nt_121"><sup>[121]</sup></a></p> + + <p>With most of our domesticated animals, some breeds are kept on account + of their curiosity or beauty; but the horse is valued almost solely for + its utility. Hence semi-monstrous breeds are not preserved; and probably + all the existing breeds have been slowly formed either by the direct + action of the conditions of life, or through the selection of individual + differences. No doubt semi-monstrous breeds might have been formed: thus + Mr. Waterton records<a name="NtA_122" href="#Nt_122"><sup>[122]</sup></a> + the case of a mare which produced <!-- Page 54 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page54"></a>{54}</span>successively three foals + without tails; so that a tailless race might have been formed like the + tailless races of dogs and cats. A Russian breed of horses is said to + have frizzled hair, and Azara<a name="NtA_123" + href="#Nt_123"><sup>[123]</sup></a> relates that in Paraguay horses are + occasionally born, but are generally destroyed, with hair like that on + the head of a negro; and this peculiarity is transmitted even to + half-breeds: it is a curious case of correlation that such horses have + short manes and tails, and their hoofs are of a peculiar shape like those + of a mule.</p> + + <p>It is scarcely possible to doubt that the long-continued selection of + qualities serviceable to man has been the chief agent in the formation of + the several breeds of the horse. Look at a dray-horse, and see how well + adapted he is to draw heavy weights, and how unlike in appearance to any + allied wild animal. The English race-horse is known to have proceeded + from the commingled blood of Arabs, Turks, and Barbs; but selection and + training have together made him a very different animal from his + parent-stocks. As a writer in India, who evidently knows the pure Arab + well, asks, who now, "looking at our present breed of race-horses, could + have conceived that they were the result of the union of the Arab horse + and African mare?" The improvement is so marked that in running for the + Goodwood Cup "the first descendants of Arabian, Turkish, and Persian + horses, are allowed a discount of 18 lbs. weight; and when both parents + are of these countries a discount of 36 lbs."<a name="NtA_124" + href="#Nt_124"><sup>[124]</sup></a> It is notorious that the Arabs have + long been as careful about the pedigree of their horses as we are, and + this implies great and continued care in breeding. Seeing what has been + done in England by careful breeding, can we doubt that the Arabs must + likewise have produced during the course of centuries a marked effect on + the qualities of their horses? But we may go much farther back in time, + for in the most ancient known book, the Bible, we hear of studs carefully + kept for breeding, <!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page55"></a>{55}</span>and of horses imported at high prices from + various countries.<a name="NtA_125" href="#Nt_125"><sup>[125]</sup></a> + We may therefore conclude that, whether or not the various existing + breeds of the horse have proceeded from one or more aboriginal stocks, + yet that a great amount of change has resulted from the direct action of + the conditions of life, and probably a still greater amount from the + long-continued selection by man of slight individual differences.</p> + + <p>With several domesticated quadrupeds and birds, certain coloured marks + are either strongly inherited or tend to reappear after having long been + lost. As this subject will hereafter be seen to be of importance, I will + give a full account of the colouring of horses. All English breeds, + however unlike in size and appearance, and several of those in India and + the Malay archipelago, present a similar range and diversity of colour. + The English race-horse, however, is said<a name="NtA_126" + href="#Nt_126"><sup>[126]</sup></a> never to be dun-coloured; but as dun + and cream-coloured horses are considered by the Arabs as worthless, "and + fit only for Jews to ride,"<a name="NtA_127" + href="#Nt_127"><sup>[127]</sup></a> these tints may have been removed by + long-continued selection. Horses of every colour, and of such widely + different kinds as dray-horses, cobs, and ponies, are all occasionally + dappled,<a name="NtA_128" href="#Nt_128"><sup>[128]</sup></a> in the same + manner as is so conspicuous with grey horses. This fact does not throw + any clear light on the colouring of the aboriginal horse, but is a case + of analogous variation, for even asses are sometimes dappled, and I have + seen, in the British Museum, a hybrid from the ass and zebra dappled on + its hinder quarters. By the expression analogous variation (and it is one + that I shall often have occasion to use) I mean a variation occurring in + a species or variety which resembles a normal character in another and + distinct species or variety. Analogous variations may arise, as will be + explained in a future chapter, <!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page56"></a>{56}</span>from two or more forms with a similar + constitution having been exposed to similar conditions,—or from one + of two forms having reacquired through reversion a character inherited by + the other form from their common progenitor,—or from both forms + having reverted to the same ancestral character. We shall immediately see + that horses occasionally exhibit a tendency to become striped over a + large part of their bodies; and as we know that stripes readily pass into + spots and cloudy marks in the varieties of the domestic cat and in + several feline species—even the cubs of the uniformly-coloured lion + being spotted with dark marks on a lighter ground—we may suspect + that the dappling of the horse, which has been noticed by some authors + with surprise, is a modification or vestige of a tendency to become + striped.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:37%;"> + <a href="images/Dom101.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom101.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Dun Devonshire Pony." title="Fig. 1.--Dun Devonshire Pony." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 1.—Dun Devonshire Pony, with shoulder, + spinal, and leg stripes.</p> + </div> +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>This tendency in the horse to become striped is in several respects an + interesting feet. Horses of all colours, of the most diverse breeds, in + various parts of the world, often have a dark stripe extending along the + spine, from the mane to the tail; but this is so common that I need enter + into no particulars.<a name="NtA_129" href="#Nt_129"><sup>[129]</sup></a> + Occasionally horses are transversely barred on the legs, chiefly on the + under side; and more rarely they have a distinct stripe on the shoulder, + like that on the shoulder of the ass, or a broad dark patch representing + a stripe. Before entering on any details I must premise that <!-- Page 57 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"></a>{57}</span>the term + dun-coloured is vague, and includes three groups of colour, viz. that + between cream-colour and reddish-brown, which graduates into light-bay or + light-chesnut—this, I believe, is often called fallow-dun; + secondly, leaden or slate-colour or mouse-dun, which graduates into an + ash-colour; and, lastly, dark-dun, between brown and black. In England I + have examined a rather large, lightly-built, fallow-dun Devonshire pony + (fig. 1), with a conspicuous stripe along the back, with light transverse + stripes on the under sides of its front legs, and with four parallel + stripes on each shoulder. Of these four stripes the posterior one was + very minute and faint; the anterior one, on the other hand, was long and + broad, but interrupted in the middle, and truncated at its lower + extremity, with the anterior angle produced into a long tapering point. I + mention this latter fact because the shoulder-stripe of the ass + occasionally presents exactly the same appearance. I have had an outline + and description sent to me of a small, purely-bred, light fallow-dun + Welch pony, with a spinal stripe, a single transverse stripe on each leg, + and three shoulder-stripes; the posterior stripe corresponding with that + on the shoulder of the ass was the longest, whilst the two anterior + parallel stripes, arising from the mane, decreased in length, in a + reversed manner as compared with the shoulder-stripes on the + above-described Devonshire pony. I have seen a bright fallow-dun, strong + cob, with its front legs transversely barred on the under sides in the + most conspicuous manner; also a dark-leaden mouse-coloured pony with + similar leg stripes, but much less conspicuous; also a bright fallow-dun + colt, fully three-parts thoroughbred, with very plain transverse stripes + on the legs; also a chesnut-dun cart-horse with a conspicuous spinal + stripe, with distinct traces of shoulder-stripes, but none on the legs; I + could add other cases. My son made a sketch for me of a large, heavy, + Belgian cart-horse, of a fallow-dun, with a conspicuous spinal stripe, + traces of leg-stripes, and with two parallel (three inches apart) stripes + about seven or eight inches in length on both shoulders. I have seen + another rather light cart-horse, of a dirty dark cream-colour, with + striped legs, and on one shoulder a large ill-defined dark cloudy patch, + and on the opposite shoulder two parallel faint stripes. All the cases + yet mentioned are duns of various tints; but Mr. W. W. Edwards has seen a + nearly thoroughbred chesnut horse which had the spinal stripe, and + distinct bars on the legs; and I have seen two bay carriage-horses with + black spinal stripes; one of these horses had on each shoulder a light + shoulder-stripe, and the other had a broad black ill-defined stripe, + running obliquely half-way down each shoulder; neither had + leg-stripes.</p> + + <p>The most interesting case which I have met with occurred in a colt of + my own breeding. A bay mare (descended from a dark-brown Flemish mare by + a light grey Turcoman horse) was put to Hercules, a thoroughbred dark + bay, whose sire (Kingston) and dam were both bays. The colt ultimately + turned out brown; but when only a fortnight old it was a dirty bay, + shaded with mouse-grey, and in parts with a yellowish tint: it had only a + trace of the spinal stripe, with a few obscure transverse bars on the + legs; but almost the whole body was marked with very narrow dark stripes, + in most parts so obscure as to be visible only in certain lights, like + the <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page58"></a>{58}</span>stripes which may be seen on black kittens. + These stripes were distinct on the hind-quarters, where they diverged + from the spine, and pointed a little forwards; many of them as they + diverged from the spine became a little branched, exactly in the same + manner as in some zebrine species. The stripes were plainest on the + forehead between the ears, where they formed a set of pointed arches, one + under the other, decreasing in size downwards towards the muzzle; exactly + similar marks may be seen on the forehead of the quagga and Burchell's + zebra. When this foal was two or three months old all the stripes + entirely disappeared. I have seen similar marks on the forehead of a + fully grown, fallow-dun, cob-like horse, having a conspicuous spinal + stripe, and with its front legs well barred.</p> + + <p>In Norway the colour of the native horse or pony is dun, varying from + almost cream-colour to dark mouse-dun; and an animal is not considered + purely bred unless it has the spinal and leg stripes.<a name="NtA_130" + href="#Nt_130"><sup>[130]</sup></a> In one part of the country my son + estimated that about a third of the ponies had striped legs; he counted + seven stripes on the fore-legs and two on the hind-legs of one pony; only + a few of them exhibited traces of shoulder-stripes; but I have heard of a + cob imported from Norway which had the shoulder as well as the other + stripes well developed. Colonel Ham. Smith<a name="NtA_131" + href="#Nt_131"><sup>[131]</sup></a> alludes to dun-horses with the spinal + stripe in the Sierras of Spain; and the horses originally derived from + Spain, in some parts of South America, are now duns. Sir W. Elliot + informs me that he inspected a herd of 300 South American horses imported + into Madras, and many of these had transverse stripes on the legs and + short shoulder-stripes; the most strongly marked individual, of which a + coloured drawing was sent me, was a mouse-dun, with the shoulder-stripes + slightly forked.</p> + + <p>In the North-Western parts of India striped horses of more than one + breed are apparently commoner than in any other part of the world; and I + have received information respecting them from several officers, + especially from Colonel Poole, Colonel Curtis, Major Campbell, Brigadier + St. John, and others. The Kattywar horses are often fifteen or sixteen + hands in height, and are well but lightly built. They are of all colours, + but the several kinds of duns prevail; and these are so generally + striped, that a horse without stripes is not considered pure. Colonel + Poole believes that all the duns have the spinal stripe, the leg-stripes + are generally present, and he thinks that about half the horses have the + shoulder-stripe; this stripe is sometimes double or treble on both + shoulders. Colonel Poole has often seen stripes on the cheeks and sides + of the nose. He has seen stripes on the grey and bay Kattywars when first + foaled, but they soon faded away. I have received other accounts of + cream-coloured, bay, brown, and grey Kattywar horses being striped. + Eastward of India, the Shan (north of Burmah) ponies, as I am informed by + Mr. Blyth, have spinal, leg, and shoulder stripes. Sir W. Elliot informs + me that he saw two bay Pegu ponies with <!-- Page 59 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>{59}</span>leg-stripes. Burmese and + Javanese ponies are frequently dun-coloured, and have the three kinds of + stripes, "in the same degree as in England."<a name="NtA_132" + href="#Nt_132"><sup>[132]</sup></a> Mr. Swinhoe informs me that he + examined two light-dun ponies of two Chinese breeds, viz. those of + Shangai and Amoy; both had the spinal stripe, and the latter an + indistinct shoulder-stripe.</p> + + <p>We thus see that in all parts of the world breeds of the horse as + different as possible, when of a dun-colour (including under this term a + wide range of tint from cream to dusky black), and rarely when of bay, + grey, and chesnut shades, have the several above-specified stripes. + Horses which are of a yellow colour with white mane and tail, and which + are sometimes called duns, I have never seen with stripes.<a + name="NtA_133" href="#Nt_133"><sup>[133]</sup></a></p> + + <p>From reasons which will be apparent in the chapter on Reversion, I + have endeavoured, but with poor success, to discover whether duns, which + are so much oftener striped than other coloured horses, are ever produced + from the crossing of two horses, neither of which are duns. Most persons + to whom I have applied believe that one parent must be a dun; and it is + generally asserted, that, when this is the case, the dun-colour and the + stripes are strongly inherited.<a name="NtA_134" + href="#Nt_134"><sup>[134]</sup></a> One case has fallen under my own + observation of a foal from a black mare by a bay horse, which when fully + grown was a dark fallow-dun and had a narrow but plain spinal stripe. + Hofacker<a name="NtA_135" href="#Nt_135"><sup>[135]</sup></a> gives two + instances of mouse-duns (Mausrapp) being produced from two parents of + different colours and neither duns.</p> + + <p>I have also endeavoured with little success to find out whether the + stripes are generally plainer or less plain in the foal than in the adult + horse. Colonel Poole informs me that, as he believes, "the stripes are + plainest when the colt is first foaled; they then become less and less + distinct till after the first coat is shed, when they come out as + strongly as before; but certainly often fade away as the age of the horse + increases." Two other accounts confirm this fading of the stripes in old + horses in India. One writer, on the other hand, states that colts are + often born without stripes, but that they appear as the colt grows older. + Three authorities affirm that in Norway the stripes are less plain in the + foal than in the adult. Perhaps there is no fixed rule. In the case + described by me of the young foal which was narrowly striped over nearly + all its body, there was no doubt about the the early and complete + disappearance of the stripes. Mr. W. W. Edwards examined for me + twenty-two foals of race-horses, and twelve had the spinal stripe more or + less plain; this fact, and some other accounts which I have received, + lead me to believe that the spinal stripe often disappears in the English + race-horse when old. On the whole I infer that the stripes are generally + plainest in the foal, and tend to disappear in old age.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The stripes are variable in colour, but are always darker than the + rest of the body. They do not by any means always <!-- Page 60 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>{60}</span>coexist on the different + parts of the body: the legs may be striped without any shoulder-stripe, + or the converse case, which is rarer, may occur; but I have never heard + of either shoulder or leg-stripes without the spinal stripe. The latter + is by far the commonest of all the stripes, as might have been expected, + as it characterises the other seven or eight species of the genus. It is + remarkable that so trifling a character as the shoulder-stripe being + double or triple should occur in such different breeds as Welch and + Devonshire ponies, the Shan pony, heavy cart-horses, light South American + horses, and the lanky Kattywar breed. Colonel Hamilton Smith believes + that one of his five supposed primitive stocks was dun-coloured and + striped; and that the stripes in all the other breeds result from ancient + crosses with this one primitive dun; but it is extremely improbable that + different breeds living in such distant quarters of the world should all + have been crossed with any one aboriginally distinct stock. Nor have we + any reason to believe that the effects of a cross at a very remote period + could be propagated for so many generations as is implied on this + view.</p> + + <p>With respect to the primitive colour of the horse having been dun, + Colonel Hamilton Smith<a name="NtA_136" + href="#Nt_136"><sup>[136]</sup></a> has collected a large body of + evidence showing that this tint was common in the East as far back as the + time of Alexander, and that the wild horses of Western Asia and Eastern + Europe now are, or recently were, of various shades of dun. It seems that + not very long ago a wild breed of dun-coloured horses with a spinal + stripe was preserved in the royal parks in Prussia. I hear from Hungary + that the inhabitants of that country look at the duns with a spinal + stripe as the aboriginal stock, and so it is in Norway. Dun-coloured + ponies are not rare in the mountainous parts of Devonshire, Wales, and + Scotland, where the aboriginal breed would have had the best chance of + being preserved. In South America in the time of Azara, when the horse + had been feral for about 250 years, 90 out of 100 horses were + "bai-châtains," and the remaining ten were "zains," and not more than one + in 2000 <!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page61"></a>{61}</span>black. Zain is generally translated as dark + without any white; but as Azara speaks of mules being "zain-clair," I + suspect that zain must have meant dun-coloured. In some parts of the + world feral horses show a strong tendency to become roans.<a + name="NtA_137" href="#Nt_137"><sup>[137]</sup></a></p> + + <p>In the following chapters on the Pigeon we shall see that in pure + breeds of various colours, when a blue bird is occasionally produced, + certain black marks invariably appear on the wings and tail; so again, + when variously coloured breeds are crossed, blue birds with the same + black marks are frequently produced. We shall further see that these + facts are explained by, and afford strong evidence in favour of, the view + that all the breeds are descended from the rock-pigeon, or <i>Columba + livia</i>, which is thus coloured and marked. But the appearance of the + stripes on the various breeds of the horse, when of a dun-colour, does + not afford nearly such good evidence of their descent from a single + primitive stock as in the case of the pigeon; because no certainly wild + horse is known as a standard of comparison; because the stripes when they + do appear are variable in character; because there is far from sufficient + evidence of the appearance of the stripes from the crossing of distinct + breeds; and lastly, because all the species of the genus Equus have the + spinal stripe, and several have shoulder and leg stripes. Nevertheless + the similarity in the most distinct breeds in their general range of + colour, in their dappling, and in the occasional appearance, especially + in duns, of leg-stripes and of double or triple shoulder-stripes, taken + together, indicate the probability of the descent of all the existing + races from a single, dun-coloured, more or less striped, primitive stock, + to which our horses still occasionally revert.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 62 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"></a>{62}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">The Ass.</span></p> + + <p>Four species of Asses, besides three of zebras, have been described by + naturalists; but there can now be little doubt that our domesticated + animal is descended from one alone, namely, the <i>Asinus tæniopus</i> of + Abyssinia.<a name="NtA_138" href="#Nt_138"><sup>[138]</sup></a> The ass + is sometimes advanced as an instance of an animal domesticated, as we + know by the Old Testament, from an ancient period, which has varied only + in a very slight degree. But this is by no means strictly true; for in + Syria alone there are four breeds;<a name="NtA_139" + href="#Nt_139"><sup>[139]</sup></a> first, a light and graceful animal, + with an agreeable gait, used by ladies; secondly, an Arab breed reserved + exclusively for the saddle; thirdly, a stouter animal used for ploughing + and various purposes; and lastly, the large Damascus breed, with a + peculiarly long body and ears. In this country, and generally in Central + Europe, though the ass is by no means uniform in appearance, it has not + given rise to distinct breeds like those of the horse. This may probably + be accounted for by the animal being kept chiefly by poor persons, who do + not rear large numbers, nor carefully match and select the young. For, as + we shall see in a future chapter, the ass can with ease be greatly + improved in size and strength by careful selection, combined no doubt + with good food; and we may infer that all its other characters would be + equally amenable to selection. The small size of the ass in England and + Northern Europe is apparently due far more to want of care in breeding + than to cold; for in Western India, where the ass is used as a beast of + burden by some of the lower castes, it is not much larger than a + Newfoundland dog, "being generally not more than from twenty to thirty + inches high."<a name="NtA_140" href="#Nt_140"><sup>[140]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The ass varies greatly in colour; and its legs, especially the + fore-legs, both in England and other countries—for instance, in + China—are occasionally barred transversely more plainly than those + of dun-coloured horses. With the horse the occasional appearance of + leg-stripes was accounted for, through the principle of reversion, by the + supposition that the primitive horse was <!-- Page 63 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page63"></a>{63}</span>thus striped; with the + ass we may confidently advance this explanation, for the parent-form, the + <i>A. tæniopus</i>, is known to be barred, though only in a slight + degree, across the legs. The stripes are believed to occur most + frequently and to be plainest on the legs of the domestic ass during + early youth,<a name="NtA_141" href="#Nt_141"><sup>[141]</sup></a> as is + apparently likewise the case with the horse. The shoulder-stripe, which + is so eminently characteristic of the species, is nevertheless variable + in breadth, length, and manner of termination. I have measured a + shoulder-stripe four times as broad as another; and some more than twice + as long as others. In one light-grey ass the shoulder-stripe was only six + inches in length, and as thin as a piece of string; and in another animal + of the same colour there was only a dusky shade representing a stripe. I + have heard of three white asses, not albinoes, with no trace of shoulder + or spinal stripes;<a name="NtA_142" href="#Nt_142"><sup>[142]</sup></a> + and I have seen nine other asses with no shoulder-stripe, and some of + them had no spinal stripe. Three of the nine were light-greys, one a + dark-grey, another grey passing into reddish-roan, and the others were + brown, two being tinted on parts of their bodies with a reddish or bay + shade. Hence we may conclude that, if grey and reddish-brown asses had + been steadily selected and bred from, the shoulder-stripe would have been + almost as generally and as completely lost as in the case of the + horse.</p> + + <p>The shoulder-stripe on the ass is sometimes double, and Mr. Blyth has + seen even three or four parallel stripes.<a name="NtA_143" + href="#Nt_143"><sup>[143]</sup></a> I have observed in ten cases + shoulder-stripes abruptly truncated at the lower end, with the anterior + angle produced into a tapering point, precisely as has been figured in + the dun Devonshire pony. I have seen three cases of the terminal portion + abruptly and angularly bent; and two cases of a distinct though slight + forking. In Syria, Dr. Hooker and his party observed for me no less than + five instances of the shoulder-stripe being plainly forked over the fore + leg. In the common mule it is likewise sometimes forked. When I first + noticed the forking and angular bending of the shoulder-stripe, I had + seen enough of the stripes <!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page64"></a>{64}</span>in the various equine species to feel + convinced that even a character so unimportant as this had a distinct + meaning, and was thus led to attend to the subject. I now find that in + the <i>Asinus Burchellii</i> and <i>quagga</i>, the stripe which + corresponds with the shoulder-stripe of the ass, as well as some of the + stripes on the neck, bifurcate, and that some of those near the shoulder + have their extremities angularly bent backwards. The forking and angular + bending of the stripes on the shoulders apparently stand in relation with + the changed direction of the nearly upright stripes on the sides of the + body and neck to the transverse bars on the legs. Finally we see that the + presence of shoulder, leg, and spinal stripes in the horse,—their + occasional absence in the ass,—the occurrence of double and triple + shoulder-stripes in both animals, and the similar manner in which these + stripes terminate at their lower extremities,—are all cases of + analogous variation in the horse and ass. These cases are probably not + due to similar conditions acting on similar constitutions, but to a + partial reversion in colour to the common progenitor of these two + species, as well as of the other species of the genus. We shall hereafter + have to return to this subject, and discuss it more fully.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>{65}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">PIGS—CATTLE—SHEEP—GOATS.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>PIGS <span class="scac">BELONG TO TWO DISTINCT TYPES, SUS SCROFA AND + INDICA</span>—<span class="scac">TORF-SCHWEIN</span>—<span + class="scac">JAPAN PIG</span>—<span class="scac">FERTILITY OF + CROSSED PIGS</span>—<span class="scac">CHANGES IN THE SKULL OF THE + HIGHLY CULTIVATED RACES</span>—<span class="scac">CONVERGENCE OF + CHARACTER</span>—<span class="scac">GESTATION</span>—<span + class="scac">SOLID-HOOFED SWINE</span>—<span class="scac">CURIOUS + APPENDAGES TO THE JAWS</span>—<span class="scac">DECREASE IN SIZE + OF THE TUSKS</span>—<span class="scac">YOUNG PIGS LONGITUDINALLY + STRIPED</span>—<span class="scac">FERAL PIGS</span>—<span + class="scac">CROSSED BREEDS</span>.</p> + + <p>CATTLE.—<span class="scac">ZEBU A DISTINCT + SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">EUROPEAN CATTLE PROBABLY + DESCENDED FROM THREE WILD FORMS</span>—<span class="scac">ALL THE + RACES NOW FERTILE TOGETHER</span>—<span class="scac">BRITISH PARK + CATTLE</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE COLOUR OF THE ABORIGINAL + SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">CONSTITUTIONAL + DIFFERENCES</span>—<span class="scac">SOUTH AFRICAN + RACES</span>—<span class="scac">SOUTH AMERICAN + RACES</span>—<span class="scac">NIATA CATTLE</span>—<span + class="scac">ORIGIN OF THE VARIOUS RACES OF CATTLE</span>.</p> + + <p>SHEEP.—<span class="scac">REMARKABLE RACES OF</span>—<span + class="scac">VARIATIONS ATTACHED TO THE MALE SEX</span>—<span + class="scac">ADAPTATIONS TO VARIOUS CONDITIONS</span>—<span + class="scac">GESTATION OF</span>—<span class="scac">CHANGES IN THE + WOOL</span>—<span class="scac">SEMI-MONSTROUS BREEDS</span>.</p> + + <p>GOATS.—<span class="scac">REMARKABLE VARIATIONS OF</span>.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The breeds of the pig have recently been more closely studied, though + much still remains to be done, than those of almost any other + domesticated animal. This has been effected by Hermann von Nathusius in + two admirable works, especially in the later one on the Skulls of the + several races, and by Rütimeyer in his celebrated Fauna of the ancient + Swiss lake-dwellings.<a name="NtA_144" + href="#Nt_144"><sup>[144]</sup></a> Nathusius has shown that all the + known breeds may be divided in two great groups: one resembling in all + important respects and no doubt descended from the common wild boar; so + that this may be called the <i>Sus scrofa</i> group. The other group + differs in several important and constant osteological <span + class="correction" title="Printed `charcters'">characters</span>; its + wild parent-form is unknown; the name given to it by Nathusius, according + to the law of priority, is <i>Sus Indica</i> of Pallas. This name must + now be followed, though an unfortunate one, as the wild aboriginal does + not inhabit India, and the best-known domesticated breeds have been + imported from Siam and China.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 66 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>{66}</span></p> + + <p>Firstly, the <i>Sus scrofa</i> breeds, or those resembling the common + wild boar. These still exist, according to Nathusius (Schweineschädel, s. + 75), in various parts of central and northern Europe; formerly every + kingdom,<a name="NtA_145" href="#Nt_145"><sup>[145]</sup></a> and almost + every province in Britain, possessed its own native breed; but these are + now everywhere rapidly disappearing, being replaced by improved breeds + crossed with the <i>S. Indica</i> form. The skull in the breeds of the + <i>S. scrofa</i> type resembles, in all important respects, that of the + European wild boar; but it has become (Schweineschädel, s. 63-68) higher + and broader relatively to its length; and the hinder part is more + upright. The differences, however, are all variable in degree. The breeds + which thus resemble <i>S. scrofa</i> in their essential skull-characters + differ conspicuously from each other in other respects, as in the length + of the ears and legs, curvature of the ribs, colour, hairiness, size and + proportions of the body.</p> + + <p>The wild <i>Sus scrofa</i> has a wide range, namely, Europe, North + Africa, as identified by osteological characters by Rütimeyer, and + Hindostan, as similarly identified by Nathusius. But the wild boars + inhabiting these several countries differ so much from each other in + external characters, that they have been ranked by some naturalists as + specifically distinct. Even within Hindostan these animals, according to + Mr. Blyth, form very distinct races in the different districts; in the N. + Western provinces, as I am informed by the Rev. R. Everest, the boar + never exceeds 36 inches in height, whilst in Bengal one has been measured + 44 inches in height. In Europe, Northern Africa, and Hindostan, domestic + pigs have been known to cross with the wild native species;<a + name="NtA_146" href="#Nt_146"><sup>[146]</sup></a> and in Hindostan an + accurate observer,<a name="NtA_147" href="#Nt_147"><sup>[147]</sup></a> + Sir Walter Elliot, after describing the differences between wild Indian + and wild German boars, remarks that "the same differences are perceptible + in the domesticated <!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page67"></a>{67}</span>individuals of the two countries." We may + therefore conclude that the breeds of the <i>Sus scrofa</i> type have + either descended from, or been modified by crossing with, forms which may + be ranked as geographical races, but which are, according to some + naturalists, distinct species.</p> + + <p>Pigs of the <i>Sus Indica</i> type are best known to Englishmen under + the form of the Chinese breed. The skull of <i>S. Indica</i>, as + described by Nathusius, differs from that of <i>S. scrofa</i> in several + minor respects, as in its greater breadth and in some details in the + teeth; but chiefly in the shortness of the lachrymal bones, in the + greater width of the fore part of the palate-bones, and in the divergence + of the premolar teeth. It deserves especial notice that these latter + characters are not gained, even in the least degree, by the domesticated + forms of <i>S. scrofa</i>. After reading the remarks and descriptions + given by Nathusius, it seems to me to be merely playing with words to + doubt whether <i>S. Indica</i> ought to be ranked as a species; for the + above-specified differences are more strongly marked than any that can be + pointed out between, for instance, the fox and the wolf, or the ass and + the horse. As already stated, <i>S. Indica</i> is not known in a wild + state; but its domesticated forms, according to Nathusius, come near to + <i>S. vittatus</i> of Java and some allied species. A pig found wild in + the Aru islands (Schweineschädel, s. 169) is apparently identical with + <i>S. Indica</i>; but it is doubtful whether this is a truly native + animal. The domesticated breeds of China, Cochin-China, and Siam belong + to this type. The Roman or Neapolitan breed, the Andalusian, the + Hungarian, and the "Krause" swine of Nathusius, inhabiting south-eastern + Europe and Turkey, and having fine curly hair, and the small Swiss + "Bündtnerschwein" of Rütimeyer, all agree in their more important skull + characters with <i>S. Indica</i>, and, as is supposed, have all been + largely crossed with this form. Pigs of this type have existed during a + long period on the shores of the Mediterranean, for a figure + (Schweineschädel, s. 142) closely resembling the existing Neapolitan pig + has been found in the buried city of Herculaneum.</p> + + <p>Rütimeyer has made the remarkable discovery that there lived + contemporaneously in Switzerland, during the later Stone or Neolithic + period, two domesticated forms, the <i>S. scrofa</i>, and <!-- Page 68 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>{68}</span>the <i>S. scrofa + palustris</i> or Torfschwein. Rütimeyer perceived that the latter + approached the Eastern breeds, and, according to Nathusius, it certainly + belongs to the <i>S. Indica</i> group; but Rütimeyer has subsequently + shown that it differs in some well-marked characters. This author was + formerly convinced that his Torfschwein existed as a wild animal during + the first part of the Stone period, and was domesticated during a later + part of the same period.<a name="NtA_148" + href="#Nt_148"><sup>[148]</sup></a> Nathusius, whilst he fully admits the + curious fact first observed by Rütimeyer, that the bones of domesticated + and wild animals can be distinguished by their different aspect, yet, + from special difficulties in the case of the bones of the pig + (Schweineschädel, s. 147), is not convinced of the truth of this + conclusion; and Rütimeyer himself seems now to feel some doubt. As the + Torfschwein was domesticated at so early a period, and as its remains + have been found in several parts of Europe, belonging to various historic + and prehistoric ages,<a name="NtA_149" + href="#Nt_149"><sup>[149]</sup></a> and as closely allied forms still + exist in Hungary and on the shores of the Mediterranean, one is led to + suspect that the wild <i>S. Indica</i> formerly ranged from Europe to + China, in the same manner as <i>S. scrofa</i> now ranges from Europe to + Hindostan. Or, as Rütimeyer apparently suspects, a third allied species + may formerly have lived in Europe and Eastern Asia.</p> + + <p>Several breeds, differing in the proportions of the body, in the + length of the ears, in the nature of the hair, in colour, &c., come + under the <i>S. Indica</i> type. Nor is this surprising, considering how + ancient the domestication of this form has been both in Europe and in + China. In this latter country the date is believed by an eminent Chinese + scholar<a name="NtA_150" href="#Nt_150"><sup>[150]</sup></a> to go back + at least 4900 years from the present time. This same scholar alludes to + the existence of many local varieties of the pig in China; and at the + present time the Chinese take extraordinary pains in feeding and tending + their pigs, not even allowing them to walk from place to place.<a + name="NtA_151" href="#Nt_151"><sup>[151]</sup></a> Hence the Chinese + breed, as Nathusius has remarked,<a name="NtA_152" + href="#Nt_152"><sup>[152]</sup></a> displays in an eminent degree the + characters of a highly-cultivated race, and hence, no doubt, its <!-- + Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page69"></a>{69}</span>high + value in the improvement of our European breeds. Nathusius makes a + remarkable statement (Schweineschädel, s. 138), that the infusion of the + 1/32nd, or even of the 1/64th, part of the blood of <i>S. Indica</i> into + a breed of <i>S. scrofa</i>, is sufficient plainly to modify the skull of + the latter species. This singular fact may perhaps be accounted for by + several of the chief distinctive characters of <i>S. Indica</i>, such as + the shortness of the lachrymal bones, &c., being common to several of + the species of the genus; for in crosses the characters which are common + to many species apparently tend to be prepotent over those appertaining + to only a few species.</p> + + <p>The Japan pig (<i>S. pliciceps</i> of Gray), which has been recently + exhibited in the Zoological Gardens, has an extraordinary appearance from + its short head, broad forehead and nose, great fleshy ears, and deeply + furrowed skin. The following woodcut is copied from that given by Mr. + Bartlett.<a name="NtA_153" href="#Nt_153"><sup>[153]</sup></a> Not only + <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page70"></a>{70}</span>is + the face furrowed, but thick folds of skin, which are harder than the + other parts, almost like the plates on the Indian rhinoceros, hang about + the shoulders and rump. It is coloured black, with white feet, and breeds + true. That it has long been domesticated there can be little doubt; and + this might have been inferred even from the fact that its young are not + longitudinally striped; for this is a character common to all the species + included within the genus <i>Sus</i> and the allied genera whilst in + their natural state.<a name="NtA_154" href="#Nt_154"><sup>[154]</sup></a> + Dr. Gray<a name="NtA_155" href="#Nt_155"><sup>[155]</sup></a> has + described the skull of this animal, which he ranks not only as a distinct + species, but places it in a distinct section of the genus. Nathusius, + however, after his careful study of the whole group, states positively + (Schweineschädel, s. 153-158) that the skull in all essential characters + closely resembles that of the short-eared Chinese breed of the <i>S. + Indica</i> type. Hence Nathusius considers the Japan pig as only a + domesticated variety of <i>S. Indica</i>: if this really be the case, it + is a wonderful instance of the amount of modification which can be + effected under domestication.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/Dom102.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom102.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Head of Japan or Masked Pig." title="Fig. 2.--Head of Japan or Masked Pig." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 2.—Head of Japan or Masked Pig. (Copied from + Mr. Bartlett's paper in Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1861, p. 263.)</p> + </div> + <p>Formerly there existed in the central islands of the Pacific Ocean a + singular breed of pigs. These are described by the Rev. D. Tyerman and G. + Bennett<a name="NtA_156" href="#Nt_156"><sup>[156]</sup></a> as of small + size, hump-backed, with a disproportionately long head, with short ears + turned backwards, with a bushy tail not more than two inches in length, + placed as if it grew from the back. Within half a century after the + introduction into these islands of European and Chinese pigs, the native + breed, according to the above authors, became almost completely lost by + being repeatedly crossed with them. Secluded islands, as might have been + expected, seem favourable for the production or retention of peculiar + breeds; thus, in the Orkney Islands, the hogs have been described as very + small, with erect and sharp ears, and "with an appearance altogether + different from the hogs brought from the south."<a name="NtA_157" + href="#Nt_157"><sup>[157]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Seeing how different the Chinese pigs, belonging to the <i>Sus + Indica</i> type, are in their osteological characters and in external + <!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page71"></a>{71}</span>appearance from the pigs of the <i>S. + scrofa</i> type, so that they must be considered specifically distinct, + it is a fact well deserving attention, that Chinese and common pigs have + been repeatedly crossed in various manners, with unimpaired fertility. + One great breeder who had used pure Chinese pigs assured me that the + fertility of the half-breeds <i>inter se</i> and of their recrossed + progeny was actually increased; and this is the general belief of + agriculturists. Again, the Japan pig or <i>S. pliciceps</i> of Gray is so + distinct in appearance from all common pigs, that it stretches one's + belief to the utmost to admit that it is simply a domestic variety; yet + this breed has been found perfectly fertile with the Berkshire breed; and + Mr. Eyton informs me that he paired a half-bred brother and sister and + found them quite fertile together.</p> + + <p>The modifications of the skull in the most highly cultivated races are + wonderful. To appreciate the amount of change, Nathusius' work, with its + excellent figures, should be studied. The whole of the exterior of the + skull in all its parts has been altered; the hinder surface, instead of + sloping backwards, is directed forwards, entailing many changes in other + parts; the front of the head is deeply concave; the orbits have a + different shape; the auditory meatus has a different direction and shape; + the incisors of the upper and lower jaws do not touch each other, and + they stand in both jaws above the plane of the molars; the canines of the + upper jaw stand in front of those of the lower jaw, and this is a + remarkable anomaly: the articular surfaces of the occipital condyles are + so greatly changed in shape, that, as Nathusius remarks (s. 133), no + naturalist, seeing this important part of the skull by itself, would + suppose that it belonged to the genus Sus. These and various other + modifications, as Nathusius observes, can hardly be considered as + monstrosities, for they are not injurious, and are strictly inherited. + The whole head is much shortened; thus, whilst in common breeds its + length to that of the body is as 1 to 6, in the "cultur-races" the + proportion is as 1 to 9, and even recently as 1 to 11.<a name="NtA_158" + href="#Nt_158"><sup>[158]</sup></a> The following woodcut<a + name="NtA_159" href="#Nt_159"><sup>[159]</sup></a> <!-- Page 72 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page72"></a>{72}</span>of the head of a wild + boar and of a sow from a photograph of the Yorkshire Large Breed, may aid + in showing how greatly the head in a highly cultivated race has been + modified and shortened.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/Dom103.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom103.png" + alt="Fig. 3.--Head of Wild Boar, and of Golden Days." title="Fig. 3.--Head of Wild Boar, and of Golden Days." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 3.—Head of Wild Boar, and of "Golden Days," + a pig of the Yorkshire Large Breed; the latter from a photograph. + (Copied from Sidney's edit. of 'The Pig,' by Youatt.)</p> + </div> + <p>Nathusius has well discussed the causes of the remarkable changes in + the skull and shape of the body which the highly cultivated races have + undergone. These modifications occur chiefly in the pure and crossed + races of the <i>S. Indica</i> type; but their commencement may be clearly + detected in the slightly improved breeds of the <i>S. scrofa</i> type.<a + name="NtA_160" href="#Nt_160"><sup>[160]</sup></a> Nathusius states + positively (s. 99, 103), as the result of common experience and of his + experiments, that rich and abundant food, given during youth, tends by + some direct action to make the head broader and shorter; and that poor + food works a contrary result. He lays much stress on the fact that all + wild and semi-domesticated pigs, in ploughing up the ground with their + muzzles, have; whilst young, to exert the powerful muscles fixed to the + hinder part of the head. In highly cultivated races this habit is no + longer followed, and consequently the back of the skull becomes modified + in shape, entailing other changes in other parts. There can hardly be a + doubt that so great a change in habits would <!-- Page 73 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page73"></a>{73}</span>affect the skull; but it + seems rather doubtful how far this will account for the greatly reduced + length of the skull and for its concave front. It is well known + (Nathusius himself advancing many cases, s. 104) that there is a strong + tendency in many domestic animals—in bull- and pug-dogs, in the + niata cattle, in sheep, in Polish fowls, short-faced tumbler pigeons, and + in one variety of the carp—for the bones of the face to become + greatly shortened. In the case of the dog, as H. Müller has shown, this + seems caused by an abnormal state of the primordial cartilage. We may, + however, readily admit that abundant and rich food supplied during many + generations would give an inherited tendency to increased size of body, + and that, from disuse, the limbs would become finer and shorter.<a + name="NtA_161" href="#Nt_161"><sup>[161]</sup></a> We shall in a future + chapter also see that the skull and limbs are apparently in some manner + correlated, so that any change in the one tends to affect the other.</p> + + <p>Nathusius has remarked, and the observation is an interesting one, + that the peculiar form of the skull and body in the most highly + cultivated races is not characteristic of any one race, but is common to + all when improved up to the same standard. Thus the large-bodied, + long-eared, English breeds with a convex back, and the small-bodied, + short-eared, Chinese breeds with a concave back, when bred to the same + state of perfection, nearly resemble each other in the form of the head + and body. This result, it appears, is partly due to similar causes of + change acting on the several races, and partly to man breeding the pig + for one sole purpose, namely, for the greatest amount of flesh and fat; + so that selection has always tended towards one and the same end. With + most domestic animals the result of selection has been divergence of + character, here it has been convergence.<a name="NtA_162" + href="#Nt_162"><sup>[162]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The nature of the food supplied during many generations has apparently + affected the length of the intestines; for, according to Cuvier,<a + name="NtA_163" href="#Nt_163"><sup>[163]</sup></a> their length to that + of the body in the wild boar is as 9 to 1,—in the common domestic + boar as 13.5 to 1,—and in the Siam breed as 16 to 1. In this latter + breed the greater <!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page74"></a>{74}</span>length may be due either to descent from a + distinct species or to more ancient domestication. The number of mammæ + vary, as does the period of gestation. The latest authority says<a + name="NtA_164" href="#Nt_164"><sup>[164]</sup></a> that "the period + averages from 17 to 20 weeks," but I think there must be some error in + this statement: in M. Tessier's observations on 25 sows it varied from + 109 to 123 days. The Rev. W. D. Fox has given me ten carefully recorded + cases with well-bred pigs, in which the period varied from 101 to 116 + days. According to Nathusius the period is shortest in the races which + come early to maturity; but in these latter the course of development + does not appear to be actually shortened, for the young animal is born, + judging from the state of the skull, less fully developed, or in a more + embryonic condition,<a name="NtA_165" href="#Nt_165"><sup>[165]</sup></a> + than in the case of common swine, which arrive at maturity at a later + age. In the highly cultivated and early matured races, the teeth, also, + are developed earlier.</p> + + <p>The difference in the number of the vertebræ and ribs in different + kinds of pigs, as observed by Mr. Eyton,<a name="NtA_166" + href="#Nt_166"><sup>[166]</sup></a> and as given in the following table, + has often been quoted. The African sow probably belongs to the <i>S. + scrofa</i> type; and Mr. Eyton informs me that, since the publication of + his paper, cross-bred animals from the African and English races were + found by Lord Hill to be perfectly fertile.</p> + + +<table class="allbctr" summary="Vertebræ and ribs in different kinds of pigs" title="Vertebræ and ribs in different kinds of pigs"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>English<br>Long-legged<br>Male.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>African<br>Female.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>Chinese<br>Male.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>Wild Boar,<br>from Cuvier.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>French<br>Domestic<br>Boar, from<br>Cuvier.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dorsal vertebræ</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Lumbar</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dorsal and lumbar together</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p> 19</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sacral</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Total number of vertebræ</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>{75}</span></p> + + <p>Some semi-monstrous breeds deserve notice. From the time of Aristotle + to the present time solid-hoofed swine have occasionally been observed in + various parts of the world. Although this peculiarity is strongly + inherited, it is hardly probable that all the animals with solid hoofs + have descended from the same parents; it is more probable that the same + peculiarity has reappeared at various times and places. Dr. Struthers has + lately described and figured<a name="NtA_167" + href="#Nt_167"><sup>[167]</sup></a> the structure of the feet; in both + front and hind feet the distal phalanges of the two greater toes are + represented by a single, great, hoof-bearing phalanx; and in the front + feet, the middle phalanges are represented by a bone which is single + towards the lower end, but bears two separate articulations towards the + upper end. From other accounts it appears that an intermediate toe is + likewise sometimes superadded.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/Dom104.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom104.png" + alt="Fig. 4.--Old Irish Pig, with jaw-appendages." title="Fig. 4.--Old Irish Pig, with jaw-appendages." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 4.—Old Irish Pig, with jaw-appendages. + (Copied from H. D. Richardson on Pigs.)</p> + </div> + <p>Another curious anomaly is offered by the appendages, described by M. + Eudes-Deslongchamps as often characterizing the Normandy pigs. These + appendages are always attached to the same spot, to the corners of the + jaw; they are cylindrical, about three inches in length, covered with + bristles, and with a pencil of bristles rising out of a sinus on one + side: they have a cartilaginous centre, with two small longitudinal + muscles; they occur either symmetrically on both sides of the face or on + one <!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page76"></a>{76}</span>side alone. Richardson figures them on the + gaunt old "Irish Greyhound pig;" and Nathusius states that they + occasionally appear in all the long-eared races, but are not strictly + inherited, for they occur or fail in animals of the same litter.<a + name="NtA_168" href="#Nt_168"><sup>[168]</sup></a> As no wild pigs are + known to have analogous appendages, we have at present no reason to + suppose that their appearance is due to reversion; and if this be so, we + are forced to admit that somewhat complex, though apparently useless, + structures may be suddenly developed without the aid of selection. This + case perhaps throws some little light on the manner of appearance of the + hideous fleshy protuberances, though of an essentially different nature + from the above-described appendages, on the cheeks of the wart-hog or + <span class="correction" title="Printed `Phascochœrus', corrected by Errata page" + >Phacochœrus</span> Africanus.</p> + + <p>It is a remarkable fact that the boars of all domesticated breeds have + much shorter tusks than wild boars. Many facts show that with all animals + the state of the hair is much affected by exposure to, or protection + from, climate; and as we see that the state of the hair and teeth are + correlated in Turkish dogs (other analogous facts will be hereafter + given), may we not venture to surmise that the reduction of the tusks in + the domestic boar is related to his coat of bristles being diminished + from living under shelter? On the other hand, as we shall immediately + see, the tusks and bristles reappear with feral boars, which are no + longer protected from the weather. It is not surprising that the tusks + should be more affected than the other teeth; as parts developed to serve + as secondary sexual characters are always liable to much variation.</p> + + <p>It is a well-known fact that the young of wild European and Indian + pigs,<a name="NtA_169" href="#Nt_169"><sup>[169]</sup></a> for the first + six months, are longitudinally banded with light-coloured stripes. This + character generally disappears under domestication. The Turkish domestic + pigs, however, have striped young, as have those of Westphalia, "whatever + may be their hue;"<a name="NtA_170" href="#Nt_170"><sup>[170]</sup></a> + whether these latter pigs belong to the <!-- Page 77 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page77"></a>{77}</span>same curly-haired race + with the Turkish swine, I do not know. The pigs which have run wild in + Jamaica and the semi-feral pigs of New Granada, both those which are + black and those which are black with a white band across the stomach, + often extending over the back, have resumed this aboriginal character and + produce longitudinally-striped young. This is likewise the case, at least + occasionally, with the neglected pigs in the Zambesi settlement on the + coast of Africa.<a name="NtA_171" href="#Nt_171"><sup>[171]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The common belief that all domesticated animals, when they run wild, + revert completely to the character of their parent-stock, is chiefly + founded, as far as I can discover, on feral pigs. But even in this case + the belief is not grounded on sufficient evidence; for the two main types + of <i>S. scrofa</i> and <i>Indica</i> have never been distinguished in a + feral state. The young, as we have just seen, reacquire their + longitudinal stripes, and the boars invariably reassume their tusks. They + revert also in the general shape of their bodies, and in the length of + their legs and muzzles, to the state of the wild animal, as might have + been expected from the amount of exercise which they are compelled to + take in search of food. In Jamaica the feral pigs do not acquire the full + size of the European wild boar, "never attaining a greater height than 20 + inches at the shoulder." In various countries they reassume their + original bristly covering, but in different <!-- Page 78 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page78"></a>{78}</span>degrees, dependent on the + climate; thus, according to Roulin, the semi-feral pigs in the hot + valleys of New Granada are very scantily clothed; whereas, on the + Paramos, at the height of 7000 to 8000 feet, they acquire a thick + covering of wool lying under the bristles, like that on the truly wild + pigs of France. These pigs on the Paramos are small and stunted. The wild + boar of India is said to have the bristles at the end of its tail + arranged like the plumes of an arrow, whilst the European boar has a + simple tuft; and it is a curious fact that many, but not all, of the + feral pigs in Jamaica, derived from a Spanish stock, have a plumed + tail.<a name="NtA_172" href="#Nt_172"><sup>[172]</sup></a> With respect + to colour, feral pigs generally revert to that of the wild boar; but in + certain parts of S. America, as we have seen, some of the semi-feral pigs + have a curious white band across their stomachs; and in certain other hot + places the pigs are red, and this colour has likewise occasionally been + observed in the feral pigs of Jamaica. From these several facts we see + that with pigs when feral there is a strong tendency to revert to the + wild type; but that this tendency is largely governed by the nature of + the climate, amount of exercise, and other causes of change to which they + have been subjected.</p> + + <p>The last point worth notice is that we have unusually good evidence of + breeds of pigs now keeping perfectly true, which have been formed by the + crossing of several distinct breeds. The Improved Essex pigs, for + instance, breed very true; but there is no doubt that they largely owe + their present excellent qualities to crosses originally made by Lord + Western with the Neapolitan race, and to subsequent crosses with the + Berkshire breed (this also having been improved by Neapolitan crosses), + and likewise, probably, with the Sussex breed.<a name="NtA_173" + href="#Nt_173"><sup>[173]</sup></a> In breeds thus formed by complex + crosses, the most careful and unremitting selection during many + generations has been found to be indispensable. Chiefly in consequence of + so much crossing, some well-known breeds have undergone rapid changes; + thus, according to Nathusius,<a name="NtA_174" + href="#Nt_174"><sup>[174]</sup></a> the Berkshire breed of 1780 is quite + <!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page79"></a>{79}</span>different from that of 1810; and, since this + latter period, at least two distinct forms have borne the same name.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Cattle.</span></p> + + <p>Domestic cattle are almost certainly the descendants of more than one + wild form, in the same manner as has been shown to be the case with our + dogs and pigs. Naturalists have generally made two main divisions of + cattle: the humped kinds inhabiting tropical countries, called in India + Zebus, to which the specific name of <i>Bos Indicus</i> has been given; + and the common non-humped cattle, generally included under the name of + <i>Bos taurus.</i> The humped cattle were domesticated, as may be seen on + the Egyptian monuments, at least as early as the twelfth dynasty, that is + 2100 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> They differ from common cattle in + various osteological characters, even in a greater degree, according to + Rütimeyer,<a name="NtA_175" href="#Nt_175"><sup>[175]</sup></a> than do + the fossil species of Europe, namely <i>Bos primigenius, longifrons</i>, + and <i>frontosus</i>, from each other. They differ, also, as Mr. Blyth,<a + name="NtA_176" href="#Nt_176"><sup>[176]</sup></a> who has particularly + attended to this subject, remarks, in general configuration, in the shape + of their ears, in the point where the dewlap commences, in the typical + curvature of their horns, in their manner of carrying their heads when at + rest, in their ordinary variations of colour, especially in the frequent + presence of "nilgau-like markings on their feet," and "in the one being + born with teeth protruding through the jaws, and the other not so." They + have different habits, and their voice is entirely different. The humped + cattle in India "seldom seek shade, and never go into the water and there + stand knee-deep, like the cattle of Europe." They have run wild in parts + of Oude and Rohilcund, and can maintain themselves in a region infested + by tigers. They have given rise to many races differing greatly in size, + in the presence <!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page80"></a>{80}</span>of one or two humps, in length of horns, and + other respects. Mr. Blyth sums up emphatically that the humped and + humpless cattle must be considered as distinct species. When we consider + the number of points in external structure and habits, independently of + their important osteological differences, in which they differ from each + other; and that many of these points are not likely to have been affected + by domestication, there can hardly be a doubt, notwithstanding the + adverse opinion of some naturalists, that the humped and non-humped + cattle must be ranked as specifically distinct.</p> + + <p>The European breeds of humpless cattle are numerous. Professor Low + enumerates 19 British breeds, only a few of which are identical with + those on the Continent. Even the small Channel islands of Guernsey, + Jersey, and Alderney, possess their own sub-breeds;<a name="NtA_177" + href="#Nt_177"><sup>[177]</sup></a> and these again differ from the + cattle of the other British islands, such as Anglesea, and the western + isles of Scotland. Desmarest, who paid attention to the subject, + describes 15 French races, excluding sub-varieties and those imported + from other countries. In other parts of Europe there are several distinct + races, such as the pale-coloured Hungarian cattle, with their light and + free step, and their enormous horns sometimes measuring above five feet + from tip to tip:<a name="NtA_178" href="#Nt_178"><sup>[178]</sup></a> the + Podolian cattle are remarkable from the height of their fore-quarters. In + the most recent work on Cattle,<a name="NtA_179" + href="#Nt_179"><sup>[179]</sup></a> engravings are given of fifty-five + European breeds; it is, however, probable that several of these differ + very little from each other, or are merely synonyms. It must not be + supposed that numerous breeds of cattle exist only in long-civilized + countries, for we shall presently see that several kinds are kept by the + savages of Southern Africa.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>With respect to the parentage of the several European breeds, we + already know much from Nilsson's Memoir,<a name="NtA_180" + href="#Nt_180"><sup>[180]</sup></a> and more especially from Rütimeyer's + 'Pfahlbauten' and succeeding works. Two or three species or forms of <!-- + Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>{81}</span>Bos, + closely allied to still living domestic races, have been found fossil in + the more recent tertiary deposits of Europe. Following Rütimeyer, we + have:—</p> + + <p><i>Bos primigenius.</i>—This magnificent, well-known species was + domesticated in Switzerland during the Neolithic period; even at this + early period it varied a little, having apparently been crossed with + other races. Some of the larger races on the Continent, as the Friesland, + &c., and the Pembroke race in England, closely resemble in essential + structure <i>B. primigenius</i>, and no doubt are its descendants. This + is likewise the opinion of Nilsson. <i>Bos primigenius</i> existed as a + wild animal in Cæsar's time, and is now semi-wild, though much + degenerated in size, in the park of Chillingham; for I am informed by + Professor Rütimeyer, to whom Lord Tankerville sent a skull, that the + Chillingham cattle are less altered from the true primigenius type than + any other known breed.<a name="NtA_181" + href="#Nt_181"><sup>[181]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Bos trochoceros.</i>—This form is not included in the three + species above mentioned, for it is now considered by Rütimeyer to be the + female of an early domesticated form of <i>B. primigenius</i>, and as the + progenitor of his <i>frontosus</i> race. I may add that specific names + have been given to four other fossil oxen, now believed to be identical + with <i>B. primigenius</i>.<a name="NtA_182" + href="#Nt_182"><sup>[182]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Bos longifrons</i> (or <i>brachyceros</i>) of Owen.—This very + distinct species was of small size, and had a short body with fine legs. + It has been found in England associated with the remains of the elephant + and rhinoceros.<a name="NtA_183" href="#Nt_183"><sup>[183]</sup></a> It + was the commonest form in a domesticated condition in Switzerland during + the earliest part of the Neolithic period. It was domesticated in England + during the Roman period, and supplied food to the Roman legionaries.<a + name="NtA_184" href="#Nt_184"><sup>[184]</sup></a> Some remains have been + found in Ireland in certain crannoges, of which the dates are believed to + be from 843-933 <span class="scac">A.D.</span><a name="NtA_185" + href="#Nt_185"><sup>[185]</sup></a> Professor Owen<a name="NtA_186" + href="#Nt_186"><sup>[186]</sup></a> thinks it probable that the Welsh and + Highland cattle are descended from this form; as likewise is the case, + according to Rütimeyer, with some of the existing Swiss breeds. These + latter are of different shades of colour from light-grey to + blackish-brown, with a lighter stripe along the spine, but they have no + pure white marks. The cattle of North Wales and the Highlands, on the + other hand, are generally black or dark-coloured.</p> + + <p><i>Bos frontosus</i> of Nilsson.—This species is allied to <i>B. + longifrons</i>, but in the opinion of some good judges is distinct from + it. Both co-existed in Scania during the same late geological period,<a + name="NtA_187" href="#Nt_187"><sup>[187]</sup></a> and both have been + found in the Irish crannoges.<a name="NtA_188" + href="#Nt_188"><sup>[188]</sup></a> Nilsson believes that his <i>B. + frontosus</i> may be the <!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page82"></a>{82}</span>parent of the mountain cattle of Norway, + which have a high protuberance on the skull between the base of the + horns. As Professor Owen believes that the Scotch Highland cattle are + descended from his <i>B. longifrons</i>, it is worth notice that a + capable judge<a name="NtA_189" href="#Nt_189"><sup>[189]</sup></a> has + remarked that he saw no cattle in Norway like the Highland breed, but + that they more nearly resembled the Devonshire breed.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Hence we see that three forms or species of Bos, originally + inhabitants of Europe, have been domesticated; but there is no + improbability in this fact, for the genus Bos readily yields to + domestication. Besides these three species and the zebu, the yak, the + gayal, and the arni<a name="NtA_190" href="#Nt_190"><sup>[190]</sup></a> + (not to mention the buffalo or genus Bubalus) have been domesticated; + making altogether seven species of Bos. The zebu and the three European + species are now extinct in a wild state, for the cattle of the <i>B. + primigenius</i> type in the British parks can hardly be considered as + truly wild. Although certain races of cattle, domesticated at a very + ancient period in Europe, are the descendants of the three above-named + fossil species, yet it does not follow that they were here first + domesticated. Those who place much reliance on philology argue that our + cattle were imported from the East.<a name="NtA_191" + href="#Nt_191"><sup>[191]</sup></a> But as races of men invading any + country would probably give their own names to the breeds of cattle which + they might there find domesticated, the argument seems inconclusive. + There is indirect evidence that our cattle are the descendants of species + which originally inhabited a temperate or cold climate, but not a land + long covered with snow; for our cattle, as we have seen in the chapter on + Horses, apparently have not the instinct of scraping away the snow to get + at the herbage beneath. No one could behold the magnificent wild bulls on + the bleak Falkland Islands in the southern hemisphere, and doubt about + the climate being admirably suited to them. Azara has remarked that in + the temperate regions of La Plata the cows conceive when two years old, + whilst in the much hotter country of Paraguay they do not conceive till + three years old; "from which fact," as he adds, "one may conclude that + cattle do not succeed so well in warm countries."<a name="NtA_192" + href="#Nt_192"><sup>[192]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The above-named three fossil forms of Bos have been ranked <!-- Page + 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>{83}</span>by nearly all + palæontologists as distinct species; and it would not be reasonable to + change their denomination simply because they are now found to be the + parents of several domesticated races. But what is of most importance for + us, as showing that they deserve to be ranked as species, is that they + co-existed in different parts of Europe during the same period, and yet + kept distinct. Their domesticated descendants, on the other hand, if not + separated, cross with the utmost freedom and become commingled. The + several European breeds have so often been crossed, both intentionally + and unintentionally, that, if any sterility ensued from such unions, it + would certainly have been detected. As zebus inhabit a distant and much + hotter region, and as they differ in so many characters from our European + cattle, I have taken pains to ascertain whether the two forms are fertile + when crossed. The late Lord Powis imported some zebus and crossed them + with common cattle in Shropshire; and I was assured by his steward that + the cross-bred animals were perfectly fertile with both parent-stocks. + Mr. Blyth informs me that in India hybrids, with various proportions of + either blood, are quite fertile; and this can hardly fail to be known, + for in some districts<a name="NtA_193" + href="#Nt_193"><sup>[193]</sup></a> the two species are allowed to breed + freely together. Most of the cattle which were first introduced into + Tasmania were humped, so that at one time thousands of crossed animals + existed there; and Mr. B. O'Neile Wilson, M.A., writes to me from + Tasmania that he has never heard of any sterility having been observed. + He himself formerly possessed a herd of such crossed cattle, and all were + perfectly fertile; so much so, that he cannot remember even a single cow + failing to calve. These several facts afford an important confirmation of + the Pallasian doctrine that the descendants of species which when first + domesticated would if crossed probably have been in some degree sterile, + become perfectly fertile after a long course of domestication. In a + future chapter we shall see that this doctrine throws much light on the + difficult subject of Hybridism.</p> + + <p>I have alluded to the cattle in Chillingham Park, which, according to + Rütimeyer, have been very little changed from the <i>Bos primigenius</i> + type. This park is so ancient that it is <!-- Page 84 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page84"></a>{84}</span>referred to in a record + of the year 1220. The cattle in their instincts and habits are truly + wild. They are white, with the inside of the ears reddish-brown, eyes + rimmed with black, muzzles brown, hoofs black, and horns white tipped + with black. Within a period of thirty-three years about a dozen calves + were born with "brown and blue spots upon the cheeks or necks; but these, + together with any defective animals, were always destroyed." According to + Bewick, about the year 1770 some calves appeared with black ears; but + these were also destroyed by the keeper, and black ears have not since + reappeared. The wild white cattle in the Duke of Hamilton's park, where I + have heard of the birth of a black calf, are said by Lord Tankerville to + be inferior to those at Chillingham. The cattle kept until the year 1780 + by the Duke of Queensberry, but now extinct, had their ears, muzzle, and + orbits of the eyes black. Those which have existed from time immemorial + at Chartley; closely resemble the cattle at Chillingham, but are larger, + "with some small difference in the colour of the ears." "They frequently + tend to become entirely black; and a singular superstition prevails in + the vicinity that, when a black calf is born, some calamity impends over + the noble house of Ferrers. All the black calves are destroyed." The + cattle at Burton Constable in Yorkshire, now extinct, had ears, muzzle, + and the tip of the tail black. Those at Gisburne, also in Yorkshire, are + said by Bewick to have been sometimes without dark muzzles, with the + inside alone of the ears brown; and they are elsewhere said to have been + low in stature and hornless.<a name="NtA_194" + href="#Nt_194"><sup>[194]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The several above-specified differences in the park-cattle, slight + though they be, are worth recording, as they show that animals living + nearly in a state of nature, and exposed to nearly uniform conditions, if + not allowed to roam freely and to cross with other herds, do not keep as + uniform as truly <!-- Page 85 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page85"></a>{85}</span>wild animals. For the preservation of a + uniform character, even within the same park, a certain degree of + selection—that is, the destruction of the dark-coloured + calves—is apparently necessary.</p> + + <p>The cattle in all the parks are white; but, from the occasional + appearance of dark-coloured calves, it is extremely doubtful whether the + aboriginal <i>Bos primigenius</i> was white. The following facts, + however, show that there is a strong, though not invariable, tendency in + wild or escaped cattle, under widely different conditions of life, to + become white with coloured ears. If the old writers Boethius and Leslie<a + name="NtA_195" href="#Nt_195"><sup>[195]</sup></a> can be trusted, the + wild cattle of Scotland were white and furnished with a great mane; but + the colour of their ears is not mentioned. The primæval forest formerly + extended across the whole country from Chillingham to Hamilton, and Sir + Walter Scott used to maintain that the cattle still preserved in these + two parks, at the two extremities of the forest, were remnants of its + original inhabitants; and this view certainly seems probable. In Wales,<a + name="NtA_196" href="#Nt_196"><sup>[196]</sup></a> during the tenth + century, some of the cattle are described as being white with red ears. + Four hundred cattle thus coloured were sent to King John; and an early + record speaks of a hundred cattle with red ears having been demanded as a + compensation for some offence, but, if the cattle were of a dark or black + colour, one hundred and fifty were to be presented. The black cattle of + North Wales apparently belong, as we have seen, to the small + <i>longifrons</i> type: and as the alternative was offered of either 150 + dark cattle, or 100 white cattle with red ears, we may presume that the + latter were the larger beasts, and probably belonged to the + <i>primigenius</i> type. Youatt has remarked that at the present day, + whenever cattle of the short-horn breed are white, the extremities of + their ears are more or less tinged with red.</p> + + <p>The cattle which have run wild on the Pampas, in Texas, and in two + parts of Africa, have become of a nearly uniform dark <!-- Page 86 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>{86}</span>brownish-red.<a + name="NtA_197" href="#Nt_197"><sup>[197]</sup></a> On the Ladrone + Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, immense herds of cattle, which were wild + in the year 1741, are described as "milk-white, except their ears, which + are generally black."<a name="NtA_198" + href="#Nt_198"><sup>[198]</sup></a> The Falkland Islands, situated far + south, with all the conditions of life as different as it is possible to + conceive from those of the Ladrones, offer a more interesting case. + Cattle have run wild there during eighty or ninety years; and in the + southern districts the animals are mostly white, with their feet, or + whole heads, or only their ears black; but my informant, Admiral + Sulivan,<a name="NtA_199" href="#Nt_199"><sup>[199]</sup></a> who long + resided on these islands, does not believe that they are ever purely + white. So that in these two archipelagos we see that the cattle tend to + become white with coloured ears. In other parts of the Falkland Islands, + other colours prevail: near Port Pleasant brown is the common tint; round + Mount Usborne, about half the animals in some of the herds were lead or + mouse-coloured, which elsewhere is an unusual tint. These latter cattle, + though generally inhabiting high land, breed about a month earlier than + the other cattle; and this circumstance would aid in keeping them + distinct and in perpetuating this peculiar colour. It is worth recalling + to mind that blue or lead-coloured marks have occasionally appeared on + the white cattle of Chillingham. So plainly different were the colours of + the wild herds in different parts of the Falkland Islands, that in + hunting them, as Admiral Sulivan informs me, white spots in one district, + and dark spots in another district, were always looked out for on the + distant hills. In the intermediate districts intermediate colours + prevailed. Whatever the cause may be, this tendency in the wild cattle of + the Falkland Islands, which are all descended from a few brought from La + Plata, to break up into herds of three different colours, is an + interesting fact.</p> + + <p>Returning to the several British breeds, the conspicuous difference in + general appearance between Short-horns, Long-horns (now rarely seen), + Herefords, Highland cattle, Alderneys, &c., must be familiar to every + one. A large part of the <!-- Page 87 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page87"></a>{87}</span>difference, no doubt, may be due to descent + from primordially distinct species; but we may feel sure that there has + been in addition a considerable amount of variation. Even during the + Neolithic period, the domestic cattle were not actually identical with + the aboriginal species. Within recent times most of the breeds have been + modified by careful and methodical selection. How strongly the characters + thus acquired are inherited, may be inferred from the prices realised by + the improved breeds; even at the first sale of Colling's Short-horns, + eleven bulls reached an average of 214<i>l.</i>, and lately Short-horn + bulls have been sold for a thousand guineas, and have been exported to + all quarters of the world.</p> + + <p>Some constitutional differences may be here noticed. The Short-horns + arrive at maturity far earlier than the wilder breeds, such as those of + Wales or the Highlands. This fact has been shown in an interesting manner + by Mr. Simonds,<a name="NtA_200" href="#Nt_200"><sup>[200]</sup></a> who + has given a table of the average period of their dentition, which proves + that there is a difference of no less than six months in the appearance + of the permanent incisors. The period of gestation, from observations + made by Tessier on 1131 cows, varies to the extent of eighty-one days; + and what is more interesting, M. Lefour affirms "that the period of + gestation is longer in the large German cattle than in the smaller + breeds."<a name="NtA_201" href="#Nt_201"><sup>[201]</sup></a> With + respect to the period of conception, it seems certain that Alderney and + Zetland cows often become pregnant earlier than other breeds.<a + name="NtA_202" href="#Nt_202"><sup>[202]</sup></a> Lastly, as four + fully-developed mammæ is a generic character in the genus Bos,<a + name="NtA_203" href="#Nt_203"><sup>[203]</sup></a> it is worth notice + that with our domestic cows the two rudimentary mammæ often become fairly + well developed and yield milk.</p> + + <p>As numerous breeds are generally found only in long-civilized + countries, it may be well to show that in some countries inhabited by + barbarous races, who are frequently at war with each other and therefore + have little free <!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page88"></a>{88}</span>communication, several distinct breeds of + cattle now exist or formerly existed. At the Cape of Good Hope Leguat + observed, in the year 1720, three kinds.<a name="NtA_204" + href="#Nt_204"><sup>[204]</sup></a> At the present day various travellers + have noticed the differences in the breeds in Southern Africa. Sir Andrew + Smith several years ago remarked to me that the cattle possessed by the + different tribes of Caffres, though living near each other under the same + latitude and in the same kind of country, yet differed, and he expressed + much surprise at the fact. Mr. Andersson has described<a name="NtA_205" + href="#Nt_205"><sup>[205]</sup></a> the Damara, Bechuana, and Namaqua + cattle; and he informs me in a letter that the cattle north of Lake Ngami + are likewise different, as Mr. Galton has heard is the case with the + cattle of Benguela. The Namaqua cattle in size and shape nearly resemble + European cattle, and have short stout horns and large hoofs. The Damara + cattle are very peculiar, being big-boned, with slender legs and small + hard feet; their tails are adorned with a tuft of long bushy hair nearly + touching the ground, and their horns are extraordinarily large. The + Bechuana cattle have even larger horns, and there is now a skull in + London with the two horns 8 ft. 8¼ in. long, as measured in a straight + line from tip to tip, and no less than 13ft. 5in. as measured along their + curvature! Mr. Andersson in his letter to me says that, though he will + not venture to describe the differences between the breeds belonging to + the many different sub-tribes, yet such certainly exist, as shown by the + wonderful facility with which the natives discriminate them.</p> + + <p>That many breeds of cattle have originated through variation, + independently of descent from distinct species, we may infer from what we + see in South America, where the genus Bos was not endemic, and where the + cattle which now exist in such vast numbers are the descendants of a few + imported from Spain and Portugal. In Columbia, Roulin<a name="NtA_206" + href="#Nt_206"><sup>[206]</sup></a> describes two peculiar breeds, + namely, <i>pelones</i>, with extremely thin and fine hair, and + <i>calongos</i>, absolutely naked. According to Castelnau there are two + races in Brazil, one like European cattle, the other different, with <!-- + Page 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page89"></a>{89}</span>remarkable horns. In Paraguay, Azara + describes a breed which certainly originated in S. America, called + <i>chivos</i>, "because they have straight vertical horns, conical, and + very large at the base." He likewise describes a dwarf race in + Corrientes, with short legs and a body larger than usual. Cattle without + horns, and others with reversed hair, have also originated in + Paraguay.</p> + + <p>Another monstrous breed, called niatas or natas, of which I saw two + small herds on the northern bank of the Plata, is so remarkable as to + deserve a fuller description. This breed bears the same relation to other + breeds, as bull or pug dogs do to other dogs, or as improved pigs, + according to H. von Nathusius, do to common pigs.<a name="NtA_207" + href="#Nt_207"><sup>[207]</sup></a> Rütimeyer believes that these cattle + belong to the primigenius type.<a name="NtA_208" + href="#Nt_208"><sup>[208]</sup></a> The forehead is very short and broad, + with the nasal end of the skull, together with the whole plane of the + upper molar-teeth, curved upwards. The lower jaw projects beyond the + upper, and has a corresponding upward curvature. It is an interesting + fact that an almost similar conformation characterizes, as I have been + informed by Dr. Falconer, the extinct and gigantic Sivatherium of India, + and is not known in any other ruminant. The upper lip is much drawn back, + the nostrils are seated high up and are widely open, the eyes project + outwards, and the horns are large. In walking the head is carried low, + and the neck is short. The hind legs appear to be longer, compared with + the front legs, than is usual. The exposed incisor teeth, the short head + and upturned nostrils, give these cattle the most ludicrous, + self-confident air of defiance. The skull which I presented to the + College of Surgeons has been thus described by Professor Owen:<a + name="NtA_209" href="#Nt_209"><sup>[209]</sup></a> "It is remarkable from + the stunted development of the nasals, premaxillaries, and fore-part of + the lower jaw, which is unusually <!-- Page 90 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>{90}</span>curved upwards to come + into contact with the premaxillaries. The nasal bones are about one-third + the ordinary length, but retain almost their normal breadth. The + triangular vacuity is left between them, the frontal and lachrymal, which + latter bone articulates with the premaxillary, and thus excludes the + maxillary from any junction with the nasal." So that even the connexion + of some of the bones is changed. Other differences might be added: thus + the plane of the condyles is somewhat modified, and the terminal edge of + the premaxillaries forms an arch. In fact, on comparison with the skull + of a common ox, scarcely a single bone presents the same exact shape, and + the whole skull has a wonderfully different appearance.</p> + + <p>The first brief published notice of this race was by Azara, between + the years 1783-96; but Don F. Muniz, of Luxan, who has kindly collected + information for me, states that about 1760 these cattle were kept as + curiosities near Buenos Ayres. Their origin is not positively known, but + they must have originated subsequently to the year 1552, when cattle were + first introduced. Signor Muniz informs me that the breed is believed to + have originated with the Indians southward of the Plata. Even to this day + those reared near the Plata show their less civilized nature in being + fiercer than common cattle, and in the cow, if visited too often, easily + deserting her first calf. The breed is very true, and a niata bull and + cow invariably produce niata calves. The breed has already lasted at + least a century. A niata bull crossed with a common cow, and the reverse + cross, yield offspring having an intermediate character, but with the + niata character strongly displayed. According to Signor Muniz, there is + the clearest evidence, contrary to the common belief of agriculturists in + analogous cases, that the niata cow when crossed with a common bull + transmits her peculiarities more strongly than does the niata bull when + crossed with a common cow. When the pasture is tolerably long, these + cattle feed as well as common cattle with their tongue and palate; but + during the great droughts, when so many animals perish on the Pampas, the + niata breed lies under a great disadvantage, and would, if not attended + to, become extinct; for the common cattle, like horses, are able just to + keep alive by browsing on the twigs of trees and on reeds with their + lips: this the niatas cannot so <!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page91"></a>{91}</span>well do, as their lips do not join, and + hence they are found to perish before the common cattle. This strikes me + as a good illustration of how little we are able to judge from the + ordinary habits of an animal, on what circumstances, occurring only at + long intervals of time, its rarity or extinction may depend. It shows us, + also, how natural selection would have determined the rejection of the + niata modification had it arisen in a state of nature.</p> + + <p>Having described the semi-monstrous niata breed, I may allude to a + white bull, said to have been brought from Africa, which was exhibited in + London in 1829, and which has been well figured by Mr. Harvey.<a + name="NtA_210" href="#Nt_210"><sup>[210]</sup></a> It had a hump, and was + furnished with a mane. The dewlap was peculiar, being divided between its + fore-legs into parallel divisions. Its lateral hoofs were annually shed, + and grew to the length of five or six inches. The eye was very peculiar, + being remarkably prominent, and "resembled a cup and ball, thus enabling + the animal to see on all sides with equal ease; the pupil was small and + oval, or rather a parallelogram with the ends cut off, and lying + transversely across the ball," A new and strange breed might probably + have been formed by careful breeding and selection from this animal.</p> + + <p>I have often speculated on the probable causes through which each + separate district in Great Britain came to possess in former times its + own peculiar breed of cattle; and the question is, perhaps, even more + perplexing in the case of Southern Africa. We now know that the + differences may be in part attributed to descent from distinct species; + but this will not suffice. Have the slight differences in climate and in + the nature of the pasture, in the different districts of Britain, + directly induced corresponding differences in the cattle? We have seen + that the semi-wild cattle in the several British parks are not identical + in colouring or size, and that some degree of selection has been + requisite to keep them true. It is almost certain that abundant food + given during many generations directly affects the size of a breed.<a + name="NtA_211" href="#Nt_211"><sup>[211]</sup></a> That climate directly + affects the thickness of the <!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page92"></a>{92}</span>skin and the hair is likewise certain: thus + Roulin asserts<a name="NtA_212" href="#Nt_212"><sup>[212]</sup></a> that + the hides of the feral cattle on the hot Llanos "are always much less + heavy than those of the cattle raised on the high platform of Bogota; and + that these hides yield in weight and in thickness of hair to those of the + cattle which have run wild on the lofty Paramos." The same difference has + been observed in the hides of the cattle reared on the bleak Falkland + Islands and on the temperate Pampas. Low has remarked<a name="NtA_213" + href="#Nt_213"><sup>[213]</sup></a> that the cattle which inhabit the + more humid parts of Britain have longer hair and thicker skins than other + British cattle; and the hair and horns are so closely related to each + other, that, as we shall see in a future chapter, they are apt to vary + together; thus climate might indirectly affect, through the skin, the + form and size of the horns. When we compare highly improved stall-fed + cattle with the wilder breeds, or compare mountain and lowland breeds, we + cannot doubt that an active life, leading to the free use of the limbs + and lungs, affects the shape and proportions of the whole body. It is + probable that some breeds, such as the semi-monstrous niata cattle, and + some peculiarities, such as being hornless, &c., have appeared + suddenly from what we may call a spontaneous variation; but even in this + case a rude kind of selection is necessary, and the animals thus + characterized must be at least partially separated from others. This + degree of care, however, has sometimes been taken even in + little-civilized districts, where we should least have expected it, as in + the case of the niata, chivo, and hornless cattle in S. America.</p> + + <p>That methodical selection has done wonders within a recent period in + modifying our cattle, no one doubts. During the process of methodical + selection it has occasionally happened that deviations of structure, more + strongly pronounced than mere individual differences, yet by no means + deserving to be called monstrosities, have been taken advantage of: thus + the famous Long-horn Bull, Shakespeare, though of the pure Canley stock, + "scarcely inherited a single point of the long-horned breed, his horns + excepted;<a name="NtA_214" href="#Nt_214"><sup>[214]</sup></a> yet in the + hands of Mr. Fowler, <!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page93"></a>{93}</span>this bull greatly improved his race. We have + also reason to believe that selection, carried on so far unconsciously + that there was at no one time any distinct intention to improve or change + the breed, has in the course of time modified most of our cattle; for by + this process, aided by more abundant food, all the lowland British breeds + have increased greatly in size and in early maturity since the reign of + Henry VII.<a name="NtA_215" href="#Nt_215"><sup>[215]</sup></a> It should + never be forgotten that many animals have to be annually slaughtered; so + that each owner must determine which shall be killed and which preserved + for breeding. In every district, as Youatt has remarked, there is a + prejudice in favour of the native breed; so that animals possessing + qualities, whatever they may be, which are most valued in each district, + will be oftenest preserved; and this unmethodical selection assuredly + will in the long run affect the character of the whole breed. But it may + be asked, can this rude kind of selection have been practised by + barbarians such as those of southern Africa? In a future chapter on + Selection we shall see that this has certainly occurred to some extent. + Therefore, looking to the origin of the many breeds of cattle which + formerly inhabited the several districts of Britain, I conclude that, + although slight differences in the nature of the climate, food, &c., + as well as changed habits of life, aided by correlation of growth, and + the occasional appearance from unknown causes of considerable deviations + of structure, have all probably played their parts; yet that the + occasional preservation in each district of those individual animals + which were most valued by each owner has perhaps been even more effective + in the production of the several British breeds. As soon as two or more + breeds had once been formed in any district, or when new breeds descended + from distinct species were introduced, their crossing, especially if + aided by some selection, will have multiplied the number and modified the + characters of the older breeds.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Sheep.</span></p> + + <p>I shall treat this subject briefly. Most authors look at our domestic + sheep as descended from several distinct species; but how many still + exist is doubtful. Mr. Blyth believes that there <!-- Page 94 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page94"></a>{94}</span>are in the whole world + fourteen species, one of which, the Corsican moufflon, he concludes (as I + am informed by him) to be the parent of the smaller, short-tailed breeds, + with crescent-shaped horns, such as the old Highland sheep. The larger, + long-tailed breeds, having horns with a double flexure, such as the + Dorsets, merinos, &c., he believes to be descended from an unknown + and extinct species. M. Gervais makes six species of Ovis;<a + name="NtA_216" href="#Nt_216"><sup>[216]</sup></a> but concludes that our + domestic sheep form a distinct genus, now completely extinct. A German + naturalist<a name="NtA_217" href="#Nt_217"><sup>[217]</sup></a> believes + that our sheep descend from ten aboriginally distinct species, of which + only one is still living in a wild state! Another ingenious observer,<a + name="NtA_218" href="#Nt_218"><sup>[218]</sup></a> though not a + naturalist, with a bold defiance of everything known on geographical + distribution, infers that the sheep of Great Britain alone are the + descendants of eleven endemic British forms! Under such a hopeless state + of doubt it would be useless for my purpose to give a detailed account of + the several breeds; but a few remarks may be added.</p> + + <p>Sheep have been domesticated from a very ancient period. Rütimeyer<a + name="NtA_219" href="#Nt_219"><sup>[219]</sup></a> found in the Swiss + lake-dwellings the remains of a small breed, with thin and tall legs, and + with horns like those of a goat: this race differs somewhat from any one + now known. Almost every country has its own peculiar breed; and many + countries have many breeds differing greatly from each other. One of the + most strongly marked races is an Eastern one with a long tail, including, + according to Pallas, twenty vertebræ, and so loaded with fat, that, from + being esteemed a delicacy, it is sometimes placed on a truck which is + dragged about by the living animal. These sheep, though ranked by + Fitzinger as a distinct aboriginal form, seem to bear in their drooping + ears the stamp of long domestication. This is likewise the case with + those sheep which have two great masses of fat on the rump, with the tail + in a rudimentary condition. The Angola variety of <!-- Page 95 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page95"></a>{95}</span>the long-tailed race has + curious masses of fat on the back of the head and beneath the jaws.<a + name="NtA_220" href="#Nt_220"><sup>[220]</sup></a> Mr. Hodgson in an + admirable paper<a name="NtA_221" href="#Nt_221"><sup>[221]</sup></a> on + the sheep of the Himalaya infers from the distribution of the several + races, "that this caudal augmentation in most of its phases is an + instance of degeneracy in these pre-eminently Alpine animals." The horns + present an endless diversity in character; being, especially in the + female sex, not rarely absent, or, on the other hand, amounting to four + or even eight in number. The horns, when numerous, arise from a crest on + the frontal bone, which is elevated in a peculiar manner. It is + remarkable that multiplicity of horns "is generally accompanied by great + length and coarseness of the fleece."<a name="NtA_222" + href="#Nt_222"><sup>[222]</sup></a> This correlation, however, is not + invariable; for I am informed by Mr. D. Forbes, that the Spanish sheep in + Chile resemble, in fleece and in all other characters, their parent + merino-race, except that instead of a pair they generally bear four + horns. The existence of a pair of mammæ is a generic character in the + genus Ovis as well as in several allied forms; nevertheless, as Mr. + Hodgson has remarked, "this character is not absolutely constant even + among the true and proper sheep: for I have more than once met with + Cágias (a sub-Himalayan domestic race) possessed of four teats."<a + name="NtA_223" href="#Nt_223"><sup>[223]</sup></a> This case is the more + remarkable as, when any part or organ is present in reduced number in + comparison with the same part in allied groups, it usually is subject to + little variation. The presence of interdigital pits has likewise been + considered as a generic distinction in sheep; but Isidore Geoffroy<a + name="NtA_224" href="#Nt_224"><sup>[224]</sup></a> has shown that these + pits or pouches are absent in some breeds.</p> + + <p>In sheep there is a strong tendency for characters, which have + apparently been acquired under domestication, to become attached either + exclusively to the male sex, or to be more highly developed in this than + in the other sex. Thus in many breeds the horns are deficient in the ewe, + though this likewise occurs occasionally with the female of the wild + musmon. In the rams of the Wallachian breed "the horns spring almost + perpendicularly <!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page96"></a>{96}</span>from the frontal bone, and then take a + beautiful spiral form; in the ewes they protrude nearly at right angles + from the head, and then become twisted in a singular manner."<a + name="NtA_225" href="#Nt_225"><sup>[225]</sup></a> Mr. Hodgson states + that the extraordinarily arched nose or chaffron, which is so highly + developed in several foreign breeds, is characteristic of the ram alone, + and apparently is the result of domestication.<a name="NtA_226" + href="#Nt_226"><sup>[226]</sup></a> I hear from Mr. Blyth that the + accumulation of fat in the fat-tailed sheep of the plains of India is + greater in the male than in the female; and Fitzinger<a name="NtA_227" + href="#Nt_227"><sup>[227]</sup></a> remarks that the mane in the African + maned race is far more developed in the ram than in the ewe.</p> + + <p>Different races of sheep, like cattle, present constitutional + differences. Thus the improved breeds arrive at maturity at an early age, + as has been well shown by Mr. Simonds through their early average period + of dentition. The several races have become adapted to different kinds of + pasture and climate: for instance, no one can rear Leicester sheep on + mountainous regions, where Cheviots flourish. As Youatt has remarked, "in + all the different districts of Great Britain we find various breeds of + sheep beautifully adapted to the locality which they occupy. No one knows + their origin; they are indigenous to the soil, climate, pasturage, and + the locality on which they graze; they seem to have been formed for it + and by it."<a name="NtA_228" href="#Nt_228"><sup>[228]</sup></a> Marshall + relates<a name="NtA_229" href="#Nt_229"><sup>[229]</sup></a> that a flock + of heavy Lincolnshire and light Norfolk sheep which had been bred + together in a large sheep-walk, part of which was low, rich, and moist, + and another part high and dry, with benty grass, when turned out, + regularly separated from each other; the heavy sheep drawing off to the + rich soil, and the lighter sheep to their own soil; so that "whilst there + was plenty of grass the two breeds kept themselves as distinct as rooks + and pigeons." Numerous sheep from various parts of the world have been + brought during a long course of years to the Zoological Gardens of + London; but as Youatt, who attended the animals as a <!-- Page 97 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page97"></a>{97}</span>veterinary + surgeon, remarks, "few or none die of the rot, but they are phthisical; + not one of them from a torrid climate lasts out the second year, and when + they die their lungs are tuberculated."<a name="NtA_230" + href="#Nt_230"><sup>[230]</sup></a> Even in certain parts of England it + has been found impossible to keep certain breeds of sheep; thus on a farm + on the banks of the Ouse, the Leicester sheep were so rapidly destroyed + by pleuritis<a name="NtA_231" href="#Nt_231"><sup>[231]</sup></a> that + the owner could not keep them; the coarser-skinned sheep never being + affected.</p> + + <p>The period of gestation was formerly thought to be so unalterable a + character, that a supposed difference between the wolf and the dog in + this respect was esteemed a sure sign of specific distinction; but we + have seen that the period is shorter in the improved breeds of the pig, + and in the larger breeds of the ox, than in other breeds of these two + animals. And now we know, on the excellent authority of Hermann von + Nathusius,<a name="NtA_232" href="#Nt_232"><sup>[232]</sup></a> that + Merino and Southdown sheep, when both have long been kept under exactly + the same conditions, differ in their average period of gestation, as is + seen in the following Table:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr"> +<tr><td>Merinos</td><td>150.3 days.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Southdowns</td><td>144.2 "</td></tr> +<tr><td>Half-bred Merinos and Southdowns </td><td>146.3 "</td></tr> +<tr><td>¾ blood of Southdown</td><td>145.5 "</td></tr> +<tr><td>⅞ blood of Southdown</td><td>144.2 "</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In this graduated difference, in these cross-bred animals having + different proportions of Southdown blood, we see how strictly the two + periods of gestation have been transmitted. Nathusius remarks that, as + Southdowns grow with remarkable rapidity after birth, it is not + surprising that their fœtal development should have been shortened. + It is of course possible that the difference in these two breeds may be + due to their descent from distinct parent-species; but as the early + maturity of the Southdowns has long been carefully attended to by + breeders, the difference is more probably the result of such attention. + Lastly, the fecundity of the several breeds differs much; some generally + producing twins or even triplets at a birth, of which fact the curious + Shangai sheep (with their truncated and rudimentary <!-- Page 98 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>{98}</span>ears, and great Roman + noses), lately exhibited in the Zoological Gardens, offer a remarkable + instance.</p> + + <p>Sheep are perhaps more readily affected by the direct action of the + conditions of life to which they have been exposed than almost any other + domestic animal. According to Pallas, and more recently according to + Erman, the fat-tailed Kirghisian sheep, when bred for a few generations + in Russia, degenerate, and the mass of fat dwindles away, "the scanty and + bitter herbage of the steppes seems so essential to their development." + Pallas makes an analogous statement with respect to one of the Crimean + breeds. Burnes states that the Karakool breed, which produces a fine, + curled, black, and valuable fleece, when removed from its own canton near + Bokhara to Persia or to other quarters, loses its peculiar fleece.<a + name="NtA_233" href="#Nt_233"><sup>[233]</sup></a> In all such cases, + however, it may be that a change of any kind in the conditions of life + causes variability and consequent loss of character, and not that certain + conditions are necessary for the development of certain characters.</p> + + <p>Great heat, however, seems to act directly on the fleece: several + accounts have been published of the change which sheep imported from + Europe undergo in the West Indies. Dr. Nicholson of Antigua informs me + that, after the third generation, the wool disappears from the whole + body, except over the loins; and the animal then appears like a goat with + a dirty door-mat on its back. A similar change is said to take place on + the west coast of Africa.<a name="NtA_234" + href="#Nt_234"><sup>[234]</sup></a> On the other hand, many wool-bearing + sheep live on the hot plains of India. Roulin asserts that in the lower + and heated valleys of the Cordillera, if the lambs are sheared as soon as + the wool has grown to a certain thickness, all goes on afterwards as + usual; but if not sheared, the wool detaches itself in flakes, and short + shining hair like that <!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page99"></a>{99}</span>on a goat is produced ever afterwards. This + curious result seems merely to be an exaggerated tendency natural to the + Merino breed, for as a great authority, namely, Lord Somerville, remarks, + "the wool of our Merino sheep after shear-time is hard and coarse to such + a degree as to render it almost impossible to suppose that the same + animal could bear wool so opposite in quality, compared to that which has + been clipped from it: as the cold weather advances, the fleeces recover + their soft quality." As in sheep of all breeds the fleece naturally + consists of longer and coarser hair covering shorter and softer wool, the + change which it often undergoes in hot climates is probably merely a case + of unequal development; for even with those sheep which like goats are + covered with hair, a small quantity of underlying wool may always be + found.<a name="NtA_235" href="#Nt_235"><sup>[235]</sup></a> In the wild + mountain-sheep (<i>Ovis montana</i>) of North America there is an annual + analogous change of coat; "the wool begins to drop out in early spring, + leaving in its place a coat of hair resembling that of the elk, a change + of pelage quite different in character from the ordinary thickening of + the coat or hair, common to all furred animals in winter,—for + instance, in the horse, the cow, &c., which shed their winter coat in + the spring."<a name="NtA_236" href="#Nt_236"><sup>[236]</sup></a></p> + + <p>A slight difference in climate or pasture sometimes slightly affects + the fleece, as has been observed even in different districts in England, + and as is well shown by the great softness of the wool brought from + Southern Australia. But it should be observed, as Youatt repeatedly + insists, that the tendency to change may generally be counteracted by + careful selection. M. Lasterye, after discussing this subject, sums up as + follows: "The preservation of the Merino race in its utmost purity at the + Cape of Good Hope, in the marshes of Holland, and under the rigorous + climate of Sweden, furnishes an additional support of this my unalterable + principle, that fine-woolled sheep may be kept wherever industrious men + and intelligent breeders exist."</p> + + <p>That methodical selection has effected great changes in several <!-- + Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page100"></a>{100}</span>breeds of sheep no one, who knows anything + on the subject, entertains a doubt. The case of the Southdowns, as + improved by Ellman, offers perhaps the most striking instance. + Unconscious or occasional selection has likewise slowly produced a great + effect, as we shall see in the chapters on Selection. That crossing has + largely modified some breeds, no one who will study what has been written + on this subject—for instance, Mr. Spooner's paper—will + dispute; but to produce uniformity, in a crossed breed, careful selection + and "rigorous weeding," as this author expresses it, are indispensable.<a + name="NtA_237" href="#Nt_237"><sup>[237]</sup></a></p> + + <p>In some few instances new breeds have suddenly originated; thus, in + 1791, a ram-lamb was born in Massachusetts, having short crooked legs and + a long back, like a turnspit-dog. From this one lamb the <i>otter</i> or + <i>ancon</i> semi-monstrous breed was raised; as these sheep could not + leap over the fences, it was thought that they would be valuable; but + they have been supplanted by merinos, and thus exterminated. These sheep + are remarkable from transmitting their character so truly that Colonel + Humphreys<a name="NtA_238" href="#Nt_238"><sup>[238]</sup></a> never + heard of "but one questionable case" of an ancon ram and ewe not + producing ancon offspring. When they are crossed with other breeds the + offspring, with rare exceptions, instead of being intermediate in + character, perfectly resemble either parent; and this has occurred even + in the case of twins. Lastly, "the ancons have been observed to keep + together, separating themselves from the rest of the flock when put into + enclosures with other sheep."</p> + + <p>A more interesting case has been recorded in the Report of the Juries + for the Great Exhibition (1851), namely, the production of a merino + ram-lamb on the Mauchamp farm, in 1828, which was remarkable for its + long, smooth, straight, and silky wool. By the year 1833 M. Graux had + raised rams enough to serve his whole flock, and after a few more years + he was able to sell stock of his new breed. So peculiar and valuable is + the wool, that it sells at 25 per cent. above the best merino wool: even + the fleeces of half-bred animals are valuable, and are known in France as + the "Mauchamp-merino." It is interesting, as <!-- Page 101 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>{101}</span>showing how generally + any marked deviation of structure is accompanied by other deviations, + that the first ram and his immediate offspring were of small size, with + large heads, long necks, narrow chests, and long flanks; but these + blemishes were removed by judicious crosses and selection. The long + smooth wool was also correlated with smooth horns; and as horns and hair + are homologous structures, we can understand the meaning of this + correlation. If the Mauchamp and ancon breeds had originated a century or + two ago, we should have had no record of their birth; and many a + naturalist would no doubt have insisted, especially in the case of the + Mauchamp race, that they had each descended from, or been crossed with, + some unknown aboriginal form.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Goats</span>.</p> + + <p>From the recent researches of M. Brandt, most naturalists now believe + that all our goats are descended from the <i>Capra ægagrus</i> of the + mountains of Asia, possibly mingled with the allied Indian species <i>C. + Falconeri</i> of India.<a name="NtA_239" + href="#Nt_239"><sup>[239]</sup></a> In Switzerland, during the early + Stone period, the domestic goat was commoner than the sheep; and this + very ancient race differed in no respect from that now common in + Switzerland.<a name="NtA_240" href="#Nt_240"><sup>[240]</sup></a> At the + present time, the many races found in several parts of the world differ + greatly from each other; nevertheless, as far as they have been tried,<a + name="NtA_241" href="#Nt_241"><sup>[241]</sup></a> they are all quite + fertile when crossed. So numerous are the breeds, that Mr. G. Clark<a + name="NtA_242" href="#Nt_242"><sup>[242]</sup></a> has described eight + distinct kinds imported into the one island of Mauritius. The ears of one + kind were enormously developed, being, as measured by Mr. Clark, no less + than 19 inches in length and 4¾ inches in breadth. As with cattle, the + mammæ of those breeds which are regularly milked become greatly + developed; and, as Mr. Clark remarks, "it is not rare to see their teats + touching the ground." The following cases are worth notice as presenting + unusual <!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page102"></a>{102}</span>points of variation. According to + Godron,<a name="NtA_243" href="#Nt_243"><sup>[243]</sup></a> the mammæ + differ greatly in shape in different breeds, being elongated in the + common goat, hemispherical in the Angora race, and bilobed and divergent + in the goats of Syria and Nubia. According to this same author, the males + of certain breeds have lost their usual offensive odour. In one of the + Indian breeds the males and females have horns of widely-different + shapes;<a name="NtA_244" href="#Nt_244"><sup>[244]</sup></a> and in some + breeds the females are destitute of horns.<a name="NtA_245" + href="#Nt_245"><sup>[245]</sup></a> The presence of interdigital pits or + glands on all four feet has been thought to characterise the genus Ovis, + and their absence to be characteristic of the genus Capra; but Mr. + Hodgson has found that they exist in the front feet of the majority of + Himalayan goats.<a name="NtA_246" href="#Nt_246"><sup>[246]</sup></a> Mr. + Hodgson measured the intestines in two goats of the Dúgú race, and he + found that the proportional length of the great and small intestines + differed considerably. In one of these goats the cæcum was thirteen + inches, and in the other no less than thirty-six inches in length!</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>{103}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DOMESTIC RABBITS.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><span class="scac">DOMESTIC RABBITS DESCENDED FROM THE COMMON WILD + RABBIT</span>—<span class="scac">ANCIENT + DOMESTICATION</span>—<span class="scac">ANCIENT + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">LARGE LOP-EARED + RABBITS</span>—<span class="scac">VARIOUS BREEDS</span>—<span + class="scac">FLUCTUATING CHARACTERS</span>—<span + class="scac">ORIGIN OF THE HIMALAYAN BREED</span>—<span + class="scac">CURIOUS CASE OF INHERITANCE</span>—<span + class="scac">FERAL RABBITS IN JAMAICA AND THE FALKLAND + ISLANDS</span>—<span class="scac">PORTO SANTO FERAL + RABBITS</span>—<span class="scac">OSTEOLOGICAL + CHARACTERS</span>—<span class="scac">SKULL</span>—<span + class="scac">SKULL OF HALF-LOP RABBITS</span>—<span + class="scac">VARIATIONS IN THE SKULL ANALOGOUS TO DIFFERENCES IN + DIFFERENT SPECIES OF HARES</span>—<span + class="scac">VERTEBRÆ</span>—<span + class="scac">STERNUM</span>—<span + class="scac">SCAPULA</span>—<span class="scac">EFFECTS OF USE AND + DISUSE ON THE PROPORTIONS OF THE LIMBS AND BODY</span>—<span + class="scac">CAPACITY OF THE SKULL AND REDUCED SIZE OF THE + BRAIN</span>—<span class="scac">SUMMARY ON THE MODIFICATIONS OF + DOMESTICATED RABBITS</span>.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>All naturalists, with, as far as I know, a single exception, believe + that the several domestic breeds of the rabbit are descended from the + common wild species; I shall therefore describe them more carefully than + in the previous cases. Professor Gervais<a name="NtA_247" + href="#Nt_247"><sup>[247]</sup></a> states "that the true wild rabbit is + smaller than the domestic; its proportions are not absolutely the same; + its tail is smaller; its ears are shorter and more thickly clothed with + hair; and these characters, without speaking of colour, are so many + indications opposed to the opinion which unites these animals under the + same specific denomination." Few naturalists will agree with this author + that such slight differences are sufficient to separate as distinct + species the wild and domestic rabbit. How extraordinary it would be, if + close confinement, perfect tameness, unnatural food, and careful + breeding, all prolonged during many generations, had not produced at + least some effect! The tame rabbit has been domesticated from an ancient + period. Confucius ranges rabbits among animals worthy to be sacrificed to + the gods, and, as he prescribes their multiplication, they were probably + at this early period domesticated in China. They are mentioned by several + of the classical writers. <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page104"></a>{104}</span>In 1631 Gervaise Markham writes, "You + shall not, as in other cattell, looke to their shape, but to their + richnesse, onely elect your buckes, the largest and goodliest conies you + can get; and for the richnesse of the skin, that is accounted the richest + which hath the equallest mixture of blacke and white haire together, yet + the blacke rather shadowing the white; the furre should be thicke, deepe, + smooth, and shining; ... they are of body much fatter and larger, and, + when another skin is worth two or three pence, they are worth two + shillings." From this full description we see that silver-grey rabbits + existed in England at this period; and, what is far more important, we + see that the breeding or selection of rabbits was then carefully attended + to. Aldrovandi, in 1637, describes, on the authority of several old + writers (as Scaliger, in 1557), rabbits of various colours, some "like a + hare," and he adds that P. Valerianus (who died a very old man in 1558) + saw at Verona rabbits four times bigger than ours.<a name="NtA_248" + href="#Nt_248"><sup>[248]</sup></a></p> + + <p>From the fact of the rabbit having been domesticated at an ancient + period, we must look to the northern hemisphere of the Old World, and to + the warmer temperate regions alone, for the aboriginal parent-form; for + the rabbit cannot live without protection in countries as cold as Sweden, + and, though it has run wild in the tropical island of Jamaica, it has + never greatly multiplied there. It now exists, and has long existed, in + the warmer temperate parts of Europe, for fossil remains have been found + in several countries.<a name="NtA_249" + href="#Nt_249"><sup>[249]</sup></a> The domestic rabbit readily becomes + feral in these same countries, and when variously coloured kinds are + turned out they generally revert to the ordinary grey colour.<a + name="NtA_250" href="#Nt_250"><sup>[250]</sup></a> The wild rabbits, if + taken young, can be domesticated, though the process is generally very + troublesome.<a name="NtA_251" href="#Nt_251"><sup>[251]</sup></a> The + various <!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page105"></a>{105}</span>domestic races are often crossed, and are + believed to be perfectly fertile together, and a perfect gradation can be + shown to exist from the largest domestic kinds, having enormously + developed ears, to the common wild kind. The parent-form must have been a + burrowing animal, a habit not common, as far as I can discover, to any + other species in the large genus Lepus. Only one wild species is known + with certainty to exist in Europe; but the rabbit (if it be a true + rabbit) from Mount Sinai, and likewise that from Algeria, present slight + differences; and these forms have been considered by some authors as + specifically distinct.<a name="NtA_252" + href="#Nt_252"><sup>[252]</sup></a> But such slight differences would aid + us little in explaining the more considerable differences characteristic + of the several domestic races. If the latter are the descendants of two + or more closely allied species, all, excepting the common rabbit, have + been exterminated in a wild state; and this is very improbable, seeing + with what pertinacity this animal holds its ground. From these several + reasons we may infer with safety that all the domestic breeds are the + descendants of the common wild species. But from what we hear of the late + marvellous success in rearing hybrids between the hare and rabbit,<a + name="NtA_253" href="#Nt_253"><sup>[253]</sup></a> it is possible, though + not probable, from the great difficulty in making the first cross, that + some of the larger races, which are coloured like the hare, may have been + modified by crosses with this animal. Nevertheless, the chief differences + in the skeletons of the several domestic breeds cannot, as we shall + presently see, have been derived from a cross with the hare.</p> + + <p>There are many breeds which transmit their characters more or less + truly. Every one has seen the enormous lop-eared rabbits exhibited at our + shows; various allied sub-breeds are reared on the Continent, such as the + so-called Andalusian, which is said to have a large head with a round + forehead, and to attain a greater size than any other kind; another large + Paris breed is named the Rouennais, and has a square head; the so-called + Patagonian rabbit has remarkably short ears and a large round head. + Although I have not seen all these breeds, I feel some doubt about there + being any marked difference in the <!-- Page 106 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>{106}</span>shape of their + skulls.<a name="NtA_254" href="#Nt_254"><sup>[254]</sup></a> English + lop-eared rabbits often weigh 8 lbs. or 10 lbs., and one has been + exhibited weighing 18 lbs.; whereas a full-sized wild rabbit weighs only + about 3¼ lbs. The head or skull in all the large lop-eared rabbits + examined by me is much longer relatively to its breadth than in the wild + rabbit. Many of them have loose transverse folds of skin or dewlaps + beneath the throat, which can be pulled out so as to reach nearly to the + ends of the jaws. Their ears are prodigiously developed, and hang down on + each side of their faces. A rabbit has been exhibited with its two ears, + measured from the tip of one to the tip of the other, 22 inches in + length, and each ear was 5⅜ inches in breadth. In a common wild + rabbit I found that the length of the two ears, from tip to tip, was + 7⅝ inches, and the breadth only 1⅞ inch. The great weight + of the body in the larger rabbits, and the immense development of their + ears, are the qualities which win prizes, and have been carefully + selected.</p> + + <p>The hare-coloured, or, as it is sometimes called, the Belgian rabbit, + differs in nothing except colour from the other large breeds; but Mr. J. + Young, of Southampton, a great breeder of this kind, informs me that the + females, in all the specimens examined by him, had only six mammæ; and + this certainly was the case with two females which came into my + possession. Mr. B. P. Brent, however, assures me that the number is + variable with other domestic rabbits. The common wild rabbit always has + ten mammæ. The Angora rabbit is remarkable from the length and fineness + of its fur, which even on the soles of the feet is of considerable + length. This breed is the only one which differs in its mental qualities, + for it is said to be much more sociable than other rabbits, and the male + shows no wish to destroy its young.<a name="NtA_255" + href="#Nt_255"><sup>[255]</sup></a> Two live rabbits were brought to me + from Moscow, of about the size of the wild species, but with long soft + fur, different from that of the Angora. These Moscow rabbits had pink + eyes and were snow-white, excepting the ears, two spots near the nose, + the upper and under surface of the tail, and the hinder tarsi, which were + blackish-brown. In short, they were <!-- Page 107 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page107"></a>{107}</span>coloured nearly like + the so-called Himalayan rabbits, presently to be described, and differed + from them only in the character of their fur. There are two other breeds + which come true to colour, but differ in no other respect, namely + silver-greys and chinchillas. Lastly, the Nicard or Dutch rabbit may be + mentioned, which varies in colour, and is remarkable from its small size, + some specimens weighing only 1¼ lb.; rabbits of this breed make excellent + nurses for other and more delicate kinds.<a name="NtA_256" + href="#Nt_256"><sup>[256]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Certain characters are remarkably fluctuating, or are very feebly + transmitted by domestic rabbits: thus, one breeder tells me that with the + smaller kinds he has hardly ever raised a whole litter of the same + colour: with the large lop-eared breeds "it is impossible," says a great + judge,<a name="NtA_257" href="#Nt_257"><sup>[257]</sup></a> "to breed + true to colour, but by judicious crossing a great deal may be done + towards it. The fancier should know how his does are bred, that is, the + colour of their parents." Nevertheless, certain colours, as we shall + presently see, are transmitted truly. The dewlap is not strictly + inherited. Lop-eared rabbits, with their ears hanging flat down on each + side of the face, do not transmit this character at all truly. Mr. + Delamer remarks that, "with fancy rabbits, when both the parents are + perfectly formed, have model ears, and are handsomely marked, their + progeny do not invariably turn out the same." When one parent, or even + both, are oar-laps, that is, have their ears sticking out at right + angles, or when one parent or both are half-lops, that is, have only one + ear dependent, there is nearly as good a chance of the progeny having + both ears full-lop, as if both parents had been thus characterized. But I + am informed, if both parents have upright ears, there is hardly a chance + of a full-lop. In some half-lops the ear that hangs down is broader and + longer than the upright ear;<a name="NtA_258" + href="#Nt_258"><sup>[258]</sup></a> so that we have the unusual case of a + want of symmetry on the two sides. This difference in the position and + size of the two ears probably indicates that the lopping of the ear + results <!-- Page 108 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page108"></a>{108}</span>from its great length and weight, favoured + no doubt by the weakness of the muscles consequent on disuse. Anderson<a + name="NtA_259" href="#Nt_259"><sup>[259]</sup></a> mentions a breed + having only a single ear; and Professor Gervais another breed which is + destitute of ears.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/Dom105.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom105.png" + alt="Fig. 5.--Half-lop Rabbit." title="Fig. 5.--Half-lop Rabbit." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 5.—Half-lop Rabbit. (Copied from E. S. + Delamer's work.)</p> + </div> + <p>The origin of the Himalayan breed (sometimes called Chinese, or + Polish, or Russian) is so curious, both in itself, and as throwing some + light on the complex laws of inheritance, that it is worth giving in + detail. These pretty rabbits are white, except their ears, nose, all four + feet, and the upper side of tail, which are all brownish-black; but as + they have red eyes, they may be considered as albinoes. I have received + several accounts of their breeding perfectly true. From their symmetrical + marks, they were at first ranked as specifically distinct, and were + provisionally named <i>L. nigripes</i><a name="NtA_260" + href="#Nt_260"><sup>[260]</sup></a> Some good observers thought that they + could detect a difference in their habits, and stoutly maintained that + they formed a new species. Their origin is now well known. A writer, in + 1857,<a name="NtA_261" href="#Nt_261"><sup>[261]</sup></a> stated that he + had produced Himalayan rabbits in the following manner. But it is first + necessary briefly to describe two other breeds: silver-greys or + silver-sprigs generally have black heads and legs, and their fine grey + fur is interspersed with numerous black and white long hairs. <!-- Page + 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>{109}</span>They breed + perfectly true, and have long been kept in warrens. When they escape and + cross with common rabbits, the product, as I hear from Mr. Wyrley Birch, + of Wretham Hall, is not a mixture of the two colours, but about half take + after the one parent, and the other half after the other parent. + Secondly, chinchillas or tame silver-greys (I will use the former name) + have short, paler, mouse or slate-coloured fur, interspersed with long, + blackish, slate-coloured, and white hairs.<a name="NtA_262" + href="#Nt_262"><sup>[262]</sup></a> These rabbits breed perfectly true. + Now, the writer above referred to had a breed of chinchillas which had + been crossed with the common black rabbit, and their offspring were + either blacks or chinchillas. These latter were again crossed with other + chinchillas (which had also been crossed with silver-greys), and from + this complicated cross Himalayan rabbits were raised. From these and + other similar statements, Mr. Bartlett<a name="NtA_263" + href="#Nt_263"><sup>[263]</sup></a> was led to make a careful trial in + the Zoological Gardens, and he found that by simply crossing silver-greys + with chinchillas he could always produce some few Himalayans; and the + latter, notwithstanding their sudden origin, if kept separate, bred + perfectly true.</p> + + <p>The Himalayans, when first born, are quite white, and are then true + albinoes; but in the course of a few months they gradually assume their + dark ears, nose, feet, and tail. Occasionally, however, as I am informed + by Mr. W. A. Wooler and the Rev. W. D. Fox, the young are born of a very + pale grey colour, and specimens of such fur were sent me by the former + gentleman. The grey tint, however, disappears as the animal comes to + maturity. So that with these Himalayans there is a tendency, strictly + confined to early youth, to revert to the colour of the adult silver-grey + parent-stock. Silver-greys and chinchillas, on the other hand, present a + remarkable contrast in their colour whilst quite young, for they are born + perfectly black, but soon assume their characteristic grey or silver + tints. The same thing occurs with grey horses, which, as long as they are + foals, are generally of a nearly black colour, but soon become grey, and + get whiter and whiter as they grow older. Hence the usual rule is that + Himalayans are born white and afterwards become in certain parts of their + bodies dark-coloured; whilst <!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page110"></a>{110}</span>silver-greys are born black and afterwards + become sprinkled with white. Exceptions, however, and of a directly + opposite nature, occasionally occur in both cases. For young silver-greys + are sometimes born in warrens, as I hear from Mr. W. Birch, of a + cream-colour, but these young animals ultimately become black, The + Himalayans, on the other hand, sometimes produce, as is stated by an + experienced amateur,<a name="NtA_264" href="#Nt_264"><sup>[264]</sup></a> + a single black young one in a litter; but such, before two months elapse, + become perfectly white.</p> + + <p>To sum up the whole curious case: wild silver-greys may be considered + as black rabbits which become grey at an early period of life. When they + are crossed with common rabbits, the offspring are said not to have + blended colours, but to take after either parent; and in this respect + they resemble black and albino varieties of most quadrupeds, which often + transmit their colours in this same manner. When they are crossed with + chinchillas, that is, with a paler sub-variety, the young are at first + pure albinoes, but soon become dark-coloured in certain parts of their + bodies, and are then called Himalayans. The young Himalayans, however, + are sometimes at first either pale grey or completely black, in either + case changing after a time to white. In a future chapter I shall advance + a large body of facts showing that, when two varieties are crossed both + of which differ in colour from their parent-stock, there is a strong + tendency in the young to revert to the aboriginal colour; and what is + very remarkable, this reversion occasionally supervenes, not before + birth, but during the growth of the animal. Hence, if it could be shown + that silver-greys and chinchillas were the offspring of a cross between a + black and albino variety with the colours intimately blended—a + supposition in itself not improbable, and supported by the circumstance + of silver-greys in warrens sometimes producing creamy-white young, which + ultimately become black—then all the above-given paradoxical facts + on the changes of colour in silver-greys and in their descendants the + Himalayans would come under the law of reversion, supervening at + different periods of growth and in different degrees, either to the + original black or to the original albino parent-variety.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>{111}</span></p> + + <p>It is, also, remarkable that Himalayans, though produced so suddenly, + breed true. But as, whilst young, they are albinoes, the case falls under + a very general rule; for albinism is well known to be strongly inherited, + as with white mice and many other quadrupeds, and even with white + flowers. But why, it may be asked, do the ears, tail, nose, and feet, and + no other part of the body, revert to a black colour? This apparently + depends on a law, which generally holds good, namely, that characters + common to many species of a genus—and this, in fact, implies long + inheritance in common from the ancient progenitor of the genus—are + found to resist variation, or to reappear if lost, more persistently than + the characters which are confined to the separate species. Now, in the + genus Lepus, a large majority of the species have their ears and the + upper surface of the tail tinted black; but the persistence of these + marks is best seen in those species which in winter become white: thus, + in Scotland the <i>L. variabilis</i><a name="NtA_265" + href="#Nt_265"><sup>[265]</sup></a> in its winter dress has a shade of + colour on its nose, and the tips of its ears are black: in the <i>L. + tibetanus</i> the ears are black, the upper surface of the tail + greyish-black, and the soles of the feet brown: in <i>L. glacialis</i> + the winter fur is pure white, except the soles of the feet and the points + of the ears. Even in the variously-coloured fancy rabbits we may often + observe a tendency in these same parts to be more darkly tinted than the + rest of the body. Thus, as it seems to me, the appearance of the several + coloured marks on the Himalayan rabbit, as it grows old, is rendered + intelligible. I may add a nearly analogous case: fancy rabbits very often + have a white star on their foreheads; and the common English hare, whilst + young, generally has, as I have myself observed, a similar white star on + its forehead.</p> + + <p>When variously coloured rabbits are set free in Europe, and are thus + placed under their natural conditions, they generally revert to the + aboriginal grey colour; this may be in part due to the tendency in all + crossed animals, as lately observed, to revert to their primordial state. + But this tendency does not always prevail; thus silver-grey rabbits are + kept in warrens, and remain true though living almost in a state of + nature; but a <!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page112"></a>{112}</span>warren must not be stocked with both + silver-greys and common rabbits; otherwise "in a few years there will be + none but common greys surviving."<a name="NtA_266" + href="#Nt_266"><sup>[266]</sup></a> When rabbits run wild in foreign + countries, under different conditions of life, they by no means always + revert to their aboriginal colour. In Jamaica the feral rabbits are + described as "slate-coloured, deeply tinted with sprinklings of white on + the neck, on the shoulders, and on the back; softening off to blue-white + under the breast and belly."<a name="NtA_267" + href="#Nt_267"><sup>[267]</sup></a> But in this tropical island the + conditions were not favourable to their increase, and they never spread + widely; and, as I hear from Mr. R. Hill, owing to a great fire which + occurred in the woods, they have now become extinct. Rabbits during many + years have run wild in the Falkland Islands; they are abundant in certain + parts, but do not spread extensively. Most of them are of the common grey + colour; a few, as I am informed by Admiral Sulivan, are hare-coloured, + and many are black, often with nearly symmetrical white marks on their + faces. Hence, M. Lesson described the black variety as a distinct + species, under the name of <i>Lepus magellanicus</i>, but this, as I have + elsewhere shown, is an error.<a name="NtA_268" + href="#Nt_268"><sup>[268]</sup></a> Within recent times the sealers have + stocked some of the small outlying islets in the Falkland group with + rabbits; and on Pebble Islet, as I hear from Admiral Sulivan, a large + proportion are hare-coloured, whereas on Rabbit Islet a large proportion + are of a bluish colour which is not elsewhere seen. How the rabbits were + coloured which were turned out on these islets is not known.</p> + + <p>The rabbits which have become feral on the island of Porto Santo, near + Madeira, deserve a fuller account. In 1418 or 1419, J. Gonzales Zarco<a + name="NtA_269" href="#Nt_269"><sup>[269]</sup></a> happened to have a + female rabbit on board which had produced young during the voyage, and he + turned them all out on the island. These animals soon increased so <!-- + Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page113"></a>{113}</span>rapidly, that they became a nuisance, and + actually caused the abandonment of the settlement. Thirty-seven years + subsequently, Cada Mosto describes them as innumerable; nor is this + surprising, as the island was not inhabited by any beast of prey or by + any terrestrial mammal. We do not know the character of the + mother-rabbit; but we have every reason to believe that it was the common + domesticated kind. The Spanish peninsula, whence Zarco sailed, is known + to have abounded with the common wild species at the most remote + historical period. As these rabbits were taken on board for food, it is + improbable that they should have been of any peculiar breed. That the + breed was well domesticated is shown by the doe having littered during + the voyage. Mr. Wollaston, at my request, brought home two of these feral + rabbits in spirits of wine; and, subsequently, Mr. W. Haywood sent to me + three more specimens in brine, and two alive. These seven specimens, + though caught at different periods, closely resembled each other. They + were full grown, as shown by the state of their bones. Although the + conditions of life in Porto Santo are evidently highly favourable to + rabbits, as proved by their extraordinarily rapid increase, yet they + differ conspicuously in their small size from the wild English rabbit. + Four English rabbits, measured from the incisors to the anus, varied + between 17 and 17¾ inches in length; whilst two of the Porto Santo + rabbits were only 14½ and 15 inches in length. But the decrease in size + is best shown by weight; four wild English rabbits averaged 3 lb. 5 oz., + whilst one of the Porto Santo rabbits, which had lived for four years in + the Zoological Gardens, but had become thin, weighed only 1 lb. 9 oz. A + fairer test is afforded by the comparison of the well-cleaned limb-bones + of a P. Santo rabbit killed on the island with the same bones of a wild + English rabbit of average size, and they differed in the proportion of + rather less than five to nine. So that the Porto Santo rabbits have + decreased nearly three inches in length, and almost half in weight of + body.<a name="NtA_270" href="#Nt_270"><sup>[270]</sup></a> The head has + not decreased in length <!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page114"></a>{114}</span>proportionally with the body; and the + capacity of the brain-case is, as we shall hereafter see, singularly + variable. I prepared four skulls, and these resembled each other more + closely than do generally the skulls of wild English rabbits; but the + only difference in structure which they presented was that the + supra-orbital processes of the frontal bones were narrower.</p> + + <p>In colour the Porto Santo rabbit differs considerably from the common + rabbit; the upper surface is redder, and is rarely interspersed with any + black or black-tipped hairs. The throat and certain parts of the under + surface, instead of being pure white, are generally pale grey or leaden + colour. But the most remarkable difference is in the ears and tail; I + have examined many fresh English rabbits, and the large collection of + skins in the British Museum from various countries, and all have the + upper surface of the tail and the tips of the ears clothed with + blackish-grey fur; and this is given in most works as one of the specific + characters of the rabbit. Now in the seven Porto Santo rabbits the upper + surface of the tail was reddish-brown, and the tips of the ears had no + trace of the black edging. But here we meet with a singular circumstance: + in June, 1861, I examined two of these rabbits recently sent to the + Zoological Gardens, and their tails and ears were coloured as just + described; but when one of their dead bodies was sent to me in February, + 1865, the ears were plainly edged, and the upper surface of the tail was + covered, with blackish-grey fur, and the whole body was much less red; so + that under the English climate this individual rabbit had recovered the + proper colour of its fur in rather less than four years!</p> + + <p>The two little Porto Santo rabbits, whilst alive in the Zoological + Gardens, had a remarkably different appearance from the common kind. They + were extraordinarily wild and active, so that many persons exclaimed on + seeing them that they were more like large rats than rabbits. They were + nocturnal to an unusual degree in their habits, and their wildness was + never in the least subdued; so that the superintendent, Mr. Bartlett, + assured me that he had never had a wilder animal under his charge. This + is a singular fact, considering that they are descended from a + domesticated breed; I was so much surprised at it, that I requested Mr. + Haywood to make inquiries on the spot, <!-- Page 115 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>{115}</span>whether they were much + hunted by the inhabitants, or persecuted by hawks, or cats, or other + animals; but this is not the case, and no cause can be assigned for their + wildness. They live on the central, higher rocky land and near the + sea-cliffs, and, being exceedingly shy and timid, seldom appear in the + lower and cultivated districts. They are said to produce from four to six + young at a birth, and their breeding season is in July and August. + Lastly, and this is a highly remarkable fact, Mr. Bartlett could never + succeed in getting these two rabbits, which were both males, to associate + or breed with the females of several breeds which were repeatedly placed + with them.</p> + + <p>If the history of these Porto Santo rabbits had not been known, most + naturalists, on observing their much reduced size, their reddish colour + above and grey beneath, with neither tail nor ears tipped with black, + would have ranked them as a distinct species. They would have been + strongly confirmed in this view by seeing them alive in the Zoological + Gardens, and hearing that they refused to couple with other rabbits. Yet + this rabbit, which there can be little doubt would thus have been ranked + as a distinct species, has certainly originated since the year 1420. + Finally, from the three cases of the rabbits which have run wild in Porto + Santo, Jamaica, and the Falkland Islands, we see that these animals do + not, under new conditions of life, revert to or retain their aboriginal + character, as is so generally asserted to be the case by most + authors.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Osteological Characters.</i></p> + + <p>When we remember, on the one hand, how frequently it is stated that + important parts of the structure never vary; and, on the other hand, on + what small differences in the skeleton, fossil species have often been + founded, the variability of the skull and of some other bones in the + domesticated rabbit well deserves attention. It must not be supposed that + the more important differences immediately to be described strictly + characterise any one breed; all that can be said is, that they are + generally present in certain breeds. We should bear in mind that + selection has not been applied to fix any character in the skeleton, and + that the animals have not had to support themselves under <!-- Page 116 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page116"></a>{116}</span>uniform habits + of life. We cannot account for most of the differences in the skeleton; + but we shall see that the increased size of the body, due to careful + nurture and continued selection, has affected the head in a particular + manner. Even the elongation and lopping of the ears have influenced in a + small degree the form of the whole skull. The want of exercise has + apparently modified the proportional length of the limbs in comparison + with the body.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/Dom107.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom107.png" + alt="Fig. 7.--Skull of large Lop-eared Rabbit." title="Fig. 7.--Skull of large Lop-eared Rabbit." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 7.—Skull of large Lop-eared Rabbit, of + natural size.</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/Dom106.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom106.png" + alt="Fig. 6.--Skull of Wild Rabbit." title="Fig. 6.--Skull of Wild Rabbit." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 6.—Skull of Wild Rabbit, of natural + size.</p> + </div> + <p>As a standard of comparison, I prepared skeletons of two wild rabbits + from Kent, one from the Shetland Islands, and one from Antrim in Ireland. + As all the bones in these four specimens from such distant localities + closely resembled each other, presenting scarcely any appreciable + difference, it may be concluded that the bones of the wild rabbit are + generally uniform in character.</p> + + <p><i>Skull.</i>—I have carefully examined skulls of ten large + lop-eared fancy rabbits, and of five common domestic rabbits, which + latter differ from the lop-eared only in not having such large bodies or + ears, yet both larger than in the wild rabbit. First for the ten + lop-eared rabbits: in all these the skull is remarkably elongated in + comparison with its breadth. In a wild rabbit the length was 3.15 inches, + in a large fancy rabbit 4.30; whilst the breadth of the cranium enclosing + the brain was in both almost exactly the same. Even by taking as the + standard of comparison the widest part of the zygomatic arch, the skulls + of the lop-eared are proportionally to their breadth three-quarters of an + inch too long. The depth of the head has increased almost in the same + proportion with the length; it is the breadth alone which has not + increased. The parietal and occipital bones enclosing the brain are less + arched, both in a longitudinal and transverse line, than in the wild + rabbit, so that the shape of the cranium is somewhat different. The + surface is rougher, less cleanly sculptured, and the lines of sutures are + more prominent.</p> + + <p>Although the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits in comparison with + those of the wild rabbit are much elongated relatively to their breadth, + yet, relatively to the size of body, they are far from elongated. The + lop-eared rabbits which I examined were, though not fat, more than twice + as heavy as the wild specimens; but the skull was very far from being + twice as long. Even if we take the fairer standard of the length of body, + from the nose to the anus, the skull is not on an average as long as it + ought to be by a third of an inch. In the small feral P. Santo rabbit, on + the other hand, the head relatively to the length of body is about a + quarter of an inch too long.</p> + + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <div class="figright" style="width:23%;"> + <a href="images/Dom108.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom108.png" + alt="Fig. 8.--Parts of Zygomatic Arches of rabbits." title="Fig. 8.--Parts of Zygomatic Arches of rabbits." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 8.—Part of Zygomatic Arch, showing the + projecting end of the malar bone and the auditory meatus: of natural + size. Upper figure, Wild Rabbit. Lower figure, Lop-eared, hare-coloured + Rabbit.</p> + </div> + <p>This elongation of the skull relatively to its breadth, I find a + universal character, not only with the large lop-eared rabbits, but in + all the artificial breeds; as is well seen in the skull of the Angora. I + was at first much surprised at the fact, and could not imagine why + domestication should produce this uniform result; but the explanation + seems to lie in the circumstance that during a number of generations the + artificial races have been closely confined, and have had little occasion + to exert either their senses, or intellect, or voluntary muscles; + consequently the brain, as <!-- Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page117"></a>{117}</span>we shall presently more fully see, has not + increased relatively with the size of body. As the brain has not + increased, the bony case enclosing it has not increased, and this has + evidently affected through correlation the breadth of the entire skull + from end to end.</p> + + <p>In all the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits, the supra-orbital + plates or processes of the frontal bones ere much broader than in the + wild rabbit, and they generally project more upwards. In the zygomatic + arch the posterior or projecting point of the malar-bone is broader and + blunter; and in the specimen, fig. 8, it is so in a remarkable degree. + This point approaches nearer to the auditory meatus than in the wild + rabbit, as may be best seen in fig. 8; but this circumstance mainly + depends on the changed direction of the meatus. The inter-parietal bone + (see fig. 9) differs much in shape in the several skulls; generally it is + more oval, or has a greater width in the line of the longitudinal axis of + the skull, than in the wild rabbit. The <!-- Page 118 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page118"></a>{118}</span>posterior margin of + "the square raised platform" <a name="NtA_271" + href="#Nt_271"><sup>[271]</sup></a> of the occiput, instead of being + truncated, or projecting slightly as in the wild rabbit, is in most + lop-eared rabbits pointed, as in fig. 9, C. The paramastoids relatively + to the size of the skull are generally much thicker than in the wild + rabbit.</p> + + <p>The occipital foramen (fig. 10) presents some remarkable differences: + in the wild rabbit, the lower edge between the condyles is considerably + and almost angularly hollowed out, and the upper edge is deeply and + squarely notched; hence the longitudinal axis exceeds the transverse + axis. In the skulls of the lop-eared rabbits the transverse axis exceeds + the longitudinal; for in none of these skulls was the lower edge between + the condyles so deeply hollowed out; in five of them there was no upper + square notch, in three there was a trace of the notch, and in two alone + it was well developed. These differences in the shape of the foramen are + remarkable, considering that it gives passage to so important a structure + as the spinal marrow, though apparently the outline of the latter is not + affected by the shape of the passage.</p> + + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;"> + <a href="images/Dom109.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom109.png" + alt="Fig. 9.--Posterior ends of Skulls of rabbits." title="Fig. 9.--Posterior ends of Skulls of rabbits." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 9.—Posterior end of Skull, of natural size, + showing the inter-parietal bone. A. Wild Rabbit. B. Feral Rabbit from + island of P. Santo, near Madeira. C. Large Lop-eared Rabbit.</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <a href="images/Dom110.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom110.png" + alt="Fig. 10.--Occipital Foramina of rabbits." title="Fig. 10.--Occipital Foramina of rabbits." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 10.—Occipital Foramen, of natural size, + in—A. Wild Rabbit; B. Large Lop-eared Rabbit.</p> + </div> + <p>In all the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits, the bony auditory + meatus is conspicuously larger than in the wild rabbit. In a skull 4.3 + inches in length, and which barely exceeded in breadth the skull of a + wild rabbit (which was 3.15 inches in length), the longer diameter of the + meatus was exactly twice as great. The orifice is more compressed, and + its margin on the side nearest the skull stands up higher than the outer + side. The whole meatus is directed more forwards. As in breeding + lop-eared rabbits the length of the ears, and their consequent lopping + and lying flat on the face, are the chief points of excellence, there can + hardly be a doubt that the great change in the size, form, and direction + of the bony meatus, relatively to this same part in the wild rabbit, is + due to the continued selection of individuals having <!-- Page 119 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page119"></a>{119}</span>larger and + larger ears. The influence of the external ear on the bony meatus is well + shown in the skulls (I have examined three) of half-lops (see fig. 5), in + which one ear stands upright, and the other and longer ear hangs down; + for in these skulls there was a plain difference in the form and + direction of the bony meatus on the two sides. But it is a much more + interesting fact, that the changed direction and increased size of the + bony meatus have slightly affected on the same side the structure of the + whole skull. I here give a drawing of the skull of a half-lop; and it may + be observed that the suture between the parietal and frontal bones does + not run strictly at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the skull; + the left frontal bone projects beyond the right one; both the posterior + and anterior margins of the left zygomatic arch on the side of the + lopping ear stand a little in advance of the corresponding bones on the + opposite side. Even the lower jaw is affected, and the condyles are not + quite symmetrical, that on the left standing a little in advance of that + on the right. This seems to me a remarkable case of correlation of + growth. Who would have surmised that by keeping an animal during many + generations under confinement, and so leading to the disuse of the + muscles of the ears, and by continually selecting individuals with the + longest and largest ears, he would thus indirectly have affected almost + every suture in the skull and the form of the lower jaw!</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:26%;"> + <a href="images/Dom111.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom111.png" + alt="Fig. 11.--Skull of Half-lop Rabbit." title="Fig. 11.--Skull of Half-lop Rabbit." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 11.—Skull, of natural size, of Half-lop + Rabbit, showing the different direction of the auditory meatus on the + two sides, and the consequent general distortion of the skull. The left + ear of the animal (or right side of figure) lopped forwards.</p> + </div> + <p>In the large lop-eared rabbits the only difference in the lower jaw, + in comparison with that of the wild rabbit, is that the posterior margin + of the ascending ramus is broader and more inflected. The teeth in + neither jaw present any difference, except that the small incisors, + beneath the large ones, are proportionally a little longer. The molar + teeth have increased in size proportionally with the increased width of + the skull, measured across the zygomatic arch, and not proportionally + with its increased length. The inner line of the sockets of the molar + teeth in the upper jaw of the wild rabbit forms a perfectly straight + line; but in <!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page120"></a>{120}</span>some of the largest skulls of the + lop-eared this line was plainly bowed inwards. In one specimen there was + an additional molar tooth on each side of the upper jaw, between the + molars and premolars; but these two teeth did not correspond in size; and + as no rodent has seven molars, this is merely a monstrosity, though a + curious one.</p> + + <p>The five other skulls of common domestic rabbits, some of which + approach in size the above-described largest skulls, whilst the others + exceed but little those of the wild rabbit, are only worth notice as + presenting a perfect gradation in all the above-specified differences + between the skulls of the largest lop-eared and wild rabbits. In all, + however, the supra-orbital plates are rather larger, and in all the + auditory meatus is larger, in conformity with the increased size of the + external ears, than in the wild rabbit. The lower notch in the occipital + foramen in some was not so deep as in the wild, but in all five skulls + the upper notch was well developed.</p> + + <p>The skull of the <i>Angora</i> rabbit, like the latter five skulls, is + intermediate in general proportions, and in most other characters, + between those of the largest lop-eared and wild rabbits. It presents only + one singular character: though considerably longer than the skull of the + wild, the breadth measured within the posterior supra-orbital fissures is + nearly a third less than in the wild. The skulls of the + <i>silver-grey</i>, and <i>chinchilla</i> and <i>Himalayan</i> rabbits + are more elongated than in the wild, with broader supra-orbital plates, + but differ little in any other respect, excepting that the upper and + lower notches of the occipital foramen are not so deep or so well + developed. The skull of the <i>Moscow</i> rabbit scarcely differs in any + respect from that of the wild rabbit. In the Porto Santo feral rabbits + the supra-orbital plates are generally narrower and more pointed than in + our wild rabbits.</p> + + <p>As some of the largest lop-eared rabbits of which I prepared skeletons + were coloured almost like hares, and as these latter animals and rabbits + have, as it is affirmed, been recently crossed in France, it might be + thought that some of the above-described characters had been derived from + a cross at a remote period with the hare. Consequently I examined skulls + of the hare, but no light could thus be thrown on the peculiarities of + the skulls of the larger rabbits. It is, however, an interesting fact, as + illustrating the law that varieties of one species often assume the + characters of other species of the same genus, that I found, on comparing + the skulls of ten species of hares in the British Museum, that they + differed from each other chiefly in the very same points in which + domestic rabbits vary,—namely, in general proportions, in the form + and size of the supra-orbital plates, in the form of the free end of the + malar bone, and in the line of suture separating the occipital and + frontal bones. Moreover two eminently variable characters in the domestic + rabbit, namely, the outline of the occipital foramen and the shape of the + "raised platform" of the occiput, were likewise variable in two instances + in the same species of hare.</p> + + <p><i>Vertebræ.</i>—The number is uniform in all the skeletons + which I have examined, with two exceptions, namely, in one of the small + feral Porto Santo rabbits and in one of the largest lop-eared kinds; both + of these had as usual seven cervical, twelve dorsal with ribs, but, + instead of seven lumbar, both had eight lumbar vertebræ. This is + remarkable, as Gervais gives <!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page121"></a>{121}</span>seven as the number for the whole genus + Lepus. The caudal vertebræ apparently differ by two or three, but I did + not attend to them, and they are difficult to count with certainty.</p> + + <p>In the first cervical vertebra, or atlas, the anterior margin of the + neural arch varies a little in wild specimens, being either nearly + smooth, or furnished with a small supra-median atlantoid process; I have + figured a specimen with the largest process (<i>a</i>) which I have seen; + but it will be observed how inferior this is in size and different in + shape to that in a large lop-eared rabbit. In the latter, the + infra-median process (<i>b</i>) is also proportionally much thicker and + longer. The alæ are a little squarer in outline.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/Dom112.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom112.png" + alt="Fig. 12.--Atlas Vertebræ of Rabbits." title="Fig. 12.--Atlas Vertebræ of Rabbits." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 12.—Atlas Vertebræ, of natural size; + inferior surface viewed obliquely. Upper figure, Wild Rabbit. Lower + figure, Hare-coloured, large, Lop-eared Rabbit. <i>a</i>, supra-median, + atlantoid process; <i>b</i>, infra-median process.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Third cervical vertebra.</i>—In the wild rabbit (fig. 13, + <span class="scac">A</span> <i>a</i>) this vertebra, viewed on the + inferior surface, has a transverse process, which is directed obliquely + backwards, and consists of a single pointed bar; in the fourth vertebra + this process is slightly forked in the middle. In the large lop-eared + rabbits this process (<span class="scac">B</span> <i>a</i>) is forked in + the third vertebra, as in the fourth of the wild rabbit. But the third + cervical vertebræ of the wild and lop-eared (<span class="scac">A</span> + <i>b</i>, <span class="scac">B</span> <i>b</i>) rabbits differ more + conspicuously when their anterior articular surfaces are compared; for + the extremities of the antero-dorsal processes in the wild rabbit are + simply rounded, whilst in the lop-eared they are trifid, with a deep + central pit. The canal for the spinal marrow in the lop-eared (<span + class="scac">B</span> <i>b</i>) is more elongated in a transverse + direction than in the wild rabbit; and the passages for the arteries are + of a slightly different shape. These several differences in this vertebra + seem to me well deserving attention.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:29%;"> + <a href="images/Dom113.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom113.png" + alt="Fig. 13.--Cervical Vertebræ of Rabbits." title="Fig. 13.--Cervical Vertebræ of Rabbits." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 13.—Third Cervical Vertebra, of natural + size, of—A. Wild Rabbit; B. Hare-coloured, large, Lop-eared + Rabbit. <i>a, a</i>, inferior surface; <i>b, b</i>, anterior articular + surfaces.</p> + </div> + <p><i>First dorsal vertebra.</i>—Its neural spine varies in length + in the wild rabbit; being sometimes very short, but generally more than + half as long as that of the second dorsal; but I have seen it in two + large lop-eared rabbits three-fourths of the length of that of the second + dorsal vertebra.</p> + + <p><i>Ninth and tenth dorsal vertebræ.</i>—In the wild rabbit the + neural spine of the ninth vertebra is just perceptibly thicker than that + of the eighth; and <!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page122"></a>{122}</span>the neural spine of the tenth is plainly + thicker and shorter than those of all the anterior vertebræ. In the large + lop-cared rabbits the neural spines of the tenth, ninth, eighth, and even + in a slight degree that of the seventh vertebra, are very much thicker, + and of somewhat different shape, in comparison with those of the wild + rabbit. So that this part of the vertebral column differs considerably in + appearance from the same part in the wild rabbit, and closely resembles + in an interesting manner these same vertebræ in some species of hares. In + the Angora, Chinchilla, and Himalayan rabbits, the neural spines of the + eighth and ninth vertebræ are in a slight degree thicker than in the + wild. On the other hand, in one of the feral Porto Santo rabbits, which + in most of its characters deviates in an exactly opposite manner to what + the large lop-cared rabbits do from the common wild rabbit, the neural + spines of the ninth and tenth vertebræ were not at all larger than those + of the several anterior vertebræ. In this same Porto Santo specimen there + was no trace in the ninth vertebra of the anterior lateral processes (see + woodcut 14), which are plainly developed in all British wild rabbits, and + still more plainly developed in the large lop-eared rabbits. In a + half-wild rabbit from Sandon Park,<a name="NtA_272" + href="#Nt_272"><sup>[272]</sup></a> a hæmal spine was moderately well + developed on the under side of the twelfth dorsal vertebra, and I have + seen this in no other specimen.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:35%;"> + <a href="images/Dom114.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom114.png" + alt="Fig. 14.--Dorsal Vertebræ of Rabbits." title="Fig. 14.--Dorsal Vertebræ of Rabbits." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 14.—Dorsal Vertebræ, from sixth to tenth + inclusive, of natural size, viewed laterally. A. Wild Rabbit. B. Large, + Hare-coloured, so called Spanish Rabbit.</p> + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;"> + <a href="images/Dom115.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom115.png" + alt="Fig. 15.--Terminal bones of Sterna of Rabbits." title="Fig. 15.--Terminal bones of Sterna of Rabbits." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 15.—Terminal bone of Sternum, of natural + size. A. Wild Rabbit. B. Hare-coloured, Lop-eared Rabbit. C. + Hare-coloured, Spanish Rabbit. (N.B. The left-hand angle of the upper + articular extremity of B was broken, and has been accidentally thus + represented.)</p> + </div> + <p><i>Lumbar vertebræ.</i>—I have stated that in two cases there + were eight instead of seven lumbar vertebræ. The third lumbar vertebra in + one skeleton of a wild British rabbit, and in one of the Porto Santo + feral rabbits, had a hæmal spine; whilst in four skeletons of large + lop-eared rabbits, and in the Himalayan rabbit, this same vertebra had a + well-developed hæmal spine.</p> + + <p><i>Pelvis.</i>—In four wild specimens this bone was almost + absolutely identical in shape; but in several domesticated breeds shades + of differences <!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page123"></a>{123}</span>could be distinguished. In the large + lop-eared rabbits the whole upper part of the ilium is straighter, or + less splayed outwards, than in the wild rabbit; and the tuberosity on the + inner lip of the anterior and upper part of the ilium is proportionally + more prominent.</p> + + <p><i>Sternum.</i>—The posterior end of the posterior sternal bone + in the wild rabbit (fig. 15, <span class="scac">A</span>) is thin and + slightly enlarged; in some of the large lop-eared rabbits (<span + class="scac">B</span>) it is much more enlarged towards the extremity; + whilst in other specimens (<span class="scac">C</span>) it keeps nearly + of the same breadth from end to end, but is much thicker at the + extremity.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/Dom116.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom116.png" + alt="Fig. 16.--Acromia of Rabbits." title="Fig. 16.--Acromia of Rabbits." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 16.—Acromion of Scapula, of natural size. A. + Wild Rabbit. B, C, D; Large, Lop-eared Rabbits.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Scapula.</i>—The acromion sends out a rectangular bar, ending + in an oblique knob, which latter in the wild rabbit (fig. 16, <span + class="scac">A</span>) varies a little in shape and size, as does the + apex of the acromion in sharpness, and the part just below the + rectangular bar in breadth. But the variations in these respects in the + wild rabbit are very slight; whilst in the large lop-eared rabbits they + are considerable. Thus in some specimens (<span class="scac">B</span>) + the oblique terminal knob is developed into a short bar, forming an + obtuse angle with the rectangular bar. In another specimen (<span + class="scac">C</span>) these two unequal bars form nearly a straight + line. The apex of the acromion varies much in breadth and sharpness, as + may be seen by comparing figs. <span class="scac">B</span>, <span + class="scac">C</span>, and <span class="scac">D</span>.</p> + + <p><i>Limbs.</i>—In these I could detect no variation; but the + bones of the feet were too troublesome to compare with much care.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>I have now described all the differences in the skeletons which I have + observed. It is impossible not to be struck with the high degree of + variability or plasticity of many of the bones. We see how erroneous the + often-repeated statement is, that only the crests of the bones which give + attachment to muscles vary in shape, and that only parts of slight + importance <!-- Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page124"></a>{124}</span>become modified under domestication. No + one will say, for instance, that the occipital foramen, or the atlas, or + the third cervical vertebra is a part of slight importance. If the + several vertebræ of the wild and lop-eared rabbits, of which figures have + been given, had been found fossil, palæontologists would have declared + without hesitation that they had belonged to distinct species.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>The effects of the use and disuse of parts.</i>—In the large + lop-eared rabbits the relative proportional lengths of the bones of the + same leg, and of the front and hind legs compared with each other, have + remained nearly the same as in the wild rabbit; but in weight, the bones + of the hind legs apparently have not increased in due proportion with the + front legs. The weight of the whole body in the large rabbits examined by + me was from twice to twice and a half as great as that of the wild + rabbit; and the weight of the bones of the front and hind limbs taken + together (excluding the feet, on account of the difficulty of perfectly + cleaning so many small bones) has increased in the large lop-eared + rabbits in nearly the same proportion; consequently in due proportion to + the weight of body which they have to support. If we take the length of + the body as the standard of comparison, the limbs of the large rabbits + have not increased in length in due proportion by one inch, or by one + inch and a half. Again, if we take as the standard of comparison the + length of the skull, which, as we have before seen, has not increased in + length in due proportion to the length of body, the limbs will be found + to be, proportionally with those of the wild rabbit, from half to + three-quarters of an inch too short. Hence, whatever standard of + comparison be taken, the limb-bones of the large lop-eared rabbits have + not increased in length, though they have in weight, in full proportion + to the other parts of the frame; and this, I presume, may be accounted + for by the inactive life which during many generations they have spent. + Nor has the scapula increased in length in due proportion to the + increased length of the body.</p> + + <p>The capacity of the osseous case of the brain is a more interesting + point, to which I was led to attend by finding, as previously stated, + that with all domesticated rabbits the length of the skull relatively to + its breadth has greatly increased in comparison with that of the wild + rabbit. If we had possessed a large number of domesticated rabbits of + nearly the same size with the wild rabbit, it would have been a simple + task to have measured and compared the capacities of their skulls. But + this is not the case; almost all the domestic breeds have larger bodies + than wild rabbits, and the lop-eared kinds are more than double their + weight. As a small animal has to exert its senses, intellect, and + instincts equally with a large animal, we ought not by any means to + expect an animal twice or thrice as large as another to have a brain of + double or treble the size.<a name="NtA_273" + href="#Nt_273"><sup>[273]</sup></a> Now, after weighing <!-- Page 125 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page125"></a>{125}</span>the bodies of + four wild rabbits, and of four large but not fattened lop-eared rabbits, + I find that on an average the wild are to the lop-eared in weight as 1 to + 2.47; in average length of body as 1 to 1.41; whilst in capacity of skull + (measured as hereafter to be described) they are only as 1 to 1.15. Hence + we see that the capacity of the skull, and consequently the size of the + brain, has increased but little, relatively to the increased size of the + body; and this fact explains the narrowness of the skull relatively to + its length in all domestic rabbits.</p> + + <p>In the upper half of the following table I have given the measurements + of the skulls of ten wild rabbits; and in the lower half of eleven + thoroughly domesticated kinds. As these rabbits differ so greatly in + size, it is necessary to have some standard by which to compare the + capacities of their skulls. I have selected the length of skull as the + best standard, for in the larger rabbits it has not, as already stated, + increased in length so much as the body; but as the skull, like every + other part, varies in length, neither it nor any other part affords a + perfect standard.</p> + + <p>In the first column of figures the extreme length of the skull is + given in inches and decimals. I am aware that these measurements pretend + to greater accuracy than is possible; but I have found it the least + trouble to record the exact length which the compass gave. The second and + third columns give the length and weight of body, whenever these + measurements have been made. The fourth column gives the capacity of the + skull by the weight of small shot with which the skulls had been filled; + but it is not pretended that these weights are accurate within a few + grains. In the fifth column the capacity is given which the skull ought + to have had by calculation, according to the length of skull, in + comparison with that of the wild rabbit No. 1; in the sixth column the + difference between the actual and calculated capacities, and in the + seventh the percentage of increase or decrease, are given. For instance, + as the wild rabbit No. 5 has a shorter and lighter body than the wild + rabbit No. 1, we might have expected that its skull would have had less + capacity; the actual capacity, as expressed by the weight of shot, is 875 + grains, which is 97 grains less than that of the first rabbit. But + comparing these two rabbits by the length of their skulls, we see that in + No. 1 the skull is 3.15 inches in length, and in No. 5 2.96 inches in + length; according to this ratio, the brain of No. 5 ought to have had a + capacity of 913 grains of shot, which is above the actual capacity, but + only by 38 grains. Or, to put the case in another way (as in column <span + class="scac">VII</span>), the brain of this small rabbit, No. 5, for + every 100 grains of weight is only 4 per cent. too light,—that is, + it ought, according to the standard rabbit No. 1, to have been 4 per + cent. heavier. I have taken the rabbit No. 1 as the standard of + comparison because, of the skulls having a full average length, this has + the least capacity; so that it is the least favourable to the result + which I wish to show, namely, that the brain in all long-domesticated + rabbits has decreased in size, either actually, or relatively to the + length of the head and body, in comparison with the brain of the wild + rabbit. Had I taken the Irish rabbit, No. 3, as the standard, the + following results would have been somewhat more striking.</p> + + <p>Turning to the Table: the first four wild rabbits have skulls of the + same length, and these differ but little in capacity. The Sandon rabbit + <!-- Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page126"></a>{126}</span>(No. 4) is interesting, as, though now + wild, it is known to be descended from a domesticated breed, as is still + shown by its peculiar colouring and longer body; nevertheless the skull + has recovered its normal length and full capacity. The next three rabbits + are wild, but of small size, and they all have skulls with slightly + lessened capacities. The three Porto Santo feral rabbits (Nos. 8 to 10) + offer a perplexing case; their bodies are greatly reduced in size, as in + a lesser degree are their skulls in length and in actual capacity, in + comparison with the skulls of wild English rabbits. But when we compare + the capacities of the skull in the three Porto Santo rabbits, we observe + a surprising difference, which does not stand in any relation to the + slight difference in the length of their skulls, nor, as I believe, to + any difference in the size of their bodies; but I neglected to weigh + separately their bodies. I can hardly suppose that the medullary matter + of the brain in these three rabbits, living under similar conditions, can + differ as much as is indicated by the proportional difference of capacity + in their skulls; nor do I know whether it is possible that one brain may + contain considerably more fluid than another. Hence I can throw no light + on this case.</p> + + <p>Looking to the lower half of the Table, which gives the measurements + of domesticated rabbits, we see that in all the capacity of the skull is + less, but in very various degrees, than might have been anticipated + according to the length of their skulls, relatively to that of the wild + rabbit No. 1. In line 22 the average measurements of seven large + lop-eared rabbits are given. Now the question arises, has the average + capacity of the skull in these seven large rabbits increased as much as + might have been expected from their greatly increased size of body. We + may endeavour to answer this question in two ways: in the upper half of + the Table we have measurements of the skulls of six small wild rabbits + (Nos. 5 to 10), and we find that on an average the skulls are in length + .18 of an inch shorter, and in capacity 91 grains less, than the average + length and capacity of the three first wild rabbits on the list. The + seven large lop-cared rabbits, on an average, have skulls 4.11 inches in + length, and 1136 grains in capacity; so that these skulls have increased + in length more than five times as much as the skulls of the six small + wild rabbits have decreased in length; hence we might have expected that + the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits would have increased in + capacity five times as much as the skulls of the six small rabbits have + decreased in capacity; and this would have given an average increased + capacity of 455 grains, whilst the real average increase is only 155 + grains. Again, the large lop-eared rabbits have bodies of nearly the same + weight and size as the common hare, but their heads are longer; + consequently, if the lop-eared rabbits had been wild, it might have been + expected that their skulls would have had nearly the same capacity as + that of the skull of the hare. But this is far from being the case; for + the average capacity of the two hare-skulls (Nos. 23, 24) is so much + larger than the average capacity of the seven lop-cared skulls, that the + latter would have to be increased 21 per cent. to come up to the standard + of the hare.<a name="NtA_274" href="#Nt_274"><sup>[274]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 127 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>{127}</span></p> + + +<table width="100%" class="allbctr" summary="Data on rabbit skulls" title="Data on rabbit skulls"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:30%"> + <p>Name of Breed.<br/> <span class="sc">Wild and Semi-wild + Rabbits.</span></p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:8%"> + <p>I.<br/> Length of Skull.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:8%"> + <p>II.<br/> Length of Body from Incisors to Anus.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:8%"> + <p>III.<br/> Weight of whole Body.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:8%"> + <p>IV.<br/> Capacity of Skull measured by Small Shot.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:8%"> + <p>V.<br/> Capacity calculated according to Length of Skull + relatively to that of No. 1.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:8%"> + <p>VI.<br/> Difference between actual and calculated capacities of + Skulls.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:18%"> + <p>VII.<br/> Showing how much per cent. the Brain, by calculation, + according to the length of the Skull, is too light or too heavy, + relatively to the Brain of the Wild Rabbit No. 1.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>lbs. ozs.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>grains.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1. Wild rabbit, Kent</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17.4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3 5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 972</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2. " Shetland Islands</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 979</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3. " Ireland</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 992</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>[2 per cent. too heavy in comparison with No. 1.]</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>4. Domestic rabbit, run wild, Sandon</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 977</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5. Wild, common variety, small Specimen, Kent</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.96</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2 14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 875</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 913</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 38</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 4 per cent. too light.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6. Wild, fawn-coloured variety, Scotland</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.1 </p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 918</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 950</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 32</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 3 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7. Silver-grey, small specimen, Thetford warren</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.95</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2 11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 938</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 910</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 3 " too heavy.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>8. Feral rabbit, Porto Santo</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.83</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 893</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 873</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 2 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>9. " "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 756</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 879</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>123</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>16 " too light.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>10. " "</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.95</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 835</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 910</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 75</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 9 " "</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Average of the three Porto Santo Rabbits</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.88</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 828</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 888</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 60</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 7 " "</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p><span class="sc">Domestic Rabbits</span></p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>11. Himalayan</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.5 </p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 963</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1080</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>117</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>12 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>12. Moscow</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3 8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 803</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1002</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>199</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>24 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>13. Angora</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.5 </p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3 1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 697</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1080</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>54 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>14. Chinchilla</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.65</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 995</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1126</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>131</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>13 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>15. Large lop-eared</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.1 </p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7 0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1065</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1265</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>200</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>18 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>16. " "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.1 </p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7 13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1153</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1265</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>112</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 9 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>17. " "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.07</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1037</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1255</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>218</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>21 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>18. " "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.1 </p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7 4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1208</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1265</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 57</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 4 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>19. " "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.3 </p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1232</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1326</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 94</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 7 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>20. " "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1124</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1311</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>187</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>16 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>21. Large hare-coloured</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.86</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24.0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6 14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1131</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1191</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> 5 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>22. Average of above seven large lop-eared rabbits</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 24.62</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7 4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1136</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1268</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>132</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>11 " "</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>23. Hare (<i>L. timidus</i>) English specimen</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.61</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7 0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1315</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>24. " " German specimen</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.82</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7 0</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1455</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"></a>{128}</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>I have previously remarked that, if we had possessed many domestic + rabbits of the same average size with the wild rabbit, it would have been + easy to compare the capacity of their skulls. Now the Himalayan, Moscow, + and Angora rabbits (Nos. 11, 12, 13 of Table) are only a little larger in + body, and have skulls only a little longer, than the wild animal, and we + see that the actual capacity of their skulls is less than in the wild + animal, and considerably less by calculation (column 7), according to the + difference in the length of their skulls. The narrowness of the + brain-case in these three rabbits could be plainly seen and proved by + external measurement. The Chinchilla rabbit (No. 14) is a considerably + larger animal than the wild rabbit, yet the capacity of its skull only + slightly exceeds that of the wild rabbit. The Angora rabbit, No. 13, + offers the most remarkable case; this animal in its pure white colour and + length of silky fur bears the stamp of long domesticity. It has a + considerably longer head and body than the wild rabbit, but the actual + capacity of its skull is less than that of even the little wild Porto + Santo rabbits. By the standard of the length of skull the capacity (see + column 7) is only half of what it ought to have been! I kept this + individual animal alive, and it was not unhealthy nor idiotic. This case + of the Angora rabbit so much surprised me, that I repeated all the + measurements and found them correct. I have also compared the capacity of + the skull of the Angora with that of the wild rabbit by other standards, + namely, by the length and weight of the body, and by the weight of the + limb-bones; but by all these standards the brain appears to be much too + small, though in a less degree when the standard of the limb-bones was + used; and this latter circumstance may probably be accounted for by the + Limbs of this anciently domesticated breed having become much reduced in + weight, from its long-continued inactive life. Hence I infer that in the + Angora breed, which is said to differ from other breeds in being quieter + and more social, the capacity of the skull has really undergone a + remarkable amount of reduction.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>From the several facts above given,—namely, firstly, that the + actual capacity of the skull in the Himalayan, Moscow, and Angora breeds, + is less than in the wild rabbit, though they are in all their dimensions + rather larger animals; secondly, that the capacity of the skull of the + large lop-eared rabbits has not been increased in nearly the same ratio + as the capacity of the skull of the smaller wild rabbits has been + decreased; and thirdly, that the capacity of the skull in these same + large lop-eared rabbits is very inferior to that of the hare, an animal + of nearly the same <!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page129"></a>{129}</span>size,—I conclude, notwithstanding + the remarkable differences in capacity in the skulls of the small P. + Santo rabbits, and likewise in the large lop-eared kinds, that in all + long-domesticated rabbits the brain has either by no means increased in + due proportion with the increased length of the head and increased size + of the body, or that it has actually decreased in size, relatively to + what would have occurred had these animals lived in a state of nature. + When we remember that rabbits, from having been domesticated and closely + confined during many generations, cannot have exerted their intellect, + instincts, senses, and voluntary movements, either in escaping from + various dangers or in searching for food, we may conclude that their + brains will have been feebly exercised, and consequently have suffered in + development. We thus see that the most important and complicated organ in + the whole organization is subject to the law of decrease in size from + disuse.</p> + + <p>Finally, let us sum up the more important modifications which domestic + rabbits have undergone, together with their causes as far as we can + obscurely see them. By the supply of abundant and nutritious food, + together with little exercise, and by the continued selection of the + heaviest individuals, the weight of the larger breeds has been more than + doubled. The bones of the limbs have increased in weight (but the hind + legs less than the front legs), in due proportion with the increased + weight of body; but in length they have not increased in due proportion, + and this may have been caused by the want of proper exercise. With the + increased size of the body the third cervical vertebra has assumed + characters proper to the fourth cervical; and the eighth and ninth dorsal + vertebræ have similarly assumed characters proper to the tenth and + posterior vertebræ. The skull in the larger breeds has increased in + length, but not in due proportion with the increased length of body; the + brain has not duly increased in dimensions, or has even actually + decreased, and consequently the bony case for the brain has remained + narrow, and by correlation has affected the bones of the face and the + entire length of the skull. The skull has thus acquired its + characteristic narrowness. From unknown causes the supra-orbital + processes of the frontal bones and the free end of the malar bones have + increased in breadth; and in the larger breeds <!-- Page 130 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>{130}</span>the occipital foramen + is generally much less deeply notched than in wild rabbits. Certain parts + of the scapula and the terminal sternal bones have become highly variable + in shape. The ears have been increased enormously in length and breadth + through continued selection; their weight, conjoined probably with the + disuse of their muscles, has caused them to lop downwards; and this has + affected the position and form of the bony auditory meatus; and this + again, by correlation, the position in a slight degree of almost every + bone in the upper part of the skull, and even the position of the + condyles of the lower jaw.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page131"></a>{131}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DOMESTIC PIGEONS.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><span class="scac">ENUMERATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL + BREEDS</span>—<span class="scac">INDIVIDUAL + VARIABILITY</span>—<span class="scac">VARIATIONS OF A REMARKABLE + NATURE</span>—<span class="scac">OSTEOLOGICAL CHARACTERS: SKULL, + LOWER JAW, NUMBER OF VERTEBRÆ</span>—<span class="scac">CORRELATION + OF GROWTH: TONGUE WITH BEAK; EYELIDS AND NOSTRILS WITH WATTLED + SKIN</span>—<span class="scac">NUMBER OF WING-FEATHERS, AND LENGTH + OF WING</span>—<span class="scac">COLOUR AND + DOWN</span>—<span class="scac">WEBBED AND FEATHERED + FEET</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE EFFECTS OF + DISUSE</span>—<span class="scac">LENGTH OF FEET IN CORRELATION WITH + LENGTH OF BEAK</span>—<span class="scac">LENGTH OP STERNUM, + SCAPULA, AND FURCULA</span>—<span class="scac">LENGTH OF + WINGS</span>—<span class="scac">SUMMARY ON THE POINTS OF DIFFERENCE + IN THE SEVERAL BREEDS</span></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>I have been led to study domestic pigeons with particular care, + because the evidence that all the domestic races have descended from one + known source is far clearer than with any other anciently domesticated + animal. Secondly, because many treatises in several languages, some of + them old, have been written on the pigeon, so that we are enabled to + trace the history of several breeds. And lastly, because, from causes + which we can partly understand, the amount of variation has been + extraordinarily great. The details will often be tediously minute; but no + one who really wants to understand the progress of change in domestic + animals will regret this; and no one who has kept pigeons and has marked + the great difference between the breeds and the trueness with which most + of them propagate their kind, will think this care superfluous. + Notwithstanding the clear evidence that all the breeds are the + descendants of a single species, I could not persuade myself until some + years had passed that the whole amount of difference between them had + arisen since man first domesticated the wild rock-pigeon.</p> + + <p>I have kept alive all the most distinct breeds, which I could procure + in England or from the Continent; and have prepared skeletons of all. I + have received skins from Persia, and a large number from India and other + quarters of the <!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page132"></a>{132}</span>world.<a name="NtA_275" + href="#Nt_275"><sup>[275]</sup></a> Since my admission into two of the + London pigeon-clubs, I have received the kindest assistance from many of + the most eminent amateurs.<a name="NtA_276" + href="#Nt_276"><sup>[276]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The races of the Pigeon which can be distinguished, and which breed + true, are very numerous. MM. Boitard and Corbié<a name="NtA_277" + href="#Nt_277"><sup>[277]</sup></a> describe in detail 122 kinds; and I + could add several European kinds not known to them. In India, judging + from the skins sent me, there are many breeds unknown here; and Sir W. + Elliot informs me that a collection imported by an Indian merchant into + Madras from Cairo and Constantinople included several kinds unknown in + India. I have no doubt that there exist considerably above 150 kinds + which breed true and have been separately named. But of these the far + greater number differ from each other only in unimportant characters. + Such differences will be here entirely passed over, and I shall confine + myself to the more important points of structure. That many important + differences exist we shall presently see. I have looked through the + magnificent collection of the Columbidæ in the British Museum, and, with + the exception of a few forms (such as the Didunculus, Calænas, Goura, + &c), I do not hesitate to <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page133"></a>{133}</span>affirm that some domestic races of the + rock-pigeon differ fully as much from each other in external characters + as do the most distinct natural genera. We may look in vain through the + 288 known species<a name="NtA_278" href="#Nt_278"><sup>[278]</sup></a> + for a beak so small and conical as that of the short-faced tumbler; for + one so broad and short as that of the barb; for one so long, straight, + and narrow, with its enormous wattles, as that of the English carrier; + for an expanded upraised tail like that of the fantail; or for an + œsophagus like that of the pouter. I do not for a moment pretend + that the domestic races differ from each other in their whole + organisation as much as the more distinct natural genera. I refer only to + external characters, on which, however, it must be confessed that most + genera of birds have been founded. When, in a future chapter, we discuss + the principle of selection as followed by man, we shall clearly see why + the differences between the domestic races are almost always confined to + external, or at least to externally visible, characters.</p> + + <p>Owing to the amount and gradations of difference between the several + breeds, I have found it indispensable in the following classification to + rank them under Groups, Races, and Sub-races; to which varieties and + sub-varieties, all strictly inheriting their proper characters, must + often be added. Even with the individuals of the same sub-variety, when + long kept by different fanciers, different strains can sometimes be + recognised. There can be no doubt that, if well-characterized forms of + the several Races had been found wild, all would have been ranked as + distinct species, and several of them would certainly have been placed by + ornithologists in distinct genera. A good classification of the various + domestic breeds is extremely difficult, owing to the manner in which many + of the forms graduate into each other; but it is curious how exactly the + same difficulties are encountered, and the same rules have to be + followed, as in the classification of any natural but difficult group of + organic beings. An "artificial classification" might be followed which + would present fewer difficulties than a "natural classification;" but + then it would interrupt many plain affinities. Extreme forms can readily + be defined; but intermediate and troublesome forms <!-- Page 134 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>{134}</span>often destroy our + definitions. Forms which may be called "aberrant" must sometimes be + included within groups to which they do not accurately belong. Characters + of all kinds must be used; but as with birds in a state of nature, those + afforded by the beak are the best and most readily appreciated. It is not + possible to weigh the importance of all the characters which have to be + used so as to make the groups and sub-groups of equal value. Lastly, a + group may contain only one race, and another and less distinctly defined + group may contain several races and sub-races, and in this case it is + difficult, as in the classification of natural species, to avoid placing + too high a value on characters which are common to a large number of + forms.</p> + + <p>In my measurements I have never trusted to the eye; and when speaking + of a part being large or small, I always refer to the wild rock-pigeon + (<i>Columba livia</i>) as the standard of comparison. The measurements + are given in decimals of an inch.<a name="NtA_279" + href="#Nt_279"><sup>[279]</sup></a></p> + + <p>I will now give a brief description of all the principal breeds. The + following diagram may aid the reader in learning their names and seeing + their affinities. The rock-pigeon, or <i>Columba livia</i> (including + under this name two or three closely-allied sub-species or geographical + races, hereafter to be described), may be confidently viewed, as we shall + see in the next chapter, as the common parent-form. The names in italics + on the right-hand side of the table show us the most distinct breeds, or + those which have undergone the greatest amount of modification. The + lengths of the dotted lines rudely represent the degree of distinctness + of each breed from the parent-stock, and the names <!-- Page 135 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>{135}</span>placed under each other + in the columns show the more or less closely connecting links. The + distances of the dotted lines from each other approximately represent the + amount of difference between the several breeds.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:49%;"> + <a href="images/Dom117.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom117.png" + alt="Fig. 17.--The Rock-pigeon." title="Fig. 17.--The Rock-pigeon." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 17.—The Rock-pigeon, or Columba livia.<a + name="NtA_280" href="#Nt_280"><sup>[280]</sup></a> The parent-form of + all domesticated Pigeons.</p> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>{136}</span></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/Dom144.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom144.png" + alt="Races of pigeons." title="Races of pigeons." /></a> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>{137}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Group I.</span></p> + + <p>This group includes a single race, that of the Pouters. If the most + strongly marked sub-race be taken, namely, the Improved English Pouter, + this is perhaps the most distinct of all domesticated pigeons.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:47%;"> + <a href="images/Dom118.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom118.png" + alt="Fig. 18.--English Pouter." title="Fig. 18.--English Pouter." /></a> + Fig. 18.—English Pouter. + </div> +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race</span> I.—<span class="sc">Pouter Pigeons</span>. (Kropf-tauben, German. Grosses-gorges, or boulans, French.)</p> + + <p><i>Œsophagus of great size, barely separated from the crop, + often inflated. Body and legs elongated. Beak of moderate dimensions.</i> + <!-- Page 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page138"></a>{138}</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Sub-race I.</i>—The improved English Pouter, when its crop is + fully inflated, presents a truly astonishing appearance. The habit of + slightly inflating the crop is common to all domestic pigeons, but is + carried to an extreme in the Pouter. The crop does not differ, except in + size, from that of other pigeons; but is less plainly separated by an + oblique construction from the œsophagus. The diameter of the upper + part of the œsophagus is immense, even close up to the head. The + beak in one bird which I possessed was almost completely buried when the + œsophagus was fully expanded. The males, especially when excited, + pout more than the females, and they glory in exercising this power. If a + bird will not, to use the technical expression, "play," the fancier, as I + have witnessed, by taking the beak into his mouth, blows him up like a + balloon; and the bird, then puffed up with wind and pride, struts about, + retaining his magnificent size as long as he can. Pouters often take + flight with their crops inflated; and after one of my birds had swallowed + a good meal of peas and water, as he flew up in order to disgorge them + and thus feed his nearly fledged young, I have heard the peas rattling in + his inflated crop as if in a bladder. When flying, they often strike the + backs of their wings together, and thus make a clapping noise.</p> + + <p>Pouters stand remarkably upright, and their bodies are thin and + elongated. In connexion with this form of body, the ribs are generally + broader and the vertebræ more numerous than in other breeds. From their + manner of standing their legs appear longer than they really are, though, + in proportion with those of <i>C. livia</i>, the legs and feet are + actually longer. The wings appear much elongated, but by measurement, in + relation to the length of body, this is not the case. The beak likewise + appears longer, but it is in fact a little shorter (about .03 of an + inch), proportionally with the size of the body, and relatively to the + beak of the rock-pigeon. The Pouter, though not bulky, is a large bird; I + measured one which was 34½ inches from tip to tip of wing, and 19 inches + from tip of beak to end of tail. In a wild rock-pigeon from the Shetland + Islands the same measurements gave only 28¼ and 14¾. There are many + sub-varieties of the Pouter of different colours, but these I pass + over.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race II. Dutch Pouter.</i>—This seems to be the + parent-form of our improved English Pouters. I kept a pair, but I suspect + that they were not pure birds. They are smaller than English pouters, and + less well developed in all their characters. Neumeister<a name="NtA_281" + href="#Nt_281"><sup>[281]</sup></a> says that the wings are crossed over + the tail, and do not reach to its extremity.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race III. The Lille Pouter</i>—I know this breed only + from description.<a name="NtA_282" href="#Nt_282"><sup>[282]</sup></a> It + approaches in general form the Dutch Pouter, but the inflated + œsophagus assumes a spherical form, as if the pigeon had swallowed + a large orange, which had stuck close under the beak. This inflated ball + is represented as rising to a level with the crown of the head. The + middle toe alone is feathered. A variety of this sub-race, called the + claquant, is described by MM. Boitard and Corbié; it pouts but little, + and is characterised <!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page139"></a>{139}</span>by the habit of violently hitting its + wings together over its back,—a habit which the English Pouter has + in a slight degree.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race IV. Common German Pouter.</i>—I know this bird only + from the figures and description given by the accurate Neumeister, one of + the few writers on pigeons who, as I have found, may be always trusted. + This sub-race seems considerably different. The upper part of the + œsophagus is much less distended. The bird stands less upright. The + feet are not feathered, and the legs and beak are shorter. In these + respects there is an approach in form to the common rock-pigeon. The + tail-feathers are very long, yet the tips of the closed wings extend + beyond the end of the tail; and the length of the wings, from tip to tip, + and of the body, is greater than in the English Pouter.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Group II.</span></p> + + <p>This group includes three Races, namely, Carriers, Runts, and Barbs, + which are manifestly allied to each other. Indeed, certain carriers and + runts pass into each other by such insensible gradations that an + arbitrary line has to be drawn between them. Carriers also graduate + through foreign breeds into the rock-pigeon. Yet, if well-characterised + Carriers and Barbs (see figs. 19 and 20) had existed as wild species, no + ornithologist would have placed them in the same genus with each other or + with the rock-pigeon. This group may, as a general rule, be recognised by + the beak being long, with the skin over the nostrils swollen and often + carunculated or wattled, and with that round the eyes bare and likewise + carunculated. The mouth is very wide, and the feet are large. + Nevertheless the Barb, which must be classed in this same group, has a + very short beak, and some runts have very little bare skin round their + eyes.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race II.—Carriers</span>. (Türkische Taube: Pigeons Turcs: +Dragons.)</p> + + <p><i>Beak elongated, narrow, pointed; eyes surrounded by much naked, + generally carunculated skin; neck and body elongated.</i></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:65%;"> + <a href="images/Dom119.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom119.png" + alt="Fig. 19.--English Carrier." title="Fig. 19.--English Carrier." /></a> + Fig. 19.—English Carrier. + </div> +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Sub-race I. The English Carrier.</i>—This is a fine bird, of + large size, close feathered, generally dark-coloured, with an elongated + neck. The beak is attenuated and of wonderful length: in one specimen it + was 1.4 inch in length from the feathered base to the tip; therefore + nearly twice as long as that of the rock-pigeon, which measured only .77. + Whenever I compare proportionally any part in the carrier and + rock-pigeon, I take the length of the body from the base of the beak to + the end of the tail as the standard of comparison; and according to this + standard, the beak in one <!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page140"></a>{140}</span>Carrier was nearly half an inch longer + than in the rock-pigeon. The upper mandible is often slightly arched. The + tongue is very long. The development of the carunculated skin or wattle + round the eyes, over the nostrils, and on the lower mandible, is + prodigious. The eyelids, measured longitudinally, were in some specimens + exactly twice as long as in the rock-pigeon. The external orifice or + furrow of the nostrils was also twice as long. The open mouth in its + widest part was in one case .75 of an inch in width, whereas in the + rock-pigeon it is only about .4 of an inch. This great width of mouth is + shown in the skeleton by the reflexed edges of the ramus of the lower + jaw. The head is flat on the summit and narrow between the orbits. The + feet are large and coarse; the length, as <!-- Page 141 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>{141}</span>measured from end of + hind toe to end of middle toe (without the claws), was in two specimens + 2.6 inches; and this, proportionally with the rock-pigeon, is an excess + of nearly a quarter of an inch. One very fine Carrier measured 31½ inches + from tip to tip of wing. Birds of this sub-race are too valuable to be + flown as carriers.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race II. Dragons; Persian Carriers.</i>—The English + Dragon differs from the improved English Carrier in being smaller in all + its dimensions, and in having less wattle round the eyes and over the + nostrils, and none on the lower mandible. Sir W. Elliot sent me from + Madras a Bagdad Carrier (sometimes called khandési), the name of which + shows its Persian origin; it would be considered here a very poor Dragon; + the body was of the size of the rock-pigeon, with the beak a little + longer, namely, 1 inch from the tip to the feathered base. The skin round + the eyes was only slightly wattled, whilst that over the nostrils was + fairly wattled. The Hon. C. Murray, also, sent me two Carriers direct + from Persia; these had nearly the same character as the Madras bird, + being about as large as the rock-pigeon, but the beak in one specimen was + as much as 1.15 in length; the skin over the nostrils was only + moderately, and that round the eyes scarcely at all wattled.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race III. Bagadotten-Tauben of Neumeister</i> (Pavdotten or + Hocker-Tauben).—I owe to the kindness of Mr. Baily, jun., a dead + specimen of this singular breed imported from Germany. It is certainly + allied to the Runts; nevertheless, from its close affinity with Carriers, + it will be convenient here to describe it. The beak is long, and is + hooked or bowed downwards in a highly remarkable manner, as will be seen + in the woodcut to be hereafter given when I treat of the skeleton. The + eyes are surrounded by a wide space of bright red skin, which, as well as + that over the nostrils, is moderately wattled. The breast-bone is + remarkably protuberant, being abruptly bowed outwards. The feet and tarsi + are of great length, larger than in first-rate English Carriers. The + whole bird is of large size, but in proportion to the size of the body + the feathers of the wing and tail are short; a wild rock-pigeon, of + considerably less size, had tail-feathers 4.6 inches in length, whereas + in the large Bagadotten these feathers were scarcely over 4.1 inches in + length. Riedel<a name="NtA_283" href="#Nt_283"><sup>[283]</sup></a> + remarks that it is a very silent bird.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race IV. Bussorah Carrier.</i>—Two specimens were sent me + by Sir W. Elliot from Madras, one in spirits and the other skinned. The + name shows its Persian origin. It is much valued in India, and is + considered as a distinct breed from the Bagdad Carrier, which forms my + second sub-race. At first I suspected that these two sub-races might have + been recently formed by crosses with other breeds, though the estimation + in which they are held renders this improbable; but in a Persian + treatise,<a name="NtA_284" href="#Nt_284"><sup>[284]</sup></a> believed + to have been written about 100 years ago, the Bagdad and Bussorah breeds + are described as distinct. The Bussorah Carrier is of about the same size + with the wild rock-pigeon. The shape of the beak, with some little + carunculated skin over the nostrils,—the much elongated + eyelids,—the <!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page142"></a>{142}</span>broad mouth measured internally,—the + narrow head,—the feet proportionally a little longer than in the + rock-pigeon,—and the general appearance, all show that this bird is + an undoubted Carrier; yet in one specimen the beak was of exactly the + same length as in the rock-pigeon. In the other specimen the beak (as + well as the opening of the nostrils) was only a very little longer, viz. + by .08 of an inch. Although there was a considerable space of bare and + slightly carunculated skin round the eyes, that over the nostrils was + only in a slight degree rugose. Sir W. Elliot informs me that in the + living bird the eye seems remarkably large and prominent, and the same + fact is noticed in the Persian treatise; but the bony orbit is barely + larger than that in the rock-pigeon.</p> + + <p>Amongst the several breeds sent to me from Madras by Sir W. Elliot + there is a pair of the <i>Kala Par</i>, black birds with the beak + slightly elongated, with the skin over the nostrils rather full, and with + a little naked skin round the eyes. This breed seems more closely allied + to the Carrier than to any other breed, being nearly intermediate between + the Bussorah Carrier and the rock-pigeon.</p> + + <p>The names applied in different parts of Europe and in India to the + several kinds of Carriers all point to Persia or the surrounding + countries as the source of this Race. And it deserves especial notice + that, even if we neglect the Kala Par as of doubtful origin, we get a + series broken by very small steps, from the rock-pigeon, through the + Bussorah, which sometimes has a beak not at all longer than that of the + rock-pigeon and with the naked skin round the eyes and over the nostrils + very slightly swollen and carunculated, through the Bagdad sub-race and + Dragons, to our improved English Carriers, which present so marvellous a + difference from the rock-pigeon or <i>Columba livia</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race III.—Runts.</span> (Scanderoons: Die Florentiner-Taube and Hinkel-Taube +of Neumeister: Pigeon Bagadais, Pigeon Romain.)</p> + + <p><i>Beak long, massive; body of great size.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Inextricable confusion reigns in the classification, affinities, and + naming of Runts. Several characters which are generally pretty constant + in other pigeons, such as the length of the wings, tail, legs, and neck, + and the amount of naked skin round the eyes, are excessively variable in + Runts. When the naked skin over the nostrils and round the eyes is + considerably developed and wattled, and when the size of body is not very + great, Runts graduate in so insensible a manner into Carriers, that the + distinction is quite arbitrary. This fact is likewise shown by the names + given to them in different parts of Europe. Nevertheless, taking the most + distinct forms, at least five sub-races (some of them including + well-marked varieties) can be distinguished, which differ in such + important points of structure, that they would be considered as good + species in a state of nature.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race I. Scanderoon of English writers</i> (Die Florentiner and + Hinkel-Taube of Neumeister).—Birds of this sub-race, of which I + kept one alive <!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page143"></a>{143}</span>and have since seen two others, differ + from the Bagadotten of Neumeister only in not haying the beak nearly so + much curved downwards, and in the naked skin round the eyes and over the + nostrils being hardly at all wattled. Nevertheless I have felt myself + compelled to place the Bagadotten in Race II., or that of the Carriers, + and the present bird in Race III., or that of the Runts. The Scanderoon + has a very short, narrow, and elevated tail; wings extremely short, so + that the first primary feathers were not longer than those of a small + tumbler pigeon! Neck long, much bowed; breast-bone prominent. Beak long, + being 1.15 inch from tip to feathered base; vertically thick; slightly + curved downwards. The skin over the nostrils swollen, not wattled; naked + skin round the eyes, broad, slightly carunculated. Legs long; feet very + large. Skin of neck bright red, often showing a naked medial line, with a + naked red patch at the distant end of the radius of the wing. My bird, as + measured from the base of the beak to the root of the tail, was fully 2 + inches longer than the rock-pigeon; yet the tail itself was only 4 inches + in length, whereas in the rock-pigeon, which is a much smaller bird, the + tail is 4⅝ inches in length.</p> + + <p>The Hinkel or Florentiner-Taube of Neumeister (Table XIII., fig. 1) + agrees with the above description in all the specified characters (for + the beak is not mentioned), except that Neumeister expressly says that + the neck is short, whereas in my Scanderoon it was remarkably long and + bowed; so that the Hinkel forms a well-marked variety.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race II. Pigeon Cygne and Pigeon Bagadais of Boitard and + Corbié</i> (Scanderoon of French writers).—I kept two of these + birds alive, imported from France. They differed from the first sub-race + or true Scanderoon in the much greater length of the wing and tail, in + the beak not being so long, and in the skin about the head being more + carunculated. The skin of the neck is red; but the naked patches on the + wings are absent. One of my birds measured 38½ inches from tip to tip of + wing. By taking the length of the body as the standard of comparison, the + two wings were no loss than 5 inches longer than those of the + rock-pigeon! The tail was 6¼ inches in length, and therefore 2¼ inches + longer than that of the Scanderoon,—a bird of nearly the same size. + The beak is longer, thicker, and broader than in the rock-pigeon, + proportionally with the size of body. The eyelids, nostrils, and internal + gape of mouth are all proportionally very large, as in Carriers. The + foot, from the end of the middle to end of hind toe, was actually 2.85 + inches in length, which is an excess of .32 of an inch over the foot of + the rock-pigeon, relatively to the size of the two birds.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race III. Spanish and Roman Runts</i>.—I am not sure that + I am right in placing these Runts in a distinct sub-race; yet, if we take + well-characterized birds, there can be no doubt of the propriety of the + separation. They are heavy, massive birds, with shorter necks, legs, and + beaks than in the foregoing races. The skin over the nostrils is swollen, + but not carunculated; the naked skin round the eyes is not very wide, and + only slightly carunculated; and I have seen a fine so-called Spanish Runt + with hardly any naked skin round the eyes. Of the two varieties to be + seen in England, one, which is the rarer, has very long wings and tail, + <!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page144"></a>{144}</span>and agrees pretty closely with the last + sub-race; the other, with shorter wings and tail, is apparently the + <i>Pigeon Romain ordinaire</i> of Boitard and Corbié. These Runts are apt + to tremble like Fantails. They are bad flyers. A few years ago Mr. + Gulliver<a name="NtA_285" href="#Nt_285"><sup>[285]</sup></a> exhibited a + Runt which weighed 1 lb. 14 oz.; and, as I am informed by Mr. Tegetmeier, + two Runts from the south of France were lately exhibited at the Crystal + Palace, each of which weighed 2 lbs. 2½ oz. A very fine rock-pigeon from + the Shetland Islands weighed only 14½ oz.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race IV. Tronfo of Aldrovandi</i> (Leghorn Runt?).—In + Aldrovandi's work published in 1600 there is a coarse woodcut of a great + Italian pigeon, with an elevated tail, short legs, massive body, and with + the beak short and thick. I had imagined that this latter character, so + abnormal in the group, was merely a false representation from bad + drawing; but Moore, in his work published in 1735, says that he possessed + a Leghorn Runt of which "the beak was very short for so large a bird." In + other respects Moore's bird resembled the first sub-race or Scanderoon, + for it had a long bowed neck, long legs, short beak, and elevated tail, + and not much wattle about the head. So that Aldrovandi's and Moore's + birds must have formed distinct varieties, both of which seem to be now + extinct in Europe. Sir W. Elliot, however, informs me that he has seen in + Madras a short-beaked Runt imported from Cairo.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race V. Murassa (adorned Pigeon) of Madras.</i>—Skins of + these handsome chequered birds were sent me from Madras by Sir W. Elliot. + They are rather larger than the largest rock-pigeon, with longer and more + massive beaks. The skin over the nostrils is rather full and very + slightly carunculated, and they have some naked skin round the eyes: feet + large. This breed is intermediate between the rock-pigeon and a very poor + variety of Runt or Carrier.</p> + + <p>From these several descriptions we see that with Runts, as with + Carriers, we have a fine gradation from the rock-pigeon (with the Tronfo + diverging as a distinct branch) to our largest and most massive Runts. + But the chain of affinities, and many points of resemblance, between + Runts and Carriers, make me believe that these two races have not + descended by independent lines from the rock-pigeon, but from some common + parent, as represented in the Table, which had already acquired a + moderately long beak, with slightly swollen skin over the nostrils, and + with some slightly carunculated naked skin round the eyes.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race IV.—Barbs.</span> (Indische-Taube: Pigeons Polonais.)</p> + + <p><i>Beak short, broad, deep; naked skin round the eyes, broad and + carunculated; skin over nostrils slightly swollen.</i></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:68%;"> + <a href="images/Dom120.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom120.png" + alt="Fig. 20.--English Barb." title="Fig. 20.--English Barb." /></a> + Fig. 20.—English Barb. + </div> +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Misled by the extraordinary shortness and form of the beak, I did not + at first perceive the near affinity of this Race to that of Carriers + until the fact was pointed out to me by Mr. Brent. Subsequently, after + examining <!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page145"></a>{145}</span>the Bussorah Carrier, I saw that no very + great amount of modification would be requisite to convert it into a + Barb. This view of the affinity of Barbs to Carriers is supported by the + analogical difference between the short and long-beaked Runts; and still + more strongly by the fact, that young Barbs and Dragons, within 24 hours + after being hatched, resemble each other much more closely than do young + pigeons of other and equally distinct breeds. At this early age, the + length of beak, the swollen skin over the rather open nostrils, the gape + of the mouth, and the size of the feet, are the same in both; although + these parts afterwards become widely different. We thus see that + embryology (as the comparison of very young animals <!-- Page 146 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page146"></a>{146}</span>may perhaps be + called) comes into play in the classification of domestic varieties, as + with species in a state of nature.</p> + + <p>Fanciers, with some truth, compare the head and beak of the Barb to + that of a bullfinch. The Barb, if found in a state of nature, would + certainly have been placed in a new genus formed for its reception. The + body is a little larger than that of the rock-pigeon, but the beak is + more than .2 of an inch shorter; although shorter, it is both vertically + and horizontally thicker. From the outward flexure of the rami of the + lower jaw, the mouth internally is very broad, in the proportion of .6 to + .4 to that of the rock-pigeon. The whole head is broad. The skin over the + nostrils is swollen, but not carunculated, except slightly in first-rate + birds when old; whilst the naked skin round the eye is broad and much + carunculated. It is sometimes so much developed, that a bird belonging to + Mr. Harrison Weir could hardly see to pick up food from the ground. The + eyelids in one specimen were nearly twice as long as those of the + rock-pigeon. The feet are coarse and strong, but proportionally rather + shorter than in the rock-pigeon. The plumage is generally dark and + uniform. Barbs, in short, may be called short-beaked Carriers, bearing + the same relation to Carriers that the Tronfo of Aldrovandi does to the + common Runt.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Group III.</span></p> + + <p>This group is artificial, and includes a heterogeneous collection of + distinct forms. It may be defined by the beak, in well-characterised + specimens of the several races, being shorter than in the rock-pigeon, + and by the skin round the eyes not being much developed.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race V.—Fantails.</span></p> + + <p><i>Sub-race I. European Fantails</i> (Pfauen-Taube; Trembleurs). + <i>Tail expanded, directed upwards, formed of many feathers; oil-gland + aborted; body and beak rather short</i>.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:69%;"> + <a href="images/Dom121.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom121.png" + alt="Fig. 21.--English Fantail." title="Fig. 21.--English Fantail." /></a> + Fig. 21.—English Fantail. + </div> +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>The normal number of tail-feathers in the genus Columba is 12; but + Fantails have from only 12 (as has been asserted) up to, according to MM. + Boitard and Corbié, 42. I have counted in one of my own birds 33, and at + Calcutta Mr. Blyth<a name="NtA_286" href="#Nt_286"><sup>[286]</sup></a> + has counted in an <i>imperfect</i> tail 34 feathers. In Madras, as I am + informed by Sir W. Elliot, 32 is the standard number; but in England + number is much less valued than the position and expansion of the tail. + The feathers are arranged in an irregular double row; their permanent + expansion, like a fan, and their upward direction, are more remarkable + characters than their increased number. The tail is capable of the same + movements as in other pigeons, and can be depressed so as to sweep the + ground. It arises from a more expanded basis than in <!-- Page 147 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page147"></a>{147}</span>other pigeons; + and in three skeletons there were one or two extra coccygeal vertebræ. I + have examined many specimens of various colours from different countries, + and there was no trace of the oil-gland; this is a curious case of + abortion.<a name="NtA_287" href="#Nt_287"><sup>[287]</sup></a> The neck + is thin and bowed <!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page148"></a>{148}</span>backwards. The breast is broad and + protuberant. The feet are small. The carriage of the bird is very + different from that of other pigeons; in good birds the head touches the + tail-feathers, which consequently often become crumpled. They habitually + tremble much; and their necks have an extraordinary, apparently + convulsive, backward and forward movement. Good birds walk in a singular + manner, as if their small feet were stiff. Owing to their large tails, + they fly badly on a windy day. The dark-coloured varieties are generally + larger than white Fantails.</p> + + <p>Although between the best and common Fantails, now existing in + England, there is a vast difference in the position and size of the tail, + in the carriage of the head and neck, in the convulsive movements of the + neck, in the manner of walking, and in the breadth of the breast, the + differences so graduate away, that it is impossible to make more than one + sub-race. Moore, however, an excellent old authority,<a name="NtA_288" + href="#Nt_288"><sup>[288]</sup></a> says, that in 1735 there were two + sorts of broad-tailed shakers (<i>i.e.</i> fantails), "one having a neck + much longer and more slender than the other;" and I am informed by Mr. B. + P. Brent that there is an existing German Fantail with a thicker and + shorter beak.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race II. Java Fantail.</i>—Mr. Swinhoe sent me from Amoy, + in China, the skin of a Fantail belonging to a breed known to have been + imported from Java. It was coloured in a peculiar manner, unlike any + European Fantail, and, for a Fantail, had a remarkably short beak. + Although a good bird of the kind, it had only 14 tail-feathers; but Mr. + Swinhoe has counted in other birds of this breed from 18 to 24 + tail-feathers. From a rough sketch sent to me, it is evident that the + tail is not so much expanded or so much upraised as in even second-rate + European Fantails. The bird shakes its neck like our Fantails. It had a + well-developed oil-gland. Fantails were known in India, as we shall + hereafter see, before the year 1600; and we may suspect that in the Java + Fantail we see the breed in its earlier and less improved condition.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race VI.—Turbit and Owl.</span> (Möven-Taube: Pigeons à +cravate.)</p> + + <p><i>Feathers divergent along the front of the neck and breast; beak + very short, vertically rather thick; œsophagus somewhat + enlarged.</i></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:68%;"> + <a href="images/Dom122.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom122.png" + alt="Fig. 22.--African Owl." title="Fig. 22.--African Owl." /></a> + Fig. 22.—African Owl. + </div> +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Turbits and Owls differ from each other slightly in the shape of the + head, in the former having a crest, and in the curvature of the beak, but + they may be here conveniently grouped together. These pretty birds, some + of which are very small, can be recognised at once by the feathers + irregularly diverging, like a frill, along the front of the neck, in the + same manner, but in a less degree, as along the back of the neck in the + Jacobin. This bird has the remarkable habit of continually, and + momentarily inflating the upper part of the œsophagus, which causes + a movement in the frill. <!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page149"></a>{149}</span>When the œsophagus of a dead bird + was inflated, it was seen to be larger than in other breeds, and not so + distinctly separated from the crop. The Pouter inflates both its true + crop and œsophagus; the Turbit inflates in a much less degree the + œsophagus alone. The beak of the Turbit is very short, being .28 of + an inch shorter than that of the rock-pigeon, proportionally with the + size of their bodies; and in some owls brought by Mr. E. Vernon Harcourt + from Tunis, it was even shorter. The beak is vertically thicker, and + perhaps a little broader, in proportion to that of the rock-pigeon.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page150"></a>{150}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race VII.—Tumblers. </span> (Tümmler, or Burzel-Tauben: Culbutants.)</p> + + <p><i>During flight, tumble backwards; body generally small; beak + generally short, sometimes excessively short and conical.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>This Race may be divided into four sub-races, namely, Persian, Lotan, + Common, and Short-faced Tumblers. These sub-races include many varieties + which breed true. I have examined eight skeletons of various kinds of + Tumblers: excepting in one imperfect and doubtful specimen, the ribs are + only seven in number, whereas the rock-pigeon has eight ribs.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race I. Persian Tumblers.</i>—I have received a pair + direct from Persia, from the Hon. C. Murray. They were rather smaller + birds than the wild rock-pigeon, being about the size of the common + dovecot-pigeon, white and mottled, slightly feathered on the feet, with + the beak just perceptibly shorter than in the rock-pigeon. H.M. Consul, + Mr. Keith Abbott, informs me that the difference in the length of beak is + so slight, that only practised Persian fanciers can distinguish these + Tumblers from the common pigeon of the country. He informs me that they + fly in flocks high up in the air and tumble well. Some of them + occasionally appear to become giddy and tumble to the ground, in which + respect they resemble some of our Tumblers.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race II. Lotan, or Lowtun: Indian Ground + Tumblers.</i>—These birds present one of the most remarkable + inherited habits or instincts which have ever been recorded. The + specimens sent to me from Madras by Sir W. Elliot are white, slightly + feathered on the feet, with the feathers on the head reversed; and they + are rather smaller than the rock or dovecot pigeon. The beak is + proportionally only slightly shorter and rather thinner than in the + rock-pigeon. These birds when gently shaken and placed on the ground + immediately begin tumbling head over heels, and they continue thus to + tumble until taken up and soothed,—the ceremony being generally to + blow in their faces, as in recovering a person from a state of hypnotism + or mesmerism. It is asserted that they will continue to roll over till + they die, if not taken up. There is abundant evidence with respect to + these remarkable peculiarities; but what makes the case the more worthy + of attention is, that the habit has been strictly inherited since before + the year 1600, for the breed is distinctly described in the 'Ayeen + Akbery.'<a name="NtA_289" href="#Nt_289"><sup>[289]</sup></a> Mr. Evans + kept a pair in London, imported by Captain Vigne; and he assures me that + he has seen them tumble in the air, as well as in the manner above + described on the ground. Sir W. Elliot, however, writes to me from + Madras, that he is informed that they tumble exclusively on the ground, + or at a very small height above it. He also <!-- Page 151 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page151"></a>{151}</span>mentions another + sub-variety, called the Kalmi Lotan, which begins to roll over if only + touched on the neck with a rod or wand.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race III. Common English Tumblers.</i>—These birds have + exactly the same habits as the Persian Tumbler, but tumble better. The + English bird is rather smaller than the Persian, and the beak is plainly + shorter. Compared with the rock-pigeon, and proportionally with the size + of body, the beak is from .16 to nearly .2 of an inch shorter, but it is + not thinner. There are several varieties of the common Tumbler, namely, + Baldheads, Beards, and Dutch Rollers. I have kept the latter alive; they + have differently shaped heads, longer necks, and are feather-footed. They + tumble to an extraordinary degree; as Mr. Brent remarks,<a name="NtA_290" + href="#Nt_290"><sup>[290]</sup></a> "Every few seconds over they go; one, + two, or three summersaults at a time. Here and there a bird gives a very + quick and rapid spin, revolving like a wheel, though they sometimes lose + their balance, and make a rather ungraceful fall, in which they + occasionally hurt themselves by striking some object." From Madras I have + received several specimens of the common Tumbler of India, differing + slightly from each other in the length of their beaks. Mr. Brent sent me + a dead specimen of a "House-tumbler,"<a name="NtA_291" + href="#Nt_291"><sup>[291]</sup></a> which is a Scotch variety, not + differing in general appearance and form of beak from the common Tumbler. + Mr. Brent states that these birds generally begin to tumble "almost as + soon as they can well fly; at three months old they tumble well, but + still fly strong; at five or six months they tumble excessively; and in + the second year they mostly give up flying, on account of their tumbling + so much and so close to the ground. Some fly round with the flock, + throwing a clean summersault every few yards, till they are obliged to + settle from giddiness and exhaustion. These are called Air Tumblers, and + they commonly throw from twenty to thirty summersaults in a minute, each + clear and clean. I have one red cock that I have on two or three + occasions timed by my watch, and counted forty summersaults in the + minute. Others tumble differently. At first they throw a single + summersault, then it is double, till it becomes a continuous roll, which + puts an end to flying, for if they fly a few yards over they go, and roll + till they reach the ground. Thus I had one kill herself, and another + broke his leg. Many of them turn over only a few inches from the ground, + and will tumble two or three times in flying across their loft. These are + called House-tumblers, from tumbling in the house. The act of tumbling + seems to be one over which they have no control, an involuntary movement + which they seem to try to prevent. I have seen a bird sometimes in his + struggles fly a yard or two straight upwards, the impulse forcing him + backwards while he struggles to go forwards. If suddenly startled, or in + a strange place, they seem less able to fly than if quiet in their + accustomed loft." These House-tumblers differ from the Lotan or Ground + <!-- Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page152"></a>{152}</span>Tumbler of India, in not requiring to be + shaken in order to begin tumbling. The breed has probably been formed + merely by selecting the best common Tumblers, though it is possible that + they may have been crossed at some former period with Lotans.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:72%;"> + <a href="images/Dom123.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom123.png" + alt="Fig. 23.--Short-faced English Tumbler." title="Fig. 23.--Short-faced English Tumbler." /></a> + Fig. 23.—Short-faced English Tumbler. + </div> +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Sub-race IV. Short-faced Tumblers.</i>—These are marvellous + birds, and are the glory and pride of many fanciers. In their extremely + short, sharp, and conical beaks, with the skin over the nostrils but + little developed, they almost depart from the type of the Columbidæ. + Their heads are nearly globular <!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page153"></a>{153}</span>and upright in front, so that some + fanciers say<a name="NtA_292" href="#Nt_292"><sup>[292]</sup></a> "the + head should resemble a cherry with a barley-corn stuck in it." These are + the smallest kind of pigeons. Mr. Esquilant possessed a blue Baldhead, + two years old, which when alive weighed, before feeding-time, only 6 oz. + 5 drs.; two others, each weighed 7 oz. We have seen that a wild + rock-pigeon weighed 14 oz. 2 drs., and a Runt 34 oz. 4 drs. Short-faced + Tumblers have a remarkably erect carriage, with prominent breasts, + drooping wings, and very small feet. The length of the beak from the tip + to the feathered base was in one good bird only .4 of an inch; in a wild + rock-pigeon it was exactly double this length. As these Tumblers have + shorter bodies than the wild rock-pigeon, they ought of course to have + shorter beaks; but proportionally with the size of body, the beak is .28 + of an inch too short. So, again, the feet of this bird were actually .45 + shorter, and proportionally .21 of an inch shorter, than the feet of the + rock-pigeon. The middle toe has only twelve or thirteen, instead of + fourteen or fifteen scutellæ. The primary wing-feathers are not rarely + only nine instead of ten in number. The improved short-faced Tumblers + have almost lost the power of tumbling; but there are several authentic + accounts of their occasionally tumbling. There are several sub-varieties, + such as Baldheads, Beards, Mottles, and Almonds; the latter are + remarkable from not acquiring their perfectly-coloured plumage until they + have moulted three or four times. There is good reason to believe that + most of these sub-varieties, some of which breed truly, have arisen since + the publication of Moore's treatise in 1735.<a name="NtA_293" + href="#Nt_293"><sup>[293]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Finally, in regard to the whole group of Tumblers, it is impossible to + conceive a more perfect gradation than I have now lying before me, from + the rock-pigeon, through Persian, Lotan, and Common Tumblers, up to the + marvellous short-faced birds; which latter, no ornithologist, judging + from mere external structure, would place in the same genus with the + rock-pigeon. The differences between the successive steps in this series + are not greater than those which may be observed between common + dovecot-pigeons (<i>C. livia</i>) brought from different countries.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race VIII—Indian Frill-back.</span></p> + + <p><i>Beak very short; feathers reversed.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>A specimen of this bird, in spirits, was sent to me from Madras by Sir + W. Elliot. It is wholly different from the Frill-back often exhibited in + England. It is a smallish bird, about the size of the common Tumbler, but + has a beak in all its proportions like our short-faced Tumblers. The + beak, measured from the tip to the feathered base, was only .46 of an + inch in length. The feathers over the whole body are reversed or curl + backwards. Had this bird occurred in Europe, I should have thought it + only a monstrous variety of our improved Tumbler; but as short-faced + Tumblers are not known in India, I think it must rank as a distinct + breed. Probably <!-- Page 154 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page154"></a>{154}</span>this is the breed seen by Hasselquist in + 1757 at Cairo, and said to have been imported from India.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race IX.—Jacobin.</span> (Zopf or Perücken-Taube: Nonnains.)</p> + + <p><i>Feathers of the neck forming a hood; wings and tail long; beak + moderately short.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>This pigeon can at once be recognised by its hood, almost enclosing + the head and meeting in front of the neck. The hood seems to be merely an + exaggeration of the crest of reversed feathers on the back of the head, + which is common to many sub-varieties, and which in the Latz-taube<a + name="NtA_294" href="#Nt_294"><sup>[294]</sup></a> is in a nearly + intermediate state between a hood and a crest. The feathers of the hood + are elongated. Both the wings and tail are likewise much elongated; thus + the folded wing of the Jacobin, though a somewhat smaller bird, is fully + 1¼ inch longer than in the rock-pigeon. Taking the length of the body + without the tail as the standard of comparison, the folded wing, + proportionally with the wings of the rock-pigeon, is 2¼ inches too long, + and the two wings, from tip to tip, 5¼ inches too long. In disposition + this bird is singularly quiet, seldom flying or moving about, as + Bechstein and Riedel have likewise remarked in Germany.<a name="NtA_295" + href="#Nt_295"><sup>[295]</sup></a> The latter author also notices the + length of the wings and tail. The beak is nearly .2 of an inch shorter in + proportion to the size of the body than in the rock-pigeon; but the + internal gape of the mouth is considerably wider.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Group IV.</span></p> + + <p>The birds of this group may be characterised by their resemblance in + all important points of structure, especially in the beak, to the + rock-pigeon. The Trumpeter forms the only well-marked race. Of the + numerous other sub-races and varieties I shall specify only a few of the + most distinct, which I have myself seen and kept alive.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race X.—Trumpeter.</span> (Trommel-Taube; Pigeon tambour; +glougou.)</p> + + <p><i>A tuft of feathers at the base of the beak curling forward; feet + much feathered; voice very peculiar; size exceeding that of the + rock-pigeon.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>This is a well-marked breed, with a peculiar voice, wholly unlike that + of any other pigeon. The coo is rapidly repeated, and is continued for + <!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page155"></a>{155}</span>several minutes; hence their name of + Trumpeters. They are also characterised by a tuft of elongated feathers, + which curls forward over the base of the beak, and which is possessed by + no other breed. Their feet are so heavily feathered, that they almost + appear like little wings. They are larger birds than the rock-pigeon, but + their beak is of very nearly the same proportional size. Their feet are + rather small. This breed was perfectly characterised in Moore's time, in + 1735. Mr. Brent says that two varieties exist, which differ in size.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Race XI.</span>—<i>Scarcely differing in structure from the wild +Columba livia.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Sub-race 1. Laughers. Size less than the Rock-pigeon; voice very + peculiar.</i>—As this bird agrees in nearly all its proportions + with the rock-pigeon, though of smaller size, I should not have thought + it worthy of mention, had it not been for its peculiar voice—a + character supposed seldom to vary with birds. Although the voice of the + Laugher is very different from that of the Trumpeter, yet one of my + Trumpeters used to utter a single note like that of the Laugher. I have + kept two varieties of Laughers, which differed only in one variety being + turn-crowned; the smooth-headed kind, for which I am indebted to the + kindness of Mr. Brent, besides its peculiar note, used to coo in a + singular and pleasing manner, which, independently, struck both Mr. Brent + and myself as resembling that of the turtle-dove. Both varieties come + from Arabia. This breed was known by Moore in 1735. A pigeon which seems + to say Yak-roo is mentioned in 1600 in the 'Ayeen Akbery,' and is + probably the same breed. Sir W. Elliot has also sent me from Madras a + pigeon called Yahui, said to have come from Mecca, which does not differ + in appearance from the Laugher; it has "a deep melancholy voice, like + Yahu, often repeated." Yahu, yahu, means Oh God, Oh God; and Sayzid + Mohammed Musari, in the treatise written about 100 years ago, says that + these birds "are not flown, because they repeat the name of the Most High + God." Mr. Keith Abbott, however, informs me that the common pigeon is + called Yahoo in Persia.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race II. Common Frill-back</i> (Die Strupp-Taube). <i>Beak + rather longer than in the Rock-pigeon; feathers reversed.</i>—This + is a considerably larger bird than the rock-pigeons and with the beak, + proportionally with the size of body, a little (viz. by .04 of an inch) + longer. The feathers, especially on the wing-coverts, have their points + curled upwards or backwards.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race III. Nuns</i> (Pigeons-coquilles).—These elegant + birds are smaller than the rock-pigeon. The beak is actually .17, and + proportionally with the size of the body .1 of an inch shorter than in + the rock-pigeons, although of the same thickness. In young birds the + scutellæ on the tarsi and toes are generally of a leaden-black colour; + and this is a remarkable character (though observed in a lesser degree in + some other breeds), as the colour of the legs in the adult state is + subject to very little variation in any breed. I have on two or three + occasions counted thirteen or fourteen feathers in the tail; this + likewise occurs in the barely distinct breed called Helmets. <!-- Page + 156 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page156"></a>{156}</span>Nuns are + symmetrically coloured, with the head, primary wing-feathers, tail, and + tail-coverts of the same colour, namely, black or red, and with the rest + of the body white. This breed has retained the same character since + Aldrovandi wrote in 1600. I have received from Madras almost similarly + coloured birds.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race IV. Spots</i> (Die Blass-Taube: Pigeons + heurtés).—These birds are a very little larger than the + rock-pigeon, with the beak a trace smaller in all its dimensions, and + with the feet decidedly smaller. They are symmetrically coloured, with a + spot on the forehead, with the tail and tail-coverts of the same colour, + the rest of the body being white. This breed existed in 1676;<a + name="NtA_296" href="#Nt_296"><sup>[296]</sup></a> and in 1735 Moore + remarks that they breed truly, as is the case at the present day.</p> + + <p><i>Sub-race V. Swallows.</i>—These birds, as measured from tip + to tip of wing, or from the end of the beak to the end of the tail, + exceed in size the rock-pigeon; but their bodies are much less bulky; + their feet and legs are likewise smaller. The beak is of about the same + length, but rather slighter. Altogether their general appearance is + considerably different from that of the rock-pigeon. Their heads and + wings are of the same colour, the rest of the body being white. Their + flight is said to be peculiar. This seems to be a modern breed, which, + however, originated before the year 1795 in Germany, for it is described + by Bechstein.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p>Besides the several breeds now described, three or four other very + distinct kinds existed lately, or perhaps still exist, in Germany and + France. Firstly, the Karmeliten, or Carme Pigeon, which I have not seen; + it is described as of small size, with very short legs, and with an + extremely short beak. Secondly, the Finnikin, which is now extinct in + England. It had, according to Moore's<a name="NtA_297" + href="#Nt_297"><sup>[297]</sup></a> treatise, published in 1735, a tuft + of feathers on the hinder part of the head, which ran down its back not + unlike a horse's mane. "When it is salacious it rises over the hen and + turns round three or four times, flapping its wings, then reverses and + turns as many times the other way." The Turner, on the other hand, when + it "plays to the female, turns only one way." Whether these extraordinary + statements may be trusted I know not; but the inheritance of any habit + may be believed, after what we have seen with respect to the + Ground-tumbler of India. MM. Boitard and Corbié describe a pigeon<a + name="NtA_298" href="#Nt_298"><sup>[298]</sup></a> which has the singular + habit of sailing for a considerable time through the air, without + flapping its wings, like a bird of prey. The confusion is inextricable, + from the time of Aldrovandi in 1600 to the present day, in the accounts + published of the Draijers, Smiters, Finnikins, Turners, Claquers, + &c., which are all remarkable from their manner of flight. Mr. Brent + informs me that he has seen one of these breeds in Germany with its + wing-feathers injured from having been so often struck together; but he + did not see it flying. An old stuffed specimen of a Finnikin in the + British Museum presents no well-marked character. Thirdly, a singular + pigeon <!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page157"></a>{157}</span>with a forked tail is mentioned in some + treatises; and as Bechstein<a name="NtA_299" + href="#Nt_299"><sup>[299]</sup></a> briefly describes and figures this + bird, with a tail "having completely the structure of that of the + house-swallow," it must once have, existed, for Bechstein was far too + good a naturalist to have confounded any distinct species with the + domestic pigeon. Lastly, an extraordinary pigeon imported from Belgium + has lately been exhibited at the Philoperisteron Society in London,<a + name="NtA_300" href="#Nt_300"><sup>[300]</sup></a> which "conjoins the + colour of an archangel with the head of an owl or barb, its most striking + peculiarity being the extraordinary length of the tail and wing-feathers, + the latter crossing beyond the tail, and giving to the bird the + appearance of a gigantic swift (Cypselus), or long-winged hawk." Mr. + Tegetmeier informs me that this bird weighed only 10 ounces, but in + length was 15½ inches from tip of beak to end of tail, and 32½ inches + from tip to tip of wing; now the wild rock-pigeon weighs 14½ ounces, and + measures from tip of beak to end of tail 15 inches, and from tip to tip + of wing only 26¾ inches.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>I have now described all the domestic pigeons known to me, and have + added a few others on reliable authority. I have classed them under four + Groups, in order to mark their affinities and degrees of difference; but + the third group is artificial. The kinds examined by me form eleven + races, which include several sub-races; and even these latter present + differences that would certainly have been thought of specific value if + observed in a state of nature. The sub-races likewise include many + strictly inherited varieties; so that altogether there must exist, as + previously stated, above 150 kinds which can be distinguished, though + generally by characters of extremely slight importance. Many of the + genera of the Columbidæ, which are admitted by ornithologists, do not + differ in any great degree from each other; taking this into + consideration, there can be no doubt that several of the most strongly + characterised domestic forms, if found wild, would have been placed in at + least five new genera. Thus, a new genus would have been formed for the + reception of the improved English Pouter: a second genus for Carriers and + Runts; and this would have been a wide or comprehensive genus, for it + would have admitted common Spanish Runts without any wattle, short-beaked + Runts like the Tronfo, and the improved English Carrier: a third genus + would have been termed for the Barb: a fourth for the Fantail: and + lastly, a fifth for the short-beaked, not-wattled pigeons, such as + Turbits <!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page158"></a>{158}</span>and short-faced Tumblers. The remaining + domestic forms might have been included in the same genus with the wild + rock-pigeon.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Individual Variability; Variations of a remarkable nature.</i></p> + + <p>The differences which we have as yet considered are characteristic of + distinct breeds; but there are other differences, either confined to + individual birds, or often observed in certain breeds but not + characteristic of them. These individual differences are of importance, + as they might in most cases be secured and accumulated by man's power of + selection; and thus an existing breed might be greatly modified or a new + one formed. Fanciers notice and select only those slight differences + which are externally visible; but the whole organisation is so tied + together by correlation of growth, that a change in one part is + frequently accompanied by other changes. For our purpose, modifications + of all kinds are equally important, and, if affecting a part which does + not commonly vary, are of more importance than a modification in some + conspicuous part. At the present day any visible deviation of character + in a well-established breed is rejected as a blemish; but it by no means + follows that at an early period, before well-marked breeds had been + formed, such deviations would have been rejected; on the contrary, they + would have been eagerly preserved as presenting a novelty, and would then + have been slowly augmented, as we shall hereafter more clearly see, by + the process of unconscious selection.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>I have made numerous measurements of the various parts of the body in + the several breeds, and have hardly ever found them quite the same in + birds of the same breed,—the differences being greater than we + commonly meet with in wild species. To begin with the primary feathers of + the wing and tail; but I may first mention, as some readers may not be + aware of the fact, that the number of the primary wing and tail feathers + in wild birds is generally constant, and characterises, not only whole + genera, but even whole families. When the tail-feathers are unusually + numerous, as for instance in the swan, they are apt to be variable in + number; but this does not apply to the several species and genera of the + Columbidæ, which never (as far as I can hear) have less than twelve or + more than sixteen tail-feathers; and these numbers characterise, with + rare exception, whole sub-families.<a name="NtA_301" + href="#Nt_301"><sup>[301]</sup></a> The wild rock-pigeon has twelve + tail-feathers. With <!-- Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page159"></a>{159}</span>Fantails, as we have seen, the number + varies from fourteen to forty-two. In two young birds in the same nest I + counted twenty-two and twenty-seven feathers. Pouters are very liable to + have additional tail-feathers, and I have seen on several occasions + fourteen or fifteen in my own birds, Mr. Bult had a specimen, examined by + Mr. Yarrell, with seventeen tail-feathers. I had a Nun with thirteen, and + another with fourteen tail-feathers; and in a Helmet, a breed barely + distinguishable from the Nun, I have counted fifteen, and have heard of + other such instances. On the other hand, Mr. Brent possessed a Dragon, + which during its whole life never had more than ten tail-feathers; and + one of my Dragons, descended from Mr. Brent's, had only eleven. I have + seen a Baldhead-Tumbler with only ten; and Mr. Brent had an Air-Tumbler + with the same number, but another with fourteen tail-feathers. Two of + these latter Tumblers, bred by Mr. Brent, were remarkable,—one from + having the two central tail-feathers a little divergent, and the other + from having the two outer feathers longer by three-eighths of an inch + than the others; so that in both cases the tail exhibited a tendency, but + in different ways, to become forked. And this shows us how a + swallow-tailed breed, like that described by Bechstein, might have been + formed by careful selection.</p> + + <p>With respect to the primary wing-feathers, the number in the + Columbidæ, as far as I can find out, is always nine or ten. In the + rock-pigeon it is ten; but I have seen no less than eight short-faced + Tumblers with only nine primaries, and the occurrence of this number has + been noticed by fanciers, owing to ten flight-feathers of a white colour + being one of the points in Short-faced Baldhead-Tumblers. Mr. Brent, + however, had an Air-Tumbler (not short-faced) which had in both wings + eleven primaries. Mr. Corker, the eminent breeder of prize Carriers, + assures me that some of his birds had eleven primaries in both wings. I + have seen eleven in one wing in two Pouters. I have been assured by three + fanciers that they have seen twelve in Scanderoons; but as Neumeister + asserts that in the allied Florence Runt the middle flight-feather is + often double, the number twelve may have been caused by two of the ten + primaries having each two shafts to a single feather. The secondary + wing-feathers are difficult to count, but the number seems to vary from + twelve to fifteen. The length of the wing and tail relatively to the + body, and of the wings to the tail, certainly varies; I have especially + noticed this in Jacobins. In Mr. Bult's magnificent collection of + Pouters, the wings and tail varied greatly in length; and were sometimes + so much elongated that the birds could hardly play upright. In the + relative length of the few first primaries I have observed only a slight + degree of variability. Mr. Brent informs me that he has observed the + shape of the first feather to vary very slightly. But the variation in + these latter points is extremely slight compared with what may often be + observed in the natural species of the Columbidæ.</p> + + <p>In the beak I have observed very considerable differences in birds of + the <!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page160"></a>{160}</span>same breed, as in carefully bred Jacobins + and Trumpeters. In Carriers there is often a conspicuous difference in + the degree of attenuation and curvature of the beak. So it is indeed in + many breeds: thus I had two strains of black Barbs, which evidently + differed in the curvature of the upper mandible. In width of mouth I have + found a great difference in two Swallows. In Fantails of first-rate merit + I have seen some birds with much longer and thinner necks than in others. + Other analogous facts could be given. We have seen that the oil-gland is + aborted in all Fantails (with the exception of the sub-race from Java), + and, I may add, so hereditary is this tendency to abortion, that some, + although not all, of the mongrels from the Fantail and Pouter had no + oil-gland; in one Swallow out of many which I have examined, and in two + Nuns, there was no oil-gland.</p> + + <p>The number of the scutellæ on the toes often varies in the same breed, + and sometimes even differs on the two feet of the same individual; the + Shetland rock-pigeon has fifteen on the middle, and six on the hinder + toe; whereas I have seen a Runt with sixteen on the middle and eight on + the hind toe; and a short-faced Tumbler with only twelve and five on + these same toes. The rock-pigeon has no sensible amount of skin between + its toes; but I possessed a Spot and a Nun with the skin extending for a + space of a quarter of an inch from the fork, between the two <i>inner</i> + toes. On the other hand, as will hereafter be more fully shown, pigeons + with feathered feet very generally have the bases of their <i>outer</i> + toes connected by skin. I had a red Tumbler, which had a coo unlike that + of its fellows, approaching in tone to that of the Laugher: this bird had + the habit, to a degree which I never saw equalled in any other pigeon, of + often walking with its wings raised and arched in an elegant manner. I + need say nothing on the great variability, in almost every breed, in size + of body, in colour, in the feathering of the feet, and in the feathers on + the back of the head being reversed. But I may mention a remarkable + Tumbler<a name="NtA_302" href="#Nt_302"><sup>[302]</sup></a> exhibited at + the Crystal Palace, which had an irregular crest of feathers on its head, + somewhat like the tuft on the head of the Polish fowl. Mr. Bult reared by + accident a hen Jacobin with the feathers on the thigh so long as to reach + the ground, and a cock having, but in a lesser degree, the same + peculiarity: from these two birds he bred others similarly characterised, + which were exhibited at the Philoperisteron Club. I bred a mongrel pigeon + which had fibrous feathers, and the wing and tail-feathers so short and + imperfect that the bird could not fly even a foot in height.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>There are many singular and inherited peculiarities in the plumage of + pigeons: thus Almond-Tumblers do not acquire their perfect mottled + feathers until they have moulted three or four times: the Kite-Tumbler is + at first brindled black and red with a barred appearance, but when "it + throws its nest feathers it becomes almost black, generally with a bluish + tail, and a reddish colour on the inner webs of the primary wing + feathers."<a name="NtA_303" href="#Nt_303"><sup>[303]</sup></a> <!-- Page + 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page161"></a>{161}</span>Neumeister + describes a breed of a black colour with white bars on the wing and a + white crescent-shaped mark on the breast; these marks are generally + rusty-red before the first moult, but after the third or fourth moult + they undergo a change; the wing-feathers and the crown of the head + likewise then become white or grey.<a name="NtA_304" + href="#Nt_304"><sup>[304]</sup></a></p> + + <p>It is an important fact, and I believe there is hardly an exception to + the rule, that the especial characters for which each breed is valued are + eminently variable: thus, in the Fantail, the number and direction of the + tail-feathers, the carriage of the body, and the degree of trembling are + all highly variable points; in Pouters, the degree to which they pout, + and the shape of their inflated crops; in the Carrier, the length, + narrowness, and curvature of the beak, and the amount of wattle; in + Short-faced Tumblers, the shortness of the beak, the prominence of the + forehead, and general carriage,<a name="NtA_305" + href="#Nt_305"><sup>[305]</sup></a> and in the Almond Tumbler the colour + of the plumage; in common Tumblers, the manner of tumbling; in the Barb, + the breadth and shortness of the beak and the amount of eye-wattle; in + Runts, the size of body; in Turbits, the frill; and lastly in Trumpeters, + the cooing, as well as the size of the tuft of feathers over the + nostrils. These, which are the distinctive and selected characters of the + several breeds, are all eminently variable.</p> + + <p>There is another interesting fact with respect to the character of the + different breeds, namely, that they are often most strongly displayed in + the male bird. In Carriers, when the males and females are exhibited in + separate pens, the wattle is plainly seen to be much more developed in + the males, though I have seen a hen Carrier belonging to Mr. Haynes + heavily wattled. Mr. Tegetmeier informs me that, in twenty Barbs in Mr. + P. H. Jones's possession, the males had generally the largest + eye-wattles; Mr. Esquilant also believes in this rule, but Mr. H. Weir, a + first-rate judge, entertains some doubt on the subject. Hale Pouters + distend their crops to a much greater size than do the females; I have, + however, seen a hen in the possession of Mr. Evans which pouted + excellently; but this is an unusual circumstance. Mr. Harrison Weir, a + successful breeder of prize <!-- Page 162 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page162"></a>{162}</span>Fantails, informs me that his cock birds + often have a greater number of tail-feathers than the hens. Mr. Eaton + asserts<a name="NtA_306" href="#Nt_306"><sup>[306]</sup></a> that, if a + cock and hen Tumbler were of equal merit, the hen would be worth double + the money; and as pigeons always pair, so that an equal number of both + sexes is necessary for reproduction, this seems to show that high merit + is rarer in the female than in the male. In the development of the frill + in Turbits, of the hood in Jacobins, of the tuft in Trumpeters, of + tumbling in Tumblers, there is no difference between the males and + females. I may here add a rather different case, namely, the existence in + France<a name="NtA_307" href="#Nt_307"><sup>[307]</sup></a> of a + wine-coloured variety of the Pouter, in which the male is generally + chequered with black, whilst the female is never so chequered. Dr. + Chapuis also remarks<a name="NtA_308" href="#Nt_308"><sup>[308]</sup></a> + that in certain light-coloured pigeons the males have their feathers + striated with black, and these striæ increase in size at each moult, so + that the male ultimately becomes spotted with black. With Carriers, the + wattle, both on the beak and round the eyes, and with Barbs that round + the eyes, goes on increasing with age. This augmentation of character + with advancing age, and more especially the difference between the males + and females in the above-mentioned several respects, are highly + remarkable facts, for there is no sensible difference at any age between + the two sexes in the aboriginal rock-pigeon; and rarely any such + difference throughout the whole family of the Columbidæ.<a name="NtA_309" + href="#Nt_309"><sup>[309]</sup></a></p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:38%;"> + <a href="images/Dom124.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom124.png" + alt="Fig. 24.--Skulls of Pigeons." title="Fig. 24.--Skulls of Pigeons." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 24.—Skulls of Pigeons, viewed laterally, of + natural size. A. Wild Rock-pigeon, <i>Columba livia</i>. B. Short-faced + Tumbler. C. English Carrier. D. Bagadotten Carrier.</p> + </div> +<p class="cenhead"><i>Osteological Characters.</i></p> + + <p>In the skeletons of the various breeds there is much variability; and + though certain differences occur frequently, and others rarely, in + certain breeds, yet none can be said to be absolutely characteristic of + any breed. Considering that strongly-marked domestic races have been + formed chiefly by man's power <!-- Page 163 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page163"></a>{163}</span>of selection, we ought not to expect to + find great and constant differences in the skeleton; for fanciers can + neither see, nor do they care for, modifications of structure in the + internal framework. Nor ought we to expect changes in the skeletons from + hanged habits of life; as every facility is given to the most distinct + breeds to follow the same habits, and the much modified races are never + allowed to wander abroad and procure their own food in various ways. + Moreover, I find, on comparing the skeletons of <i>Columba livia</i>, + <i>œnas</i>, <i>palumbus</i>, and <i>turtur</i>, which are ranked + by all systematists in two or three distinct though allied genera, that + the differences are extremely slight, certainly less than between the + skeletons of some of the most distinct domestic breeds. How far the + skeleton of the wild rock-pigeon is constant I have no means of judging, + as I have examined only two.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Skull.</i>—The individual bones, especially those at the + base, do not differ in shape. But the whole skull, in its proportions, + outline, and relative direction of the bones, differs greatly in some of + the breeds, as may be seen by comparing the figures of (<span + class="scac">A</span>) the wild rock-pigeon, (<span + class="scac">B</span>) the <!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page164"></a>{164}</span>shortfaced tumbler, (<span + class="scac">C</span>) the English carrier, and (<span + class="scac">D</span>) the Bagadotten carrier (of Neumeister), all drawn + of the natural size and viewed laterally. In the carrier, besides the + elongation of the bones of the face, the space between the orbits is + proportionally a little narrower than in the rock-pigeon. In the + Bagadotten the upper mandible is remarkably arched, and the premaxillary + bones are proportionally broader. In the short-faced tumbler the skull is + more globular; all the bones of the face are much shortened, and the + front of the skull and descending nasal bones are almost perpendicular; + the maxillo-jugal arch and premaxillary bones form an almost straight + line; the space between the prominent edges of the eye-orbits is + depressed. In the barb the premaxillary bones are much shortened, and + their anterior portion is thicker than in the rock-pigeon, as is the + lower part of the nasal bone. In two nuns the ascending branches of the + premaxillaries, near their tips, were somewhat attenuated, and in these + birds, as well as in some others, for instance in the spot, the occipital + crest over the foramen was considerably more prominent than in the + rock-pigeon.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <div class="figcenter" style="width:41%;"> + <a href="images/Dom125.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom125.png" + alt="Fig. 25.--Lower jaws of Pigeons." title="Fig. 25.--Lower jaws of Pigeons." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 25.—Lower jaws, seen from above, of natural + size. A. Rock-pigeon. B. Runt. C. Barb.</p> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:16%;"> + <a href="images/Dom126.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom126.png" + alt="Fig. 26.--Skull of Runt." title="Fig. 26.--Skull of Runt." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 26.—Skull of Runt, seen from above, of + natural size, showing the reflexed margin of the distal portion of the + lower jaw.</p> + </div> +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>In the lower jaw, the articular surface is proportionally smaller in + many breeds than in the rock-pigeon; and the vertical diameter more + especially of the outer part of the articular surface is considerably + shorter. May not this be accounted for by the lessened use of the jaws, + owing to nutritious food having been given during a long period to all + highly improved pigeons? In runts, carriers, and barbs (and in a lesser + degree in several breeds), the whole side of the jaw near the articular + end is bent inwards in a highly remarkable manner; and the superior + margin of the ramus, beyond the middle, is reflexed in an equally + remarkable manner, as may be seen in the accompanying figures, in + comparison with the jaw of the rock-pigeon. This reflexion of the upper + margin of the lower jaw is plainly connected with the singularly wide + gape of the mouth, as has been described in runts, carriers, and barbs. + The reflexion is well shown in fig. 26 of the head of a runt seen from + above; here a wide open space may be observed on each side, between the + edges of the lower jaw and of the premaxillary <!-- Page 165 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page165"></a>{165}</span>bones. In the + rock-pigeon, and in several domestic breeds, the edges of the lower jaw + on each side come close up to the premaxillary bones, so that no open + space is left. The degree of downward curvature of the distal half of the + lower jaw also differs to an extraordinary degree in some breeds, as may + be seen in the drawings (fig. <span class="scac">A</span>) of the + rock-pigeon, (<span class="scac">B</span>) of the short-faced tumbler, + and (<span class="scac">C</span>) of the Bagadotten carrier of + Neumeister. In some runts the symphysis of the lower jaw is remarkably + solid. No one would readily have believed that jaws differing so greatly + in the several above-specified points could have belonged to the same + species.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/Dom127.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom127.png" + alt="Fig. 27.--Lateral view of jaws of Pigeons." title="Fig. 27.--Lateral view of jaws of Pigeons." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 27.—Lateral view of jaws, of natural size. + A. Rock-pigeon. B. Short-faced Tumbler. C. Bagadotten Carrier.</p> + </div> +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Vertebræ.</i>— All the breeds have twelve cervical + vertebræ.<a name="NtA_310" href="#Nt_310"><sup>[310]</sup></a> But in a + Bussorah carrier from India, the twelfth vertebra carried a small rib, a + quarter of an inch in length, with a perfect double articulation.</p> + + <p>The <i>dorsal vertebræ</i> are always eight. In the rock-pigeon all + eight bear ribs; the eighth rib being very thin, and the seventh having + no process. In pouters all the ribs are extremely broad, and, in three + out of four skeletons examined by me, the eighth rib was twice or even + thrice as broad as in the rock-pigeon; and the seventh pair had distinct + processes. In many breeds there are only seven ribs, as in seven out of + eight skeletons of various tumblers, and in several skeletons of + fantails, turbits, and nuns. In all these breeds the seventh pair was + very small, and was destitute of processes, in which respect it differed + from the same rib in the rock-pigeon. In one tumbler, and in the Bussorah + carrier, even the sixth pair had no process. The hypapophysis of the + second dorsal vertebra varies much in development; being sometimes (as in + several, but <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page166"></a>{166}</span>not all tumblers) nearly as prominent as + that of the third dorsal vertebra; and the two hypapophyses together tend + to form an ossified arch. The development of the arch, formed by the + hypapophyses of the third and fourth dorsal vertebræ, also varies + considerably, as does the size of the hypapophysis of the fifth + vertebra.</p> + + <p>The rock-pigeon has twelve <i>sacral vertebræ</i>; but these vary in + number, relative size, and distinctness in the different breeds. In + pouters, with their elongated bodies, there are thirteen or even + fourteen, and, as we shall immediately see, an additional number of + caudal vertebræ. In runts and carriers there is generally the proper + number, namely twelve; but in one runt, and in the Bussorah carrier, + there were only eleven. In tumblers there are either eleven, twelve, or + thirteen sacral vertebræ.</p> + + <p>The <i>caudal vertebræ</i> are seven in number in the rock-pigeon. In + fantails, which have their tails so largely developed, there are either + eight or nine, and apparently in one case ten, and they are a little + longer than in the rock-pigeon, and their shape varies considerably. + Pouters, also, have eight or nine caudal vertebræ. I have seen eight in a + nun and jacobin. Tumblers, though such small birds, always have the + normal number seven; as have carriers, with one exception, in which there + were only six.</p> + + <p>The following table will serve as a summary, and will show the most + remarkable deviations in the number of the vertebræ and ribs which I have + observed:—</p> + +</blockquote> + + +<table width="68%" class="allbctr" summary="Vertebræ and ribs of pigeons" title="Vertebræ and ribs of pigeons"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left; width:27%"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:18%"> + <p>Rock Pigeon.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:18%"> + <p>Pouter,<br /> from Mr. + Bult.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:18%"> + <p>Tumbler,<br /> Dutch + Roller.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:18%"> + <p>Bussorah Carrier.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Cervical Vertebræ</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>12<br /> The 12th bore a small + rib.</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Dorsal Vertebræ</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p> " Ribs</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>8<br /> The 6th pair with processes, the 7th pair without a + process.</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>8<br /> The 6th & 7th pair with + processes.</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>7<br /> The 6th & 7th pair without + processes.</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>7<br /> The 6th & 7th pair without + processes.</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Sacral Vertebræ</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>Caudal Vertebræ</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>8 or 9</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p> Total Vertebræ</p> + </td> + <td class="verttopb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>39</p> + </td> + <td class="verttopb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>42 or 43</p> + </td> + <td class="verttopb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>38</p> + </td> + <td class="verttopb" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"> + <p>38</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>The <i>pelvis</i> differs very little in any breed. The anterior + margin of the ilium, however, is sometimes a little more equally rounded + on both sides than in the rock-pigeon, The ischium is also frequently + rather more elongated. The obturator-notch is sometimes, as in many + tumblers, less developed than in the rock-pigeon. The ridges on the ilium + are very prominent in most runts.</p> + + <p>In the bones of the extremities I could detect no difference, except + in their proportional lengths; for instance, the metatarsus in a pouter + was 1.65 inch, and in a short-faced tumbler only .95 in length; and this + is a greater difference than would naturally follow from their + differently-sized bodies; but long legs in the pouter, and small feet in + the tumbler, are selected points. In some pouters the <i>scapula</i> is + rather straighter, and in some <!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page167"></a>{167}</span>tumblers it is straighter, with the apex + less elongated, than in the rock-pigeon: in the woodcut, fig. 28, the + scapulæ of the rock-pigeon (<span class="scac">A</span>), and of a + short-faced tumbler (<span class="scac">B</span>), are given. The + processes at the summit of the <i>coracoid</i>, which receive the + extremities of the furcula, form a more perfect cavity in some tumblers + than in the rock-pigeon: in pouters these processes are larger and + differently shaped, and the exterior angle of the extremity of the + coracoid, which is articulated to the sternum, is squarer.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/Dom129.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom129.png" + alt="Fig. 29.-Furculæ of Pigeons." title="Fig. 29.-Furculæ of Pigeons." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 29.—Furculæ, of natural size. A. Short-faced + Tumbler B and C. Fantails. D. Pouter.</p> + </div> + <p>The two arms of the <i>furcula</i> in pouters diverge less, + proportionally to their length, than in the rock-pigeon; and the + symphysis is more solid and pointed. In fantails the degree of divergence + of the two arms varies in a remarkable mariner. In fig. 29, <span + class="scac">B</span> and <span class="scac">C</span> represent the + furculæ of two fantails; and it will be seen that the divergence in <span + class="scac">B</span> is rather less even than in the furcula of the + short-faced, small-sized tumbler (<span class="scac">A</span>); whereas + the divergence in <span class="scac">C</span> equals that in a + rock-pigeon, or in the pouter (<span class="scac">D</span>), though the + latter is a much larger bird. The extremities of the furcula, where + articulated to the coracoids, vary considerably in outline.</p> + + <p>In the <i>sternum</i> the differences in form are slight, except in + the size and outline of the perforations, which, both in the larger and + lesser sized breeds, are sometimes small. These perforations, also, are + sometimes either nearly circular, or elongated, as is often the case with + carriers. The posterior perforations occasionally are not complete, being + left open posteriorly. The marginal apophyses forming the anterior + perforations vary greatly in development. The degree of convexity of the + posterior part of the sternum differs much, being sometimes almost + perfectly flat. The manubrium is rather more prominent in some + individuals than in others, and the pore immediately under it varies + greatly in size.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><i>Correlation of Growth.</i>—By this term I mean that the whole + organisation is so connected, that when one part varies, other <!-- Page + 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page168"></a>{168}</span>parts + vary; but which of two correlated variations ought to be looked at as the + cause and which as the effect, or whether both result from some common + cause, we can seldom or never tell. The point of interest for us is that, + when fanciers, by the continued selection of slight variations, have + largely modified one part, they often unintentionally produce other + modifications. For instance, the beak is readily acted on by selection, + and, with its increased or diminished length, the tongue increases or + diminishes, but not in due proportion; for, in a barb and short-faced + tumbler, both of which have very short beaks, the tongue, taking the + rock-pigeon as the standard of comparison, was proportionally not + shortened enough, whilst in two carriers and in a runt the tongue, + proportionally with the beak, was not lengthened enough. Thus, in a + first-rate English carrier, in which the beak from the tip to the + feathered base was exactly thrice as long as in a first-rate short-faced + tumbler, the tongue was only a little more than twice as long. But the + tongue varies in length independently of the beak: thus, in a carrier + with a beak 1.2 inch in length, the tongue was .67 in length; whilst in a + runt which equalled the carrier in length of body and in stretch of wings + from tip to tip, the beak was .92 whilst the tongue was .73 of an inch in + length, so that the tongue was actually longer than in the carrier with + its long beak. The tongue of the runt was also very broad at the root. Of + two runts, one had its beak longer by .23 of an inch, whilst its tongue + was shorter by .14 than in the other.</p> + + <p>With the increased or diminished length of the beak the length of the + slit forming the external orifice of the nostrils varies, but not in due + proportion, for, taking the rock-pigeon as the standard, the orifice in a + short-faced tumbler was not shortened in due proportion with its very + short beak. On the other hand (and this could not have been anticipated), + the orifice in three English carriers, in the Bagadotten carrier, and in + a runt (<i>pigeon cygne</i>), was longer by above the tenth of an inch + than would follow from the length of the beak proportionally with that of + the rock-pigeon. In one carrier the orifice of the nostrils was thrice as + long as in the rock-pigeon, though in body and length of beak this bird + was not nearly double the size of the <!-- Page 169 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page169"></a>{169}</span>rock-pigeon. This + greatly increased length of the orifice of the nostrils seems to stand + partly in correlation with the enlargement of the wattled skin on the + upper mandible and over the nostrils; and this is a character which is + selected by fanciers. So again, the broad, naked, and wattled skin round + the eyes of carriers and barbs is a selected character; and in obvious + correlation with this, the eyelids, measured longitudinally, are + proportionally more than double the length of those of the + rock-pigeon.</p> + + <p>The great difference (see woodcut No. 27) in the curvature of the + lower jaw in the rock-pigeon, the tumbler, and Bagadotten carrier, stands + in obvious relation to the curvature of the upper jaw, and more + especially to the angle formed by the maxillo-jugal arch with the + premaxillary bones. But in carriers, runts, and barbs the singular + reflexion of the upper margin of the middle part of the lower jaw (see + woodcut No. 25) is not strictly correlated with the width or divergence + (as may be clearly seen in woodcut No. 26) of the premaxillary bones, but + with the breadth of the horny and soft parts of the upper mandible, which + are always overlapped by the edges of the lower mandible.</p> + + <p>In pouters, the elongation of the body is a selected character, and + the ribs, as we have seen, have generally become very broad, with the + seventh pair furnished with processes; the sacral and caudal vertebræ + have been augmented in number; the sternum has likewise increased in + length (but not in the depth of the crest) by .4 of an inch more than + would follow from the greater bulk of the body in comparison with that of + the rock-pigeon. In fantails, the length and number of the caudal + vertebræ have increased. Hence, during the gradual progress of variation + and selection, the internal bony frame-work and the external shape of the + body have been, to a certain extent, modified in a correlated manner.</p> + + <p>Although the wings and tail often vary in length independently of each + other, it is scarcely possible to doubt that they generally tend to + become elongated or shortened in correlation. This is well seen in + jacobins, and still more plainly in runts, some varieties of which have + their wings and tail of great length, whilst others have both very short. + With jacobins, the remarkable length of the tail and <!-- Page 170 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170"></a>{170}</span>wing-feathers + is not a character which is intentionally selected by fanciers; but + fanciers have been trying for centuries, at least since the year 1600, to + increase the length of the reversed feathers on the neck, so that the + hood may more completely enclose the head; and it may be suspected that + the increased length of the wing and tail-feathers stands in correlation + with the increased length of the neck-feathers. Short-faced tumblers have + short wings in nearly due proportion with the reduced size of their + bodies; but it is remarkable, seeing that the number of the primary + wing-feathers is a constant character in most birds, that these tumblers + generally have only nine instead of ten primaries. I have myself observed + this in eight birds; and the Original Columbarian Society<a + name="NtA_311" href="#Nt_311"><sup>[311]</sup></a> reduced the standard + for bald-head tumblers from ten to nine white flight-feathers, thinking + it unfair that a bird which had only nine feathers should be disqualified + for a prize because it had not ten <i>white</i> flight-feathers. On the + other hand, in carriers and runts, which have large bodies and long + wings, eleven primary feathers have occasionally been observed.</p> + + <p>Mr. Tegetmeier has informed me of a curious and inexplicable case of + correlation, namely, that young pigeons of all breeds, which when mature + become white, yellow, silver (<i>i.e.</i> extremely pale blue), or + dun-coloured, are born almost naked; whereas other coloured pigeons are + born well clothed with down. Mr. Esquilant, however, has observed that + young dun carriers are not so bare as young dun barbs and tumblers. Mr. + Tegetmeier has seen two young birds in the same nest, produced from + differently coloured parents, which differed greatly in the degree to + which they were at first clothed with down.</p> + + <p>I have observed another case of correlation which at first sight + appears quite inexplicable, but on which, as we shall see in a future + chapter, some light can be thrown by the law of homologous parts varying + in the same manner. The case is, that, when the feet are much feathered, + the roots of the feathers are connected by a web of skin, and apparently + in correlation with this the two outer toes become connected for a + considerable space by skin. I have observed this in very many <!-- Page + 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page171"></a>{171}</span>specimens + of pouters, trumpeters, swallows, roller-tumblers (likewise observed in + this breed by Mr. Brent), and in a lesser degree in other feather-footed + pigeons.</p> + + <p>The feet of the smaller and larger breeds are of course much smaller + or larger than those of the rock-pigeon; but the scutellæ or scales + covering the toes and tarsi have not only decreased or increased in size, + but likewise in number. To give a single instance, I have counted eight + scutellæ on the hind toe of a runt, and only five on that of a + short-faced tumbler. With birds in a state of nature the number of the + scutellæ on the feet is usually a constant character. The length of the + feet and the length of the beak apparently stand in correlation; but as + disuse apparently has affected the size of the feet, this case may come + under the following discussion.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p><i>On the Effects of Disuse</i>.—In the following discussion on + the relative proportions of the feet, sternum, furcula, scapulæ, and + wings, I may premise, in order to give some confidence to the reader, + that my measurements were all made in the same manner, and that all the + measurements of the external parts were made without the least intention + of applying them to the following purpose.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>I measured most of the birds which came into my possession, from the + feathered <i>base</i> of the beak (the length of beak itself being so + variable) to the end of the tail, and to the oil-gland, but unfortunately + (except in a few cases) not to the root of the tail; I measured each bird + from the extreme tip to tip of wing; and the length of the terminal + folded part of the wing, from the extremity of the primaries to the joint + of the radius. I measured the feet without the claws, from the end of the + middle toe to the end of the hind toe; and the tarsus together with the + middle toe. I have taken in every case the mean measurement of two wild + rock-pigeons from the Shetland Islands, as the standard of comparison. + The following table shows the actual length of the feet in each bird; and + the difference between the length which the feet ought to have had + according to the size of body of each, in comparison with the size of + body and length of feet of the rock-pigeon, calculated (with a few + specified exceptions) by the standard of the length of the body from the + base of the beak to the oil-gland. I have preferred this standard, owing + to the variability of the length of tail. But I have made similar + calculations, taking as the standard the length from tip to tip of wing, + and likewise in most cases from the base of the beak to the end of the + tail; and the result has always been closely similar. To give an example: + the first bird in the table, being a short-faced tumbler, <!-- Page 172 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page172"></a>{172}</span>is much + smaller than the rock-pigeon, and would naturally have shorter feet; but + it is found on calculation to have feet too short by .11 of an inch, in + comparison with the feet of the rock-pigeon, relatively to the size of + the body in these two birds, as measured from the base of beak to the + oil-gland. So again, when this same tumbler and the rock-pigeon were + compared by the length of their wings, or by the extreme length of their + bodies, the feet of the tumbler were likewise found to be too short in + very nearly the same proportion. I am well aware that the measurements + pretend to greater accuracy than is possible, but it was less trouble to + write down the actual measurements given by the compasses in each case + than an approximation.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table I.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Pigeons with their beaks generally shorter than that of the Rock-pigeon, +proportionally with the size of their bodies.</i></p> + + +<table width="63%" class="allbctr" summary="Feet of pigeons" title="Feet of pigeons"> + <tr> + <td class="verttopb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:58%"> + <p>Name of Breed.</p> + </td> + <td class="verttopb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:13%"> + <p>Actual length of Feet</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Difference between actual and calculated length of feet, in + proportion to length of feet and size of body in the Rock-pigeon</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:left"> + <p>Wild rock-pigeon (mean measurement)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>2.02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center; width:13%"> + <p>Too short by</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center; width:13%"> + <p>Too long by</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Short-faced Tumbler, bald-head</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.57</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " " almond</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tumbler, red magpie</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " red common (by standard to end of tail)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.07</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " common bald-head</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " roller</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.06</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Turbit</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.01</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.84</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jacobin</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Trumpeter, white</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.06</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " mottled</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.95</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Fantail (by standard to end of tail)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " " "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.95</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " crested var. "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.95</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.0 </p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.0 </p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Indian Frill-back "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>English Frill-back</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.03</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nun</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.82</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Laugher</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.65</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Barb</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.03</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.03</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Spot</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.07</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Swallow, red</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " blue</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.00</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.03</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Pouter</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.42</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.11</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " German</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.09</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Bussorah Carrier</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.17</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.09</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Number of specimens</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 173 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page173"></a>{173}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table II.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Pigeons with their beaks longer than that of the Rock-pigeon, +proportionally with the size of their bodies.</i></p> + + +<table width="63%" class="allbctr" summary="Feet of pigeons" title="Feet of pigeons"> + <tr> + <td class="verttopb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:58%"> + <p>Name of Breed.</p> + </td> + <td class="verttopb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; width:13%"> + <p>Actual length of Feet</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Difference between actual and calculated length of feet, in + proportion to length of feet and size of body in the Rock-pigeon</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:left"> + <p>Wild rock-pigeon (mean measurement)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center"> + <p>2.02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center; width:13%"> + <p>Too short by</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center; width:13%"> + <p>Too long by</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Carrier</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.31</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.25</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.40</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.21</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " Dragon</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.06</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Bagadotten Carrier</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.56</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Scanderoon, white</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.37</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p> " Pigeon cygne</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Runt</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.75</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.27</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Number of specimens</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>In these two tables we see in the first column the actual length of + the feet in thirty-six birds belonging to various breeds, and in the two + other columns we see by how much the feet are too short or too long, + according to the size of bird, in comparison with the rock-pigeon. In the + first table twenty-two specimens have their feet too short, on an average + by a little above the tenth of an inch (viz. .107); and five specimens + have their feet on an average a very little too long, namely, by .07 of + an inch. But some of these latter and exceptional cases can be explained; + for instance, with pouters the legs and feet are selected for length, and + thus any natural tendency to a diminution in the length of the feet will + have been counteracted. In the swallow and barb, when the calculation was + made on any standard of comparison excepting the one above used (viz. + length of body from base of beak to oil-gland), the feet were found to be + too small.</p> + + <p>In the second table we have eight birds, with their beaks much longer + than in the rock-pigeon, both actually and proportionally with the size + of body, and their feet are in an equally marked manner longer, namely, + in proportion, on an average by .29 of an inch. I should here state that + in Table I. there are a few partial exceptions to the beak being + proportionally shorter than in the rock-pigeon: thus the beak of the + English frill-back is just perceptibly longer, and that of the Bussorah + carrier of the same length or slightly longer, than in the rock-pigeon. + The beaks of spots, swallows, and laughers are only a very little + shorter, or of the same proportional length, but slenderer. Nevertheless, + these two tables, taken conjointly, indicate pretty plainly some kind of + correlation between the length of the beak and the size of the feet. + Breeders of cattle and horses believe that there is an analogous + connection between the length of the limbs and head; they assert that a + race-horse with the head of a dray-horse, or a <!-- Page 174 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page174"></a>{174}</span>greyhound with the head + of a bulldog, would be a monstrous production. As fancy pigeons are + generally kept in small aviaries, and are abundantly supplied with food, + they must walk about much less than the wild rock-pigeon; and it may be + admitted as highly probable that the reduction in the size of the feet in + the twenty-two birds in the first table has been caused by disuse,<a + name="NtA_312" href="#Nt_312"><sup>[312]</sup></a> and that this + reduction has acted by correlation on the beaks of the great majority of + the birds in Table I. When, on the other hand, the beak has been much + elongated by the continued selection of successive slight increments of + length, the feet by correlation have likewise become much elongated in + comparison with those of the wild rock-pigeon, notwithstanding their + lessened use.</p> + + <p>As I had taken measures from the end of the middle toe to the heel of + the tarsus in the rock-pigeon and in the above thirty-six birds, I have + made calculations analogous with those above given, and the result is the + same,—namely, that in the short-beaked breeds, with equally few + exceptions as in the former case, the middle toe conjointly with the + tarsus has decreased in length; whereas in the long-beaked breeds it has + increased in length, though not quite so uniformly as in the former case, + for the leg in some varieties of the runt varies much in length.</p> + + <p>As fancy pigeons are generally confined in aviaries of moderate size, + and as even when not confined they do not search for their own food, they + must during many generations have used their wings incomparably less than + the wild rock-pigeon. Hence it seemed to me probable that all the parts + of the skeleton subservient to flight would be found to be reduced in + size. With respect to the sternum, I have carefully measured its extreme + length in twelve birds of different breeds, and in two wild rock-pigeons + from the Shetland Islands. For the proportional comparison I have tried + with all twelve birds three standards of measurement, namely, the length + from the base of the beak to the oil-gland, to the end of the tail, and + from the extreme tip to tip of wings. The result has been in each case + nearly the same, the sternum being invariably found to be shorter than in + the wild rock-pigeon. I will give only a single table, as calculated by + the standard from the base of the beak to the oil-gland; for the result + in this case is nearly the mean between the results obtained by the two + other standards.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Length of Sternum.</i></p> + + +<table width="72%" class="allbctr" summary="Length of Sternum" title="Length of Sternum"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:25%"> + <p>Name of Breed.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:12%"> + <p>Actual Length. Inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:12%"> + <p>Too Short by</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:25%"> + <p>Name of Breed.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:12%"> + <p>Actual Length. Inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:12%"> + <p>Too Short by</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wild Rock-pigeon</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.55</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>..</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Barb</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.35</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.34</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Pied Scanderoon</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nun</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.15</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Bagadotten Carrier</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>German Pouter</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.36</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.54</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dragon</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.45</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.41</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jacobin</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.33</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.22</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Carrier</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.35</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>English Frill-back</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.40</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.43</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Short-faced Tumbler</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.05</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.28</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Swallow</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2.45</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.17</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page175"></a>{175}</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>This table shows that in these twelve breeds the sternum is on an + average one-third of an inch (exactly .332) shorter than in the + rock-pigeon, proportionally with the size of their bodies; so that the + sternum has been reduced by between one-seventh and one-eighth of its + entire length; and this is a considerable reduction.</p> + + <p>I have also measured in twenty-one birds, including the above dozen, + the prominence of the crest of the sternum relatively to its length, + independently of the size of the body. In two of the twenty-one birds the + crest was prominent in the same relative degree as in the rock-pigeon; in + seven it was more prominent; but in five out of these seven, namely, in a + fantail, two scanderoons, and two English carriers, this greater + prominence may to a certain extent be explained, as a prominent breast is + admired and selected by fanciers; in the remaining twelve birds the + prominence was less. Hence it follows that the crest exhibits a slight, + though uncertain, tendency to become reduced in prominence in a greater + degree than does the length of the sternum relatively to the size of + body, in comparison with the rock-pigeon.</p> + + <p>I have measured the length of the scapula in nine different large and + small-sized breeds, and in all the scapula is proportionally shorter + (taking the same standard as before) than in the wild rock-pigeon. The + reduction in length on an average is very nearly one-fifth of an inch, or + about one-ninth of the length of the scapula in the rock-pigeon.</p> + + <p>The arms of the furcula in all the specimens which I compared, + diverged less, proportionally with the size of body, than in the + rock-pigeon; and the whole furcula was proportionally shorter. Thus in a + runt, which measured from tip to tip of wings 38½ inches, the furcula was + only a very little longer (with the arms hardly more divergent) than in a + rock-pigeon which measured from tip to tip 26½ inches. In a barb, which + in all its measurements was a little larger than the same rock-pigeon, + the furcula was a quarter of an inch shorter. In a pouter, the furcula + had not been lengthened proportionally with the increased length of the + body. In a short-faced tumbler, which measured from tip to tip of wings + 24 inches, therefore only 2½ inches less than the rock-pigeon, the + furcula was barely two-thirds of the length of that of the + rock-pigeon.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>We thus clearly see that the sternum, scapulæ, and furcula are all + reduced in proportional length; but when we turn to the wings we find + what at first appears a wholly different and unexpected result. I may + here remark that I have not picked out specimens, but have used every + measurement made by me. Taking the length from the base of beak to the + end of the tail as the standard of comparison, I find that, out of + thirty-five birds of various breeds, twenty-five have wings of greater, + and ten have them of less proportional length, than in the rock-pigeon. + But from the frequently correlated length of the tail and wing-feathers, + it is better to take as the standard <!-- Page 176 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page176"></a>{176}</span>of comparison the + length from the base of the beak to the oil-gland; and by this standard, + out of twenty-six of the same birds which had been thus measured, + twenty-one had wings too long, and only five had them too short. In the + twenty-one birds the wings exceeded in length those of the rock-pigeon, + on an average, by 1⅓ inch; whilst in the five birds they were less + in length by only .8 of an inch. As I was much surprised that the wings + of closely confined birds should thus so frequently have been increased + in length, it occurred to me that it might be solely due to the greater + length of the wing-feathers; for this certainly is the case with the + jacobin, which has wings of unusual length. As in almost every case I had + measured the folded wings, I subtracted the length of this terminal part + from that of the expanded wings, and thus I obtained, with a moderate + degree of accuracy, the length of the wings from the ends of the two + radii, answering from wrist to wrist in our arms. The wings, thus + measured in the same twenty-five birds, now gave a widely different + result; for they were proportionally with those of the rock-pigeon too + short in seventeen birds, and in only eight too long. Of these eight + birds, five were long-beaked,<a name="NtA_313" + href="#Nt_313"><sup>[313]</sup></a> and this fact perhaps indicates that + there is some correlation between the length of the beak and the length + of the bones of the wings, in the same manner as with the feet and tarsi. + The shortening of the humerus and radius in the seventeen birds may + probably be attributed to disuse, as in the case of the scapulæ and + furcula to which the wing-bones are attached;—the lengthening of + the wing-feathers, and consequently the expansion of the wings from tip + to tip, being, on the other hand, as completely independent of use and + disuse as is the growth of the hair or wool on our long-haired dogs or + long-woolled sheep.</p> + + <p>To sum up: we may confidently admit that the length of the sternum, + and frequently the prominence of its crest, the length of the scapulæ and + furcula, have all been reduced in size in comparison with the same parts + in the rock-pigeon. And I <!-- Page 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page177"></a>{177}</span>presume that this may be safely attributed + to disuse or lessened exercise. The wings, as measured from the ends of + the radii, have likewise been generally reduced in length; but, owing to + the increased growth of the wing-feathers, the wings, from tip to tip, + are commonly longer than in the rock-pigeon. The feet, as well as the + tarsi conjointly with the middle toe, have likewise in most cases become + reduced; and this it is probable has been caused by their lessened use; + but the existence of some sort of correlation between the feet and beak + is shown more plainly than the effects of disuse. We have also some faint + indication of a similar correlation between the main bones of the wing + and the beak.</p> + + <p><i>Summary on the Points of Difference between the several Domestic + Races, and between the individual Birds.</i>—The beak, together + with the bones of the face, differ remarkably in length, breadth, shape, + and curvature. The skull differs in shape, and greatly in the angle + formed by the union of the premaxillary, nasal, and maxillo-jugal bones. + The curvature of the lower jaw and the reflexion of its upper margin, as + well as the gape of the mouth, differ in a highly remarkable manner. The + tongue varies much in length, both independently and in correlation with + the length of the beak. The development of the naked, wattled skin over + the nostrils and round the eyes varies in an extreme degree. The eyelids + and the external orifices of the nostrils vary in length, and are to a + certain extent correlated with the degree of development of the wattle. + The size and form of the œsophagus and crop, and their capacity for + inflation, differ immensely. The length of the neck varies. With the + varying shape of the body, the breadth and number of the ribs, the + presence of processes, the number of the sacral vertebræ, and the length + of the sternum, all vary. The number and size of the coccygeal vertebræ + vary, apparently in correlation with the increased size of the tail. The + size and shape of the perforations in the sternum, and the size and + divergence of the arms of the furcula, differ. The oil-gland varies in + development, and is sometimes quite aborted. The direction and length of + certain feathers have been much modified, as in the hood of the Jacobin + and the frill of the Turbit. The wing and tail feathers generally vary in + <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page178"></a>{178}</span>length together, but sometimes + independently of each other and of the size of the body. The number and + position of the tail-feathers vary to an unparalleled degree. The primary + and secondary wing-feathers occasionally vary in number, apparently in + correlation with the length of the wing. The length of the leg and the + size of the feet, and, in connection with the latter, the number of the + scutellæ, all vary. A web of skin sometimes connects the bases of the two + inner toes, and almost invariably the two outer toes when the feet are + feathered.</p> + + <p>The size of the body differs greatly: a runt has been known to weigh + more than five times as much as a short-faced tumbler. The eggs differ in + size and shape. According to Parmentier,<a name="NtA_314" + href="#Nt_314"><sup>[314]</sup></a> some races use much straw in building + their nests, and others use little; but I cannot hear of any recent + corroboration of this statement. The length of time required for hatching + the eggs is uniform in all the breeds. The period at which the + characteristic plumage of some breeds is acquired, and at which certain + changes of colour supervene, differs. The degree to which the young birds + are clothed with down when first hatched is different, and is correlated + in a singular manner with the future colour of the plumage. The manner of + flight, and certain inherited movements, such as clapping the wings, + tumbling either in the air or on the ground, and the manner of courting + the female, present the most singular differences. In disposition the + several races differ. Some races are very silent; others coo in a highly + peculiar manner.</p> + + <p>Although many different races have kept true in character during + several centuries, as we shall hereafter more fully see, yet there is far + more individual variability in the truest breeds than in birds in a state + of nature. There is hardly any exception to the rule that those + characters vary most which are now most valued and attended to by + fanciers, and which consequently are now being improved by continued + selection. This is indirectly admitted by fanciers when they complain + that it is much more difficult to breed high fancy pigeons up to the + proper standard of excellence than the so-called toy pigeons, which + differ from <!-- Page 179 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page179"></a>{179}</span>each other merely in colour; for + particular colours when once acquired are not liable to continued + improvement or augmentation. Some characters become attached, from quite + unknown causes, more strongly to the male than to the female sex; so that + we have, in certain races, a tendency towards the appearance of secondary + sexual characters,<a name="NtA_315" href="#Nt_315"><sup>[315]</sup></a> + of which the aboriginal rock-pigeon displays not a trace.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 180 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page180"></a>{180}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">PIGEONS—<i>continued</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><span class="scac">ON THE ABORIGINAL PARENT-STOCK OF THE SEVERAL + DOMESTIC RACES</span>—<span class="scac">HABITS OF + LIFE</span>—<span class="scac">WILD RACES OF THE + ROCK-PIGEON</span>—<span + class="scac">DOVECOT-PIGEONS</span>—<span class="scac">PROOFS OF + THE DESCENT OF THE SEVERAL RACES FROM COLUMBA LIVIA</span>—<span + class="scac">FERTILITY OF THE RACES WHEN CROSSED</span>—<span + class="scac">REVERSION TO THE PLUMAGE OF THE WILD + ROCK-PIGEON</span>—<span class="scac">CIRCUMSTANCES FAVOURABLE TO + THE FORMATION OF THE RACES</span>—<span class="scac">ANTIQUITY AND + HISTORY OF THE PRINCIPAL RACES</span>—<span class="scac">MANNER OF + THEIR FORMATION</span>—<span + class="scac">SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">UNCONSCIOUS + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">CARE TAKEN BY FANCIERS IN + SELECTING THEIR BIRDS</span>—<span class="scac">SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT + STRAINS GRADUALLY CHANGE INTO WELL-MARKED BREEDS</span>—<span + class="scac">EXTINCTION OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS</span>—<span + class="scac">CERTAIN BREEDS REMAIN PERMANENT, WHILST OTHERS + CHANGE</span>—<span class="scac">SUMMARY.</span></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The differences described in the last chapter between the eleven chief + domestic races and between individual birds of the same race, would be of + little significance, if they had not all descended from a single wild + stock. The question of their origin is therefore of fundamental + importance, and must be discussed at considerable length. No one will + think this superfluous who considers the great amount of difference + between the races, who knows how ancient many of them are, and how truly + they breed at the present day. Fanciers almost unanimously believe that + the different races are descended from several wild stocks, whereas most + naturalists believe that all are descended from the <i>Columba livia</i> + or rock-pigeon.</p> + + <p>Temminck<a name="NtA_316" href="#Nt_316"><sup>[316]</sup></a> has well + observed, and Mr. Gould has made the same remark to me, that the + aboriginal parent must have been a species which roosted and built its + nest on rocks; and I may add that it must have been a social bird. For + all the domestic races are highly social, and none are known to build or + habitually to roost on trees. The awkward manner in which some pigeons, + kept by me in a summer-house near an old walnut-tree, occasionally + alighted on the barer branches, was <!-- Page 181 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page181"></a>{181}</span>evident.<a + name="NtA_317" href="#Nt_317"><sup>[317]</sup></a> Nevertheless, Mr. R. + Scot Skirving informs me that he often saw crowds of pigeons in Upper + Egypt settling on the low trees, but not on the palms, in preference to + the mud hovels of the natives. In India Mr. Blyth<a name="NtA_318" + href="#Nt_318"><sup>[318]</sup></a> has been assured that the wild <i>C. + livia</i>, var. <i>intermedia</i>, sometimes roosts in trees. I may here + give a curious instance of compulsion leading to changed habits: the + banks of the Nile above lat. 28° 30' are perpendicular for a long + distance, so that when the river is full the pigeons cannot alight on the + shore to drink, and Mr. Skirving repeatedly saw whole flocks settle on + the water, and drink whilst they floated down the stream. These flocks + seen from a distance resembled flocks of gulls on the surface of the + sea.</p> + + <p>If any domestic race had descended from a species which was not + social, or which built its nest or roosted in trees,<a name="NtA_319" + href="#Nt_319"><sup>[319]</sup></a> the sharp eyes of fanciers would + assuredly have detected some vestige of so different an aboriginal habit. + For we have reason to believe that aboriginal habits are long retained + under domestication. Thus with the common ass we see signs of its + original desert life in its strong dislike to cross the smallest stream + of water, and in its pleasure in rolling in the dust. The same strong + dislike to cross a stream is common to the camel, which has been + domesticated from a very ancient period. Young pigs, though so tame, + sometimes squat when frightened, and thus try to conceal themselves even + on an open and bare place. Young turkeys, and occasionally even young + fowls, when the hen gives the danger-cry, run away and try to hide + themselves, like young partridges or pheasants, in order that their + mother may take flight, of which she has lost the power. The musk-duck + (<i>Dendrocygna viduata</i>) in its native <!-- Page 182 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page182"></a>{182}</span>country often perches + and roosts on trees,<a name="NtA_320" href="#Nt_320"><sup>[320]</sup></a> + and our domesticated musk-ducks, though such sluggish birds, "are fond of + perching on the tops of barns, walls, &c., and, if allowed to spend + the night in the hen-house, the female will generally go to roost by the + side of the hens, but the drake is too heavy to mount thither with + ease."<a name="NtA_321" href="#Nt_321"><sup>[321]</sup></a> We know that + the dog, however well and regularly fed, often buries, like the fox, any + superfluous food; and we see him turning round and round on a carpet, as + if to trample down grass to form a bed; we see him on bare pavements + scratching backwards as if to throw earth over his excrement, although, + as I believe, this is never effected even where there is earth. In the + delight with which lambs and kids crowd together and frisk on the + smallest hillock, we see a vestige of their former alpine habits.</p> + + <p>We have therefore good reason to believe that all the domestic races + of the pigeon are descended either from some one or from several species + which both roosted and built their nests on rocks, and were social in + disposition. As only five or six wild species with these habits and + making any near approach in structure to the domesticated pigeon are + known to exist, I will enumerate them.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Firstly, the <i>Columba leuconota</i> resembles certain domestic + varieties in its plumage, with the one marked and never-failing + difference of a white band which crosses the tail at some distance from + the extremity. This species, moreover, inhabits the Himalaya, close to + the limit of perpetual snow; and therefore, as Mr. Blyth has remarked, is + not likely to have been the parent of our domestic breeds, which thrive + in the hottest countries. Secondly, the <i>C. rupestris</i>, of Central + Asia, which is intermediate<a name="NtA_322" + href="#Nt_322"><sup>[322]</sup></a> between the <i>C. leuconota</i> and + <i>livia</i>; but has nearly the same coloured tail with the former + species. Thirdly, the <i>Columba littoralis</i> builds and roosts, + according to Temminck, on rocks in the Malayan archipelago; it is white, + excepting parts of the wing and the tip of the tail, which are black; its + legs are livid-coloured, and this is a character not observed in any + adult domestic pigeon; but I need not have mentioned this species or the + closely-allied <i>C. luctuosa</i>, as they in fact belong to the genus + Carpophaga. Fourthly, <i>Columba Guinea</i>, which ranges from Guinea<a + name="NtA_323" href="#Nt_323"><sup>[323]</sup></a> to the Cape of Good + Hope, <!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page183"></a>{183}</span>and roosts either on trees or rocks, + according to the nature of the country. This species belongs to the genus + Strictœnas of Reichenbach, but is closely allied to true Columba; + it is to some extent coloured like certain domestic races, and has been + said to be domesticated in Abyssinia; but Mr. Mansfield Parkyns, who + collected the birds of that country and knows the species, informs me + that this is a mistake. Moreover the <i>C. Guinea</i> is characterized by + the feathers of the neck having peculiar notched tips,—a character + not observed in any domestic race. Fifthly, the <i>Columba œnas</i> + of Europe, which roosts on trees, and builds its nest in holes, either in + trees or the ground; this species, as far as external characters go, + might be the parent of several domestic races; but, though it crosses + readily with the true rock-pigeon, the offspring, as we shall presently + see, are sterile hybrids, and of such sterility there is not a trace when + the domestic races are intercrossed. It should also be observed that if + we were to admit, against all probability, that any of the foregoing five + or six species were the parents of some of our domestic pigeons, not the + least light would be thrown on the chief differences between the eleven + most strongly-marked races.</p> + + <p>We now come to the best known rock-pigeon, the <i>Columba livia</i>, + which is often designated in Europe pre-eminently as the Rock-pigeon, and + which naturalists believe to be the parent of all the domesticated + breeds. This bird agrees in every essential character with the breeds + which have been only slightly modified. It differs from all other species + in being of a slaty-blue colour, with two black bars on the wings, and + with the croup (or loins) white. Occasionally birds are seen in Faroe and + the Hebrides with the black bars replaced by two or three black spots; + this form has been named by Brehm<a name="NtA_324" + href="#Nt_324"><sup>[324]</sup></a> <i>C. amaliæ</i>, but this species + has not been admitted as distinct by other ornithologists. Graba<a + name="NtA_325" href="#Nt_325"><sup>[325]</sup></a> even found a + difference between the wing-bars of the same bird in Faroe. Another and + rather more distinct form is either truly wild or has become feral on the + cliffs of England, and was doubtfully named by Mr. Blyth<a name="NtA_326" + href="#Nt_326"><sup>[326]</sup></a> as <i>C. affinis</i>, but is now no + longer considered by him as a distinct species. <i>C. affinis</i> is + rather smaller than the rock-pigeon of the Scottish islands, and has a + very different appearance owing to the wing-coverts being chequered with + black, with similar marks often extending over the back. The chequering + consists of a large black spot on the two sides, but chiefly on the outer + side, of each feather. The wing-bars in the true rock-pigeon and in the + chequered variety are, in fact, due to similar though larger spots + symmetrically crossing the secondary wing-feather and the larger coverts. + Hence the chequering arises merely from an extension of these marks to + other parts of the plumage. Chequered birds are not confined to the + coasts of England; for <!-- Page 184 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page184"></a>{184}</span>they were found by Graba at Faroe; and W. + Thompson<a name="NtA_327" href="#Nt_327"><sup>[327]</sup></a> says that + at Islay fully half the wild rock-pigeons were chequered. Colonel King, + of Hythe, stocked his dovecot with young wild birds which he himself + procured from nests at the Orkney Islands; and several specimens, kindly + sent to me by him, were all plainly chequered. As we thus see that + chequered birds occur mingled with the true rock-pigeon at three distinct + sites, namely, Faroe, the Orkney Islands, and Islay, no importance can be + attached to this natural variation in the plumage.</p> + + <p>Prince C. L. Bonaparte,<a name="NtA_328" + href="#Nt_328"><sup>[328]</sup></a> a great divider of species, + enumerates, with a mark of interrogation, as distinct from <i>C. + livia</i>, the <i>C. turricola</i> of Italy, the <i>C. rupestris</i> of + Daouria, and the <i>C. Schimperi</i> of Abyssinia; but these birds differ + from <i>C. livia</i> in characters of the most trifling value. In the + British Museum there is a chequered pigeon, probably the <i>C. + Schimperi</i> of Bonaparte, from Abyssinia. To these may be added the + <i>C. gymnocyclus</i> of G. R. Gray from W. Africa, which is slightly + more distinct, and has rather more naked skin round the eyes than the + rock-pigeon; but from information given me by Dr. Daniell, it is doubtful + whether this is a wild bird, for dovecot-pigeons (which I have examined) + are kept on the coast of Guinea.</p> + + <p>The wild rock-pigeon of India <i>(C. intermedia</i> of Strickland) has + been more generally accepted as a distinct species. It chiefly differs in + the croup being blue instead of snow-white; but as Mr. Blyth informs me, + the tint varies, being sometimes albescent. When this form is + domesticated chequered birds appear, just as occurs in Europe with the + truly wild <i>C. livia</i>. Moreover we shall immediately have proof that + the blue and white croup is a highly variable character; and Bechstein<a + name="NtA_329" href="#Nt_329"><sup>[329]</sup></a> asserts that with + dovecot-pigeons in Germany this is the most variable of all the + characters of the plumage. Hence it may be concluded that <i>C. + intermedia</i> cannot be ranked as specifically distinct from <i>C. + livia</i>.</p> + + <p>In Madeira there is a rock-pigeon which a few ornithologists have + suspected to be distinct from <i>C. livia</i>. I have examined numerous + specimens collected by Mr. E. V. Harcourt and Mr. Mason. They are rather + smaller than the rock-pigeon from the Shetland Islands, and their beaks + are plainly thinner; but the thickness of the beak varied in the several + specimens. In plumage there is remarkable diversity; some specimens are + identical in every feather (I speak after actual comparison) with the + rock-pigeon of the Shetland Islands; others are chequered, like <i>C. + affinis</i> from the cliffs of England, but generally to a greater + degree, being almost black over the whole back; others are identical with + the so-called <i>C. intermedia</i> of India in the degree of blueness of + the croup; whilst others have this part very pale or very dark blue, and + are likewise chequered. So much variability raises a strong suspicion + that these birds are domestic pigeons which have become feral.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 185 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page185"></a>{185}</span></p> + + <p>From these facts it can hardly be doubted that <i>C. livia</i>, + <i>affinis</i>, <i>intermedia</i>, and the forms marked with an + interrogation by Bonaparte, ought all to be included under a single + species. But it is quite immaterial whether or not they are thus ranked, + and whether some one of these forms or all are the progenitors of the + various domestic kinds, as far as any light is thus thrown on the + differences between the more strongly-marked races. That common + dovecot-pigeons, which are kept in various parts of the world, are + descended from one or from several of the above-mentioned wild varieties + of <i>C. livia</i>, no one who compares them will doubt. But before + making a few remarks on dovecot-pigeons, it should be stated that the + wild rock-pigeon has been found easy to tame in several countries. We + have seen that Colonel King at Hythe stocked his dovecot more than twenty + years ago with young wild birds taken at the Orkney Islands, and since + this time they have greatly multiplied. The accurate Macgillivray<a + name="NtA_330" href="#Nt_330"><sup>[330]</sup></a> asserts that he + completely tamed a wild rock-pigeon in the Hebrides; and several accounts + are on record of these pigeons having bred in dovecots in the Shetland + Islands. In India, as Captain Hutton informs me, the wild rock-pigeon is + easily tamed, and breeds readily with the domestic kind; and Mr. Blyth<a + name="NtA_331" href="#Nt_331"><sup>[331]</sup></a> asserts that wild + birds come frequently to the dovecots and mingle freely with their + inhabitants. In the ancient 'Ayeen Akbery' it is written that, if a few + wild pigeons be taken, "they are speedily joined by a thousand others of + their kind."</p> + + <p>Dovecot-pigeons are those which are kept in dovecots in a + semi-domesticated state; for no special care is taken of them, and they + procure their own food, except during the severest weather. In England, + and, judging from MM. Boitard and Corbié's work, in France, the common + dovecot-pigeon exactly resembles the chequered variety of <i>C. + livia</i>; but I have seen dovecots brought from Yorkshire, without any + trace of chequering, like the wild rock-pigeon of the Shetland Islands. + The chequered dovecots from the Orkney Islands, after having been + domesticated by Colonel King for more than twenty years, differed + slightly from each other in the darkness of their plumage, and in the + thickness of their beaks; the thinnest beak being rather thicker than the + thickest one in the Madeira birds. In Germany, according to Bechstein, + the common dovecot-pigeon is not chequered. In India they often become + chequered, and sometimes pied with white; the croup also, as I am + informed by Mr. Blyth, becomes nearly white. I have received from Sir J. + Brooke some dovecot-pigeons, <!-- Page 186 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page186"></a>{186}</span>which originally came from the S. Natunas + Islands in the Malay archipelago, and which had been crossed with the + Singapore dovecots; they were small, and the darkest variety was + extremely like the dark chequered variety with a blue croup from Madeira; + but the beak was not so thin, though decidedly thinner than in the + rock-pigeon from the Shetland Islands. A dovecot-pigeon sent to me by Mr. + Swinhoe from Foochow, in China, was likewise rather small, but differed + in no other respect. I have also received, through the kindness of Dr. + Daniell, four living dovecot-pigeons from Sierra Leone;<a name="NtA_332" + href="#Nt_332"><sup>[332]</sup></a> these were fully as large as the + Shetland rock-pigeon, with even bulkier bodies. In plumage some of them + were identical with the Shetland rock-pigeon, but with the metallic tints + apparently rather more brilliant; others had a blue croup and resembled + the chequered variety of <i>C. intermedia</i> of India; and some were so + much chequered as to be nearly black. In these four birds the beak + differed slightly in length, but in all it was decidedly shorter, more + massive, and stronger than in the wild rock-pigeon from the Shetland + Islands, or in the English dovecot. When the beaks of these African + pigeons were compared with the thinnest beaks of the wild Madeira + specimens, the contrast was great; the former being fully one-third + thicker in a vertical direction than the latter; so that any one at first + would have felt inclined to rank these birds as specifically distinct; + yet-so perfectly graduated a series could be formed between the + above-mentioned varieties, that it was obviously impossible to separate + them.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>To sum up: the wild <i>Columba livia</i>, including under this name + <i>C. affinis, intermedia</i>, and the other still more closely-affined + geographical races, has a vast range from the southern coast of Norway + and the Faroe Islands to the shores of the Mediterranean, to Madeira and + the Canary Islands, to Abyssinia, India, and Japan. It varies greatly in + plumage, being in many places chequered with black, and having either a + white or blue croup or loins: it varies also slightly in the size of the + beak and body. Dovecot-pigeons, which no one disputes are descended from + one or more of the above wild forms, present a similar but greater range + of variation in plumage, in the size of body, and in the length and + thickness of the beak. There seems to be some relation between the croup + being blue or white, and the temperature of the country inhabited by both + wild and dovecot pigeons; for nearly all the dovecot-pigeons in the + northern parts of Europe have a white croup, like that of the wild + European <!-- Page 187 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page187"></a>{187}</span>rock-pigeon; and nearly all the + dovecot-pigeons of India have a blue croup like that of the wild <i>C. + intermedia</i> of India. As in various countries the wild rock-pigeon has + been found easy to tame, it seems extremely probable that the + dovecot-pigeons throughout the world are the descendants of at least two + and perhaps more wild stocks, but these, as we have just seen, cannot be + ranked as specifically distinct.</p> + + <p>With respect to the variation of <i>C. livia</i>, we may without fear + of contradiction go one step further. Those pigeon-fanciers who believe + that all the chief races, such as Carriers, Pouters, Fantails, &c., + are descended from distinct aboriginal stocks, yet admit that the + so-called toy-pigeons, which differ from the rock-pigeon in little except + in colour, are descended from this bird. By toy-pigeons are meant such + birds as Spots, Nuns, Helmets, Swallows, Priests, Monks, Porcelains, + Swabians, Archangels, Breasts, Shields, and others in Europe, and many + others in India. It would indeed be as puerile to suppose that all these + birds are descended from so many distinct wild stocks as to suppose this + to be the case with the many varieties of the gooseberry, heartsease, or + dahlia. Yet these pigeons all breed true, and many of them present + sub-varieties which likewise truly transmit their character. They differ + greatly from each other and from the rock-pigeon in plumage, slightly in + size and proportions of body, in size of feet, and in the length and + thickness of their beaks. They differ from each other in these respects + more than do dovecot-pigeons. Although we may safely admit that the + latter, which vary slightly, and that the toy-pigeons, which vary in a + greater degree in accordance with their more highly-domesticated + condition, are descended from <i>C. livia</i>, including under this name + the above-enumerated wild geographical races; yet the question becomes + far more difficult when we consider the eleven principal races, most of + which have been so profoundly modified. It can, however, be shown, by + indirect evidence of a perfectly conclusive nature, that these principal + races are not descended from so many wild stocks; and if this be once + admitted, few will dispute that they are the descendants of <i>C. + livia</i>, which agrees with them so closely in habits and in most + characters, which varies in a state of nature, and which has certainly + <!-- Page 188 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page188"></a>{188}</span>undergone a considerable amount of + variation, as in the toy-pigeons. We shall moreover presently see how + eminently favourable circumstances have been for a great amount of + modification in the more carefully tended breeds.</p> + + <p>The reasons for concluding that the several principal races have not + descended from so many aboriginal and unknown stocks may be grouped under + the following six heads:—<i>Firstly</i>, if the eleven chief races + have not arisen from the variation of some one species, together with its + geographical races, they must be descended from several extremely + distinct aboriginal species; for no amount of crossing between only six + or seven wild forms could produce races so distinct as pouters, carriers, + runts, fantails, turbits, short-faced tumblers, jacobins, and trumpeters. + How could crossing produce, for instance, a pouter or a fantail, unless + the two supposed aboriginal parents possessed the remarkable characters + of these breeds? I am aware that some naturalists, following Pallas, + believe that crossing gives a strong tendency to variation, independently + of the characters inherited from either parent. They believe that it + would be easier to raise a pouter or fantail pigeon from crossing two + distinct species, neither of which possessed the characters of these + races, than from any single species. I can find few facts in support of + this doctrine, and believe in it only to a limited degree; but in a + future chapter I shall have to recur to this subject. For our present + purpose the point is not material. The question which concerns us is, + whether or not many new and important characters have arisen since man + first domesticated the pigeon. On the ordinary view, variability is due + to changed conditions of life; on the Pallasian doctrine, variability, or + the appearance of new characters, is due to some mysterious effect from + the crossing of two species, neither of which possess the characters in + question. In some few instances it is credible, though for several + reasons not probable, that well-marked races have been formed by + crossing; for instance, a barb might perhaps have been formed by a cross + between a long-beaked carrier, having large eye-wattles, and some + short-beaked pigeon. That many races have been in some degree modified by + crossing, and that certain varieties which are distinguished only by + peculiar tints have arisen from crosses between differently-coloured <!-- + Page 189 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page189"></a>{189}</span>varieties, may be admitted as almost + certain. On the doctrine, therefore, that the chief races owe their + differences to their descent from distinct species, we must admit that at + least eight or nine, or more probably a dozen species, all having the + same habit of breeding and roosting on rocks and living in society, + either now exist somewhere, or formerly existed but have become extinct + as wild birds. Considering how carefully wild pigeons have been collected + throughout the world, and what conspicuous birds they are, especially + when frequenting rocks, it is extremely improbable that eight or nine + species, which were long ago domesticated and therefore must have + inhabited some anciently known country, should still exist in the wild + state and be unknown to ornithologists.</p> + + <p>The hypothesis that such species formerly existed, but have become + extinct, is in some slight degree more probable. But the extinction of so + many species within the historical period is a bold hypothesis, seeing + how little influence man has had in exterminating the common rock-pigeon, + which agrees in all its habits of life with the domestic races. The <i>C. + livia</i> now exists and flourishes on the small northern islands of + Faroe, on many islands off the coast of Scotland, on Sardinia and the + shores of the Mediterranean, and in the centre of India. Fanciers have + sometimes imagined that the several supposed parent-species were + originally confined to small islands, and thus might readily have been + exterminated; but the facts just given do not favour the probability of + their extinction, even on small islands. Nor is it probable, from what is + known of the distribution of birds, that the islands near Europe should + have been inhabited by peculiar species of pigeons; and if we assume that + distant oceanic islands were the homes of the supposed parent-species, we + must remember that ancient voyages were tediously slow, and that ships + were then ill-provided with fresh food, so that it would not have been + easy to bring home living birds. I have said ancient voyages, for nearly + all the races of the pigeon were known before the year 1600, so that the + supposed wild species must have been captured and domesticated before + that date.</p> + + <p><i>Secondly.</i>—The doctrine that the chief domestic races have + descended from several aboriginal species, implies that several <!-- Page + 190 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page190"></a>{190}</span>species + were formerly so thoroughly domesticated as to breed readily when + confined. Although it is easy to tame most wild birds, experience shows + us that it is difficult to get them to breed freely under confinement; + although it must be owned that this is less difficult with pigeons than + with most other birds. During the last two or three hundred years, many + birds have been kept in aviaries, but hardly one has been added to our + list of thoroughly reclaimed species; yet on the above doctrine we must + admit that in ancient times nearly a dozen kinds of pigeons, now unknown + in the wild state, were thoroughly domesticated.</p> + + <p><i>Thirdly.</i>—Most of our domesticated animals have run wild + in various parts of the world; but birds, owing apparently to their + partial loss of the power of flight, less often than quadrupeds. + Nevertheless I have met with accounts showing that the common fowl has + become feral in South America and perhaps in West Africa, and on several + islands: the turkey was at one time almost feral on the banks of the + Parana; and the Guinea-fowl has become perfectly wild at Ascension and in + Jamaica. In this latter island the peacock, also, "has become a maroon + bird." The common duck wanders from its home and becomes almost wild in + Norfolk. Hybrids between the common and musk-duck which have become wild + have been shot in North America, Belgium, and near the Caspian Sea. The + goose is said to have run wild in La Plata. The common dovecot-pigeon has + become wild at Juan Fernandez, Norfolk Island, Ascension, probably at + Madeira, on the shores of Scotland, and, as is asserted, on the banks of + the Hudson in North America.<a name="NtA_333" + href="#Nt_333"><sup>[333]</sup></a> But how different is the case, when + we turn <!-- Page 191 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page191"></a>{191}</span>to the eleven chief domestic races of the + pigeon, which are supposed by some authors to be descended from so many + distinct species! no one has ever pretended that any one of these races + has been found wild in any quarter of the world; yet they have been + transported to all countries, and some of them must have been carried + back to their native homes. On the view that all the races are the + product of variation, we can understand why they have not become feral, + for the great amount of modification which they have undergone shows how + long and how thoroughly they have been domesticated; and this would unfit + them for a wild life.</p> + + <p><i>Fourthly.</i>—If it be assumed that the characteristic + differences between the various domestic races are due to descent from + several aboriginal species, we must conclude that man chose for + domestication in ancient times, either intentionally or by chance, a most + abnormal set of pigeons; for that species resembling such birds as + pouters, fantails, carriers, barbs, short-faced tumblers, turbits, + &c., would be in the highest degree abnormal, as compared with all + the existing members of the great pigeon-family, cannot be doubted. Thus + we should have to believe that man not only formerly succeeded in + thoroughly domesticating several highly abnormal species, but that these + same species have since all become extinct, or are at least now unknown. + This double accident is so extremely improbable that the assumed + existence of so many abnormal species would require to be supported by + the strongest evidence. On the other hand, if all the races are descended + from <i>C. livia</i>, we can understand, as will hereafter be more fully + explained, how any slight deviation in structure which first appeared + would continually be augmented by the preservation of the most strongly + marked individuals; and as the power of selection would be applied + according to man's fancy, and not for the bird's own good, the + accumulated amount of deviation would certainly be of an abnormal nature + in comparison with the structure of pigeons living in a state of + nature.</p> + + <p>I have already alluded to the remarkable fact, that the <!-- Page 192 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192"></a>{192}</span>characteristic + differences between the chief domestic races are eminently variable: we + see this plainly in the great difference in the number of the + tail-feathers in the fantail, in the development of the crop in pouters, + in the length of the beak in tumblers, in the state of the wattle in + carriers, &c. If these characters are the result of successive + variations added together by selection, we can understand why they should + be so variable: for these are the very parts which have varied since the + domestication of the pigeon, and therefore would be likely still to vary; + these variations moreover have been recently, and are still being + accumulated by man's selection; therefore they have not as yet become + firmly fixed.</p> + + <p><i>Fifthly.</i>—All the domestic races pair readily together, + and, what is equally important, their mongrel offspring are perfectly + fertile. To ascertain this fact I made many experiments, which are given + in the note below; and recently Mr. Tegetmeier has made similar + experiments with the same result.<a name="NtA_334" + href="#Nt_334"><sup>[334]</sup></a> The accurate Neumeister<a + name="NtA_335" href="#Nt_335"><sup>[335]</sup></a> asserts that when + dovecots <!-- Page 193 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page193"></a>{193}</span>are crossed with pigeons of any other + breed, the mongrels are extremely fertile and hardy. MM. Boitard and + Corbié<a name="NtA_336" href="#Nt_336"><sup>[336]</sup></a> affirm, after + their great experience, that with crossed pigeons the more distinct the + breeds, the more productive are their mongrel offspring. I admit that the + doctrine first broached by Pallas is highly probable, if not actually + proved, namely, that closely allied species, which in a state of nature + or when first captured would have been in some degree sterile when + crossed, lose this sterility after a long course of domestication; yet + when we consider the great difference between such races as pouters, + carriers, runts, fantails, turbits, tumblers, &c., the fact of their + perfect, or even increased, fertility when intercrossed in the most + complicated manner becomes a strong argument in favour of their having + all descended from a single species. This argument is rendered much + stronger when we hear (I append in a note<a name="NtA_337" + href="#Nt_337"><sup>[337]</sup></a> <!-- Page 194 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page194"></a>{194}</span>all the cases which I + have collected) that hardly a single well-ascertained instance is known + of hybrids between two true species of pigeons being fertile, <i>inter + se</i>, or even when crossed with one of their pure parents.</p> + + <p><i>Sixthly.</i>—Excluding certain important characteristic + differences, the chief races agree most closely both with each other and + with <i>C. livia</i> in all other respects. As previously observed, all + are eminently sociable; all dislike to perch or roost, and refuse to + build in trees; all lay two eggs, and this is not a universal rule with + the Columbidæ; all, as far as I can hear, require the same time for + hatching their eggs; all can endure the same great range of climate; all + prefer the same food, and are passionately fond of salt; all exhibit + (with the asserted exception of the finnikin and turner, which do not + differ much in any other character) the same peculiar gestures when + courting the females; and all (with the exception of trumpeters and + laughers, which likewise do not differ much in any other character) coo + in the same peculiar manner, unlike the voice of any other wild pigeon. + All the coloured breeds display the same peculiar metallic tints on the + breast, a character far from general with pigeons. Each race presents + nearly the same range of variation in colour; and in most of the races we + have the same singular correlation between the development of down in the + young and the future colour of plumage. All have the proportional length + of their toes, and of their primary wing-feathers, nearly the + same,—characters which are apt to differ in the several members of + the Columbidæ. In those races which present some remarkable deviation of + structure, such as in the tail of fantails, crop of pouters, beak of + carriers and tumblers, &c., the other parts remain nearly unaltered. + Now every naturalist will admit that it would be scarcely possible to + pick out a dozen natural species in any Family, which should agree + closely in habits and in general structure, and yet should differ greatly + in a few <!-- Page 195 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page195"></a>{195}</span>characters alone. This fact is explicable + through the doctrine of natural selection; for each successive + modification of structure in each natural species is preserved, solely + because it is of service; and such modifications when largely accumulated + imply a great change in the habits of life, and this will almost + certainly lead to other changes of structure throughout the whole + organisation. On the other hand, if the several races of the pigeon have + been produced by man through selection and variation, we can readily + understand how it is that they should still all resemble each other in + habits and in those many characters which man has not cared to modify, + whilst they differ to so prodigious a degree in those parts which have + struck his eye or pleased his fancy.</p> + + <p>Besides the points above enumerated, in which all the domestic races + resemble <i>C. livia</i> and each other, there is one which deserves + special notice. The wild rock-pigeon is of a slaty-blue colour; the wings + are crossed by two black bars; the croup varies in colour, being + generally white in the pigeon of Europe, and blue in that of India; the + tail has a black bar close to the end, and the outer webs of the outer + tail-feathers are edged with white, except near the tips. These combined + characters are not found in any wild pigeon besides <i>C. livia</i>. I + have looked carefully through the great collection of pigeons in the + British Museum, and I find that a dark bar at the end of the tail is + common; that the white edging to the outer tail-feathers is not rare; but + that the white croup is extremely rare, and the two black bars on the + wings occur in no other pigeon, excepting the alpine <i>C. leuconota</i> + and <i>C. rupestris</i> of Asia. Now if we turn to the domestic races, it + is highly remarkable, as an eminent fancier, Mr. Wicking, observed to me, + that, whenever a blue bird appears in any race, the wings almost + invariably show the double black bars.<a name="NtA_338" + href="#Nt_338"><sup>[338]</sup></a> The primary wing-feathers may be + white or black, and the whole body may be <!-- Page 196 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page196"></a>{196}</span>of any colour, but if + the wing-coverts alone are blue, the two black bars surely appear. I have + myself seen, or acquired trustworthy evidence, as given below,<a + name="NtA_339" href="#Nt_339"><sup>[339]</sup></a> of blue birds with + black bars on the wing, with the croup either white or very pale or dark + blue, with the tail having a terminal black bar, and with the outer + feathers externally edged with white or very pale coloured, in the + following races, which, as I carefully observed in each case, appeared to + be perfectly pure: namely, in Pouters, Fantails, Tumblers, Jacobins, + Turbits, Barbs, Carriers, Runts of three distinct varieties, Trumpeters, + Swallows, and in many other toy-pigeons, which, as being closely allied + to <i>C. livia</i>, are not worth enumerating. Thus we see that, in + purely-bred races of every kind known in Europe, blue birds occasionally + appear having all the marks which characterise <i>C. livia</i>, and which + concur in no other wild species. Mr. Blyth, also, has made the same + observation with respect to the various domestic races known in + India.</p> + + <p>Certain variations in the plumage are equally common in the wild <i>C. + livia</i>, in dovecot-pigeons, and in all the most highly modified races. + Thus, in all, the croup varies from white to <!-- Page 197 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page197"></a>{197}</span>blue, being most + frequently white in Europe, and very generally blue in India.<a + name="NtA_340" href="#Nt_340"><sup>[340]</sup></a> We have seen that the + wild <i>C. livia</i> in Europe, and dovecots in all parts of the world, + often have the upper wing-coverts chequered with black; and all the most + distinct races, when blue, are occasionally chequered in precisely the + same manner. Thus I have seen Pouters, Fantails, Carriers, Turbits, + Tumblers (Indian and English), Swallows, Bald-pates, and other + toy-pigeons blue and chequered; and Mr. Esquilant has seen a chequered + Runt. I bred from two pure blue Tumblers a chequered bird.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p>The facts hitherto given refer to the occasional appearance in pure + races of blue birds with black wing-bars, and likewise of blue and + chequered birds; but it will now be seen that when two birds belonging to + distinct races are crossed, neither of which have, nor probably have had + during many generations, a trace of blue in their plumage, or a trace of + wing-bars and the other characteristic marks, they very frequently + produce mongrel offspring of a blue colour, sometimes chequered, with + black wing-bars, &c.; or if not of a blue colour, yet with the + several characteristic marks more or less plainly developed. I was led to + investigate this subject from MM. Boitard and Corbié<a name="NtA_341" + href="#Nt_341"><sup>[341]</sup></a> having asserted that from crosses + between certain breeds it is rare to get anything but bisets or + dovecot-pigeons, which, as we know, are blue birds with the usual + characteristic marks. We shall hereafter see that this subject possesses, + independently of our present object, considerable interest, so that I + will give the results of my own trials in full. I selected for experiment + races which, when pure, very seldom produce birds of a blue colour, or + have bars on their wings and tail.</p> + + <p>The nun is white, with the head, tail, and primary wing-feathers + black; it is a breed which was established as long ago <!-- Page 198 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page198"></a>{198}</span>as the year + 1600. I crossed a male nun with a female red common tumbler, which latter + variety generally breeds true. Thus neither parent had a trace of blue in + the plumage, or of bars on the wing and tail. I should premise that + common tumblers are rarely blue in England. From the above cross I reared + several young: one was red over the whole back, but with the tail as blue + as that of the rock-pigeon; the terminal bar, however, was absent, but + the outer feathers were edged with white: a second and third nearly + resembled the first, but the tail in both presented a trace of the bar at + the end: a fourth was brownish, and the wings showed a trace of the + double bar: a fifth was pale blue over the whole breast, back, croup, and + tail, but the neck and primary wing-feathers were reddish; the wings + presented two distinct bars of a red colour; the tail was not barred, but + the outer feathers were edged with white. I crossed this last curiously + coloured bird with a black mongrel of complicated descent, namely, from a + black barb, a spot, and almond tumbler, so that the two young birds + produced from this cross included the blood of five varieties, none of + which had a trace of blue or of wing and tail bars: one of the two young + birds was brownish-black, with black wing-bars; the other was + reddish-dun, with reddish wing-bars, paler than the rest of the body, + with the croup pale blue, the tail bluish, with a trace of the terminal + bar.</p> + + <p>Mr. Eaton<a name="NtA_342" href="#Nt_342"><sup>[342]</sup></a> matched + two short-faced tumblers, namely, a splash cock and kite hen (neither of + which are blue or barred), and from the first nest he got a perfect blue + bird, and from the second a silver or pale blue bird, both of which, in + accordance with all analogy, no doubt presented the usual characteristic + marks.</p> + + <p>I crossed two male black barbs with two female red spots. These latter + have the whole body and wings white, with a spot on the forehead, the + tail and tail-coverts red; the race existed at least as long ago as 1676, + and now breeds perfectly true, as was known to be the case in the year + 1735.<a name="NtA_343" href="#Nt_343"><sup>[343]</sup></a> Barbs are + uniformly-coloured birds, with rarely even a trace of bars on the wing or + tail; they are known to breed very true. The mongrels thus raised were + black or nearly black, or dark or pale brown, <!-- Page 199 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page199"></a>{199}</span>sometimes slightly + piebald with white: of these birds no less than six presented double + wing-bars; in two the bars were conspicuous and quite black; in seven + some white feathers appeared on the croup; and in two or three there was + a trace of the terminal bar to the tail, but in none were the outer + tail-feathers edged with white.</p> + + <p>I crossed black barbs (of two excellent strains) with purely-bred, + snow-white fantails. The mongrels were generally quite black, with a few + of the primary wing and tail-feathers white: others were dark + reddish-brown, and others snow-white: none had a trace of wing-bars or of + the white croup. I then paired together two of these mongrels, namely, a + brown and black bird, and their offspring displayed wing-bars, faint, but + of a darker brown than the rest of body. In a second brood from the same + parents a brown bird was produced, with several white feathers confined + to the croup.</p> + + <p>I crossed a male dun dragon belonging to a family which had been + dun-coloured without wing-bars during several generations, with a uniform + red barb (bred from two black barbs); and the offspring presented decided + but faint traces of wing-bars. I crossed a uniform red male runt with a + white trumpeter; and the offspring had a slaty-blue tail, with a bar at + the end, and with the outer feathers edged with white. I also crossed a + female black and white chequered trumpeter (of a different strain from + the last) with a male almond-tumbler, neither of which exhibited a trace + of blue, or of the white croup, or of the bar at end of tail: nor is it + probable that the progenitors of these two birds had for many generations + exhibited any of these characters, for I have never even heard of a blue + trumpeter in this country, and my almond-tumbler was purely bred; yet the + tail of this mongrel was bluish, with a broad black bar at the end, and + the croup was perfectly white. It may be observed in several of these + cases, that the tail first shows a tendency to become by reversion blue; + and this fact of the persistency of colour in the tail and tail-coverts<a + name="NtA_344" href="#Nt_344"><sup>[344]</sup></a> will surprise no one + who has attended to the crossing of pigeons.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page200"></a>{200}</span></p> + + <p>The last case which I will give is the most curious. I paired a + mongrel female barb-fantail with a mongrel male barb-spot; neither of + which mongrels had the least blue about them. Let it be remembered that + blue barbs are excessively rare; that spots, as has been already stated, + were perfectly characterized in the year 1676, and breed perfectly true; + this likewise is the case with white fantails, so much so that I have + never heard of white fantails throwing any other colour. Nevertheless the + offspring from the above two mongrels was of exactly the same blue tint + as that of the wild rock-pigeon from the Shetland Islands over the whole + back and wings; the double black wing-bars were equally conspicuous; the + tail was exactly alike in all its characters, and the croup was pure + white; the head, however, was tinted with a shade of red, evidently + derived from the spot, and was of a paler blue than in the rock-pigeon, + as was the stomach. So that two black barbs, a red spot, and a white + fantail, as the four purely-bred grandparents, produced a bird of the + same general blue colour, together with every characteristic mark, as in + the wild <i>Columba livia</i>.</p> + + <p>With respect to crossed breeds frequently producing blue birds + chequered with black, and resembling in all respects both the + dovecot-pigeon and the chequered wild variety of the rock-pigeon, the + statement before referred to by MM. Boitard and Corbié would almost + suffice; but I will give three instances of the appearance of such birds + from crosses in which one alone of the parents or great-grandparents was + blue, but not chequered. I crossed a male blue turbit with a snow-white + trumpeter, and the following year with a dark, leaden-brown, short-faced + tumbler; the offspring from the first cross were as perfectly chequered + as any dovecot-pigeon; and from the second, so much so as to be nearly as + black as the most darkly chequered rock-pigeon from Madeira. Another + bird, whose great-grandparents were a white trumpeter, a white fantail, a + white red-spot, a red runt, and a blue pouter, was slaty-blue and + chequered exactly like a dovecot-pigeon. I may here <!-- Page 201 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page201"></a>{201}</span>add a remark + made to me by Mr. Wicking, who has had more experience than any other + person in England in breeding pigeons of various colours: namely, that + when a blue, or a blue and chequered bird, having black wing-bars, once + appears in any race and is allowed to breed, these characters are so + strongly transmitted that it is extremely difficult to eradicate + them.</p> + + <p>What, then, are we to conclude from this tendency in all the chief + domestic races, both when purely bred and more especially when + intercrossed, to produce offspring of a blue colour, with the same + characteristic marks, varying in the same manner, as in <i>Columba + livia</i>? If we admit that these races have all descended from <i>C. + livia</i>, no breeder will doubt that the occasional appearance of blue + birds thus characterised is accounted for on the well-known principle of + "throwing back" or reversion. Why crossing should give so strong a + tendency to reversion, we do not with certainty know; but abundant + evidence of this fact will be given in the following chapters. It is + probable that I might have bred even for a century pure black barbs, + spots, nuns, white fantails, trumpeters, &c., without obtaining a + single blue or barred bird; yet by crossing these breeds I reared in the + first and second generation, during the course of only three or four + years, a considerable number of young birds, more or less plainly + coloured blue, and with most of the characteristic marks. When black and + white, or black and red birds, are crossed, it would appear that a slight + tendency exists in both parents to produce blue offspring, and that this, + when combined, overpowers the separate tendency in either parent to + produce black, or white, or red offspring.</p> + + <p>If we reject the belief that all the races of the pigeon are the + modified descendants of <i>C. livia</i>, and suppose that they are + descended from several aboriginal stocks, then we must choose between the + three following assumptions: firstly, that at least eight or nine species + formerly existed which were aboriginally coloured in various ways, but + have since varied in so exactly the same manner as to assume the + colouring of <i>C. livia</i>; but this assumption throws not the least + light on the appearance of such colours and marks when the races are + crossed. Or secondly, we may assume that the aboriginal species <!-- Page + 202 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page202"></a>{202}</span>were all + coloured blue, and had the wing-bars and other characteristic marks of + <i>C. livia</i>,—a supposition which is highly improbable, as + besides this one species no existing member of the Columbidæ presents + these combined characters; and it would not be possible to find any other + instance of several species identical in plumage, yet as different in + important points of structure as are pouters, fantails, carriers, + tumblers, &c. Or lastly, we may assume that all the races, whether + descended from <i>C. livia</i> or from several aboriginal species, + although they have been bred with so much care and are so highly valued + by fanciers, have all been crossed within a dozen or score of generations + with <i>C. livia</i>, and have thus acquired their tendency to produce + blue birds with the several characteristic marks. I have said that it + must be assumed that each race has been crossed with <i>C. livia</i> + within a dozen, or, at the utmost, within a score of generations; for + there is no reason to believe that crossed offspring ever revert to one + of their ancestors when removed by a greater number of generations. In a + breed which has been crossed only once, the tendency to reversion will + naturally become less and less in the succeeding generations, as in each + there will be less and less of the blood of the foreign breed; but when + there has been no cross with a distinct breed, and there is a tendency in + both parents to revert to some long-lost character, this tendency, for + all that we can see to the contrary, may be transmitted undiminished for + an indefinite number of generations. These two distinct cases of + reversion are often confounded together by those who have written on + inheritance.</p> + + <p>Considering, on the one hand, the improbability of the three + assumptions which have just been discussed, and, on the other hand, how + simply the facts are explained on the principle of reversion, we may + conclude that the occasional appearance in all the races, both when + purely bred and more especially when crossed, of blue birds, sometimes + chequered, with double wing-bars, with white or blue croups, with a bar + at the end of the tail, and with the outer tail-feathers edged with + white, affords an argument of the greatest weight in favour of the view + that all are descended from <i>Columba livia</i>, including under this + name the three or four wild varieties or sub-species before enumerated. + <!-- Page 203 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page203"></a>{203}</span></p> + + <p>To sum up the six foregoing arguments, which are opposed to the belief + that the chief domestic races are the descendants of at least eight or + nine or perhaps a dozen species; for the crossing of any less number + would not yield the characteristic differences between the several races. + <i>Firstly</i>, the improbability that so many species should still exist + somewhere, but be unknown to ornithologists, or that they should have + become within the historical period extinct, although man has had so + little influence in exterminating the wild <i>C. livia</i>. + <i>Secondly</i>, the improbability of man in former times having + thoroughly domesticated and rendered fertile under confinement so many + species. <i>Thirdly</i>, these supposed species having nowhere become + feral. <i>Fourthly</i>, the extraordinary fact that man should, + intentionally or by chance, have chosen for domestication several + species, extremely abnormal in character; and furthermore, the points of + structure which render these supposed species so abnormal being now + highly variable. <i>Fifthly</i>, the fact of all the races, though + differing in many important points of structure, producing perfectly + fertile mongrels; whilst all the hybrids which have been produced between + even closely allied species in the pigeon-family are sterile. + <i>Sixthly</i>, the remarkable statements just given on the tendency in + all the races, both when purely bred and when crossed, to revert in + numerous minute details of colouring to the character of the wild + rock-pigeon, and to vary in a similar manner. To these arguments may be + added the extreme improbability that a number of species formerly + existed, which differed greatly from each other in some few points, but + which resembled each other as closely as do the domestic races in other + points of structure, in voice, and in all their habits of life. When + these several facts and arguments are fairly taken into consideration, it + would require an overwhelming amount of evidence to make us admit that + the chief domestic races are descended from several aboriginal stocks; + and of such evidence there is absolutely none.</p> + + <p>The belief that the chief domestic races are descended from several + wild stocks no doubt has arisen from the apparent improbability of such + great modifications of structure having been effected since man first + domesticated the rock-pigeon. Nor am I surprised at any degree of + hesitation in admitting their common <!-- Page 204 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page204"></a>{204}</span>origin: formerly, when + I went into my aviaries and watched such birds as pouters, carriers, + barbs, fantails, and short-faced tumblers, &c., I could not persuade + myself that they had all descended from the same wild stock, and that man + had consequently in one sense created these remarkable modifications. + Therefore I have argued the question of their origin at great, and, as + some will think, superfluous length.</p> + + <p>Finally, in favour of the belief that all the races are descended from + a single stock, we have in <i>Columba livia</i> a still existing and + widely distributed species, which can be and has been domesticated in + various countries. This species agrees in most points of structure and in + all its habits of life, as well as occasionally in every detail of + plumage, with the several domestic races. It breeds freely with them, and + produces fertile offspring. It varies in a state of nature,<a + name="NtA_345" href="#Nt_345"><sup>[345]</sup></a> and still more so when + semi-domesticated, as shown by comparing the Sierra Leone pigeons with + those of India, or with those which apparently have run wild in Madeira. + It has undergone a still greater amount of variation in the case of the + numerous toy-pigeons, which no one supposes to be descended from distinct + species; yet some of these toy-pigeons have transmitted their character + truly for centuries. Why, then, should we hesitate to believe in that + greater amount of variation which is necessary for the production of the + eleven chief races? It should be borne in mind that in two of the most + strongly-marked races, namely, carriers and short-faced tumblers, the + extreme forms can be connected with the parent-species by graduated + differences not greater than those which may be observed between the + dovecot-pigeons inhabiting different countries, or between the various + kinds of toy-pigeons,—gradations which must certainly be attributed + to variation.</p> + + <p>That circumstances have been eminently favourable for the modification + of the pigeon through variation and selection will now be shown. The + earliest record, as has been pointed out to me by Professor Lepsius, of + pigeons in a domesticated condition, occurs in the fifth Egyptian + dynasty, about <!-- Page 205 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page205"></a>{205}</span>3000 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>;<a + name="NtA_346" href="#Nt_346"><sup>[346]</sup></a> but Mr. Birch, of the + British Museum, informs me that the pigeon appears in a bill of fare in + the previous dynasty. Domestic pigeons are mentioned in Genesis, + Leviticus, and Isaiah.<a name="NtA_347" + href="#Nt_347"><sup>[347]</sup></a> In the time of the Romans, as we hear + from Pliny,<a name="NtA_348" href="#Nt_348"><sup>[348]</sup></a> immense + prices were given for pigeons; "nay, they are come to this pass, that + they can reckon up their pedigree and race." In India, about the year + 1600, pigeons were much valued by Akber Khan: 20,000 birds were carried + about with the court, and the merchants brought valuable collections. + "The monarchs of Iran and Turan sent him some very rare breeds. His + Majesty," says the courtly historian, "by crossing the breeds, which + method was never practised before, has improved them astonishingly."<a + name="NtA_349" href="#Nt_349"><sup>[349]</sup></a> Akber Khan possessed + seventeen distinct kinds, eight of which were valuable for beauty alone. + At about this same period of 1600 the Dutch, according to Aldrovandi, + were as eager about pigeons as the Romans had formerly been. The breeds + which were kept during the fifteenth century in Europe and in India + apparently differed from each other. Tavernier, in his Travels in 1677, + speaks, as does Chardin in 1735, of the vast number of pigeon-houses in + Persia; and the former remarks that, as Christians were not permitted to + keep pigeons, some of the vulgar actually turned Mahometans for this sole + purpose. The Emperor of Morocco had his favourite keeper of pigeons, as + is mentioned in Moore's treatise, published 1737. In England, from the + time of Willughby in 1678 to the present day, as well as in Germany and + in France, numerous treatises have been published on the pigeon. In + India, about a hundred years ago, a Persian treatise was written; and the + writer thought it no light affair, for he begins with a solemn + invocation, "in the name of God, the gracious and merciful." Many large + towns, in Europe and the United States, now have their societies of + devoted pigeon-fanciers: at present there are three such societies in + London. In India, as I hear from <!-- Page 206 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page206"></a>{206}</span>Mr. Blyth, the + inhabitants of Delhi and of some other great cities are eager fanciers. + Mr. Layard informs me that most of the known breeds are kept in Ceylon. + In China, according to Mr. Swinhoe of Amoy, and Dr. Lockhart of Shangai, + carriers, fantails, tumblers, and other varieties are reared with care, + especially by the bonzes or priests. The Chinese fasten a kind of whistle + to the tail-feathers of their pigeons, and as the flock wheels through + the air they produce a sweet sound. In Egypt the late Abbas Pacha was a + great fancier of fantails. Many pigeons are kept at Cairo and + Constantinople, and these have lately been imported by native merchants, + as I hear from Sir W. Elliot, into Southern India, and sold at high + prices.</p> + + <p>The foregoing statements show in how many countries, and during how + long a period, many men have been passionately devoted to the breeding of + pigeons. Hear how an enthusiastic fancier at the present day writes: "If + it were possible for noblemen and gentlemen to know the amazing amount of + solace and pleasure derived from Almond Tumblers, when they begin to + understand their properties, I should think that scarce any nobleman or + gentleman would be without their aviaries of Almond Tumblers."<a + name="NtA_350" href="#Nt_350"><sup>[350]</sup></a> The pleasure thus + taken is of paramount importance, as it leads amateurs carefully to note + and preserve each slight deviation of structure which strikes their + fancy. Pigeons are often closely confined during their whole lives; they + do not partake of their naturally varied diet; they have often been + transported from one climate to another; and all these changes in their + conditions of life would be likely to cause variability. Pigeons have + been domesticated for nearly 5000 years, and have been kept in many + places, so that the numbers reared under domestication must have been + enormous; and this is another circumstance of high importance, for it + obviously favours the chance of rare modifications of structure + occasionally appearing. Slight variations of all kinds would almost + certainly be observed, and, if valued, would, owing to the following + circumstances, be preserved and propagated with unusual facility. + Pigeons, differently from any other domesticated animal, can easily be + mated for life, and, though kept with other pigeons, they rarely prove + unfaithful to each other. Even when the <!-- Page 207 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page207"></a>{207}</span>male does break his + marriage-vow, he does not permanently desert his mate. I have bred in the + same aviaries many pigeons of different kinds, and never reared a single + bird of an impure strain. Hence a fancier can with the greatest ease + select and match his birds. He will also soon see the good results of his + care; for pigeons breed with extraordinary rapidity. He may freely reject + inferior birds, as they serve at an early age as excellent food. To sum + up, pigeons are easily kept, paired, and selected; vast numbers have been + reared; great zeal in breeding them has been shown by many men in various + countries; and this would lead to their close discrimination, and to a + strong desire to exhibit some novelty, or to surpass other fanciers in + the excellence of already established breeds.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>History of the principal Races of the Pigeon</i>.<a name="NtA_351" href="#Nt_351"><sup>[351]</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Before discussing the means and steps by which the chief races have + been formed, it will be advisable to give some historical details, for + more is known of the history of the pigeon, little though this be, than + of any other domesticated animal. Some of the cases are interesting as + proving how long domestic varieties may be propagated with exactly the + same or nearly the same characters; and other cases are still more + interesting as showing how slowly but steadily races have been greatly + modified during successive generations. In the last chapter I stated that + Trumpeters and Laughers, both so remarkable for their voices, seem to + have been perfectly characterized in 1735; and Laughers were apparently + known in India before the year 1600. Spots in 1676, and Nuns in the time + of Aldrovandi, before 1600, were coloured exactly as they now are. Common + Tumblers and Ground Tumblers exhibited in India, before the year 1600, + the same extraordinary peculiarities of flight as at the present day, for + they are well described in the 'Ayeen Akbery.' These breeds may all have + existed for a much longer period; we know only that they were perfectly + characterized at the dates above given. The <i>average</i> length of life + of the domestic pigeon is probably about five or six years; if so, some + of these races have retained their character perfectly for at least forty + or fifty generations.</p> + + <p><i>Pouters.</i>—These birds, as far as a very short description + serves for comparison, appear to have been well characterized in + Aldrovandi's time,<a name="NtA_352" href="#Nt_352"><sup>[352]</sup></a> + before the year 1600. Length of body and length of leg are at the present + time the two chief points of excellence. In 1735 Moore said (see Mr. J. + M. Eaton's edition)—and Moore was a first-rate fancier—that + he once saw a bird with <!-- Page 208 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page208"></a>{208}</span>a body 20 inches in length, "though 17 or + 18 inches is reckoned a very good length;" and he has seen the legs very + nearly 7 inches in length, yet a leg 6½ or 6¾ long "must be allowed to be + a very good one." Mr. Bult, the most successful breeder of Pouters in the + world, informs me that at present (1858) the standard length of the body + is not less than 18 inches; but he has measured one bird 19 inches in + length, and has heard of 20 and 22 inches, but doubts the truth of these + latter statements. The standard length of the leg is now 7 inches, but + Mr. Bult has recently measured two of his own birds with legs 7½ long. So + that in the 123 years which have elapsed since 1735 there has been hardly + any increase in the standard length of the body; 17 or 18 inches was + formerly reckoned a very good length, and now 18 inches is the minimum + standard; but the length of leg seems to have increased, as Moore never + saw one quite 7 inches long; now the standard is 7, and two of Mr. Bult's + birds measured 7½ inches in length. The extremely slight improvement in + Pouters, except in the length of the leg, during the last 123 years, may + be partly accounted for by the neglect which they suffered, as I am + informed by Mr. Bult, until within the last 20 or 30 years. About 1765<a + name="NtA_353" href="#Nt_353"><sup>[353]</sup></a> there was a change of + fashion, stouter and more feathered legs being preferred to thin and + nearly naked legs.</p> + + <p><i>Fantails.</i>—The first notice of the existence of this breed + is in India, before the year 1600, as given in the 'Ayeen Akbery;'<a + name="NtA_354" href="#Nt_354"><sup>[354]</sup></a> at this date, judging + from Aldrovandi, the breed was unknown in Europe. In 1677 Willughby + speaks of a Fantail with 26 tail-feathers; in 1735 Moore saw one with 36 + feathers; and in 1824 MM. Boitard and Corbié assert that in France birds + can easily be found with 42 tail-feathers. In England, the number of the + tail-feathers is not at present so much regarded as their upward + direction and expansion. The general carriage of the bird is likewise now + much regarded. The old descriptions do not suffice to show whether in + these latter respects there has been much improvement; but if fantails + had formerly existed with their heads and tails touching each other, as + at the present time, the fact would almost certainly have been noticed. + The Fantails which are now found in India probably show the state of the + race, as far as carriage is concerned, at the date of their introduction + into Europe; and some, said to have been brought from Calcutta, which I + kept alive, were in a marked manner inferior to our exhibition birds. The + Java Fantail shows the same difference in carriage; and although Mr. + Swinhoe has counted 18 and 24 tail-feathers in his birds, a first-rate + specimen sent to me had only 14 tail-feathers.</p> + + <p><i>Jacobins.</i>—This breed existed before 1600, but the hood, + judging from the figure given by Aldrovandi, did not enclose the head + nearly so perfectly as at present: nor was the head then white; nor were + the wings and tail so long, but this last character might have been + overlooked by the rude artist. In Moore's time, in 1735, the Jacobin was + considered the <!-- Page 209 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page209"></a>{209}</span>smallest kind of pigeon, and the bill is + said to be very short. Hence either the Jacobin, or the other kinds with + which it was then compared, must have been since considerably modified; + for Moore's description (and it must be remembered that he was a + first-rate judge) is clearly not applicable, as far as size of body and + length of beak are concerned, to our present Jacobins. In 1795, judging + from Bechstein, the breed had assumed its present character.</p> + + <p><i>Turbits.</i>—It has generally been supposed by the older + writers on pigeons, that the Turbit is the Cortbeck of Aldrovandi; but if + this be the case, it is an extraordinary fact that the characteristic + frill should not have been noticed. The beak, moreover, of the Cortbeck + is described as closely resembling that of the Jacobin, which shows a + change in the one or the other race. The Turbit, with its characteristic + frill and bearing its present name, is described by Willughby in 1677; + and the bill is said to be like that of the bullfinch,—a good + comparison, but now more strictly applicable to the beak of the Barb. The + sub-breed called the Owl was well known in Moore's time, in 1735.</p> + + <p><i>Tumblers.</i>—Common Tumblers, as well as Ground Tumblers, + perfect as far as tumbling is concerned, existed in India before the year + 1600; and at this period diversified modes of flight, such as flying at + night, the ascent to a great height, and manner of descent, seem to have + been much attended to, as at the present time, in India. Belon<a + name="NtA_355" href="#Nt_355"><sup>[355]</sup></a> in 1555 saw in + Paphlagonia what he describes as "a very new thing, viz. pigeons which + flew so high in the air that they were lost to view, but returned to + their pigeon-house without separating." This manner of flight is + characteristic of our present Tumblers, but it is clear that Belon would + have mentioned the act of tumbling if the pigeons described by him had + tumbled. Tumblers were not known in Europe in 1600, as they are not + mentioned by Aldrovandi, who discusses the flight of pigeons. They are + briefly alluded to by Willughby, in 1687, as small pigeons "which show + like footballs in the air." The short-faced race did not exist at this + period, as Willughby could not have overlooked birds so remarkable for + their small size and short beaks. We can even trace some of the steps by + which this race has been produced. Moore in 1735 enumerates correctly the + chief points of excellence, but does not give any description of the + several sub-breeds; and from this fact Mr. Eaton infers<a name="NtA_356" + href="#Nt_356"><sup>[356]</sup></a> that the short-faced Tumbler had not + then come to full perfection. Moore even speaks of the Jacobin as being + the smallest pigeon. Thirty years afterwards, in 1765, in the Treatise + dedicated to Mayor, short-faced Almond Tumblers are fully described, but + the author, an excellent fancier, expressly states in his Preface (p. + xiv.) that, "from great care and expense in breeding them, they have + arrived to so great perfection and are so different from what they were + 20 or 30 years past, that an old fancier would have condemned them for no + other reason than because they are not like what used to be thought good + when he was in the fancy before." <!-- Page 210 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page210"></a>{210}</span>Hence it would appear + that there was a rather sudden change in the character of the short-faced + Tumbler at about this period; and there is reason to suspect that a + dwarfed and half-monstrous bird, the parent-form of the several + short-faced sub-breeds, then appeared. I suspect this because short-faced + Tumblers are born with their beaks (ascertained by careful measurement) + as short, proportionally with the size of their bodies, as in the adult + bird; and in this respect they differ greatly from all other breeds, + which slowly acquire during growth their various characteristic + qualities.</p> + + <p>Since the year 1765 there has been some change in one of the chief + characters of the short-faced Tumbler, namely, in the length of the beak. + Fanciers measure the "head and beak" from the tip of the beak to the + front corner of the eyeball. About the year 1765 a "head and beak" was + considered good,<a name="NtA_357" href="#Nt_357"><sup>[357]</sup></a> + which, measured in the usual manner, was 7/8 of an inch in length; now it + ought not to exceed 5/8 of an inch; "it is however possible," as Mr. + Eaton candidly confesses, "for a bird to be considered as pleasant or + neat even at 6/8 of an inch, but exceeding that length it must be looked + upon as unworthy of attention." Mr. Eaton states that he has never seen + in the course of his life more than two or three birds with the "head and + beak" not exceeding half an inch in length; "still I believe in the + course of a few years that the head and beak will be shortened, and that + half-inch birds will not be considered so great a curiosity as at the + present time." That Mr. Eaton's opinion deserves attention cannot be + doubted, considering his success in winning prizes at our exhibitions. + Finally in regard to the Tumbler it may be concluded from the facts above + given that it was originally introduced into Europe, probably first into + England, from the East; and that it then resembled our common English + Tumbler, or more probably the Persian or Indian Tumbler, with a beak only + just perceptibly shorter than that of the common dovecot-pigeon. With + respect to the short-faced Tumbler, which is not known to exist in the + East, there can hardly be a doubt that the whole wonderful change in the + size of the head, beak, body, and feet, and in general carriage, has been + produced during the last two centuries by continued selection, aided + probably by the birth of a semi-monstrous bird somewhere about the year + 1750.</p> + + <p><i>Runts.</i>—Of their history little can be said. In the time + of Pliny the pigeons of Campania were the largest known; and from this + fact alone some authors assert that they were Runts. In Aldrovandi's + time, in 1600, two sub-breeds existed; but one of them, the short-beaked, + is now extinct in Europe.</p> + + <p><i>Barbs.</i>—Notwithstanding statements to the contrary, it + seems to me impossible to recognise the barb in Aldrovandi's descriptions + and figures; four breeds, however, existed in the year 1600 which were + evidently allied both to Barbs and Carriers. To show how difficult it is + to recognise some of the breeds described by Aldrovandi, I will give the + different opinions in regard to the above four kinds, named by him <i>C. + Indica</i>, <i>Cretensis</i>, <i>Gutturosa</i>, and <i>Persica</i>. + Willughby thought that the <i>Columba Indica</i> was a <!-- Page 211 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page211"></a>{211}</span>Turbit, but + the eminent fancier Mr. Brent believes that it was an inferior Barb: + <i>C. Cretensis</i>, with a short beak and a swelling on the upper + mandible, cannot be recognised: <i>C.</i> (falsely called) + <i>gutturosa</i>, which from its <i>rostrum</i>, <i>breve</i>, + <i>crassum</i>, et <i>tuberosum</i> seems to me to come nearest to the + Barb, Mr. Brent believes to be a Carrier; and lastly, the <i>C. Persica + et Turcica,</i> Mr. Brent thinks, and I quite concur with him, was a + short-beaked Carrier with very little wattle. In 1687 the Barb was known + in England, and Willughby describes the beak as like that of the Turbit; + but it is not credible that his Barb should have had a beak like that of + our present birds, for so accurate an observer could not have overlooked + its great breadth.</p> + + <p><i>English Carrier.</i>—We may look in vain in Aldrovandi's work + for any bird resembling our prize Carriers; the <i>C. Persica et + Turcica</i> of this author comes the nearest, but is said to have had a + short thick beak; therefore it must have approached in character a Barb, + and have differed greatly from our Carriers. In Willughby's time, in + 1677, we can clearly recognise the Carrier, but he adds, "the bill is not + short, but of a moderate length," a description which no one would apply + to our present Carriers, so conspicuous for the extraordinary length of + their beaks. The old names given in Europe to the Carrier, and the + several names now in use in India, indicate that Carriers originally came + from Persia; and Willughby's description would perfectly apply to the + Bussorah Carrier as it now exists in Madras. In later times we can + partially trace the progress of change in our English Carriers: Moore in + 1735 says "an inch and a half is reckoned a long beak, though there are + very good Carriers that are found not to exceed an inch and a quarter." + These birds must have resembled, or perhaps been a little superior to, + the Carriers, previously described, which are now found in Persia. In + England at the present day "there are," as Mr. Eaton<a name="NtA_358" + href="#Nt_358"><sup>[358]</sup></a> states, "beaks that would measure + (from edge of eye to tip of beak) one inch and three-quarters, and some + few even two inches in length."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>From these historical details we see that nearly all the chief + domestic races existed before the year 1600. Some remarkable only for + colour appear to have been identical with our present breeds, some were + nearly the same, some considerably different, and some have since become + extinct. Several breeds, such as Finnikins and Turners, the + swallow-tailed pigeon of Bechstein and the Carmelite, seem both to have + originated and to have disappeared within this same period. Any one now + visiting a well-stocked English aviary would certainly pick out as the + most distinct kinds, the massive Runt, the Carrier with its wonderfully + elongated beak and great wattles, the Barb with its short broad beak and + eye-wattles, the short-faced Tumbler <!-- Page 212 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page212"></a>{212}</span>with its small conical + beak, the Pouter with its great crop, long legs and body, the Fantail + with its upraised, widely-expanded, well-feathered tail, the Turbit with + its frill and short blunt beak, and the Jacobin with its hood. Now, if + this same person could have viewed the pigeons kept before 1600 by Akber + Khan in India and by Aldrovandi in Europe, he would have seen the Jacobin + with a less perfect hood; the Turbit apparently without its frill; the + Pouter with shorter legs, and in every way less remarkable—that is, + if Aldrovandi's Pouter resembled the old German kind; the Fantail would + have been far less singular in appearance, and would have had much fewer + feathers in its tail; he would have seen excellent flying Tumblers, but + he would in vain have looked for the marvellous short-faced breeds; he + would have seen birds allied to barbs, but it is extremely doubtful + whether he would have met with our actual Barbs; and lastly, he would + have found Carriers with beaks and wattle incomparably less developed + than in our English Carriers. He might have classed most of the breeds in + the same groups as at present; but the differences between the groups + were then far less strongly pronounced than at present. In short, the + several breeds had at this early period not diverged in so great a degree + from their aboriginal common parent, the wild rock-pigeon.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Manner of Formation of the chief Races.</i></p> + + <p>We will now consider more closely the probable steps by which the + chief races have been formed. As long as pigeons are kept + semi-domesticated in dovecots in their native country, without any care + in selecting and matching them, they are liable to little more variation + than the wild <i>C. livia</i>, namely, in the wings becoming chequered + with black, in the croup being blue or white, and in the size of the + body. When, however, dovecot-pigeons are transported into diversified + countries, such as Sierra Leone, the Malay archipelago, and Madeira + (where the wild <i>C. livia</i> is not known to exist), they are exposed + to new conditions of life; and apparently in consequence they vary in a + somewhat greater degree. When closely confined, either for the pleasure + of watching them, or to prevent their straying, they must be exposed, + even under their native climate, to <!-- Page 213 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page213"></a>{213}</span>considerably different + conditions; for they cannot obtain their natural diversity of food; and, + what is probably more important, they are abundantly fed, whilst debarred + from taking much exercise. Under these circumstances we might expect to + find, from the analogy of all other domesticated animals, a greater + amount of individual variability than with the wild pigeon; and this is + the case. The want of exercise apparently tends to reduce the size of the + feet and organs of flight; and then, from the law of correlation of + growth, the beak apparently becomes affected. From what we now see <span + class="correction" title="Printed `occasionlly'">occasionally</span> + taking place in our aviaries, we may conclude that sudden variations or + sports, such as the appearance of a crest of feathers on the head, of + feathered feet, of a new shade of colour, of an additional feather in the + tail or wing, would occur at rare intervals during the many centuries + which have elapsed since the pigeon was first domesticated. At the + present day such "sports" are generally rejected as blemishes; and there + is so much mystery in the breeding of pigeons that, if a valuable sport + did occur, its history would often be concealed. Before the last hundred + and fifty years, there is hardly a chance of the history of any such + sport having been recorded. But it by no means follows from this that + such sports in former times, when the pigeon had undergone much less + variation, would have been rejected. We are profoundly ignorant of the + cause of each sudden and apparently spontaneous variation, as well as of + the infinitely numerous shades of difference between the birds of the + same family. But in a future chapter we shall see that all such + variations appear to be the indirect result of changes of some kind in + the conditions of life.</p> + + <p>Hence, after a long course of domestication, we might expect to see in + the pigeon much individual variability, and occasional sudden variations, + as well as slight modifications from the lessened use of certain parts, + together with the effects of correlation of growth. But without selection + all this would produce only a trifling or no result; for without such aid + differences of all kinds would, from the two following causes, soon + disappear. In a healthy and vigorous lot of pigeons many more young birds + are killed for food or die than are reared to maturity; so that an + individual having any peculiar character, if not selected, would run a + good chance of being destroyed; and if not destroyed, the <!-- Page 214 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page214"></a>{214}</span>peculiarity in + question would almost certainly be obliterated by free intercrossing. It + might, however, occasionally happen that the same variation repeatedly + occurred, owing to the action of peculiar and uniform conditions of life, + and in this case it would prevail independently of selection. But when + selection is brought into play all is changed; for this is the + foundation-stone in the formation of new races; and with the pigeon, + circumstances, as we have already seen, are eminently favourable for + selection. When a bird presenting some conspicuous variation has been + preserved, and its offspring have been selected, carefully matched, and + again propagated, and so onwards during successive generations, the + principle is so obvious that nothing more need be said about it. This may + be called <i>methodical selection</i>, for the breeder has a distinct + object in view, namely, to preserve some character which has actually + appeared; or to create some improvement already pictured in his mind.</p> + + <p>Another form of selection has hardly been noticed by those authors who + have discussed this subject, but is even more important. This form may be + called <i>unconscious selection</i>, for the breeder selects his birds + unconsciously, unintentionally, and without method, yet he surely though + slowly produces a great result. I refer to the effects which follow from + each fancier at first procuring and afterwards rearing as good birds as + he can, according to his skill, and according to the standard of + excellence at each successive period. He does not wish permanently to + modify the breed; he does not look to the distant future, or speculate on + the final result of the slow accumulation during many generations of + successive slight changes: he is content if he possesses a good stock, + and more than content if he can beat his rivals. The fancier in the time + of Aldrovandi, when in the year 1600 he admired his own jacobins, + pouters, or carriers, never reflected what their descendants in the year + 1860 would become; he would have been astonished could he have seen our + jacobins, our improved English carriers, and our pouters; he would + probably have denied that they were the descendants of his own once + admired stock, and he would perhaps not have valued them, for no other + reason, as was written in 1765, "than because they were not like what + used to be thought good when he was in the fancy." No one will attribute + the lengthened beak of the <!-- Page 215 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page215"></a>{215}</span>carrier, the shortened beak of the + short-faced tumbler, the lengthened leg of the pouter, the more + perfectly-enclosed hood of the jacobin, &c.,—changes effected + since the time of Aldrovandi, or even since a much later period,—to + the direct and immediate action of the conditions of life. For these + several races have been modified in various and even in directly opposite + ways, though kept under the same climate and treated in all respects in + as nearly uniform a manner as possible. Each slight change in the length + or shortness of the beak, in the length of leg, &c., has no doubt + been indirectly and remotely caused by some change in the conditions to + which the bird has been subjected, but we must attribute the final + result, as is manifest in those cases of which we have any historical + record, to the continued selection and accumulation of many slight + successive variations.</p> + + <p>The action of unconscious selection, as far as pigeons are concerned, + depends on a universal principle in human nature, namely, on our rivalry, + and desire to outdo our neighbours. We see this in every fleeting + fashion, even in our dress, and it leads the fancier to endeavour to + exaggerate every peculiarity in his breeds. A great authority on + pigeons<a name="NtA_359" href="#Nt_359"><sup>[359]</sup></a> says, + "Fanciers do not and will not admire a medium standard, that is, half and + half, which is neither here nor there, but admire extremes." After + remarking that the fancier of short-faced beard tumblers wishes for a + very short beak, and that the fancier of long-faced beard tumblers wishes + for a very long beak, he says, with respect to one of intermediate + length, "Don't deceive yourself. Do you suppose for a moment the short or + the long-faced fancier would accept such a bird as a gift? Certainly not; + the short-faced fancier could see no beauty in it; the long-faced fancier + would swear there was no use in it, &c." In these comical passages, + written seriously, we see the principle which has ever guided fanciers, + and has led to such great modifications in all the domestic races which + are valued solely for their beauty or curiosity.</p> + + <p>Fashions in pigeon-breeding endure for long periods; we cannot change + the structure of a bird as quickly as we can the fashion of our dress. In + the time of Aldrovandi, no doubt the more the pouter inflated his crop, + the more he was valued. Nevertheless, fashions do to a certain extent + change; first one <!-- Page 216 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page216"></a>{216}</span>point of structure and then another is + attended to; or different breeds are admired at different times and in + different countries. As the author just quoted remarks, "the fancy ebbs + and flows; a thorough fancier now-a-days never stoops to breed + toy-birds;" yet these very "toys" are now most carefully bred in Germany. + Breeds which at the present time are highly valued in India are + considered worthless in England. No doubt, when breeds are neglected, + they degenerate; still we may believe that, as long as they are kept + under the same conditions of life, characters once gained will be + partially retained for a long time, and may form, the starting-point for + a future course of selection.</p> + + <p>Let it not be objected to this view of the action of unconscious + selection that fanciers would not observe or care for extremely slight + differences. Those alone who have associated with fanciers can be + thoroughly aware of their accurate powers of discrimination acquired by + long practice, and of the care and labour which they bestow on their + birds. I have known a fancier deliberately study his birds day after day + to settle which to match together and which to reject. Observe how + difficult the subject appears to one of the most eminent and experienced + fanciers. Mr. Eaton, the winner of many prizes, says, "I would here + particularly guard you against keeping too great a variety of pigeons, + otherwise you will know a little about all the kinds, but nothing about + one as it ought to be known." "It is possible there may be a few fanciers + that have a good general knowledge of the several fancy pigeons, but + there are many who labour under the delusion of supposing they know what + they do not." Speaking exclusively of one sub-variety of one race, + namely, the short-faced almond tumbler, and after saying that some + fanciers sacrifice every property to obtain a good head and beak, and + that other fanciers sacrifice everything for plumage, he remarks: "Some + young fanciers who are over covetous go in for all the five properties at + once, and they have their reward by getting nothing." In India, as I hear + from Mr. Blyth, pigeons are likewise selected and matched with the + greatest care. But we must not judge of the slight differences which + would have been valued in ancient days, by those which are now valued + after the formation of many races, each with its own standard of + perfection, kept uniform by our numerous <!-- Page 217 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page217"></a>{217}</span>Exhibitions. The + ambition of the most energetic fancier may be fully satisfied by the + difficulty of excelling other fanciers in the breeds already established, + without trying to form a new one.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p>A difficulty with respect to the power of selection will perhaps + already have occurred to the reader, namely, what could have led fanciers + first to attempt to make such singular breeds as pouters, fantails, + carriers, &c.? But it is this very difficulty which the principle of + unconscious selection removes. Undoubtedly no fancier ever did + intentionally make such an attempt. All that we need suppose is that a + variation occurred sufficiently marked to catch the discriminating eye of + some ancient fancier, and then unconscious selection carried on for many + generations, that is, the wish of succeeding fanciers to excel their + rivals, would do the rest. In the case of the fantail we may suppose that + the first progenitor of the breed had a tail only slightly erected, as + may now be seen in certain runts,<a name="NtA_360" + href="#Nt_360"><sup>[360]</sup></a> with some increase in the number of + the tail-feathers, as now occasionally occurs with nuns. In the case of + the pouter we may suppose that some bird inflated its crop a little more + than other pigeons, as is now the case in a slight degree with the + œsophagus of the turbit. We do not in the least know the origin of + the common tumbler, but we may suppose that a bird was born with some + affection of the brain, leading it to make somersaults in the air; and + the difficulty in this case is lessened, as we know that, before the year + 1600, in India, pigeons remarkable for their diversified manner of flight + were much valued, and by the order of the Emperor Akber Khan were + sedulously trained and carefully matched.</p> + + <p>In the foregoing cases we have supposed that a sudden variation, + conspicuous enough to catch a fancier's eye, first appeared; but even + this degree of abruptness in the process of variation is not necessary + for the formation of a new breed. When the same kind of pigeon has been + kept pure, and has been bred during a long period by two or more + fanciers, slight differences in the strain can often be recognised. Thus + I have seen first-rate jacobins in one man's possession which certainly + <!-- Page 218 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page218"></a>{218}</span>differed slightly in several characters + from those kept by another. I possessed some excellent barbs descended + from a pair which had won a prize, and another lot descended from a stock + formerly kept by that famous fancier Sir John Sebright, and these plainly + differed in the form of the beak; but the differences were so slight, + that they could hardly be described by words. Again, the common English + and Dutch tumbler differ in a somewhat greater degree, both in length of + beak and shape of head. What first caused these slight differences cannot + be explained any more than why one man has a long nose and another a + short one. In the strains long kept distinct by different fanciers, such + differences are so common that they cannot be accounted for by the + accident of the birds first chosen for breeding having been originally as + different as they now are. The explanation no doubt lies in selection of + a slightly different nature having been applied in each case; for no two + fanciers have exactly the same taste, and consequently no two, in + choosing and carefully matching their birds, prefer or select exactly the + same. As each man naturally admires his own birds, he goes on continually + exaggerating by selection whatever slight peculiarities they may possess. + This will more especially happen with fanciers living in different + countries, who do not compare their stocks and aim at a common standard + of perfection. Thus, when a mere strain has once been formed, unconscious + selection steadily tends to augment the amount of difference, and thus + converts the strain into a sub-breed, and this ultimately into a + well-marked breed or race.</p> + + <p>The principle of correlation of growth should never be lost sight of. + Most pigeons have small feet, apparently caused by their lessened use, + and from correlation, as it would appear, their beaks have likewise + become reduced in length. The beak is a conspicuous organ, and, as soon + as it had thus become perceptibly shortened, fanciers would almost + certainly strive to reduce it still more by the continued selection of + birds with the shortest beaks; whilst at the same time other fanciers, as + we know has actually been the case, would, in other sub-breeds, strive to + increase its length. With the increased length of the beak, the tongue + would become greatly lengthened, as would the eyelids with the increased + development <!-- Page 219 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page219"></a>{219}</span>of the eye-wattles; with the reduced or + increased size of the feet the number of the scutellæ would vary; with + the length of the wing the number of the primary wing-feathers would + differ; and with the increased length of the body in the pouter the + number of the sacral vertebræ would be augmented. These important and + correlated differences of structure do not invariably characterise any + breed; but if they had been attended to and selected with as much care as + the more conspicuous external differences, there can hardly be a doubt + that they would have been rendered constant. Fanciers could assuredly + have made a race of tumblers with nine instead of ten primary + wing-feathers, seeing how often the number nine appears without any wish + on their part, and indeed in the case of the white-winged varieties in + opposition to their wish. In a similar manner, if the vertebræ had been + visible and had been attended to by fanciers, assuredly an additional + number might easily have been fixed in the pouter. If these latter + characters had once been rendered constant we should never have suspected + that they had at first been highly variable, or that they had arisen from + correlation, in the one case with the shortness of the wings, and in the + other case with the length of the body.</p> + + <p>In order to understand how the chief domestic races have become + distinctly separated from each other, it is important to bear in mind, + that fanciers constantly try to breed from the best birds, and + consequently that those which are inferior in the requisite qualities are + in each generation neglected; so that after a time the less improved + parent-stocks and many subsequently formed intermediate grades become + extinct. This has occurred in the case of the pouter, turbit, and + trumpeter, for these highly improved breeds are now left without any + links closely connecting them either with each other or with the + aboriginal rock-pigeon. In other countries, indeed, where the same care + has not been applied, or where the same fashion has not prevailed, the + earlier forms may long remain unaltered or altered only in a slight + degree, and we are thus sometimes enabled to recover the connecting + links. This is the case in Persia and India with the tumbler and carrier, + which there differ but slightly from the rock-pigeon in the <!-- Page 220 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page220"></a>{220}</span>proportions of + their beaks. So again in Java, the fantail sometimes has only fourteen + caudal feathers, and the tail is much less elevated and expanded than in + our improved birds; so that the Java bird forms a link between a + first-rate fantail and the rock-pigeon.</p> + + <p>Occasionally a breed may be retained for some particular quality in a + nearly unaltered condition in the same country, together with highly + modified offshoots or sub-breeds, which are valued for some distinct + property. We see this exemplified in England, where the common tumbler, + which is valued only for its flight, does not differ much from its + parent-form, the Eastern tumbler; whereas the short-faced tumbler has + been prodigiously modified, from being valued, not for its flight, but + for other qualities. But the common-flying tumbler of Europe has already + begun to branch out into slightly different sub-breeds, such as the + common English tumbler, the Dutch roller, the Glasgow house-tumbler, and + the long-faced beard tumbler, &c.; and in the course of centuries, + unless fashions greatly change, these sub-breeds will diverge through the + slow and insensible process of unconscious selection, and become + modified, in a greater and greater degree. After a time the perfectly + graduated links, which now connect all these sub-breeds together, will be + lost, for there would be no object and much difficulty in retaining such + a host of intermediate sub-varieties.</p> + + <p>The principle of divergence, together with the extinction of the many + previously existing intermediate forms, is so important for understanding + the origin of domestic races, as well as of species in a state of nature, + that I will enlarge a little more on this subject. Our third main group + includes carriers, barbs, and runts, which are plainly related to each + other, yet wonderfully distinct in several important characters. + According to the view given in the last chapter, these three races have + probably descended from an unknown race having an intermediate character, + and this from the rock-pigeon. Their characteristic differences are + believed to be due to different breeders having at an early period + admired different points of structure; and then, on the acknowledged + principle of admiring extremes, having gone on breeding, without any + thought of the future, as good birds as they + could,—carrier-fanciers preferring <!-- Page 221 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page221"></a>{221}</span>long beaks with much + wattle,—barb-fanciers preferring short thick beaks with much + eye-wattle,—and runt-fanciers not caring about the beak or wattle, + but only for the size and weight of the body. This process will have led + to the neglect and final extinction of the earlier, inferior, and + intermediate birds; and thus it has come to pass, that in Europe these + three races are now so extraordinarily distinct from each other. But in + the East, whence they were originally brought, the fashion has been + different, and we there see breeds which connect the highly modified + English carrier with the rock-pigeon, and others which to a certain + extent connect carriers and runts. Looking back to the time of + Aldrovandi, we find that there existed in Europe, before the year 1600, + four breeds which were closely allied to carriers and barbs, but which + competent authorities cannot now identify with our present barbs and + carriers; nor can Aldrovandi's runts be identified with our present + runts. These four breeds certainly did not differ from each other nearly + so much as do our existing English carriers, barbs, and runts. All this + is exactly what might have been anticipated. If we could collect all the + pigeons which have ever lived, from before the time of the Romans to the + present day, we should be able to group them in several lines, diverging + from the parent rock-pigeon. Each line would consist of almost insensible + steps, occasionally broken by some slightly greater variation or sport, + and each would culminate in one of our present highly modified forms. Of + the many former connecting links, some would be found to have become + absolutely extinct without having left any issue, whilst others though + extinct would be seen to be the progenitors of the existing races.</p> + + <p>I have heard it remarked as a strange circumstance that we + occasionally hear of the local or complete extinction of domestic races, + whilst we hear nothing of their origin. How, it has been asked, can these + losses be compensated, and more than compensated, for we know that with + almost all domesticated animals the races have largely increased in + number since the time of the Romans? But on the view here given, we can + understand this apparent contradiction. The extinction of a race within + historical times is an event likely to be noticed; but its gradual and + scarcely sensible modification through unconscious selection, <!-- Page + 222 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page222"></a>{222}</span>and its + subsequent divergence, either in the same or more commonly in distant + countries, into two or more strains, and their gradual conversion into + sub-breeds, and these into well-marked breeds, are events which would + rarely be noticed. The death of a tree, that has attained gigantic + dimensions, is recorded; the slow growth of smaller trees and their + increase in number excite no attention.</p> + + <p>In accordance with the belief of the great power of selection, and of + the little direct power of changed conditions of life, except in causing + general variability or plasticity of organisation, it is not surprising + that dovecot-pigeons have remained unaltered from time immemorial; and + that some toy-pigeons, which differ in little else besides colour from + the dovecot-pigeon, have retained the same character for several + centuries. For when one of these toy-pigeons had once become beautifully + and symmetrically coloured,—when, for instance, a Spot had been + produced with the crown of its head, its tail, and tail-coverts of a + uniform colour, the rest of the body being snow-white,—no + alteration or improvement would be desired. On the other hand, it is not + surprising that during this same interval of time our highly-bred pigeons + have undergone an astonishing amount of change; for in regard to them + there is no defined limit to the wish of the fancier, and there is no + known limit to the variability of their characters. What is there to stop + the fancier desiring to give to his carrier a longer and longer beak, or + to his tumbler a shorter and shorter beak? nor has the extreme limit of + variability in the beak, if there be any such limit, as yet been reached. + Notwithstanding the great improvement effected within recent times in the + short-faced almond tumbler, Mr. Eaton remarks, "the field is still as + open for fresh competitors as it was one hundred years ago;" but this is + perhaps an exaggerated assertion, for the young of all highly improved + fancy birds are extremely liable to disease and death.</p> + + <p>I have heard it objected that the formation of the several domestic + races of the pigeon throws no light on the origin of the wild species of + the Columbidæ, because their differences are not of the same nature. The + domestic races for instance do not differ, or differ hardly at all, in + the relative lengths and shapes of the primary wing-feathers, in the + relative length of the hind <!-- Page 223 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page223"></a>{223}</span>toe, or in habits of life, as in roosting + and building in trees. But the above objection shows how completely the + principle of selection has been misunderstood. It is not likely that + characters selected by the caprice of man should resemble differences + preserved under natural conditions, either from being of direct service + to each species, or from standing in correlation with other modified and + serviceable structures. Until man selects birds differing in the relative + length of the wing-feathers or toes, &c., no sensible change in these + parts should be expected. Nor could man do anything unless these parts + happened to vary under domestication: I do not positively assert that + this is the case, although I have seen traces of such variability in the + wing-feathers, and certainly in the tail-feathers. It would be a strange + fact if the relative length of the hind toe should never vary, seeing how + variable the foot is both in size and in the number of the scutellæ. With + respect to the domestic races not roosting or building in trees, it is + obvious that fanciers would never attend to or select such changes in + habits; but we have seen that the pigeons in Egypt, which do not for some + reason like settling on the low mud hovels of the natives, are led, + apparently by compulsion, to perch in crowds on the trees. We may even + affirm that, if our domestic races had become greatly modified in any of + the above specified respects, and it could be shown that fanciers had + never attended to such points, or that they did not stand in correlation + with other selected characters, the fact, on the principles advocated in + this chapter, would have offered a serious difficulty.</p> + + <p>Let us briefly sum up the last two chapters on the pigeon. We may + conclude with confidence that all the domestic races, notwithstanding + their great amount of difference, are descended from the <i>Columba + livia</i>, including under this name certain wild races. But the + differences between these latter forms throw no light whatever on the + characters which distinguish the domestic races. In each breed or + sub-breed the individual birds are more variable than birds in a state of + nature; and occasionally they vary in a sudden and strongly-marked + manner. This plasticity of organisation apparently results from changed + conditions of life. Disuse has reduced certain parts of the body. + Correlation of growth so ties the organisation together, that when one + part varies other parts <!-- Page 224 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page224"></a>{224}</span>vary at the same time. When several breeds + have once been formed, their intercrossing aids the progress of + modification, and has even produced new sub-breeds. But as, in the + construction of a building, mere stones or bricks are of little avail + without the builder's art, so, in the production of new races, selection + has been the presiding power. Fanciers can act by selection on + excessively slight individual differences, as well as on those greater + differences which are called sports. Selection is followed methodically + when the fancier tries to improve and modify a breed according to a + prefixed standard of excellence; or he acts unmethodically and + unconsciously, by merely trying to rear as good birds as he can, without + any wish or intention to alter the breed. The progress of selection + almost inevitably leads to the neglect and ultimate extinction of the + earlier and less improved forms, as well as of many intermediate links in + each long line of descent. Thus it has come to pass that most of our + present races are so marvellously distinct from each other, and from the + aboriginal rock-pigeon.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 225 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page225"></a>{225}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">FOWLS.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><span class="scac">BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE CHIEF + BREEDS</span>—<span class="scac">ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF THEIR + DESCENT FROM SEVERAL SPECIES</span>—<span class="scac">ARGUMENTS IN + FAVOUR OF ALL THE BREEDS HAVING DESCENDED FROM GALLUS + BANKIVA</span>—<span class="scac">REVERSION TO THE PARENT-STOCK IN + COLOUR</span>—<span class="scac">ANALOGOUS + VARIATIONS</span>—<span class="scac">ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE + FOWL</span>—<span class="scac">EXTERNAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE + SEVERAL BREEDS</span>—<span class="scac">EGGS</span>—<span + class="scac">CHICKENS</span>—<span class="scac">SECONDARY SEXUAL + CHARACTERS</span>—<span class="scac">WING- AND TAIL-FEATHERS, + VOICE, DISPOSITION, ETC.</span>—<span class="scac">OSTEOLOGICAL + DIFFERENCES IN THE SKULL, VERTEBRÆ, ETC.</span>—<span + class="scac">EFFECTS OF USE AND DISUSE ON CERTAIN + PARTS</span>—<span class="scac">CORRELATION OF GROWTH.</span></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>As some naturalists may not be familiar with the chief breeds of the + fowl, it will be advisable to give a condensed description of them.<a + name="NtA_361" href="#Nt_361"><sup>[361]</sup></a> From what I have read + and seen of specimens brought from several quarters of the world, I + believe that most of the chief kinds have been imported into England, but + many sub-breeds are probably still here unknown. The following discussion + on the origin of the various breeds and on their characteristic + differences does not pretend to completeness, but may be of some interest + to the naturalist. The classification of the breeds cannot, as far as I + can see, be made natural. They differ from each other in different + degrees, and do not afford characters in subordination to each other, by + which they can be ranked in group under group. They seem all to have + diverged by independent and different roads from a single type. Each + chief breed includes differently coloured sub-varieties, most of which + can be truly propagated, but it would be superfluous to describe them. I + have classed the various crested fowls <!-- Page 226 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page226"></a>{226}</span>as sub-breeds under the + Polish fowl; but I have great doubts whether this is a natural + arrangement, showing true affinity or blood relationship. It is scarcely + possible to avoid laying stress on the commonness of a breed; and if + certain foreign sub-breeds had been largely kept in this country they + would perhaps have been raised to the rank of main-breeds. Several breeds + are abnormal in character; that is, they differ in certain points from + all wild Gallinaceous birds. At first I made a division of the breeds + into normal and abnormal, but the result was wholly unsatisfactory.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:47%;"> + <a href="images/Dom130.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom130.png" + alt="Fig. 30.--Spanish Fowl." title="Fig. 30.--Spanish Fowl." /></a> + Fig. 30.—Spanish Fowl. + </div> +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>1. <span class="sc">Game Breed.</span>—This may be considered as + the typical breed, as it deviates only slightly from the wild <i>Gallus + bankiva</i>, or, as perhaps more correctly named, <i>ferrugineus</i>. + Beak strong; comb single and upright. Spurs long and sharp. Feathers + closely adpressed to the body. Tail with the normal number of 14 + feathers. Eggs often pale-buff. Disposition <!-- Page 227 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page227"></a>{227}</span>indomitably courageous, + exhibited even in the hens and chickens. An unusual number of differently + coloured varieties exist, such as black and brown-breasted reds, + duckwings, blacks, whites, piles, &c., with their legs of various + colours.</p> + + <p>2. <span class="sc">Malay Breed.</span>—Body of great size, with + head, neck, and legs elongated; carriage erect; tail small, sloping + downwards, generally formed of 16 feathers; comb and wattle small; + ear-lobe and face red; skin yellowish; feathers closely adpressed to the + body; neck-hackles short, narrow, and hard. Eggs often pale buff. + Chickens feather late. Disposition savage. Of Eastern origin.</p> + + <p>3. <span class="sc">Cochin, or Shangai Breed.</span>—Size great; + wing-feathers short, arched, much hidden in the soft downy plumage; + barely capable of flight; tail short, generally formed of 16 feathers, + developed at a late period in the young males; legs thick, feathered; + spurs short, thick; nail of middle toe flat and broad; an additional toe + not rarely developed; skin yellowish. Comb and wattle well developed. + Skull with deep medial furrow; occipital foramen, sub-triangular, + vertically elongated. Voice peculiar. Eggs rough, buff-coloured. + Disposition extremely quiet. Of Chinese origin.</p> + + <p>4. <span class="sc">Dorking Breed.</span>—Size great; body + square, compact; feet with an additional toe; comb well developed, but + varies much in form; wattles well developed; colour of plumage various. + Skull remarkably broad between the orbits. Of English origin.</p> + + <p>The white Dorking may be considered as a distinct sub-breed, being a + less massive bird.</p> + + <p>5. <span class="sc">Spanish Breed.</span>—Tall, with stately + carriage; tarsi long; comb single, deeply serrated, of immense size; + wattles largely developed; the large ear-lobes and sides of face white. + Plumage black glossed with green. Do not incubate. Tender in + constitution, the comb being often injured by frost. Eggs white, smooth, + of large size. Chickens feather late, but the young cocks show their + masculine characters, and crow at an early age. Of Mediterranean + origin.</p> + + <p>The <i>Andalusians</i> may be ranked as a sub-breed: they are of a + slaty blue colour, and their chickens are well feathered. A smaller, + short-legged Dutch sub-breed has been described by some authors as + distinct.</p> + + <p>6. <span class="sc">Hamburgh Breed</span> (fig. 31).—Size + moderate; comb flat, produced backwards, covered with numerous small + points; wattle of moderate dimensions; ear-lobe white; legs blueish, + thin. Do not incubate. Skull, with the tips of the ascending branches of + the premaxillary and with the nasal bones standing a little separate from + each other; anterior margin of the frontal bones less depressed than + usual.</p> + + <p>There are two sub-breeds; the <i>spangled</i> Hamburgh, of English + origin, with the tips of the feathers marked with a dark spot; and the + <i>pencilled</i> Hamburgh, of Dutch origin, with dark transverse lines + across each feather, and with the body rather smaller. Both these + sub-breeds include gold and silver varieties, as well as some other + sub-varieties. Black Hamburghs have been produced by a cross with the + Spanish breed.</p> + + <p>7. <span class="sc">Crested or Polish Breed</span> (fig. + 32).—Head with a large, rounded crest of feathers, supported on a + hemispherical protuberance of the frontal bones, <!-- Page 228 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page228"></a>{228}</span>which includes the + anterior part of the brain. The ascending branches of the premaxillary + bones and the inner nasal processes are much shortened. The orifice of + the nostrils raised and crescentic. Beak short. Comb absent, or small and + of crescentic shape; wattles either present or replaced by a beard-like + tuft of feathers. Legs leaden-blue. Sexual differences appear late in + life. Do not incubate. There are several beautiful varieties which differ + in colour and slightly in other respects.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:44%;"> + <a href="images/Dom131.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom131.png" + alt="Fig. 31.--Hamburgh Fowl." title="Fig. 31.--Hamburgh Fowl." /></a> + Fig. 31.—Hamburgh Fowl. + </div> + <p>The following sub-breeds agree in having a crest, more or less + developed, with the comb, when present, of crescentic shape. The skull + presents nearly the same remarkable peculiarities of structure as in the + true Polish fowl.</p> + + <p>Sub-breed (<i>a</i>) <i>Sultans</i>.—A Turkish breed, resembling + white Polish fowls, with a large crest and beard, with short and + well-feathered legs. The tail is furnished with additional sickle + feathers. Do not incubate.<a name="NtA_362" + href="#Nt_362"><sup>[362]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Sub-breed (<i>b</i>) <i>Ptarmigans</i>.—An inferior breed + closely allied to the last, white, rather small, legs much feathered, + with the crest pointed; comb small, cupped; wattles small.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 229 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page229"></a>{229}</span></p> + + <p>Sub-breed (<i>c</i>) <i>Ghoondooks</i>.—Another Turkish breed + having an extraordinary appearance; black and tailless; crest and beard + large; legs feathered. The inner processes of the two nasal bones come + into contact with each other, owing to the complete absorption of the + ascending branches of the premaxillaries. I have seen an allied, white, + tailless breed from Turkey.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:47%;"> + <a href="images/Dom132.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom132.png" + alt="Fig. 32.--Polish Fowl." title="Fig. 32.--Polish Fowl." /></a> + Fig. 32.—Polish Fowl. + </div> + <p>Sub-breed (<i>d</i>) <i>Crève-cœur</i>.—A French breed of + large size, barely capable of flight, with short black legs, head + crested, comb produced into two points or horns, sometimes a little + branched like the horns of a stag; both beard and wattles present. Eggs + large. Disposition quiet.<a name="NtA_363" + href="#Nt_363"><sup>[363]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Sub-breed (<i>e</i>) <i>Horned fowl</i>.—With a small crest; + comb produced into two great points, supported on two bony + protuberances.</p> + + <p>Sub-breed (<i>f</i>) <i>Houdan</i>.—A French breed; of moderate + size, short-legged with five toes, wings well developed; plumage + invariably mottled with <!-- Page 230 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page230"></a>{230}</span>black, white, and straw-yellow; head + furnished with a crest, and a triple comb placed transversely; both + wattles and beard present.<a name="NtA_364" + href="#Nt_364"><sup>[364]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Sub-breed (<i>g</i>) <i>Guelderlands</i>.—No comb, head said to + be surmounted by a longitudinal crest of soft velvety feathers; nostrils + said to be crescentic; wattles well developed; legs feathered; colour + black. From North America. The Breda fowl seems to be closely allied to + the Guelderland.</p> + + <p>8. <span class="sc">Bantam Breed.</span>—Originally from + Japan,<a name="NtA_365" href="#Nt_365"><sup>[365]</sup></a> characterized + by small size alone; carriage bold and erect. There are several + sub-breeds, such as the Cochin, Game, and Sebright Bantams, some of which + have been recently formed by various crosses. The Black Bantam has a + differently shaped skull, with the occipital foramen like that of the + Cochin fowl.</p> + + <p>9. <span class="sc">Rump-less Fowls.</span>—These are so + variable in character<a name="NtA_366" + href="#Nt_366"><sup>[366]</sup></a> that they hardly deserve to be called + a breed. Any one who will examine the caudal vertebræ will see how + monstrous the breed is.</p> + + <p>10. <span class="sc">Creepers or Jumpers.</span>—These are + characterized by an almost monstrous shortness of legs, so that they move + by jumping rather than by walking; they are said not to scratch up the + ground. I have examined a Burmese variety, which had a skull of rather + unusual shape.</p> + + <p>11. <span class="sc">Frizzled or Caffre Fowls.</span>—Not + uncommon in India, with the feathers curling backwards, and with the + primary feathers of the wing and tail imperfect; periosteum of bones + black.</p> + + <p>12. <span class="sc">Silk Fowls.</span>—Feathers silky, with the + primary wing and tail-feathers imperfect; skin and periosteum of bones + black; comb and wattles dark leaden-blue; ear-lappets tinged with blue; + legs thin, often furnished with an additional toe. Size rather small.</p> + + <p>13. <span class="sc">Sooty Fowls</span>.—An Indian breed, of a + white colour stained with soot, with black skin and periosteum. The hens + alone are thus characterized.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>From this synopsis we see that the several breeds differ considerably, + and they would have been nearly as interesting for us as pigeons, if + there had been equally good evidence that all had descended from one + parent-species. Most fanciers believe that they are descended from + several primitive stocks. The Rev. E. S. Dixon<a name="NtA_367" + href="#Nt_367"><sup>[367]</sup></a> argues strongly on this side of the + question; and one fancier even denounces the opposite conclusion by + asking, "Do we not perceive pervading this spirit, the spirit of the + <i>Deist</i>?" Most naturalists, with the exception of a few, such as + Temminck, believe that all the breeds have proceeded from a single + species; but authority on such a point <!-- Page 231 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page231"></a>{231}</span>goes for little. + Fanciers look to all parts of the world as the possible sources of their + unknown stocks; thus ignoring the laws of geographical distribution. They + know well that the several kinds breed truly even in colour. They assert, + but, as we shall see, on very weak grounds, that most of the breeds are + extremely ancient. They are strongly impressed with the great difference + between the chief kinds, and they ask with force, can differences in + climate, food, or treatment have produced birds so different as the black + stately Spanish, the diminutive elegant Bantam, the heavy Cochin with its + many peculiarities, and the Polish fowl with its great top-knot and + protuberant skull? But fanciers, whilst admitting and even overrating the + effects of crossing the various breeds, do not sufficiently regard the + probability of the occasional birth, during the course of centuries, of + birds with abnormal and hereditary peculiarities; they overlook the + effects of correlation of growth—of the long-continued use and + disuse of parts, and of some direct result from changed food and climate, + though on this latter head I have found no sufficient evidence; and + lastly, they all, as far as I know, entirely overlook the all-important + subject of unconscious or unmethodical selection, though they are well + aware that their birds differ individually, and that by selecting the + best birds for a few generations they can improve their stocks.</p> + + <p>An amateur writes<a name="NtA_368" href="#Nt_368"><sup>[368]</sup></a> + as follows. "The fact that poultry have until lately received but little + attention at the hands of the fancier, and been entirely confined to the + domains of the producer for the market, would alone suggest the + improbability of that constant and unremitting attention having been + observed in breeding, which is requisite to the consummating, in the + offspring of any two birds, transmittable forms not exhibited by the + parents." This at first sight appears true. But in a future chapter on + Selection, abundant facts will be given showing not only that careful + breeding, but that actual selection was practised during ancient periods, + and by barely civilised races of man. In the case of the fowl I can + adduce no direct facts showing that selection was anciently practised; + but the Romans at the commencement of the Christian era kept six or seven + breeds, and Columella "particularly recommends as the best, those sorts + <!-- Page 232 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page232"></a>{232}</span>that have five toes and white ears."<a + name="NtA_369" href="#Nt_369"><sup>[369]</sup></a> In the fifteenth + century several breeds were known and described in Europe; and in China, + at nearly the same period, seven kinds were named. A more striking case + is that at present, in one of the Philippine Islands, the semi-barbarous + inhabitants have distinct native names for no less than nine sub-breeds + of the Game Fowl.<a name="NtA_370" href="#Nt_370"><sup>[370]</sup></a> + Azara,<a name="NtA_371" href="#Nt_371"><sup>[371]</sup></a> who wrote + towards the close of the last century, states that in the interior parts + of South America, where I should not have expected that the least care + would have been taken of poultry, a black-skinned and black-boned breed + is kept, from being considered fertile and its flesh good for sick + persons. Now every one who has kept poultry knows how impossible it is to + keep several breeds distinct unless the utmost care be taken in + separating the sexes. Will it then be pretended that those persons who in + ancient times and in semi-civilized countries took pains to keep the + breeds distinct, and who therefore valued them, would not occasionally + have destroyed inferior birds and occasionally have preserved their best + birds? This is all that is required. It is not pretended that any one in + ancient times intended to form a new breed, or to modify an old breed + according to some ideal standard of excellence. He who cared for poultry + would merely wish to obtain, and afterwards to rear, the best birds which + he could; but this occasional preservation of the best birds would in the + course of time modify the breed, as surely, though by no means as + rapidly, as does methodical selection at the present day. If one person + out of a hundred or out of a thousand attended to the breeding of his + birds, this would be sufficient; for the birds thus tended would soon + become superior to others, and would form a new strain; and this strain + would, as explained in the last chapter, slowly have its characteristic + differences augmented, and at last be converted into a new sub-breed or + breed. But breeds would often be for a time neglected and would + deteriorate; they would, however, partially retain their character, and + afterwards might again come into fashion and be raised to a standard of + perfection <!-- Page 233 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page233"></a>{233}</span>higher than their former standard; as has + actually occurred quite recently with Polish fowls. If, however, a breed + were utterly neglected, it would become extinct, as has recently happened + with one of the Polish sub-breeds. Whenever in the course of past + centuries a bird appeared with some slight abnormal structure, such as + with a lark-like crest on its head, it would probably often have been + preserved from that love of novelty which leads some persons in England + to keep rump-less fowls, and others in India to keep frizzled fowls. And + after a time any such abnormal appearance would be carefully preserved, + from being esteemed a sign of the purity and excellence of the breed; for + on this principle the Romans eighteen centuries ago valued the fifth toe + and the white ear-lobe in their fowls.</p> + + <p>Thus from the occasional appearance of abnormal characters, though at + first only slight in degree; from the effects of the use and the disuse + of parts; possibly from the direct effects of changed climate and food; + from correlation of growth; from occasional reversions to old and + long-lost characters; from the crossing of breeds, when more than one had + once been formed; but, above all, from unconscious selection carried on + during many generations, there is no insuperable difficulty, to the best + of my judgment, in believing that all the breeds have descended from some + one parent-source. Can any single species be named from which we may + reasonably suppose that all have descended? The <i>Gallus bankiva</i> + apparently fulfils every requirement. I have already given as fair an + account as I could of the arguments in favour of the multiple origin of + the several breeds; and now I will give those in favour of their common + descent from <i>G. bankiva</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>But it will be convenient first briefly to describe all the known + species of Gallus. The <i>G. Sonneratii</i> does not range into the + northern parts of India; according to Colonel Sykes,<a name="NtA_372" + href="#Nt_372"><sup>[372]</sup></a> it presents at different heights on + the Ghauts, two strongly marked varieties, perhaps deserving to be called + species. It was at one time thought to be the primitive stock of all our + domestic breeds, and this shows that it closely approaches the common + fowl in general structure; but its hackles partially consist of highly + peculiar, horny laminæ, transversely banded with three colours; and I + have met with no authentic account of any such character having been + observed <!-- Page 234 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page234"></a>{234}</span>in any domestic breed.<a name="NtA_373" + href="#Nt_373"><sup>[373]</sup></a> This species also differs greatly + from the common fowl, in the comb being finely serrated, and in the loins + being destitute of true hackles. Its voice is utterly different. It + crosses readily in India with domestic hens; and Mr. Blyth <a + name="NtA_374" href="#Nt_374"><sup>[374]</sup></a> raised nearly 100 + hybrid chickens; but they were tender and mostly died whilst young. Those + which were reared were absolutely sterile when crossed <i>inter se</i>, + or with either parent. At the Zoological Gardens, however, some hybrids + of the same parentage were not quite so sterile: Mr. Dixon, as he + informed me, made, with Mr. Yarrell's aid, particular inquiries on this + subject, and was assured that out of 50 eggs only five or six chickens + were reared. Some, however, of these half-bred birds were crossed with + one of their parents, namely, a Bantam, and produced a few extremely + feeble chickens. Mr. Dixon also procured some of these same birds and + crossed them in several ways, but all were more or less infertile. Nearly + similar experiments have recently been tried on a great scale in the + Zoological Gardens with almost the same result.<a name="NtA_375" + href="#Nt_375"><sup>[375]</sup></a> Out of 500 eggs, raised from various + first crosses and hybrids, between <i>G. Sonneratii, bankiva</i>, and + <i>varius</i>, only 12 chickens were reared, and of these only three were + the product of hybrids <i>inter se</i>. From these facts, and from the + above-mentioned strongly-marked differences in structure between the + domestic fowl and <i>G. Sonneratii</i>, we may reject this latter species + as the parent of any domestic breed.</p> + + <p>Ceylon possesses a fowl peculiar to the island, viz. <i>G. + Stanleyii</i>; this species approaches so closely (except in the + colouring of the comb) to the domestic fowl, that Messrs. E. Layard and + Kellaert<a name="NtA_376" href="#Nt_376"><sup>[376]</sup></a> would have + considered it, as they inform me, as one of the parent-stocks, had it not + been for its singularly different voice. This bird, like the last, + crosses readily with tame hens, and even visits solitary farms and + ravishes them. Two hybrids, a male and female, thus produced, were found + by Mr. Mitford to be quite sterile: both inherited the peculiar voice of + <i>G. Stanleyii</i>. This species, then, may in all probability be + rejected as one of the primitive stocks of the domestic fowl.</p> + + <p>Java and the islands eastward as far as Flores are inhabited by <i>G. + varius</i> (or <i>furcatus</i>), which differs in so many + characters—green plumage, unserrated comb, and single median + wattle—that no one supposes it to have been the parent of any one + of our breeds; yet, as I am informed by Mr. Crawfurd,<a name="NtA_377" + href="#Nt_377"><sup>[377]</sup></a> hybrids are commonly raised between + the male <i>G. varius</i> and the common hen, and are kept for their + great beauty, but are invariably sterile; this, however, was not the case + with some bred in the Zoological Gardens. These hybrids were at one time + thought to <!-- Page 235 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page235"></a>{235}</span>be specifically distinct, and were named + <i>G. æneus</i>. Mr. Blyth and others believe that the <i>G. + Temminckii</i><a name="NtA_378" href="#Nt_378"><sup>[378]</sup></a> (of + which the history is not known) is a similar hybrid. Sir J. Brooke sent + me some skins of domestic fowls from Borneo, and across the tail of one + of these, as Mr. Tegetmeier observed, there were transverse blue bands + like those which he had seen on the tail-feathers of hybrids from <i>G. + varius</i>, reared in the Zoological Gardens. This fact apparently + indicates that some of the fowls of Borneo have been slightly affected by + crosses with <i>G. varius</i>, but the case may possibly be one of + analogous variation. I may just allude to the <i>G. giganteus</i>, so + often referred to in works on poultry as a wild species; but Marsden,<a + name="NtA_379" href="#Nt_379"><sup>[379]</sup></a> the first describer, + speaks of it as a tame breed; and the specimen in the British Museum + evidently has the aspect of a domestic variety.</p> + + <p>The last species to be mentioned, namely, <i>Gallus bankiva</i>, has a + much wider geographical range than the three previous species; it + inhabits Northern India as far west as Sinde, and ascends the Himalaya to + a height of 4000 ft.; it inhabits Burmah, the Malay peninsula, the + Indo-Chinese countries, the Philippine Islands, and the Malayan + archipelago as far eastward as Timor. This species varies considerably in + the wild state. Mr. Blyth informs me that the specimens, both male and + female, brought from near the Himalaya, are rather paler coloured than + those from other parts of India; whilst those from the Malay peninsula + and Java are brighter coloured than the Indian birds. I have seen + specimens from these countries, and the difference of tint in the hackles + was conspicuous. The Malayan hens were a shade redder on the breast and + neck than the Indian hens. The Malayan males generally had a red + ear-lappet, instead of a white one as in India; but Mr. Blyth has seen + one Indian specimen without the white ear-lappet. The legs are leaden + blue in the Indian, whereas they show some tendency to be yellowish in + the Malayan and Javan specimens. In the former Mr. Blyth finds the tarsus + remarkably variable in length. According to Temminck<a name="NtA_380" + href="#Nt_380"><sup>[380]</sup></a> the Timor specimens differ as a local + race from that of Java. These several wild varieties have not as yet been + ranked as distinct species; if they should, as is not unlikely, be + hereafter thus ranked, the circumstance would be quite immaterial as far + as the parentage and differences of our domestic breeds are concerned. + The wild <i>G. bankiva</i> agrees most closely with the black-breasted + red Game-breed, in colouring and in all other respects, except in being + smaller, and in the tail being carried more horizontally. But the manner + in which the tail is carried is highly variable in many of our breeds, + for, as Mr. Brent informs me, the tail slopes much in the Malays, is + erect in the Games and some other breeds, and is more than erect in + Dorkings, Bantams, &c. There is one other difference, namely, that in + <i>G. bankiva</i>, according to Mr. Blyth, the neck-hackles when first + moulted are replaced during two or three months, not by other <!-- Page + 236 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page236"></a>{236}</span>hackles, + as with our domestic poultry, but by short blackish feathers.<a + name="NtA_381" href="#Nt_381"><sup>[381]</sup></a> Mr. Brent, however, + has remarked that these black feathers remain in the wild bird after the + development of the lower hackles, and appear in the domestic bird at the + same time with them; so that the only difference is that the lower + hackles are replaced more slowly in the wild than in the tame bird; but + as confinement is known sometimes to affect the masculine plumage, this + slight difference cannot be considered of any importance. It is a + significant fact that the voice of both the male and female <i>G. + bankiva</i> closely resembles, as Mr. Blyth and others have noted, the + voice of both sexes of the common domestic fowl; but the last note of the + crow of the wild bird is rather less prolonged. Captain Hutton, well + known for his researches into the natural history of India, informs me + that he has seen several crossed fowls from the wild species and the + Chinese bantam; these crossed fowls <i>bred freely</i> with bantams, but + unfortunately were not crossed <i>inter se</i>. Captain Hutton reared + chickens from the eggs of the <i>Gallus bankiva</i>; and these, though at + first very wild, afterwards became so tame that they would crowd round + his feet. He did not succeed in rearing them to maturity; but, as he + remarks, "no wild gallinaceous bird thrives well at first on hard grain." + Mr. Blyth also found much difficulty in keeping <i>G. bankiva</i> in + confinement. In the Philippine Islands, however, the natives must succeed + better, as they keep wild cocks to fight with their domestic + game-birds.<a name="NtA_382" href="#Nt_382"><sup>[382]</sup></a> Sir + Walter Elliot informs me that the hen of a native domestic breed of Pegu + is undistinguishable from the hen of the wild <i>G. bankiva</i>; and the + natives constantly catch wild cocks by taking tame cocks to fight with + them in the woods.<a name="NtA_383" href="#Nt_383"><sup>[383]</sup></a> + Mr. Crawfurd remarks that from etymology it might be argued that the fowl + was first domesticated by the Malays and Javanese.<a name="NtA_384" + href="#Nt_384"><sup>[384]</sup></a> It is also a curious fact, of which I + have been assured by Mr. Blyth, that wild specimens of the <i>Gallus + bankiva</i>, brought from the countries east of the Bay of Bengal, are + far more easily tamed than those of India; nor is this an unparalleled + fact, for, as Humboldt long ago remarked, the same species sometimes + evinces a more tameable disposition in one country than in another. If we + suppose that the <i>G. bankiva</i> was first tamed in Malaya and + afterwards imported into India, we can understand an observation made to + me by Mr. Blyth, that the domestic fowls of India do not resemble the + wild <i>G. bankiva</i> more closely than do those of Europe.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>From the extremely close resemblance in colour, general structure, and + especially in voice, between <i>Gallus bankiva</i> and the Game fowl; + from their fertility, as far as this has been ascertained, when crossed; + from the possibility of the wild species being tamed, and from its + varying in the wild state, we may confidently look at it as the parent of + the most typical of all the <!-- Page 237 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page237"></a>{237}</span>domestic breeds, namely, the Game-fowl. It + is a significant fact, that almost all the naturalists in India, namely, + Sir W. Elliot, Mr. S. N. Ward, Mr. Layard, Mr. J. C. Jerdon, and Mr. + Blyth,<a name="NtA_385" href="#Nt_385"><sup>[385]</sup></a> who are + familiar with <i>G. bankiva</i>, believe that it is the parent of most or + all our domestic breeds. But even if it be admitted that <i>G. + bankiva</i> is the parent of the Game breed, yet it may be urged that + other wild species have been the parents of the other domestic breeds; + and that these species still exist, though unknown, in some country, or + have become extinct. The extinction, however, of several species of + fowls, is an improbable hypothesis, seeing that the four known species + have not become extinct in the most anciently and thickly peopled regions + of the East. There is, in fact, only one kind of domesticated bird, + namely, the Chinese goose or <i>Anser cygnoides</i>, of which the wild + parent-form is said to be still unknown, or extinct. For the discovery of + new, or the rediscovery of old species of Gallus, we must not look, as + fanciers often look, to the whole world. The larger gallinaceous birds, + as Mr. Blyth has remarked,<a name="NtA_386" + href="#Nt_386"><sup>[386]</sup></a> generally have a restricted range: we + see this well illustrated in India, where the genus Gallus inhabits the + base of the Himalaya, and is succeeded higher up by Gallophasis, and + still higher up by Phasianus. Australia, with its islands, is out of the + question as the home for unknown species of the genus. It is, also, as + improbable that Gallus should inhabit South America<a name="NtA_387" + href="#Nt_387"><sup>[387]</sup></a> as that a humming-bird should be + found in the Old World. From the character of the other gallinaceous <!-- + Page 238 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238"></a>{238}</span>birds + of Africa, it is not probable that Gallus is an African genus. We need + not look to the western parts of Asia, for Messrs. Blyth and Crawfurd, + who have attended to this subject, doubt whether Gallus ever existed in a + wild state even as far west as Persia. Although the earliest Greek + writers speak of the fowl as a Persian bird, this probably merely + indicates its line of importation. For the discovery of unknown species + we must look to India, to the Indo-Chinese countries, and to the northern + parts of the Malay Archipelago. The southern portion of China is the most + likely country; but as Mr. Blyth informs me, skins have been exported + from China during a long period, and living birds are largely kept there + in aviaries, so that any native species of Gallus would probably have + become known. Mr. Birch, of the British Museum, has translated for me + passages from a Chinese Encyclopædia published in 1609, but compiled from + more ancient documents, in which it is said that fowls are creatures of + the West, and were introduced into the East (<i>i.e.</i> China) in a + dynasty 1400 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Whatever may be thought of so + ancient a date, we see that the Indo-Chinese and Indian regions were + formerly considered by the Chinese as the source of the domestic fowl. + From these several considerations we must look to the present metropolis + of the genus, namely, to the south-eastern parts of Asia, for the + discovery of species which were formerly domesticated, but are now + unknown in the wild state; and the most experienced ornithologists do not + consider it probable that such species will be discovered.</p> + + <p>In considering whether the domestic breeds are descended from one + species, namely, <i>G. bankiva</i>, or from several, we must <!-- Page + 239 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page239"></a>{239}</span>not quite + overlook, though we must not exaggerate, the importance of the test of + fertility. Most of our domestic breeds have been so often crossed, and + their mongrels so largely kept, that it is almost certain, if any degree + of infertility had existed between them, it would have been detected. On + the other hand, the four known species of Gallus when crossed with each + other, or when crossed, with the exception of <i>G. bankiva</i>, with the + domestic fowl, produce infertile hybrids.</p> + + <p>Finally, we have not such good evidence with fowls as with pigeons, of + all the breeds having descended from a single primitive stock. In both + cases the argument of fertility must go for something; in both we have + the improbability of man having succeeded in ancient times in thoroughly + domesticating several supposed species,—most of these supposed + species being extremely abnormal as compared with their natural + allies,—all being now either unknown or extinct, though the + parent-form of scarcely any other domesticated bird has been lost. But in + searching for the supposed parent-stocks of the various breeds of the + pigeon, we were enabled to confine our search to species having peculiar + habits of life; whilst with fowls there is nothing in their habits in any + marked manner distinct from those of other gallinaceous birds. In the + case of pigeons, I have shown that purely-bred birds of every race and + the crossed offspring of distinct races frequently resemble, or revert + to, the wild rock-pigeon in general colour and in each characteristic + mark. With fowls we have facts of a similar nature, but less strongly + pronounced, which we will now discuss.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p><i>Reversion and Analogous Variation.</i>—Purely-bred Game, + Malay, Cochin, Dorking, Bantam, and, as I hear from Mr. Tegetmeier, Silk + fowls, may frequently or occasionally be met with, which are almost + identical in plumage with the wild <i>G. bankiva</i>. This is a fact well + deserving attention, when we reflect that these breeds rank amongst the + most distinct. Fowls thus coloured are called by amateurs black-breasted + reds. Hamburghs properly have a very different plumage; nevertheless, as + Mr. Tegetmeier informs me, "the great difficulty in breeding cocks of the + golden-spangled variety is their tendency to have black breasts and red + backs." The males of white Bantams and <!-- Page 240 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page240"></a>{240}</span>white Cochins, as they + come to maturity, often assume a yellowish or saffron tinge; and the + longer neck hackles of black bantam cocks,<a name="NtA_388" + href="#Nt_388"><sup>[388]</sup></a> when two or three years old, not + uncommonly become ruddy; these latter bantams occasionally "even moult + brassy winged, or actually red shouldered." So that in these several + cases we see a plain tendency to reversion to the hues of <i>G. + bankiva</i>, even daring the lifetime of the individual bird. With + Spanish, Polish, pencilled Hamburgh, silver-spangled Hamburgh fowls, and + with some other less common breeds, I have never heard of a + black-breasted red bird having appeared.</p> + + <p>From my experience with pigeons, I made the following crosses. I first + killed all my own poultry, no others living near my house, and then + procured, by Mr. Tegetmeier's assistance, a first-rate black Spanish + cock, and hens of the following pure breeds,—white Game, white + Cochin, silver-spangled Polish, silver-spangled Hamburgh, + silver-pencilled Hamburgh, and white Silk. In none of these breeds is + there a trace of red, nor when kept pure have I ever heard of the + appearance of a red feather; though such an occurrence would perhaps not + be very improbable with white Games and white Cochins. Of the many + chickens reared from the above six crosses the majority were black, both + in the down and in the first plumage; some were white, and a very few + were mottled black and white. In one lot of eleven mixed eggs from the + white Game and white Cochin by the black Spanish cock, seven of the + chickens were white, and only four black: I mention this fact to show + that whiteness of plumage is strongly inherited, and that the belief in + the prepotent power in the male to transmit his colour is not always + correct. The chickens were hatched in the spring, and in the latter part + of August several of the young cocks began to exhibit a change, which + with some of them increased during the following years. Thus a young male + bird from the silver-spangled Polish hen was in its first plumage + coal-black, and combined in its comb, crest, wattle, and beard, the + characters of both parents; but when two years old the secondary + wing-feathers became largely and symmetrically marked with white, and, + wherever in <i>G. bankiva</i> the hackles are red, they were in this bird + greenish-black along the shaft, narrowly bordered <!-- Page 241 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page241"></a>{241}</span>with brownish-black, + and this again broadly bordered with very pale yellowish-brown; so that + in general appearance the plumage had become pale-coloured instead of + black. In this case, with advancing age there was a great change, but no + reversion to the red colour of <i>G. bankiva</i>.</p> + + <p>A cock with a regular rose comb derived either from the spangled or + pencilled silver Hamburgh was likewise at first quite black; but in less + than a year the neck-hackles, as in the last case, became whitish, whilst + those on the loins assumed a decided reddish-yellow tint; and here we see + the first symptom of reversion; this likewise occurred with some other + young cocks, which need not here be described. It has also been + recorded<a name="NtA_389" href="#Nt_389"><sup>[389]</sup></a> by a + breeder, that he crossed two silver-pencilled Hamburgh hens with a + Spanish cock, and reared a number of chickens, all of which were black, + the cocks having <i>golden</i> and the hens brownish hackles; so that in + this instance likewise there was a clear tendency to reversion.</p> + + <p>Two young cocks from my white Game hen were at first snow white; of + these, one subsequently assumed pale orange-coloured hackles, chiefly on + the loins, and the other an abundance of fine orange-red hackles on the + neck, loins, and upper wing-coverts. Here again, we have a more decided, + though partial, reversion to the colours of <i>G. bankiva</i>. This + second cock was in fact coloured like an inferior "pile Game + cock;"—now this sub-breed can be produced, as I am informed by Mr. + Tegetmeier, by crossing a black-breasted red Game cock with a white Game + hen, and the "pile" sub-breed thus produced can afterwards be truly + propagated. So that we have the curious fact of the glossy-black Spanish + cock and the black-breasted red Game cock when crossed with white + Game-hens producing offspring of nearly the same colours.</p> + + <p>I reared several birds from the white Silk-hen by the Spanish cock: + all were coal-black, and all plainly showed their parentage in having + blackish combs and bones; none inherited the so-called silky feathers, + and the non-inheritance of this character has been observed by others. + The hens never varied in their plumage. As the young cocks grew old, one + of them assumed yellowish-white hackles, and thus resembled in a + considerable <!-- Page 242 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page242"></a>{242}</span>degree the cross from the Hamburgh hen; + the other became a gorgeous bird, so much so that an acquaintance had it + preserved and stuffed simply from its beauty. When stalking about it + closely resembled the wild <i>Gallus bankiva</i>, but with the red + feathers rather darker. On close comparison one considerable difference + presented itself, namely, that the primary and secondary wing-feathers + were edged with greenish-black, instead of being edged, as in <i>G. + bankiva</i>, with fulvous and red tints. The space, also, across the + back, which bears dark-green feathers, was broader, and the comb was + blackish. In all other respects, even in trifling details of plumage, + there was the closest accordance. Altogether it was a marvellous sight to + compare this bird first with <i>G. bankiva</i>, and then with its father, + the glossy green-black Spanish cock, and with its diminutive mother, the + white Silk hen. This case of reversion is the more extraordinary as the + Spanish breed has long been known to breed true, and no instance is on + record of its throwing a single red feather. The Silk hen likewise breeds + true, and is believed to be ancient, for Aldrovandi, before 1600, alludes + probably to this breed, and describes it as covered with wool. It is so + peculiar in many characters that some writers have considered it as + specifically distinct; yet, as we now see, when crossed with the Spanish + fowl, it yields offspring closely resembling the wild <i>G. + bankiva</i>.</p> + + <p>Mr. Tegetmeier has been so kind as to repeat, at my request, the cross + between a Spanish cock and Silk hen, and he obtained similar results; for + he thus raised, besides a black hen, seven cocks, all of which were + dark-bodied with more or less orange-red hackles. In the ensuing year he + paired the black hen with one of her brothers, and raised three young + cocks, all coloured like their father, and a black hen mottled with + white.</p> + + <p>The hens from the six above-described crosses showed hardly any + tendency to revert to the mottled-brown plumage of the female <i>G. + bankiva</i>: one hen, however, from the white Cochin, which was at first + coal-black, became slightly brown or sooty. Several hens, which were for + a long time snow-white, acquired as they grew old a few black feathers. A + hen from the white Game, which was for a long time entirely black glossed + with green, when two years old had some of the primary wing-feather + greyish-white, and a multitude of feathers over her body <!-- Page 243 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page243"></a>{243}</span>narrowly and + symmetrically tipped or laced with white. I had expected that some of the + chickens whilst covered with down would have assumed the longitudinal + stripes so general with gallinaceous birds; but this did not occur in a + single instance. Two or three alone were reddish-brown about their heads. + I was unfortunate in losing nearly all the white chickens from the first + crosses; so that black prevailed with the grandchildren; but they were + much diversified in colour, some being sooty, others mottled, and one + blackish chicken had its feathers oddly tipped and barred with brown.</p> + + <p>I will here add a few miscellaneous facts connected with reversion, + and with the law of analogous variation. This law implies, as stated in a + previous chapter, that the varieties of one species frequently mock + distinct but allied species; and this fact is explained, according to the + views which I maintain, on the principle of allied species having + descended from one primitive form. The white Silk fowl with black skin + and bones degenerates, as has been observed by Mr. Hewitt and Mr. R. + Orton, in our climate; that is, it reverts to the ordinary colour of the + common fowl in its skin and bones, due care having been taken to prevent + any cross. In Germany<a name="NtA_390" + href="#Nt_390"><sup>[390]</sup></a> a distinct breed with black bones, + and with black, not silky plumage, has likewise been observed to + degenerate.</p> + + <p>Mr. Tegetmeier informs me that, when distinct breeds are crossed, + fowls are frequently produced with their feathers marked or pencilled by + narrow transverse lines of a darker colour. This may be in part explained + by direct reversion to the parent-form, the Bankiva hen; for this bird + has all its upper plumage finely mottled with dark and rufous brown, with + the mottling partially and obscurely arranged in transverse lines. But + the tendency to pencilling is probably much strengthened by the law of + analogous variation, for the hens of some other species of Gallus are + more plainly pencilled, and the hens of many gallinaceous birds belonging + to other genera, as the partridge, have pencilled feathers. Mr. + Tegetmeier has <!-- Page 244 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page244"></a>{244}</span>also remarked to me, that, although with + domestic pigeons we have so great a diversity of colouring, we never see + either pencilled or spangled feathers; and this fact is intelligible on + the law of analogous variation, as neither the wild rock-pigeon nor any + closely-allied species has such feathers. The frequent appearance of + pencilling in crossed birds probably accounts for the existence of + "cuckoo" sub-breeds in the Game, Polish, Dorking, Cochin, Andalusian, and + Bantam breeds. The plumage of these birds is slaty-blue or grey, with + each feather transversely barred with darker lines, so as to resemble in + some degree the plumage of the cuckoo. It is a singular fact, considering + that the male of no species of Gallus is in the least barred, that the + cuckoo-like plumage has often been transferred to the male, more + especially in the cuckoo Dorking; and the fact is all the more singular, + as in gold and silver pencilled Hamburghs, in which pencilling is + characteristic of the breed, the male is hardly at all pencilled, this + kind of plumage being confined to the female.</p> + + <p>Another case of analogous variation is the occurrence of spangled + sub-breeds of Hamburgh, Polish, Malay, and Bantam fowls. Spangled + feathers have a dark mark, properly crescent-shaped, on their tips; + whilst pencilled feathers have several transverse bars. The spangling + cannot be due to reversion to <i>G. bankiva</i>; nor does it often + follow, as I hear from Mr. Tegetmeier, from crossing distinct breeds; but + it is a case of analogous variation, for many gallinaceous birds have + spangled feathers,—for instance, the common pheasant. Hence + spangled breeds are often called "pheasant"-fowls. Another case of + analogous variation in several domestic breeds is inexplicable; it is, + that the chickens, whilst covered with down, of the black Spanish, black + Game, black Polish, and black Bantam, all have white throats and breasts, + and often have some white on their wings.<a name="NtA_391" + href="#Nt_391"><sup>[391]</sup></a> The editor of the 'Poultry + Chronicle'<a name="NtA_392" href="#Nt_392"><sup>[392]</sup></a> remarks + that all the breeds which properly have red ear-lappets occasionally + produce birds with white ear-lappets. This remark more especially applies + to the Game breed, which of all comes nearest to the <!-- Page 245 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page245"></a>{245}</span><i>G. + bankiva</i>; and we have seen that with this species living in a state of + nature, the ear-lappets vary in colour, being red in the Malayan + countries, and generally, but not invariably, white in India.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p>In concluding this part of my subject I may repeat that there exists + one widely-ranging, varying, and common species of Gallus, namely <i>G. + bankiva</i>, which can be tamed, produces fertile offspring when crossed + with common fowls, and closely resembles in its whole structure, plumage, + and voice the Game breed; hence it may be safely ranked as the parent of + this, the most typical domesticated breed. We have seen that there is + much difficulty in believing that other, now unknown, species have been + the parents of the other domestic breeds. We know that all the breeds are + most closely allied, as shown by their similarity in most points of + structure and in habits, and by the analogous manner in which they vary. + We have also seen that several of the most distinct breeds occasionally + or habitually closely resemble in plumage <i>G. bankiva</i>, and that the + crossed offspring of other breeds, which are not thus coloured, show a + stronger or weaker tendency to revert to this same plumage. Some of the + breeds, which appear the most distinct and the least likely to have + proceeded from <i>G. bankiva</i>, such as Polish fowls, with their + protuberant and little ossified skulls, and Cochins, with their imperfect + tail and small wings, bear in these characters the plain marks of their + artificial origin. We know well that of late years methodical selection + has greatly improved and fixed many characters; and we have every reason + to believe that unconscious selection, carried on for many generations, + will have steadily augmented each new peculiarity and thus have given + rise to new breeds. As soon as two or three breeds had once been formed, + crossing would come into play in changing their character and in + increasing their number. Brahma Pootras, according to an account lately + published in America, offer a good instance of a breed, lately formed by + a cross, which can be truly propagated. The well-known Sebright Bantams + offer another and similar instance. Hence it may be concluded that not + only the Game-breed but that all our breeds are probably the descendants + of the <!-- Page 246 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page246"></a>{246}</span>Malayan or Indian variety of <i>G. + bankiva</i>. If so, this species has varied greatly since it was first + domesticated; but there has been ample time, as we shall now show.</p> + + <p><i>History of the Fowl.</i>—Rütimeyer found no remains of the + fowl in the ancient Swiss lake-dwellings. It is not mentioned in the Old + Testament; nor is it figured on the ancient Egyptian monuments.<a + name="NtA_393" href="#Nt_393"><sup>[393]</sup></a> It is not referred to + by Homer or Hesiod (about 900 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>); but is + mentioned by Theognis and Aristophanes between 400 and 500 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> It is figured on some of the Babylonian + cylinders, of which Mr. Layard sent me an impression, between the sixth + and seventh centuries <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; and on the Harpy + Tomb in Lycia, about 600 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>: so that we may + feel pretty confident that the fowl reached Europe somewhere near the + sixth century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> It had travelled still + farther westward by the time of the Christian era, for it was found in + Britain by Julius Cæsar. In India it must have been domesticated when the + Institutes of Manu were written, that is, according to Sir W. Jones, 1200 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, but, according to the later authority of + Mr. H. Wilson, only 800 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, for the domestic + fowl is forbidden, whilst the wild is permitted to be eaten. If, as + before remarked, we may trust the old Chinese Encyclopædia, the fowl must + have been domesticated several centuries earlier, as it is said to have + been introduced from the West into China 1400 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p>Sufficient materials do not exist for tracing the history of the + separate breeds. About the commencement of the Christian era, <!-- Page + 247 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247"></a>{247}</span>Columella + mentions a five-toed fighting breed, and some provincial breeds; but we + know nothing more about them. He also alludes to dwarf fowls; but these + cannot have been the same with our Bantams, which, as Mr. Crawfurd has + shown, were imported from Japan into Bantam in Java. A dwarf fowl, + probably the true Bantam, is referred to in an old Japanese Encyclopædia, + as I am informed by Mr. Birch. In the Chinese Encyclopædia published in + 1596, but compiled from various sources, some of high antiquity, seven + breeds are mentioned, including what we should now call jumpers or + creepers, and likewise fowls with black feathers, bones, and flesh. In + 1600 Aldrovandi describes seven or eight breeds of fowls, and this is the + most ancient record from which the age of our European breeds can be + inferred. The <i>Gallus Turcicus</i> certainly seems to be a pencilled + Hamburgh; but Mr. Brent, a most capable judge, thinks that Aldrovandi + "evidently figured what he happened to see, and not the best of the + breed." Mr. Brent, indeed, considers all Aldrovandi's fowls as of impure + breed; but it is a far more probable view that all our breeds since his + time have been much improved and modified; for, as he went to the expense + of so many figures, he probably would have secured characteristic + specimens. The Silk fowl, however, probably then existed in its present + state, as did almost certainly the fowl with frizzled or reversed + feathers. Mr. Dixon<a name="NtA_394" href="#Nt_394"><sup>[394]</sup></a> + considers Aldrovandi's Paduan fowl as "a variety of the Polish," whereas + Mr. Brent believes it to have been more nearly allied to the Malay. The + anatomical peculiarities of the skull of the Polish breed were noticed by + P. Borelli in 1656. I may add that in 1737 one Polish sub-breed, viz. the + golden spangled, was known; but judging from Albin's description, the + comb was then larger, the crest of feathers much smaller, the breast more + coarsely spotted, and the stomach and thighs much blacker: a + golden-spangled Polish fowl in this condition would now be of no + value.</p> + + <p><i>Differences in External and Internal Structure between the <!-- + Page 248 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page248"></a>{248}</span>Breeds: Individual + Variability.</i>—Fowls have been exposed to diversified conditions + of life, and as we have just seen there has been ample time for much + variability and for the slow action of unconscious selection. As there + are good grounds for believing that all the breeds are descended from + <i>Gallus bankiva,</i> it will be worth while to describe in some detail + the chief points of difference. Beginning with the eggs and chickens, I + will pass on to the secondary sexual characters, and then to the + differences in external structure and in the skeleton. I enter on the + following details chiefly to show how variable almost every character has + become under domestication.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Eggs.</i>—Mr. Dixon remarks<a name="NtA_395" + href="#Nt_395"><sup>[395]</sup></a> that "to every hen belongs an + individual peculiarity in the form, colour, and size of her egg, which + never changes during her life-time, so long as she remains in health, and + which is as well known to those who are in the habit of taking her + produce, as the handwriting of their nearest acquaintance." I believe + that this is generally true, and that, if no great number of hens be + kept, the eggs of each can almost always be recognised. The eggs of + differently sized breeds naturally differ much in size; but, apparently, + not always in strict relation to the size of the hen: thus the Malay is a + larger bird than the Spanish, but <i>generally</i> she produces not such + large eggs; white Bantams are said to lay smaller eggs than other + Bantams;<a name="NtA_396" href="#Nt_396"><sup>[396]</sup></a> white + Cochins, on the other hand, as I hear from Mr. Tegetmeier, certainly lay + larger eggs than buff Cochins. The eggs, however, of the different breeds + vary considerably in character; for instance, Mr. Ballance states<a + name="NtA_397" href="#Nt_397"><sup>[397]</sup></a> that his Malay + "pullets of last year laid eggs equal in size to those of any duck, and + other Malay hens, two or three years old, laid eggs very little larger + than a good-sized Bantam's egg. Some were as white as a Spanish hen's + egg, and others varied from a light cream-colour to a deep rich buff, or + even to a brown." The shape also varies, the two ends being much more + equally rounded in Cochins than in Games or Polish. Spanish fowls lay + smoother eggs than Cochins, of which the eggs are generally granulated. + The shell in this latter breed, and more especially in Malays, is apt to + be thicker than in Games or Spanish; but the Minorcas, a sub-breed of + Spanish, are said to lay harder eggs than true Spanish.<a name="NtA_398" + href="#Nt_398"><sup>[398]</sup></a> The colour differs + considerably,—the Cochins laying buff-coloured eggs; the Malays + <!-- Page 249 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page249"></a>{249}</span>a paler variable buff; and Games a still + paler buff. It would appear that darker-coloured eggs characterise the + breeds which have lately come from the East, or are still closely allied + to those now living there. The colour of the yolk, according to Ferguson, + as well as of the shell, differs slightly in the sub-breeds of the Game, + and stands in some degree of correlation with the colour of the plumage. + I am also informed by Mr. Brent that dark partridge-coloured Cochin hens + lay darker coloured eggs than the other Cochin sub-breeds. The flavour + and richness of the egg certainly differ in different breeds. The + productiveness of the several breeds is very different. Spanish, Polish, + and Hamburgh hens have lost the incubating instinct.</p> + + <p><i>Chickens.</i>—As the young of almost all gallinaceous birds, + even of the black curassow and black grouse, whilst covered with down, + are longitudinally striped on the back,—of which character, when + adult, neither sex retains a trace,—it might have been expected + that the chickens of all our domestic fowls would have been similarly + striped.<a name="NtA_399" href="#Nt_399"><sup>[399]</sup></a> This could, + however, hardly have been expected, when the adult plumage in both sexes + has undergone so great a change as to be wholly white or black. In white + fowls of various breeds the chickens are uniformly yellowish white, + passing in the black-boned Silk fowl into bright canary-yellow. This is + also generally the case with the chickens of white Cochins, but I hear + from Mr. Zurhost that they are sometimes of a buff or oak colour, and + that all those of this latter colour, which were watched, turned out + males. The chickens of buff Cochins are of a golden-yellow, easily + distinguishable from the paler tint of the white Cochins, and are often + longitudinally streaked with dark shades: the chickens of silver-cinnamon + Cochins are almost always of a buff colour. The chickens of the white + Game and white Dorking breeds, when held in particular lights, sometimes + exhibit (on the authority of Mr. Brent) faint traces of longitudinal + stripes. Fowls which are entirely black, namely Spanish, black Game, + black Polish, and black Bantams, display a new character, for their + chickens have their breasts and throats more or less white, with + sometimes a little white elsewhere. Spanish chickens also, occasionally + (Brent), have, where the down was white, their first true feathers tipped + for a time with white. The primordially striped character is retained by + the chickens of most of the Game sub-breeds (Brent, Dixon); by Dorkings; + by the partridge and grouse-coloured sub-breeds of Cochins (Brent), but + not, as we have seen, by all the other sub-breeds; by the pheasant-Malay + (Dixon), but apparently not (at which I am much surprised) by other + Malays. The following breeds and sub-breeds are barely, or not at all, + longitudinally striped; viz. gold and silver pencilled Hamburghs, which + can hardly be distinguished from each other (Brent) in the down, both + having a few <!-- Page 250 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page250"></a>{250}</span>dark spots on the head and rump, with + occasionally a longitudinal stripe (Dixon) on the back of the neck. I + have seen only one chicken of the silver-spangled Hamburgh, and this was + obscurely striped along the back. Gold-spangled Polish chickens + (Tegetmeier) are of a warm russet brown; and silver-spangled Polish + chickens are grey, sometimes (Dixon) with dashes of ochre on the head, + wings, and breast. Cuckoo and blue-dun fowls (Dixon) are grey in the + down. The chickens of Sebright Bantams (Dixon) are uniformly dark brown, + whilst those of the brown-breasted red Game Bantam are black, with some + white on the throat and breast. From these facts we see that the chickens + of the different breeds, and even of the same main breed, differ much in + their downy plumage; and, although longitudinal stripes characterise the + young of all wild gallinaceous birds, they disappear in several domestic + breeds. Perhaps it may be accepted as a general rule that the more the + adult plumage differs from that of the adult <i>G. bankiva,</i> the more + completely the chickens have lost their proper stripes.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>With respect to the period of life at which the characters proper to + each breed first appear, it is obvious that such structures as additional + toes must be formed long before birth. In Polish fowls, the extraordinary + protuberance of the anterior part of the skull is well developed before + the chickens come out of the egg;<a name="NtA_400" + href="#Nt_400"><sup>[400]</sup></a> but the crest, which is supported on + the protuberance, is at first feebly developed, nor does it attain its + full size until the second year. The Spanish cock is pre-eminent for his + magnificent comb, and this is developed at an unusually early age; so + that the young males can be distinguished from the females when only a + few weeks old, and therefore earlier than in other breeds; they likewise + crow very early, namely, when about six weeks old. In the Dutch sub-breed + of the Spanish fowl the white ear-lappets are developed earlier than in + the common Spanish breed.<a name="NtA_401" + href="#Nt_401"><sup>[401]</sup></a> Cochins are characterised by a small + tail, and in the young cocks the tail is developed at an unusually late + period.<a name="NtA_402" href="#Nt_402"><sup>[402]</sup></a> Game fowls + are notorious for their pugnacity; and the young cocks crow, clap their + little wings, and obstinately fight with each other, even whilst under + their mother's care.<a name="NtA_403" href="#Nt_403"><sup>[403]</sup></a> + "I have often had," says one <!-- Page 251 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page251"></a>{251}</span>author,<a name="NtA_404" + href="#Nt_404"><sup>[404]</sup></a> "whole broods, scarcely feathered, + stone-blind from fighting; the rival couples moping in corners, and + renewing their battles on obtaining the first ray of light." With the + males of all gallinaceous birds the use of their weapons and pugnacity is + to fight for the possession of the females; so that the tendency in our + Game chickens to fight at an extremely early age is not only useless, but + is injurious, as they suffer so much from their wounds. The training for + battle during an early period may be natural to the wild <i>Gallus + bankiva</i>; but as man during many generations has gone on selecting the + most obstinately pugnacious cocks, it is more probable that their + pugnacity has been unnaturally increased, and unnaturally transferred to + the young male chickens. In the same manner, it is probable that the + extraordinary development of the comb in the Spanish cock has been + unintentionally transferred to the young cocks; for fanciers would not + care whether their young birds had large combs, but would select for + breeding the adults which had the finest combs, whether or not developed + at an early period. The last point which need here be noticed is that, + though the chickens of Spanish and Malay fowls are well covered with + down, the true feathers are acquired at an unusually late age; so that + for a time the young birds are partially naked, and are liable to suffer + from cold.</p> + + <p><i>Secondary Sexual Characters.</i>—The two sexes in the + parent-form, the <i>Gallus bankiva</i>, differ much in colour. In our + domestic breeds the difference is never greater, but is often less, and + varies much in degree even in the sub-breeds of the same main breed. Thus + in certain Game fowls the difference is as great as in the parent-form, + whilst in the black and white sub-breeds there is no difference in + plumage. Mr. Brent informs me that he has seen two strains of + black-breasted red Games, in which the cocks could not be distinguished, + whilst the hens in one were partridge-brown and in the other fawn-brown. + A similar case has been observed in the strains of the brown-breasted red + Game. The hen of the "duck-winged Game" is "extremely beautiful," and + differs much from the hens of all the other Game sub-breeds; but + generally, as with the blue and grey Game and <!-- Page 252 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page252"></a>{252}</span>with some sub-varieties + of the pile-game, a moderately close relation may be observed between the + males and females in the variation of their plumage.<a name="NtA_405" + href="#Nt_405"><sup>[405]</sup></a> A similar relation is also evident + when we compare the several varieties of Cochins. In the two sexes of + gold and silver-spangled and of buff Polish fowls, there is much general + similarity in the colouring and marks of the whole plumage, excepting of + course in the hackles, crest, and beard. In spangled Hamburghs, there is + likewise a considerable degree of similarity between the two sexes. In + pencilled Hamburghs, on the other hand, there is much dissimilarity; the + pencilling which is characteristic of the hens being almost absent in the + males of both the golden and silver varieties. But, as we have already + seen, it cannot be given as a general rule that male fowls never have + pencilled feathers, for Cuckoo Dorkings are "remarkable from having + nearly similar markings in both sexes."</p> + + <p>It is a singular fact that the males in certain sub-breeds have lost + some of their secondary masculine characters, and, from their close + resemblance in plumage to the females, are often called hennies. There is + much diversity of opinion whether these males are in any degree sterile; + that they sometimes are partially sterile seems clear,<a name="NtA_406" + href="#Nt_406"><sup>[406]</sup></a> but this may have been caused by too + close interbreeding. That they are not quite sterile, and that the whole + case is widely different from that of old females assuming masculine + characters, is evident from several of these hen-like sub-breeds having + been long propagated. The males and females of gold and silver-laced + Sebright Bantams can be barely distinguished from each other, except by + their combs, wattles, and spurs, for they are coloured alike, and the + males have not hackles, nor the flowing sickle-like tail-feathers. A + hen-tailed sub-breed of Hamburghs was recently much esteemed. There is + also a breed of Game-fowls, in which the males and females resemble each + other so closely that the cocks have often mistaken their hen-feathered + opponents in the cock-pit for real hens, and by the mistake have lost + their lives.<a name="NtA_407" href="#Nt_407"><sup>[407]</sup></a> The + cocks, <!-- Page 253 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page253"></a>{253}</span>though dressed in the feathers of the hen, + "are high-spirited birds, and their courage has been often proved:" an + engraving even has been published of one celebrated hen-tailed victor. + Mr. Tegetmeier<a name="NtA_408" href="#Nt_408"><sup>[408]</sup></a> has + recorded the remarkable case of a brown-breasted red Game-cock which, + after assuming its perfect masculine plumage, became hen-feathered in the + autumn of the following year; but he did not lose voice, spurs, strength, + nor productiveness. This bird has now retained the same character during + five seasons, and has begot both hen-feathered and male-feathered + offspring. Mr. Grantley F. Berkeley relates the still more singular case + of a celebrated strain of "polecat Game-fowls," which produced in nearly + every brood a single hen-cock. "The great peculiarity in one of these + birds was that he, as the seasons succeeded each other, was not always a + hen-cock, and not always of the colour called the polecat, which is + black. From the polecat and hen-cock feather in one season he moulted to + a full male-plumaged black-breasted red, and in the following year he + returned to the former feather."<a name="NtA_409" + href="#Nt_409"><sup>[409]</sup></a></p> + + <p>I have remarked in my 'Origin of Species' that secondary sexual + characters are apt to differ much in the species of the same genus, and + to be unusually variable in the individuals of the same species. So it is + with the breeds of the fowl, as we have already seen, as far as the + colour of plumage is concerned, and so it is with the other secondary + sexual characters. Firstly, the comb differs much in the various + breeds,<a name="NtA_410" href="#Nt_410"><sup>[410]</sup></a> and its form + is eminently characteristic of each kind, with the exception of the + Dorkings, in which the form has not been as yet determined on by + fanciers, and fixed by selection. A single, deeply-serrated comb is the + typical and most common form. It differs much in size, being immensely + developed in Spanish fowls; and in a local breed called Red-caps, it is + sometimes "upwards of three inches in breadth at the front, and more than + four inches in length, measured to the end of the peak behind."<a + name="NtA_411" href="#Nt_411"><sup>[411]</sup></a> In some breeds the + comb is double, and when the two ends are cemented <!-- Page 254 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page254"></a>{254}</span>together it forms a + "cup-comb;" in the "rose-comb" it is depressed, covered with small + projections, and produced backwards; in the horned and crève-cœur + fowl it is produced into two horns; it is triple in the pea-combed + Brahmas, short and truncated in the Malays, and absent in the + Guelderlands. In the tasselled Game a few long feathers arise from the + back of the comb; in many breeds a crest of feathers replaces the comb. + The crest, when little developed, arises from a fleshy mass, but, when + much developed, from a hemispherical protuberance of the skull. In the + best Polish fowls it is so largely developed, that I have seen birds + which could hardly pick up their food; and a German writer asserts<a + name="NtA_412" href="#Nt_412"><sup>[412]</sup></a> that they are in + consequence liable to be struck by hawks. Monstrous structures of this + kind would thus be suppressed in a state of nature. The wattles, also, + vary much in size, being small in Malays and some other breeds; they are + replaced in certain Polish sub-breeds by a great tuft of feathers called + a beard.</p> + + <p>The hackles do not differ much in the various breeds, but are short + and stiff in Malays, and absent in Hennies. As in some orders of birds + the males display extraordinarily-shaped feathers, such as naked shafts + with discs at the end, &c., the following case may be worth giving. + In the wild <i>Gallus bankiva</i> and in our domestic fowls, the barbs + which arise from each side of the extremities of the hackles are naked or + not clothed with barbules, so that they resemble bristles; but Mr. Brent + sent me some scapular hackles from a young Birchen Duckwing Game cock, in + which the naked barbs became densely reclothed with barbules towards + their tips; so that these tips, which were dark coloured with a metallic + lustre, were separated from the lower parts by a symmetrically-shaped + transparent zone formed of the naked portions of the barbs. Hence the + coloured tips appeared like little separate metallic discs.</p> + + <p>The sickle-feathers in the tail, of which there are three pair, and + which are eminently characteristic of the male sex, differ much in the + various breeds. They are scimitar-shaped in some Hamburghs, instead of + being long and flowing as in the typical breeds. They are extremely short + in Cochins, and are not at <!-- Page 255 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page255"></a>{255}</span>all developed in Hennies. They are + carried, together with the whole tail, erect in Dorkings and Games; but + droop much in Malays and in some Cochins. Sultans are characterized by an + additional number of lateral sickle-feathers. The spurs vary much, being + placed higher or lower on the shank; being extremely long and sharp in + Games, and blunt and short in Cochins. These latter birds seem aware that + their spurs are not efficient weapons; for though they occasionally use + them, they more frequently fight, as I am informed by Mr. Tegetmeier, by + seizing and shaking each other with their beaks. In some Indian + Game-cocks, received by Mr. Brent from Germany, there are, as he informs + me, three, four, or even five spurs on each leg. Some Dorkings also have + two spurs on each leg;<a name="NtA_413" + href="#Nt_413"><sup>[413]</sup></a> and in birds of this breed the spur + is often placed almost on the outside of the leg. Double spurs are + mentioned in the ancient Chinese Encyclopædia. Their occurrence may be + considered as a case of analogous variation, for some wild gallinaceous + birds, for instance, the Polyplectron, have double spurs.</p> + + <p>Judging from the differences which generally distinguish the sexes in + the Gallinaceæ, certain characters in our domestic fowls appear to have + been transferred from the one sex to the other. In all the species + (except in Turnix), when there is any conspicuous difference in plumage + between the male and female, the male is always the most beautiful; but + in golden-spangled Hamburghs the hen is equally beautiful with the cock, + and incomparably more beautiful than the hen in any natural species of + Gallus; so that here a masculine character has been transferred to the + female. On the other hand, in cuckoo Dorkings and in other cuckoo breeds + the pencilling, which in Gallus is a female attribute, has been + transferred to the male: nor, on the principle of analogous variation, is + this transference surprising, as the males in many gallinaceous genera + are barred or pencilled. With most of these birds head ornaments of all + kinds are more fully developed in the male than in the female; but in + Polish fowls the crest or top-knot, which in the male replaces the comb, + is equally developed in both sexes. In certain <!-- Page 256 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page256"></a>{256}</span>sub-breeds, which, from + the hen having a small crest, are called lark-crested, "a single upright + comb sometimes almost entirely takes the place of the crest in the + male."<a name="NtA_414" href="#Nt_414"><sup>[414]</sup></a> From this + latter case, and from some facts presently to be given with respect to + the protuberance of the skull in Polish fowls, the crest in this breed + ought perhaps to be viewed as a feminine character which has been + transferred to the male. In the Spanish breed the male, as we know, has + an immense comb, and this has been partially transferred to the female, + for her comb is unusually large, though not upright. In Game-fowls the + bold and savage disposition of the male has likewise been largely + transferred to the female;<a name="NtA_415" + href="#Nt_415"><sup>[415]</sup></a> and she sometimes even possesses the + eminently masculine character of spurs. Many cases are on record of hens + being furnished with spurs; and in Germany, according to Bechstein,<a + name="NtA_416" href="#Nt_416"><sup>[416]</sup></a> the spurs in the + Silk-hen are sometimes very long. He mentions also another breed + similarly characterized, in which the hens are excellent layers, but are + apt to disturb and break their eggs owing to their spurs.</p> + + <p>Mr. Layard<a name="NtA_417" href="#Nt_417"><sup>[417]</sup></a> has + given an account of a breed of fowls in Ceylon with black skin, bones, + and wattle, but with ordinary feathers, and which cannot "be more aptly + described than by comparing them to a white fowl drawn down a sooty + chimney; it is, however," adds Mr. Layard, "a remarkable fact that a male + bird of the pure sooty variety is almost as rare as a tortoise-shell + tom-cat." Mr. Blyth finds that the same rule holds good with this breed + near Calcutta. The males and females, on the other hand, of the + black-boned European breed, with silky feathers, do not differ from each + other; so that in the one breed black skin and bones, and the same kind + of plumage, are common to both sexes, whilst in the other breed these + characters are confined to the female sex.</p> + + <p>At the present day all the breeds of Polish fowls have the great bony + protuberance on their skulls, which includes part of the brain and + supports the crest, equally developed in both sexes. <!-- Page 257 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page257"></a>{257}</span>But formerly + in Germany the skull of the hen alone was protuberant: Blumenbach,<a + name="NtA_418" href="#Nt_418"><sup>[418]</sup></a> who particularly + attended to abnormal peculiarities in domestic animals, states, in 1813, + that this was the case; and Bechstein had previously, in 1793, observed + the same fact. This latter author has carefully described the effects of + a crest on the skull not only in fowls, but in ducks, geese, and + canaries. He states that with fowls, when the crest is not much + developed, it is supported on a fatty mass; but when much developed, it + is always supported on a bony protuberance of variable size. He well + describes the peculiarities of this protuberance, and he attended to the + effects of the modified shape of the brain on the intellect of these + birds, and disputes Pallas' statement that they are stupid. He then + expressly states that he never observed this protuberance in male fowls. + Hence there can be no doubt that this remarkable character in the skulls + of Polish fowls was formerly in Germany confined to the female sex, but + has now been transferred to the males, and has thus become common to both + sexes.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>External Differences, not connected with the sexes, between the +breeds and between individual birds.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>The size of the body differs greatly. Mr. Tegetmeier has known a + Brahma to weigh 17 pounds; a fine Malay cock 10 pounds; whilst a + first-rate Sebright Bantam weighs hardly more than 1 pound. During the + last 20 years the size of some of our breeds has been largely increased + by methodical selection, whilst that of other breeds has been much + diminished. We have already seen how greatly colour varies even within + the same breed; we know that the wild <i>G. bankiva</i> varies slightly + in colour; we know that colour is variable in all our domestic animals; + nevertheless some eminent fanciers have so little faith in variability, + that they have actually argued that the chief Game sub-breeds, which + differ from each other in nothing but colour, are descended from distinct + wild species! Crossing often causes strange modifications of colour. Mr. + Tegetmeier informs me that when buff and white Cochins are crossed, some + of the <!-- Page 258 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page258"></a>{258}</span>chickens are almost invariably black. + According to Mr. Brent, black and white Cochins occasionally produce + chickens of a slaty-blue tint; and this same tint appears, as Mr. + Tegetmeier tells me, from crossing white Cochins with black Spanish + fowls, or white Dorkings with black Minorcas.<a name="NtA_419" + href="#Nt_419"><sup>[419]</sup></a> A good observer<a name="NtA_420" + href="#Nt_420"><sup>[420]</sup></a> states that a first-rate + silver-spangled Hamburgh hen gradually lost the most characteristic + qualities of the breed, for the black lacing to her feathers disappeared, + and her legs changed from leaden-blue to white; but what makes the case + remarkable is, that this tendency ran in the blood, for her sister + changed in a similar but less strongly marked manner; and chickens + produced from this latter hen were at first almost pure white, "but on + moulting acquired black collars and some spangled feathers with almost + obliterated markings;" so that a new variety arose in this singular + manner. The skin in the different breeds differs much in colour, being + white in common kinds, yellow in Malays and Cochins, and black in Silk + fowls; thus mocking, as M. Godron<a name="NtA_421" + href="#Nt_421"><sup>[421]</sup></a> remarks, the three principal types of + skin in mankind. The same author adds, that, as different kinds of fowls + living in distant and isolated parts of the world have black skin and + bones, this colour must have appeared at various times and places.</p> + + <p>The shape and carriage of the body and the shape of the head differ + much. The beak varies slightly in length and curvature, but incomparably + less than with pigeons. In most crested fowls the nostrils offer a + remarkable peculiarity in being raised with a crescentic outline. The + primary wing-feathers are short in Cochins; in a male, which must have + been more than twice as heavy as <i>G. bankiva</i>, these feathers were + in both birds of the same length. I have counted, with Mr. Tegetmeier's + aid, the primary wing-feathers in thirteen cocks and hens of various + breeds; in four of them, namely in two Hamburghs, a Cochin, and Game + Bantam, there were 10, instead of the normal number 9; but in counting + these feathers I have followed the practice of fanciers, and have + <i>not</i> included the first minute primary feather, barely + three-quarters of an inch in length. These feathers differ considerably + in relative length, the fourth, or the fifth, or the sixth, being the + longest; with the third either equal to, or considerably shorter than the + fifth. In wild gallinaceous species the relative length and number of the + main wing and tail-feathers are extremely constant.</p> + + <p>The tail differs much in erectness and size, being small in Malays and + very small in Cochins. In thirteen fowls of various breeds which I have + examined, five had the normal number of 14 feathers, including in this + number the two middle sickle-feathers; six others (viz. a Caffre cock, + Gold-spangled Polish cock, Cochin hen, Sultan hen, Game hen, and Malay + hen) had 16; <!-- Page 259 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page259"></a>{259}</span>and two (an old Cochin cock and Malay hen) + had 17 feathers. The rumpless fowl has no tail, and in a bird which I + kept alive the oil-gland had aborted; but this bird, though the os + coccygis was extremely imperfect, had a vestige of a tail with two rather + long feathers in the position of the outer caudals. This bird came from a + family where, as I was told, the breed had kept true for twenty years; + but rumpless fowls often produce chickens with tails.<a name="NtA_422" + href="#Nt_422"><sup>[422]</sup></a> An eminent physiologist<a + name="NtA_423" href="#Nt_423"><sup>[423]</sup></a> has recently spoken of + this breed as a distinct species; had he examined the deformed state of + the os coccyx he would never have come to this conclusion; he was + probably misled by the statement, which may be found in some works, that + tailless fowls are wild in Ceylon; but this statement, as I have been + assured by Mr. Layard and Dr. Kellaert, who have so closely studied the + birds of Ceylon, is utterly false.</p> + + <p>The tarsi vary considerably in length, being relatively to the femur + considerably longer in the Spanish and Frizzled, and shorter in the Silk + and Bantam breeds, than in the wild <i>G. bankiva</i>; but in the latter, + as we have seen, the tarsi vary in length. The tarsi are often feathered. + The feet in many breeds are furnished with additional toes. + Golden-spangled Polish fowls are said<a name="NtA_424" + href="#Nt_424"><sup>[424]</sup></a> to have the skin between their toes + much developed; Mr. Tegetmeier observed this in one bird, but it was not + so in one which I examined. In Cochins the middle toe is said<a + name="NtA_425" href="#Nt_425"><sup>[425]</sup></a> to be nearly double + the length of the lateral toes, and therefore much longer than in <i>G. + bankiva</i> or in other fowls; but this was not the case in two which I + examined. The nail of the middle toe in this same breed is surprisingly + broad and flat, but in a variable degree in two birds which I examined; + of this structure in the nail there is only a trace in <i>G. + bankiva</i>.</p> + + <p>The voice differs slightly, as I am informed by Mr. Dixon, in almost + every breed. The Malays<a name="NtA_426" + href="#Nt_426"><sup>[426]</sup></a> have a loud, deep, somewhat prolonged + crow, but with considerable individual differences. Colonel Sykes remarks + that the domestic Kulm cock in India has not the shrill clear pipe of the + English bird, and "his scale of notes appears more limited." Dr. Hooker + was struck with the "prolonged howling screech" of the cocks in Sikhim.<a + name="NtA_427" href="#Nt_427"><sup>[427]</sup></a> The crow of the Cochin + is notoriously and ludicrously different from that of the common cock. + The disposition of the different breeds is widely different, varying from + the savage and defiant temper of the Game-cock to the extremely peaceable + temper of the Cochin. The latter, it has been asserted, "graze to a much + greater extent than any other varieties." The Spanish fowls suffer more + from frost than other breeds.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Before we pass on to the skeleton, the degree of distinctness of the + several breeds from <i>G. bankiva</i> ought to be noticed. Some <!-- Page + 260 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page260"></a>{260}</span>writers + speak of the Spanish as one of the most distinct breeds, and so it is in + general aspect; but its characteristic differences are not important. The + Malay appears to me more distinct, from its tall stature, small drooping + tail with more than fourteen tail-feathers, and from its small comb and + wattles; nevertheless one Malay sub-breed is coloured almost exactly like + <i>G. bankiva.</i> Some authors consider the Polish fowl as very + distinct; but this is a semi-monstrous breed, as shown by the protuberant + and irregularly perforated skull. The Cochin, with its deeply furrowed + frontal bones, peculiarly shaped occipital foramen, short wing-feathers, + short tail containing more than fourteen feathers, broad nail to the + middle toe, fluffy plumage, rough and dark-coloured eggs, and especially + from its peculiar voice, is probably the most distinct of all the breeds. + If any one of our breeds has descended from some unknown species, + distinct from <i>G. bankiva,</i> it is probably the Cochin; but the + balance of evidence does not favour this view. All the characteristic + differences of the Cochin breed are more or less variable, and may be + detected in a greater or lesser degree in other breeds. One sub-breed is + coloured closely like <i>G. bankiva.</i> The feathered legs, often + furnished with an additional toe, the wings incapable of flight, the + extremely quiet disposition, indicate a long course of domestication; and + these fowls come from China, where we know that plants and animals have + been tended from a remote period with extraordinary care, and where + consequently we might expect to find profoundly modified domestic + races.</p> + + <p><i>Osteological Differences.</i>—I have examined twenty-seven + skeletons and fifty-three skulls of various breeds, including three of + <i>G. bankiva</i>: nearly half of these skulls I owe to the kindness of + Mr. Tegetmeier, and three of the skeletons to Mr. Eyton.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>The <i>Skull</i> differs greatly in size in different breeds, being + nearly twice as long in the largest Cochins, but not nearly twice as + broad, as in Bantams. The bones at the base, from the occipital foramen + to the anterior end (including the quadrates and pterygoids), are + absolutely identical in <i>shape</i> in all the skulls. So is the lower + jaw. In the forehead slight differences are often perceptible between the + males and females, evidently caused by the presence of the comb. In every + case I take the skull of <i>G. bankiva</i> as the standard of comparison. + In four Games, in one Malay hen, in an <!-- Page 261 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page261"></a>{261}</span>African cock, in a + Frizzled cock from Madras, in two black-boned Silk hens, no differences + occur worth notice. In three <i>Spanish</i> cocks, the form of the + forehead between the orbits differs considerably; in one it is + considerably depressed, whilst in the two others it is rather prominent, + with a deep medial furrow; the skull of the hen is smooth. In three + skulls of <i>Sebright Bantams</i> the crown is more globular, and slopes + more abruptly to the occiput, than in <i>G. bankiva</i>. In a Bantam or + Jumper from Burmah these same characters are more strongly pronounced, + and the supra-occiput is more pointed. In a black Bantam the skull is not + so globular, and the occipital foramen is very large, and has nearly the + same sub-triangular outline presently to be described in Cochins; and in + this skull the two ascending branches of the premaxillary are overlapped + in a singular manner by the processes of the nasal bone, but, as I have + seen only one specimen, some of these differences may be individual. Of + Cochins and Brahmas (the latter a crossed race approaching closely to + Cochins) I have examined seven skulls; at the point where the ascending + branches of the premaxillary rest on the frontal bone the surface is much + depressed, and from this depression a deep medial furrow extends + backwards to a variable distance; the edges of this fissure are rather + prominent, as is the top of the skull behind and over the orbits. These + characters are less developed in the hens. The pterygoids, and the + processes of the lower jaw, relatively to the size of the head, are + broader than in <i>G. bankiva</i>; and this is likewise the case with + Dorkings when of large size. The terminal fork of the hyoid bone in + Cochins is twice as wide as in <i>G. bankiva</i>, whereas the length of + the other hyoid bones is only as three to two. But the most remarkable + character is the shape of the occipital foramen: in <i>G. bankiva</i> (A) + the breadth in a horizontal line exceeds the height in a vertical line, + and the outline is nearly circular; whereas in Cochins (B) the outline is + sub-triangular, and the vertical line exceeds the horizontal line in + length. This same form likewise occurs in the black Bantam above referred + to, and an approach to it may be seen in some Dorkings, and in a slight + degree in certain other breeds.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:35%;"> + <a href="images/Dom133.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom133.png" + alt="Fig. 33.--Occipital Foramina of Fowls." title="Fig. 33.--Occipital Foramina of Fowls." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 33.—Occipital Foramen, of natural size. A. + Wild <i>Gallus bankiva</i>. B. Cochin Cock.</p> + </div> + <p>Of <i>Dorkings</i> I have examined three skulls, one belonging to the + white sub-breed; the one character deserving notice is the breadth of the + frontal bones, which are moderately furrowed in the middle; thus in a + skull which was less than once and a half the length of that of <i>G. + bankiva</i>, the breadth between the orbits was exactly double. Of + <i>Hamburghs</i> I have examined four skulls (male and female) of the + pencilled sub-breed, and one (male) of the spangled sub-breed; the nasal + bones stand remarkably wide apart, but in a variable degree; consequently + narrow membrane-covered spaces fare left between the tips of the two + ascending branches of the premaxillary <!-- Page 262 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page262"></a>{262}</span>bones, which are rather + short, and between these branches and the nasal bones. The surface of the + frontal bone, on which the branches of the premaxillary rest, is very + little depressed. These peculiarities no doubt stand in close relation + with the broad flattened rose-comb characteristic of the Hamburgh + breed.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:39%;"> + <a href="images/Dom134.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom134.png" + alt="Fig. 34.--Skulls of Fowls." title="Fig. 34.--Skulls of Fowls." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 34.—Skulls of natural size, viewed from + above, a little obliquely. A. Wild <i>Gallus bankiva</i>. B. + White-crested Polish Cock.</p> + </div> + <p>I have examined fourteen skulls of <i>Polish and other crested + breeds</i>. Their differences are extraordinary. First for nine skulls of + different sub-breeds of English Polish fowls. The hemispherical + protuberance of the frontal bones<a name="NtA_428" + href="#Nt_428"><sup>[428]</sup></a> may be seen in the accompanying + drawings, in which (B) the skull of a white-crested Polish fowl is shown + obliquely from above, with the skull (A) of <i>G. bankiva</i> in the same + position. In fig. 35 longitudinal sections are given of the skulls of a + Polish fowl, and, for comparison, of a Cochin of the same size. The + protuberance in all Polish fowls occupies the same position, but differs + much in size. In one of my nine specimens it was extremely slight. The + degree to which the protuberance is ossified varies greatly, larger or + smaller portions of bone being replaced by membrane. In one specimen + there was only a single open pore; generally, there are many + variously-shaped open spaces, the bone forming an irregular reticulation. + A medial, longitudinal, arched ribbon of bone is generally retained, but + in one specimen there was no bone whatever over the whole protuberance, + and the skull when cleaned and viewed from above presented the appearance + of an open basin. The change in the whole internal form of the skull is + surprisingly great. The brain is modified in a corresponding manner, as + is shown in the two longitudinal sections, <!-- Page 263 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page263"></a>{263}</span>which deserve attentive + consideration. The upper and anterior cavity of the three into which the + skull may be divided, is the one which is so greatly modified; it is + evidently much larger than in the Cochin skull of the same size, and + extends much further beyond the interorbital septum, but laterally is + less deep. Whether this cavity is entirely filled by the brain, may be + doubted. In the skull of the Cochin and of all ordinary fowls a strong + internal ridge of bone separates the anterior from the central cavity; + but this ridge is entirely absent in the Polish skull here figured. The + shape of the central cavity is circular in the Polish, and lengthened in + the Cochin skull. The shape of the posterior cavity, together with the + position, size, and number of the pores for the nerves, differ much in + these two skulls. A pit deeply penetrating the occipital bone of the + Cochin is entirely absent in this Polish skull, whilst in another + specimen it was well developed. In this second specimen the whole + internal surface of the posterior cavity likewise differs to a certain + extent in shape. I made sections of two other skulls,—namely, of a + Polish fowl with the protuberance singularly little developed, and of a + Sultan in which it was a little more developed; and when these two skulls + were placed between the two above figured (fig. 35), a perfect gradation + in the configuration of each part of the internal surface could be + traced. In the Polish skull, with a small protuberance, the ridge between + the anterior and middle cavities was present, but low; and in the Sultan + this ridge was replaced by a narrow furrow standing on a broad raised + eminence.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:49%;"> + <a href="images/Dom135.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom135.png" + alt="Fig. 35.--Longitudinal sections of Skulls of Fowls." title="Fig. 35.--Longitudinal sections of Skulls of Fowls." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 35.—Longitudinal sections of Skull, of + natural size, viewed laterally. A. Polish Cock. B. Cochin Cock, + selected for comparison with the above from being of nearly the same + size.</p> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 264 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page264"></a>{264}</span></p> + + <p>It may naturally be asked whether these remarkable modifications in + the form of the brain affect the intellect of Polish fowls; some writers + have stated that they are extremely stupid, but Bechstein and Mr. + Tegetmeier have shown that this is by no means generally the case. + Nevertheless Bechstein<a name="NtA_429" + href="#Nt_429"><sup>[429]</sup></a> states that he had a Polish hen which + "was crazy, and anxiously wandered about all day long." A hen in my + possession was solitary in her habits, and was often so absorbed in + reverie that she could be touched; she was also deficient in the most + singular manner in the faculty of finding her way, so that, if she + strayed a hundred yards from her feeding-place, she was completely lost, + and would then obstinately try to proceed in a wrong direction. I have + received other and similar accounts of Polish fowls appearing stupid or + half-idiotic.<a name="NtA_430" href="#Nt_430"><sup>[430]</sup></a></p> + + <p>To return to the skull. The posterior part, viewed externally, differs + little from that of <i>G. bankiva</i>. In most fowls the + posterior-lateral process of the frontal bone and the process of the + squamosal bone run together and are ossified near their extremities: this + union of the two bones, however, is not constant in any breed; and in + eleven out of fourteen skulls of crested breeds, these processes were + quite distinct. These processes, when not united, instead of being + inclined anteriorly as in all common breeds, descend at right angles to + the lower jaw; and in this case the longer axis of the bony cavity of the + ear is likewise more perpendicular than in other breeds. When the + squamosal process is free, instead of expanding at the tip, it is reduced + to an extremely fine and pointed style, of variable length. The pterygoid + and quadrate bones present no difference. The palatine bones are a little + more curved upwards at their posterior ends. The frontal bones, + anteriorly to the protuberance, are, as in Dorkings, very broad, but in a + variable degree. The nasal bones either stand far apart, as in Hamburghs, + or almost touch each other, and in one instance were ossified together. + Each nasal bone properly sends out in front two long processes of equal + lengths, forming a fork; but in all the Polish skulls, except one, the + inner process was considerably, but in a variable degree, shortened and + somewhat upturned. In all the skulls, except one, the two ascending + branches of the premaxillary, instead of running up between the processes + of the nasal bones and resting on the ethmoid bone, are much shortened + and terminate in a blunt, somewhat upturned point. In those skulls in + which the nasal bones approach quite close to each other or are ossified + together, it would be impossible for the ascending branches of the + premaxillary to reach the ethmoid and frontal bones; hence we see that + even the relative connection of the bones has been changed. Apparently in + consequence of the branches of the premaxillary and of the inner + processes of the nasal bones being somewhat upturned, the external + orifices of the nostrils are upraised and assume a crescentic + outline.</p> + + <p>I must still say a few words on some of the foreign Crested breeds. + The skull of a crested, rumpless, white Turkish fowl is very slightly + protuberant, and but little perforated; the ascending branches of the + premaxillary <!-- Page 265 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page265"></a>{265}</span>are well developed. In another Turkish + breed, called Ghoondooks, the skull is considerably protuberant and + perforated; the ascending branches of the premaxillary are so much + aborted that they project only 1/15th of an inch; and the inner processes + of the nasal bone are so completely aborted, that the surface where they + should have projected is quite smooth. Here then we see these two bones + modified to an extreme degree. Of Sultans (another Turkish breed) I + examined two skulls; in that of the female the protuberance was much + larger than in the male. In both skulls the ascending branches of the + premaxillary were very short, and in both the basal portion of the inner + processes of the nasal bones were ossified together. These Sultan skulls + differed from those of English Polish fowls in the frontal bones, + anteriorly to the protuberance, not being broad.</p> + + <p>The last skull which I need describe is a unique one, lent to me by + Mr. Tegetmeier: it resembles a Polish skull in most of its characters, + but has not the great frontal protuberance; it has, however, two rounded + knobs of a different nature, which stand more in front, above the + lachrymal bones. These curious knobs, into which the brain does not + enter, are separated from each other by a deep medial furrow; and this is + perforated by a few minute pores. The nasal bones stand rather wide + apart, with their inner processes, and the ascending branches of the + premaxillary, upturned and shortened. The two knobs no doubt supported + the two great horn-like projections of the comb.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/Dom136.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom136.png" + alt="Fig. 36.--Skull of Horned Fowl." title="Fig. 36.--Skull of Horned Fowl." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 36.—Skull of Horned Fowl, of natural size, + viewed from above, a little obliquely. (In the possession of Mr. + Tegetmeier.)</p> + </div> + <p>From the foregoing facts we see in how astonishing a manner some of + the bones of the skull vary in Crested fowls. The protuberance may + certainly be called in one sense a monstrosity, as being wholly unlike + anything observed in nature: but as in ordinary cases it is not injurious + to the bird, and as it is strictly inherited, it can hardly in another + sense be called a monstrosity. A series may be formed commencing with the + black-boned Silk fowl, which has a very small crest with the skull + beneath penetrated only by a few minute orifices, but with no other + change in its structure; and from this first stage we may proceed to + fowls with a moderately large crest, which rests, according to Bechstein, + on a fleshy mass, but without any <!-- Page 266 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page266"></a>{266}</span>protuberance in the + skull. I may add that I have seen a similar fleshy or fibrous mass + beneath the tuft of feathers on the head of the Tufted duck; and in this + case there was no actual protuberance in the skull, but it had become a + little more globular. Lastly, when we come to fowls with a largely + developed crest, the skull becomes largely protuberant and is perforated + by a multitude of irregular open spaces. The close relation between the + crest and the size of the bony protuberance is shown in another way; for + Mr. Tegetmeier informs me that if chickens lately hatched be selected + with a large bony protuberance, when adult they will have a large crest. + There can be no doubt that in former times the breeder of Polish fowls + attended solely to the crest, and not to the skull; nevertheless, by + increasing the crest, in which he has wonderfully succeeded, he has + unintentionally made the skull protuberant to an astonishing degree; and + through correlation of growth, he has at the same time affected the form + and relative connexion of the premaxillary and nasal bones, the shape of + the orifice of the nose, the breadth of the frontal bones, the shape of + the post-lateral processes of the frontal and squamosal bones, the + direction of the axis of the bony cavity of the ear, and lastly the + internal configuration of the whole skull together with the shape of the + brain.</p> + + <p><i>Vertebræ.</i>—In <i>G. bankiva</i> there are fourteen + cervical, seven dorsal with ribs, apparently fifteen lumbar and sacral, + and six caudal vertebræ;<a name="NtA_431" + href="#Nt_431"><sup>[431]</sup></a> but the lumbar and sacral are so much + anchylosed that I am not sure of their number, and this makes the + comparison of the total number of vertebræ in the several breeds + difficult. I have spoken of six caudal vertebræ, because the basal one is + almost completely anchylosed with the pelvis; but if we consider the + number as seven, the caudal vertebræ agree in all the skeletons. The + cervical vertebræ are, as just stated, in appearance fourteen; but out of + twenty-three skeletons in a fit state for examination, in five of them, + namely, in two Games, in two pencilled Hamburghs, and in a Polish, the + fourteenth vertebra bore ribs, which, though small, were perfectly + developed with a double articulation. The presence of these little ribs + cannot be considered as a fact of much importance, for all the cervical + vertebræ bear representatives of ribs; but their development in the + fourteenth vertebra reduces the size of the passages in the transverse + processes, and makes this vertebra exactly like the first dorsal + vertebra. The addition of these little ribs does not affect the + fourteenth cervical alone, for properly the ribs of the first true dorsal + vertebra are destitute of processes; but in some of the skeletons in + which the fourteenth cervical bore little ribs, the first pair of true + ribs had well-developed processes. When we know that the sparrow has only + nine, and the swan twenty-three cervical vertebræ,<a name="NtA_432" + href="#Nt_432"><sup>[432]</sup></a> we need feel no surprise at the + number of the cervical vertebræ in the fowl being, as it appears, + variable.</p> + + <p>There are seven dorsal vertebræ bearing ribs; the first dorsal is + never <!-- Page 267 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page267"></a>{267}</span>anchylosed with the succeeding four, which + are generally anchylosed together. In one Sultan fowl, however, the two + first dorsal vertebræ were free. In two skeletons, the fifth dorsal was + free; generally the sixth is free (as in <i>G. bankiva</i>), but + sometimes only at its posterior end, where in contact with the seventh. + The seventh dorsal vertebra, in every case excepting in one Spanish cock, + was anchylosed with the lumbar vertebræ. So that the degree to which + these middle dorsal vertebræ are anchylosed together is variable.</p> + + <p>Seven is the normal number of true ribs, but in two skeletons of the + Sultan fowl (in which the fourteenth cervical vertebra was not furnished + with little ribs) there were eight pairs; the eighth pair seemed to be + developed on a vertebra corresponding with the first lumbar in <i>G. + bankiva</i>; the sternal portion of both the seventh and eighth ribs did + not reach the sternum. In four skeletons in which ribs were developed on + the fourteenth cervical vertebra, there were, when these cervical ribs + are included, eight pairs; but in one Game-cock, in which the fourteenth + cervical was furnished with ribs, there were only six pairs of true + dorsal ribs; the sixth pair in this case did not have processes, and thus + resembled the seventh pair in other skeletons; in this game-cock, as far + as could be judged from the appearance of the lumbar vertebræ, a whole + dorsal vertebra with its ribs was missing. We thus see that the ribs + (whether or not the little pair attached to the fourteenth cervical + vertebra be counted) vary from six to eight pair. The sixth pair is + frequently not furnished with processes. The sternal portion of the + seventh pair is extremely broad in Cochins, and is completely ossified. + As previously stated, it is scarcely possible to count the lumbo-sacral + vertebræ; but they certainly do not correspond in shape or number in the + several skeletons. The caudal vertebræ are closely similar in all the + skeletons, the only difference being, whether or not the basal one is + anchylosed to the pelvis; they hardly vary even in length, not being + shorter in Cochins, with their short tail-feathers, than in other breeds; + in a Spanish cock, however, the caudal vertebræ were a little elongated. + In three rumpless fowls the caudal vertebræ were few in number, and + anchylosed together into a misformed mass.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/Dom137.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom137.png" + alt="Fig. 37.--Cervical Vertebræ of Fowls." title="Fig. 37.--Cervical Vertebræ of Fowls." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 37.—Sixth Cervical Vertebra, of natural + size, viewed laterally. A. Wild <i>Gallus bankiva</i>. B. Cochin + Cock.</p> + </div> + <p>In the individual vertebræ the differences in structure are very + slight. In the atlas the cavity for the occipital condyle is either + ossified into a ring, or is, as in Bankiva, open on its upper margin. The + upper arc of the spinal canal is a little more arched in Cochins, in + conformity with the shape of occipital foramen, than in <i>G. + bankiva</i>. In several skeletons a difference, but not of much + importance, may be observed, which commences a the fourth cervical + vertebra, and is greatest at about the sixth, seventh, or eighth + vertebra; this consists in the hæmal descending processes being united to + the body of the vertebra by a sort of buttress. This structure may be + observed in Cochins, Polish, some Hamburgh, and probably other breeds; + but is absent, or barely developed, in Game, Dorking, Spanish, Bantam, + and <!-- Page 268 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page268"></a>{268}</span>several other breeds examined by me. On + the dorsal surface of the sixth cervical vertebra in Cochins three + prominent points are more strongly developed than in the corresponding + vertebra of the Game-fowl or <i>G. bankiva</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Pelvis.</i>—This differs in some few points in the several + skeletons. The anterior margin of the ilium seems at first to vary much + in outline, but this is chiefly due to the degree to which the margin in + the middle part is ossified to the crest of the spine; the outline, + however, does differ in being more truncated in Bantams, and more rounded + in certain breeds, as in Cochins. The outline of the ischiadic foramen + differs considerably, being nearly circular in Bantams, instead of + egg-shaped as in the Bankiva, and more regularly oval in some skeletons, + as in the Spanish. The obturator notch is also much less elongated in + some skeletons than in others. The end of the pubic bone presents the + greatest difference; being hardly enlarged in the Bankiva; considerably + and gradually enlarged in Cochins, and in a lesser degree in some other + breeds; and abruptly enlarged in Bantams. In one Bantam this bone + extended very little beyond the extremity of the ischium. The whole + pelvis in this latter bird differed widely in its proportions, being far + broader proportionally to its length than in Bankiva.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:23%;"> + <a href="images/Dom138.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom138.png" + alt="Fig. 38.--Extremities of the Furculæ of Fowls." title="Fig. 38.--Extremities of the Furculæ of Fowls." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 38.—Extremity of the Furcula, of natural + size, viewed laterally. A. Wild <i>Gallus bankiva</i>. B. Spangled + Polish Fowl. C. Spanish Fowl. D. Dorking Fowl.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Sternum.</i>—This bone is generally so much deformed that it + is scarcely possible to compare its form strictly in the several breeds. + The shape of the triangular extremity of the lateral processes differs + considerably, being either almost equilateral or much elongated. The + front margin of the crest is more or less perpendicular and varies + greatly, as does the curvature of the posterior end, and the flatness of + the lower surface. The outline of the manubrial process also varies, + being wedge-shaped in the Bankiva, and rounded in the Spanish breed. The + <i>furcula</i> differs in being more or less arched, and greatly, as may + be seen in the accompanying outlines, in the shape of the terminal plate; + but the shape of this part differed a little in two skeletons of the wild + Bankiva. The <i>coracoids</i> present no difference worth notice. The + <i>scapula</i> varies in shape, being of nearly uniform breadth in + Bankiva, much broader in the middle in the Polish fowl, and abruptly + narrowed towards the apex in the two Sultan fowls.</p> + + <p>I carefully compared each separate bone of the leg and wing, + relatively to the same bones in the wild Bankiva, in the following + breeds, which I thought were the most likely to differ; namely, in + Cochin, Dorking, <!-- Page 269 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page269"></a>{269}</span>Spanish, Polish, Burmese Bantam, Frizzled + Indian, and black-boned Silk fowls; and it was truly surprising to see + how absolutely every process, articulation, and pore agreed, though the + bones differed greatly in size. The agreement is far more absolute than + in other parts of the skeleton. In stating this, I do not refer to the + relative thickness and length of the several bones; for the tarsi varied + considerably in both these respects. But the other limb-bones varied + little even in relative length.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Finally, I have not examined a sufficient number of skeletons to say + whether any of the foregoing differences, except in the skull, are + characteristic of the several breeds. Apparently some differences are + more common in certain breeds than in others,—as an additional rib + to the fourteenth cervical vertebra in Hamburghs and Games, and the + breadth of the end of the pubic bone in Cochins. Both skeletons of the + Sultan fowl had eight dorsal vertebræ, and the end of the scapula in both + was somewhat attenuated. In the skull, the deep medial furrow in the + frontal bones and the vertically elongated occipital foramen seem to be + characteristic of Cochins; as is the great breadth of the frontal bones + in Dorkings; the separation and open spaces between the tips of the + ascending branches of the premaxillaries and nasal bones, as well as the + front part of the skull being but little depressed, characterise + Hamburghs; the globular shape of the posterior part of the skull seems to + be characteristic of laced Bantams; and lastly, the protuberance of the + skull with the ascending branches of the premaxillaries partially + aborted, together with the other differences before specified, are + eminently characteristic of Polish and other Crested fowls.</p> + + <p>But the most striking result of our examination of the skeleton is the + great variability of all the bones except those of the extremities. To a + certain extent we can understand why the skeleton fluctuates so much in + structure; fowls have been exposed to unnatural conditions of life, and + their whole organisation has thus been rendered variable; but the breeder + is quite indifferent to, and never intentionally selects, any + modifications in the skeleton. External characters, if not attended to by + man,—such as the number of the tail and wing feathers and their + relative lengths, which in wild birds are generally constant + points,—fluctuate in our domestic fowls in the same manner as the + several parts of the skeleton. An additional toe is a "point" in + Dorkings, and has become a fixed character, but is variable in <!-- Page + 270 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page270"></a>{270}</span>Cochins + and Silk-fowls. The colour of the plumage and the form of the comb are in + most breeds, or even sub-breeds, eminently fixed characters; but in + Dorkings these points have not been attended to, and are variable. When + any modification in the skeleton is related to some external character + which man values, it has been, unintentionally on his part, acted on by + selection, and has become more or less fixed. We see this in the + wonderful protuberance of the skull, which supports the crest of feathers + in Polish fowls, and which by correlation has affected other parts of the + skull. We see the same result in the two protuberances which support the + horns in the horned fowl, and in the flattened shape of the front of the + skull in Hamburghs consequent on their flattened and broad "rose-combs." + We know not in the least whether additional ribs, or the changed outline + of the occipital foramen, or the changed form of the scapula, or of the + extremity of the furcula, are in any way correlated with other + structures, or have arisen from the changed conditions and habits of life + to which our fowls have been subjected; but there is no reason to doubt + that these various modifications in the skeleton could be rendered, + either by direct selection, or by the selection of correlated structures, + as constant and as characteristic of each breed, as are the size and + shape of the body, the colour of the plumage, and the form of the + comb.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Effects of the Disuse of Parts.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Judging from the habits of our European gallinaceous birds, <i>Gallus + bankiva</i> in its native haunts would use its legs and wings more than + do our domestic fowls, which rarely fly except to their roosts. The Silk + and the Frizzled fowls, from having imperfect wing-feathers, cannot fly + at all; and there is reason to believe that both these breeds are + ancient, so that their progenitors during many generations cannot have + flown. The Cochins, also, from their short wings and heavy bodies, can + hardly fly up to a low perch. Therefore in these breeds, especially in + the two first, a considerable diminution in the wing-bones might have + been expected, but this is not the case. In every specimen, after + disarticulating and cleaning the bones, I carefully compared the relative + length of the two main bones of the wing to each other, and of the two + main bones of the leg to each other, with those of <i>G. bankiva</i>; and + it was surprising to see (except in the case of the tarsi) how exactly + the same relative length had been retained. This fact is curious, from + showing how truly the proportions of an organ may be inherited, although + not fully exercised during many generations. I then compared in several + breeds the <!-- Page 271 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page271"></a>{271}</span>length of the femur and tibia with the + humerus and ulna, and likewise these same bones with those of <i>G. + bankiva</i>; the result was that the wing-bones in all the breeds (except + the Burmese Jumper, which has unnaturally short legs) are slightly + shortened relatively to the leg-bones; but the decrease is so slight that + it may be due to the standard specimen of <i>G. bankiva</i> having + accidentally had wings of slightly greater length than usual; so that the + measurements are not worth giving. But it deserves notice that the Silk + and Frizzled fowls, which are quite incapable of flight, had their wings + <i>less</i> reduced relatively to their legs than in almost any other + breed! We have seen with domesticated pigeons that the bones of the wings + are somewhat reduced in length, whilst the primary feathers are rather + increased in length, and it is just possible, though not probable, that + in the Silk and Frizzled fowls any tendency to decrease in the length of + the wing-bones from disuse may have been checked through the law of + compensation, by the decreased growth of the wing-feathers, and + consequent increased supply of nutriment. The wing-bones, however, in + both these breeds, are found to be slightly reduced in length when judged + by the standard of the length of the sternum or head, relatively to these + same parts in <i>G. bankiva</i>.</p> + + <p>The actual weight of the main bones of the leg and wing in twelve + breeds is given in the two first columns in the following table. The + calculated weight of the wing-bones relatively to the leg-bones, in + comparison with the leg and wing-bones of <i>G. bankiva</i>, are given in + the third column,—the weight of the wing-bones in <i>G. bankiva</i> + being called a hundred.<a name="NtA_433" + href="#Nt_433"><sup>[433]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table I.</span></p> + + +<table width="68%" class="allbctr" summary="Weight of Wingbones" title="Weight of Wingbones"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p>Names of Breeds.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>Actual Weight of Femur and Tibia.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>Actual Weight of Humerus and Ulna.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:21%"> + <p>Weight of Wingbones relatively to the Leg-bones, in comparison + with these same bones in G. bankiva.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left; width:3%"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left; width:27%"> + <p>Gallus bankiva</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left; width:18%"> + <p>wild male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 86</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 54</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Cochin</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>311</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>162</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 83</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dorking</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>557</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>248</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 70</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Spanish (Minorca)</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>386</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>183</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 75</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Gold Spangled Polish</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>306</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>145</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 75</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Game, black-breasted</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>293</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>143</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 77</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Malay</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>female</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>231</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>116</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 80</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sultan</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>189</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 94</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 79</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Indian Frizzled</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>206</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 88</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 67</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Burmese Jumper</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>female</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 53</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 36</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>108</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Hamburgh (pencilled)</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>157</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>104</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>106</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Hamburgh (pencilled)</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>female</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>114</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 77</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>108</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>12</p> + + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Silk (black-boned)</p> + + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>female</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 88</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 57</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>103</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 272 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page272"></a>{272}</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>In the eight first birds, belonging to distinct breeds, in this table, + we see a decided reduction in the weight of the bones of the wing. In the + Indian Frizzled fowl, which cannot fly, the reduction is carried to the + greatest extent, namely, to thirty-three per cent. of their proper + proportional weight. In the next four birds, including the Silk-hen, + which is incapable of flight, we see that the wings, relatively to the + legs, are slightly increased in weight; but it should be observed that, + if in these birds the legs had become from any cause reduced in weight, + this would give the false appearance of the wings having increased in + relative weight. Now a reduction of this nature has certainly occurred + with the Burmese Jumper, in which the legs are abnormally short, and in + the two Hamburghs and Silk fowl, the legs, though not short, are formed + of remarkably thin and light bones. I make these statements, not judging + by mere eyesight, but after having calculated the weights of the + leg-bones relatively to those of <i>G. bankiva</i>, according to the only + two standards of comparison which I could use, namely, the relative + lengths of the head and sternum; for I do not know the weight of the body + in <i>G. bankiva</i>, which would have been a better standard. According + to these standards, the leg-bones in these four fowls are in a marked + manner far lighter than in any other breed. It may therefore be concluded + that in all cases in which the legs have not been through some unknown + cause much reduced in weight, the wing-bones have become reduced in + weight relatively to the leg-bones, in comparison with those of <i>G. + bankiva</i>. And this reduction of weight may, I apprehend, safely be + attributed to disuse.</p> + + <p>To make the foregoing table quite satisfactory, it ought to have been + shown that in the eight first birds the leg-bones have not actually + increased in weight out of due proportion with the rest of the body; this + I cannot show, from not knowing, as already remarked, the weight of the + wild Bankiva.<a name="NtA_434" href="#Nt_434"><sup>[434]</sup></a> I am + indeed inclined to suspect that the leg-bones in the Dorking, No. 2 in + the table, are proportionally too heavy; but this bird was a very large + one, weighing 7 lb. 2 oz., though very thin. Its leg-bones were more than + ten times as heavy as those of the Burmese Jumper! I tried to ascertain + the length both of the leg-bones and wing-bones relatively to other parts + of the body and skeleton; but the whole organisation in these birds, + which have been so long domesticated, has become so variable, that no + certain conclusions could be reached. For instance, the legs of the above + Dorking cock were nearly three-quarters of an inch too short relatively + to the length of the sternum, and more than <!-- Page 273 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page273"></a>{273}</span>three-quarters of an + inch too long relatively to the length of the skull, in comparison with + these same parts in <i>G. bankiva</i>.</p> + + <p>In the following Table II. in the two first columns we see in inches + and decimals the length of the sternum, and the extreme depth of its + crest to which the pectoral muscles are attached. In the third column we + have the calculated depth of the crest, relatively to the length of the + sternum, in comparison with these same parts in <i>G. bankiva</i>.<a + name="NtA_435" href="#Nt_435"><sup>[435]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table II.</span></p> + + +<table width="68%" class="allbctr" summary="Depth of Crest" title="Depth of Crest"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> + <p>Names of Breeds.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>Length of Sternum.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:14%"> + <p>Depth of Crest of Sternum.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:21%"> + <p>Depth of Crest, relatively to the length of the Sternum in + comparison with G. bankiva.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left; width:3%"> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left; width:27%"> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left; width:18%"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Gallus bankiva</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.40</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 </p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Cochin</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.83</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.55</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>78</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dorking</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.95</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.97</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>84</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Spanish</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.83</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>90</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Polish</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.07</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>87</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Game</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.55</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.55</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>81</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Malay</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>female</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>87</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sultan</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.47</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.36</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>90</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frizzled hen</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>84</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Burmese Jumper</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>female</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3.06</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0.85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>81</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Hamburgh</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>male</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5.08</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.40</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>81</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Hamburgh</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>female</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.55</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>81</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>12</p> + + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Silk fowl</p> + + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>female</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4.49</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1.01</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>66</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>By looking to the third column we see that in every case the depth of + the crest relatively to the length of the sternum, in comparison with + <i>G. bankiva</i>, is diminished, generally between 10 and 20 per cent. + But the degree of reduction varies much, partly in consequence of the + frequently deformed state of the sternum. In the Silk-fowl, which cannot + fly, the crest is 34 per cent. less deep than what it ought to have been. + This reduction of the crest in all the breeds probably accounts for the + great variability, before referred to, in the curvature of the furcula, + and in the shape of its sternal extremity. Medical men believe that the + abnormal form of the spine so commonly observed in women of the higher + ranks results from the attached muscles not being fully exercised. So it + is with our domestic fowls, for they use their pectoral muscles but + little, and, out of twenty-five sternums examined by me, three alone were + perfectly symmetrical, ten were moderately crooked, and twelve were + deformed to an extreme degree.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Finally, we may conclude with respect to the various breeds of the + fowl, that the main bones of the wing have probably been shortened in a + very slight degree; that they have <!-- Page 274 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page274"></a>{274}</span>certainly become + lighter relatively to the leg-bones in all the breeds in which these + latter bones are not unnaturally short or delicate; and that the crest of + the sternum, to which the pectoral muscles are attached, has invariably + become less prominent, the whole sternum being also extremely liable to + deformity. These results we may attribute to the lessened use of the + wings.</p> + + <p><i>Correlation of Growth</i>.—I will here sum up the few facts + which I have collected on this obscure, but important, subject. In + Cochins and Game-fowls there is some relation between the colour of the + plumage and the darkness of the egg-shell and even of the yolk. In + Sultans the additional sickle-feathers in the tail are apparently related + to the general redundancy of the plumage, as shown by the feathered legs, + large crest, and beard. In two tailless fowls which I examined the + oil-gland was aborted. A large crest of feathers, as Mr. Tegetmeier has + remarked, seems always accompanied by a great diminution or almost entire + absence of the comb. A large beard is similarly accompanied by diminished + or absent wattles. These latter cases apparently come under the law of + compensation or balancement of growth. A large beard beneath the lower + jaw and a large top-knot on the skull often go together. The comb when of + any peculiar shape, as with Horned, Spanish, and Hamburgh fowls, affects + in a corresponding manner the underlying skull; and we have seen how + wonderfully this is the case with Crested fowls when the crest is largely + developed. With the protuberance of the frontal bones the shape of the + internal surface of the skull and of the brain is greatly modified. The + presence of a crest influences in some unknown way the development of the + ascending branches of the premaxillary bone, and of the inner processes + of the nasal bones; and likewise the shape of the external orifice of the + nostrils. There is a plain and curious correlation between a crest of + feathers and the imperfectly ossified condition of the skull. Not only + does this hold good with nearly all crested fowls, but likewise with + tufted ducks, and as Dr. Günther informs me with tufted geese in + Germany.</p> + + <p>Lastly, the feathers composing the crest in male Polish fowls resemble + hackles, and differ greatly in shape from those in the crest of the + female. The neck, wing-coverts, and loins <!-- Page 275 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page275"></a>{275}</span>in the male bird are + properly covered with hackles, and it would appear that feathers of this + shape have spread by correlation to the head of the male. This little + fact is interesting; because, though both sexes of some wild gallinaceous + birds have their heads similarly ornamented, yet there is often a + difference in the size and shape of feathers forming their crests. + Furthermore there is in some cases, as in the male Gold and in the male + Amherst pheasants (<i>P. pictus</i> and <i><span class="correction" + title="Printed `Amherstii', corrected by Errata page" + >Amherstiæ</span></i>), a close relation in colour, as well as in + structure, between the plumes on the head and on the loins. Hence it + would appear that the same law has regulated the state of the feathers on + the head and body, both with species living under their natural + conditions, and with birds which have varied under domestication.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 276 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page276"></a>{276}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DUCKS—GOOSE—PEACOCK—TURKEY—GUINEA-FOWL—CANARY-BIRD—GOLD-FISH—HIVE-BEES—SILK-MOTHS.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>DUCKS, <span class="scac">SEVERAL BREEDS OF</span>—<span + class="scac">PROGRESS OF DOMESTICATION</span>—<span + class="scac">ORIGIN OF, FROM THE COMMON WILD-DUCK</span>—<span + class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE DIFFERENT BREEDS</span>—<span + class="scac">OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES</span>—<span + class="scac">EFFECTS OF USE AND DISUSE ON THE LIMB-BONES</span>.</p> + + <p>GOOSE, <span class="scac">ANCIENTLY DOMESTICATED</span>—<span + class="scac">LITTLE VARIATION OF</span>—<span + class="scac">SEBASTOPOL BREED</span>.</p> + + <p>PEACOCK, <span class="scac">ORIGIN OF BLACK-SHOULDERED + BREED</span>.</p> + + <p>TURKEY, <span class="scac">BREEDS OF</span>—<span + class="scac">CROSSED WITH THE UNITED STATES SPECIES</span>—<span + class="scac">EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON</span>.</p> + + <p>GUINEA-FOWL, CANARY-BIRD, GOLD-FISH, HIVE-BEES.</p> + + <p>SILK-MOTHS, <span class="scac">SPECIES AND BREEDS + OF</span>—<span class="scac">ANCIENTLY + DOMESTICATED</span>—<span class="scac">CARE IN THEIR + SELECTION</span>—<span class="scac">DIFFERENCES IN THE DIFFERENT + RACES</span>—<span class="scac">IN THE EGG, CATERPILLAR, AND COCOON + STATES</span>—<span class="scac">INHERITANCE OF + CHARACTERS</span>—<span class="scac">IMPERFECT + WINGS</span>—<span class="scac">LOST INSTINCTS</span>—<span + class="scac">CORRELATED CHARACTERS</span>.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>I will, as in previous cases, first briefly describe the chief + domestic breeds of the duck:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><span class="sc">Breed</span> 1. <i>Common Domestic + Duck</i>.—Varies much in colour and in proportions, and differs in + instincts and disposition from the wild-duck. There are several + sub-breeds:—(1) The Aylesbury, of great size, white, with + pale-yellow beak and legs; abdominal sack largely developed. (2) The + Rouen, of great size, coloured like the wild-duck, with green or mottled + beak; abdominal sack largely developed. (3) Tufted Duck, with a large + top-knot of fine downy feathers, supported on a fleshy mass, with the + skull perforated beneath. The top-knot in a duck which I imported from + Holland was two and a half inches in diameter. (4) Labrador (or Canadian, + or Buenos Ayres, or East Indian); plumage entirely black; beak broader, + relatively to its length, than in the wild-duck; eggs slightly tinted + with black. This sub-breed perhaps ought to be ranked as a breed; it + includes two sub-varieties, one as large as the common domestic duck, + which I have kept alive, and the other smaller and often capable of + flight.<a name="NtA_436" href="#Nt_436"><sup>[436]</sup></a> I presume it + is this latter sub-variety which has been described in France<a + name="NtA_437" href="#Nt_437"><sup>[437]</sup></a> as flying well, being + rather wild, and when cooked having the flavour of the wild-duck; + nevertheless this sub-variety is polygamous, like other domesticated + ducks and unlike the wild duck. These black Labrador ducks breed true; + <!-- Page 277 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page277"></a>{277}</span>but a case is given by Dr. Turral of the + French sub-variety producing young with some white feathers on the head + and neck, and with an ochre-coloured patch on the breast.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Breed</span> 2. <i>Hook-billed Duck</i>.—This + bird presents an extraordinary appearance from the downward curvature of + the beak. The head is often tufted. The common colour is white, but some + are coloured like wild-ducks. It is an ancient breed, having been noticed + in 1676.<a name="NtA_438" href="#Nt_438"><sup>[438]</sup></a> It shows + its prolonged domestication by almost incessantly laying eggs, like the + fowls which are called everlasting layers.<a name="NtA_439" + href="#Nt_439"><sup>[439]</sup></a></p> + + <p><span class="sc">Breed</span> 3. <i>Call-Duck</i>.—Remarkable + from its small size, and from the extraordinary loquacity of the female. + Beak short. These birds are either white, or coloured like the + wild-duck.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Breed</span> 4. <i>Penguin Duck</i>.—This is + the most remarkable of all the breeds, and seems to have originated in + the Malayan archipelago. It walks with its body extremely erect, and with + its thin neck stretched straight upwards. Beak rather short. Tail + upturned, including only 18 feathers. Femur and meta-tarsi elongated.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Almost all naturalists admit that the several breeds are descended + from the common wild duck (<i>Anas boschas</i>); most fanciers, on the + other hand, take as usual a very different view.<a name="NtA_440" + href="#Nt_440"><sup>[440]</sup></a> Unless we deny that domestication, + prolonged during centuries, can affect even such unimportant characters + as colour, size, and in a slight degree proportional dimensions and + mental disposition, there is no reason whatever to doubt that the + domestic duck is descended from the common wild species, for the one + differs from the other in no important character. We have some historical + evidence with respect to the period and progress of the domestication of + the duck. It was unknown<a name="NtA_441" + href="#Nt_441"><sup>[441]</sup></a> to the ancient Egyptians, to the Jews + of the Old Testament, and to the Greeks of the Homeric period. About + eighteen centuries ago Columella<a name="NtA_442" + href="#Nt_442"><sup>[442]</sup></a> and Varro speak of the necessity of + keeping ducks in netted enclosures like other wild fowl, so that at this + period there was danger of their flying away. <!-- Page 278 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page278"></a>{278}</span>Moreover, the plan + recommended by Columella to those who might wish to increase their stock + of ducks, namely, to collect the eggs of the wild bird and to place them + under a hen, shows, as Mr. Dixon remarks, "that the duck had not at this + time become a naturalised and prolific inmate of the Roman poultry-yard." + The origin of the domestic duck from the wild species is recognised in + nearly every language of Europe, as Aldrovandi long ago remarked, by the + same name being applied to both. The wild duck has a wide range from the + Himalayas to North America. It crosses readily with the domestic bird, + and the crossed offspring are perfectly fertile.</p> + + <p>Both in North America and Europe the wild duck has been found easy to + tame and breed. In Sweden this experiment was carefully tried by + Tiburtius; he succeeded in rearing wild ducks for three generations, but, + though they were treated like common ducks, they did not vary even in a + single feather. The young birds suffered from being allowed to swim about + in cold water,<a name="NtA_443" href="#Nt_443"><sup>[443]</sup></a> as is + known to be the case, though the fact is a strange one, with the young of + the common domestic duck. An accurate and well-known observer in + England<a name="NtA_444" href="#Nt_444"><sup>[444]</sup></a> has + described in detail his often repeated and successful experiments in + domesticating the wild duck. Young birds are easily reared from eggs + hatched under a bantam; but to succeed it is indispensable not to place + the eggs of both the wild and tame duck under the same hen, for in this + case "the young wild ducks die off, leaving their more hardy brethren in + undisturbed possession of their foster-mother's care. The difference of + habit at the onset in the newly-hatched ducklings almost entails such a + result to a certainty." The wild ducklings were from the first quite tame + towards those who took care of them as long as they wore the same + clothes, and likewise to the dogs and cats of the house. They would even + snap with their beaks at the dogs, and drive them away from any spot + which they coveted. But they were much alarmed at strange men and dogs. + Differently from what <!-- Page 279 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page279"></a>{279}</span>occurred in Sweden, Mr. Hewitt found that + his young birds always changed and deteriorated in character in the + course of two or three generations; notwithstanding that great care was + taken to prevent any crossing with tame ducks. After the third generation + his birds lost the elegant carriage of the wild species, and began to + acquire the gait of the common duck. They increased in size in each + generation, and their legs became less fine. The white collar round the + neck of the mallard became broader and less regular, and some of the + longer primary wing-feathers became more or less white. When this + occurred, Mr. Hewitt always destroyed his old stock and procured fresh + eggs from wild nests; so that he never bred the same family for more than + five or six generations. His birds continued to pair together, and never + became polygamous like the common domestic duck. I have given these + details, because no other case, as far as I know, has been so carefully + recorded by a competent observer of the progress of change in wild birds + reared for several generations in a domestic condition.</p> + + <p>From these considerations there can hardly be a doubt that the wild + duck is the parent of the common domestic kind; nor need we look to + distinct species for the parentage of the more distinct breeds, namely, + Penguin, Call, Hook-billed, Tufted, and Labrador ducks. I will not repeat + the arguments used in the previous chapters on the improbability of man + having in ancient times domesticated several species since become unknown + or extinct, though ducks are not readily exterminated in the wild + state;—on some of the supposed parent-species having had abnormal + characters in comparison with all the other species of the genus, as with + hook-billed and penguin ducks;—on all the breeds, as far as is + known, being fertile together;<a name="NtA_445" + href="#Nt_445"><sup>[445]</sup></a>—on all the breeds having the + same general disposition, instinct, &c. But one fact bearing on this + question may be noticed: in the great duck family, one species alone, + namely, the male of <!-- Page 280 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page280"></a>{280}</span><i>A. boschas</i>, has its four middle + tail-feathers curled upwardly; now in every one of the above-named + domestic breeds these curled feathers exist, and on the supposition that + they are descended from distinct species, we must assume that man + formerly hit upon species all of which had this now unique character. + Moreover, sub-varieties of each breed are coloured almost exactly like + the wild duck, as I have seen with the largest and smallest breeds, + namely Rouens and Call-ducks, and, as Mr. Brent states,<a name="NtA_446" + href="#Nt_446"><sup>[446]</sup></a> is the case with Hook-billed ducks. + This gentleman, as he informs me, crossed a white Aylesbury drake and a + black Labrador duck, and some of the ducklings as they grew up assumed + the plumage of the wild duck.</p> + + <p>With respect to Penguins, I have not seen many specimens, and none + were coloured precisely like the wild duck; but Sir James Brooke sent me + three skins from Lombok and Bali, in the Malayan archipelago; the two + females were paler and more rufous than the wild duck, and the drake + differed in having the whole under and upper surface (excepting the neck, + tail-coverts, tail, and wings) silver-grey, finely pencilled with dark + lines, closely like certain parts of the plumage of the wild mallard. But + I found this drake to be identical in every feather with a variety of the + common breed procured from a farm-yard in Kent, and I have occasionally + elsewhere seen similar specimens. The occurrence of a duck bred under so + peculiar a climate as that of the Malayan archipelago, where the wild + species does not exist, with exactly the same plumage as may occasionally + be seen in our farm-yards, is a fact worth notice. Nevertheless the + climate of the Malayan archipelago apparently does tend to cause the duck + to vary much, for Zollinger,<a name="NtA_447" + href="#Nt_447"><sup>[447]</sup></a> speaking of the Penguin breed, says + that in Lombok "there is an unusual and very wonderful variety of ducks." + One Penguin drake which I kept alive differed from those of which the + skins were sent me from Lombok, in having its breast and back partially + coloured with chestnut-brown, thus more closely resembling the + Mallard.</p> + + <p>From these several facts, more especially from the drakes of all the + breeds having curled tail-feathers, and from certain sub-varieties in + each breed occasionally resembling in general <!-- Page 281 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page281"></a>{281}</span>plumage the wild duck, + we may conclude with confidence that all the breeds are descended from + <i>A. boschas</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>I will now notice some of the peculiarities characteristic of the + several breeds. The eggs vary in colour; some common ducks laying + pale-greenish and others quite white eggs. The eggs which are first laid + during each season by the black Labrador duck, are tinted black, as if + rubbed with ink. So that with ducks, as with poultry, some degree of + correlation exists between the colour of the plumage and the egg-shell. A + good observer assured me that one year his Labrador ducks laid almost + perfectly white eggs, but that the yolks were this same season dirty + olive-green, instead of as usual of a golden yellow, so that the black + tint appeared to have passed inwards. Another curious case shows what + singular variations sometimes occur and are inherited; Mr. Hansell<a + name="NtA_448" href="#Nt_448"><sup>[448]</sup></a> relates that he had a + common duck which always laid eggs with the yolk of a dark-brown colour + like melted glue; and the young ducks, hatched from these eggs, laid the + same kind of eggs, so that the breed had to be destroyed.</p> + + <p>The hook-billed duck has a most remarkable appearance (see fig. of + skull, woodcut No. 39); and its peculiar beak has been inherited at least + since the year 1676. This structure is evidently analogous with that + described in the Bagadotten carrier pigeon. Mr. Brent<a name="NtA_449" + href="#Nt_449"><sup>[449]</sup></a> says that, when hook-billed ducks are + crossed with common ducks, "many young ones are produced with the upper + mandible shorter than the lower, which not unfrequently causes the death + of the bird." A tuft of feathers on the head is by no means a rare + occurrence; namely, in the true tufted breed, the hook-billed, the common + farmyard duck, and in a duck having no other peculiarity which was sent + to me from the Malayan archipelago. The tuft is only so far interesting + as it affects the skull, which is thus rendered slightly more globular, + and is perforated by numerous apertures. Call-ducks are remarkable from + their extraordinary loquacity: the drake only hisses like common drakes; + nevertheless, when paired with the common duck, he transmits to his + female offspring a strong quacking tendency. This loquacity seems at + first a surprising character to have been acquired under domestication. + But the voice varies in the different breeds; Mr. Brent<a name="NtA_450" + href="#Nt_450"><sup>[450]</sup></a> says that hook-billed ducks are very + loquacious, and that Rouens utter a "dull, loud, and monotonous cry, + easily distinguishable by an experienced ear." As the loquacity of the + Call-duck is highly serviceable, these birds being used in decoys, this + quality may have been increased by selection. For instance, Colonel + Hawker says, if young wild-ducks cannot be got for a decoy, "by way of + make-shift, <i>select</i> tame birds which are the most clamorous, even + if their colour should not be like that of wild ones."<a name="NtA_451" + href="#Nt_451"><sup>[451]</sup></a> It has been <!-- Page 282 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page282"></a>{282}</span>falsely asserted that + Call-ducks hatch their eggs in less time than common ducks.<a + name="NtA_452" href="#Nt_452"><sup>[452]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The Penguin duck is the most remarkable of all the breeds; the thin + neck and body are carried erect; the wings are small; the tail is + upturned; and the thigh-bones and metatarsi are considerably lengthened + in proportion with the same bones in the wild duck. In five specimens + examined by me there were only eighteen tail-feathers instead of twenty + as in the wild duck; but I have also found only eighteen and nineteen + tail-feathers in two Labrador ducks. On the middle toe, in three + specimens, there were twenty-seven or twenty-eight scutellæ, whereas in + two wild ducks there were thirty-one and thirty-two. The Penguin when + crossed transmits with much power its peculiar form of body and gait to + its offspring; this was manifest with some hybrids raised in the + Zoological Gardens between one of these birds and the Egyptian goose<a + name="NtA_453" href="#Nt_453"><sup>[453]</sup></a> (<i><span + class="correction" title="Printed `Tadorna Ægyptiaca', corrected according to Errata page" + >Anser Ægyptiacus</span></i>), and likewise with some mongrels which I + raised between the Penguin and Labrador duck. I am not much surprised + that some writers have maintained that this breed must be descended from + an unknown and distinct species; but from the reasons already assigned, + it seems to me far more probable that it is the descendant, much modified + by domestication under an unnatural climate, of <i>Anas boschas</i>.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:37%;"> + <a href="images/Dom139.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom139.png" + alt="Fig. 39.--Skulls of Ducks." title="Fig. 39.--Skulls of Ducks." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 39.—Skulls, viewed laterally, reduced to + two-thirds of the natural size. A. Wild Duck. B. Hook-billed Duck.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Osteological Characters.</i>—The skulls of the several breeds + differ from each other and from the skull of the wild duck in very little + except in the proportional length and curvature of the premaxillaries. + These latter bones in the Call-duck are short, and a line drawn from + their extremities to the summit of the skull is nearly straight, instead + of being concave as in the <!-- Page 283 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page283"></a>{283}</span>common duck; so that the skull resembles + that of a small goose. In the hook-billed duck (fig. 39) these same bones + as well as the lower jaw curve downwards in a most remarkable manner, as + represented. In the Labrador duck the premaxillaries are rather broader + than in the wild duck; and in two skulls of this breed the vertical + ridges on each side of the supra-occipital bone are very prominent. In + the Penguin the premaxillaries are relatively shorter than in the wild + duck; and the inferior points of the paramastoids more prominent. In a + Dutch tufted duck, the skull under the enormous tuft was slightly more + globular and was perforated by two large apertures; in this skull the + lachrymal bones were produced much further backwards, so as to have a + different shape and to nearly touch the post. lat. processes of the + frontal bones, thus almost completing the bony orbit of the eye. As the + quadrate and pterygoid bones are of such complex shape and stand in + relation with so many other bones, I carefully compared them in all the + principal breeds; but excepting in size they presented no difference.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/Dom140.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom140.png" + alt="Fig. 40.--Cervical Vertebræ of Ducks." title="Fig. 40.--Cervical Vertebræ of Ducks." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 40.—Cervical Vertebræ, of natural size. A. + Eighth cervical vertebra of Wild Duck, viewed on hæmal surface. B. + Eighth cervical vertebra of Call Duck, viewed as above. C. Twelfth + cervical vertebra of Wild Duck, viewed laterally. D. Twelfth cervical + vertebra of Aylesbury Duck, viewed laterally.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Vertebræ and Ribs.</i>—In one skeleton of the Labrador duck + there were the usual fifteen cervical vertebræ and the usual nine dorsal + vertebræ bearing ribs; in the other skeleton there were fifteen cervical + and ten dorsal vertebræ with ribs; nor, as far as could be judged, was + this owing merely to a rib having been developed on the first lumbar + vertebra; for in both skeletons the lumbar vertebræ agreed perfectly in + number, shape, and size with those of the wild duck. In two skeletons of + the Call-duck there were fifteen cervical and nine dorsal vertebræ; in a + third skeleton small ribs were attached to the so-called fifteenth + cervical vertebra, making ten pairs of ribs; but these ten ribs do not + correspond, or arise from the same vertebræ, with the ten in the + above-mentioned Labrador duck. In the Call-duck, which had small ribs + attached to the fifteenth cervical vertebra, the hæmal spines of the + thirteenth and fourteenth (cervical) and of the seventeenth (dorsal) + vertebræ corresponded with the spines on the fourteenth, fifteenth, and + eighteenth vertebræ of the wild duck: so that each of these vertebræ had + acquired a structure proper to one posterior to it in position. In the + twelfth cervical vertebra of this same Call-duck (fig. 40, B), the two + branches of the hæmal spine stand much closer together than in the wild + duck (A), and the descending hæmal processes are much shortened. In the + Penguin duck the neck from its thinness and erectness falsely appears (as + ascertained by measurement) to be much elongated, but the cervical and + dorsal vertebræ present no difference; the posterior dorsal vertebræ, + however, are more completely anchylosed to <!-- Page 284 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page284"></a>{284}</span>the pelvis than in the + wild duck. The Aylesbury duck has fifteen cervical and ten dorsal + vertebræ furnished with ribs, but the same number of lumbar, sacral, and + caudal vertebræ, as far as could be traced, as in the wild duck. The + cervical vertebræ in this same duck (fig. 40, D) were much broader and + thicker relatively to their length than in the wild (C); so much so, that + I have thought it worth while to give a sketch of the eighth cervical + vertebra in these two birds. From the foregoing statements we see that + the fifteenth cervical vertebra occasionally becomes modified into a + dorsal vertebra, and when this occurs all the adjoining vertebræ are + modified. We also see that an additional dorsal vertebra bearing a rib is + occasionally developed, the number of the cervical and lumbar vertebræ + apparently remaining the same as usual.</p> + + <p>I examined the bony enlargement of the trachea in the males of the + Penguin, Call, Hook-billed, Labrador, and Aylesbury breeds; and in all it + was identical in shape.</p> + + <p>The <i>Pelvis</i> is remarkably uniform; but in the skeleton of the + Hook-billed duck the anterior part is much bowed inwards; in the + Aylesbury and some other breeds the ischiadic foramen is less elongated. + In the sternum, furcula, coracoids, and scapula, the differences are so + slight and so variable as not to be worth notice, except that in two + skeletons of the Penguin duck the terminal portion of the scapula was + much attenuated.</p> + + <p>In the bones of the leg and wing no modification in shape could be + observed. But in Penguin and Hook-billed ducks, the terminal phalanges of + the wing are a little shortened. In the former, the femur and metatarsus + (but not the tibia) are considerably lengthened, relatively to the same + bones in the wild duck, and to the wing-bones in both birds. This + elongation of the leg-bones could be seen whilst the bird was alive, and + is no doubt connected with its peculiar upright manner of walking. In a + large Aylesbury duck, on the other hand, the tibia was the only bone of + the leg which relatively to the other bones was slightly lengthened.</p> + + <p><i>On the effects of the increased and decreased Use of the + Limbs.</i>—In all the breeds the bones of the wing (measured + separately after having been cleaned) relatively to those of the leg have + become slightly shortened, in comparison with the same bones in the wild + duck, as may be seen in the following table:—</p> + +</blockquote> + + +<table width="67%" class="allbctr" summary="Length of Bones" title="Length of Bones"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:33%"> + <p>Name of Breed.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Length of Femur, Tibia, and Metatarsus together.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Length of Humerus, Radius, and Metacarpus together.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Or as</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wild mallard</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7.14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 9.28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 129</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aylesbury</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8.64</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10.43</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 120</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tufted (Dutch)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8.25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 9.83</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 119</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Penguin</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7.12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 8.78</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 123</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Call</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.20</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 7.77</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 125</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="verttopb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Length of same Bones.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Length of all the Bones of Wing.</p> + </td> + <td class="verttopb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Inches.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wild duck (another specimen)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6.85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10.07</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 147</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Common domestic duck</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8.15</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11.26</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 138</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 285 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page285"></a>{285}</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>In the foregoing table we see that, in comparison with the wild duck, + the reduction in the length of the bones of the wing, relatively to those + of the legs, though slight, is universal. The reduction is least in the + Call-duck, which has the power and the habit of frequently flying.</p> + + <p>In weight there is a greater relative difference between the bones of + the leg and wing, as may be seen in the following table:—</p> + +</blockquote> + + +<table width="67%" class="allbctr" summary="Weight of Bones" title="Weight of Bones"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:33%"> + <p>Name of Breed.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Weight of Femur, Tibia, and Metatarsus</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Weight of Humerus, Radius, and Metacarpus</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Or as</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wild mallard</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 54</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 97</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 179</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aylesbury</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>164</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>204</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 124</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Hooked-bill</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>107</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>160</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 149</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tufted (Dutch)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>111</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>148</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 133</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Penguin</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 90.5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 120</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Labrador</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>141</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>165</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 117</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Call</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 57</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 93</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 163</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="verttopb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Weight of all the Bones of the Leg and Foot.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Weight of all the Bones of the Wing.</p> + </td> + <td class="verttopb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wild duck (another specimen)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 66</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>115</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 173</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Common domestic duck</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>127</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>158</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100 : 124</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>In these domesticated birds, the considerably lessened weight of the + bones of the wing (<i>i.e.</i> on an average, twenty-five per cent. of + their proper proportional weight), as well as their slightly lessened + length, relatively to the leg-bones, might follow, not from any actual + decrease in the wing-bones, but from the increased weight and length of + the bones of the legs. The first of the two tables on the next page shows + that the leg-bones relatively to the weight of the entire skeleton have + really increased in weight; but the second table shows that according to + the same standard the wing-bones have also really decreased in weight; so + that the relative disproportion shown in the foregoing tables between the + wing and leg bones, in comparison with those of the wild duck, is partly + due to the increase in weight and length of the leg-bones, and partly to + the decrease in weight and length of the wing-bones.</p> + + <p>With respect to the two following tables, I may first state that I + tested them by taking another skeleton of a wild duck and of a common + domestic duck, and by comparing the weight of <i>all</i> the bones of the + leg with <i>all</i> those of the wings, and the result was the same. In + the first of these tables we see that the leg-bones in each case have + increased in actual weight. It might have been expected that, with the + increased or decreased weight of the entire skeleton, the leg-bones would + have become proportionally heavier or lighter; but their greater weight + in all the breeds relatively to the other bones can be accounted for only + by these domestic birds having used their legs in walking and standing + much more than the wild, for they never fly, and the more artificial + breeds rarely swim. In the second <!-- Page 286 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page286"></a>{286}</span>table we see, with the + exception of one case, a plain reduction in the weight of the bones of + the wing, and this no doubt has resulted from their lessened use. The one + exceptional case, namely, in one of the Call-ducks, is in truth no + exception, for this bird was constantly in the habit of flying about: and + I have seen it day after day rise from my grounds, and fly for a long + time in circles of more than a mile in diameter. In this Call-duck there + is not only no decrease, but an actual increase in the weight of the + wing-bones relatively to those of the wild duck; and this probably is + consequent on the remarkable lightness and thinness of all the bones of + the skeleton.</p> + +</blockquote> + + +<table width="67%" class="allbctr" summary="Weight of Skeleton" title="Weight of Skeleton"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:33%"> + <p>Name of Breed.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Weight of entire Skeleton. (N.B. One Metatarsus and Foot was + removed from each skeleton, as it had been accidentally lost in two + cases.)</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Weight of Femur, Tibia, and Metatarsus.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center; width:22%"> + <p>Or as</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wild mallard</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 839</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 54</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 64</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aylesbury</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1925</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>164</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 85</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tufted (Dutch)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1404</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>111</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 79</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Penguin</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 871</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 86</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Call (from Mr. Fox)</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 717</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 57</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 79</p> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="verttopb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Weight of Skeleton as above.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Weight of Humerus, Radius and Ulna, and Metacarpus.</p> + </td> + <td class="verttopb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Grains.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wild mallard</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 839</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 97</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 115</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aylesbury</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1925</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>204</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 105</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tufted (Dutch)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1404</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>148</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 105</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Penguin</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 871</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 103</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Call (from Mr. Baker)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 914</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 109</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Call (from Mr. Fox)</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> <span class="correction" title="Printed `713', corrected according to Errata page" + >717</span></p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p> 92</p> + + </td> + <td class="vertbsing" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1000 : 129</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Lastly, I weighed the furcula, coracoids, and scapula of a wild duck + and of a common domestic duck, and I found that their weight, relatively + to that of the whole skeleton, was as one hundred in the former to + eighty-nine in the latter; this shows that these bones in the domestic + duck have been reduced eleven per cent. of their due proportional weight. + The prominence of the crest of the sternum, relatively to its length, is + also much reduced in all the domestic breeds. These changes have + evidently been caused by the lessened use of the wings.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>It is well known that several birds, belonging to different Orders, + and inhabiting oceanic islands, have their wings greatly reduced in size + and are incapable of flight. I suggested in my 'Origin of Species' that, + as these birds are not persecuted by any enemies, the reduction of their + wings has probably been caused by gradual disuse. Hence, during the + earlier stages of the <!-- Page 287 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page287"></a>{287}</span>process of reduction, such birds might be + expected to resemble in the state of their organs of flight our + domesticated ducks. This is the case with the water-hen (<i>Gallinula + nesiotis</i>) of Tristan d'Acunha, which "can flutter a little, but + obviously uses its legs, and not its wings, as a mode of escape." Now Mr. + Sclater<a name="NtA_454" href="#Nt_454"><sup>[454]</sup></a> finds in + this bird that the wings, sternum, and coracoids, are all reduced in + length, and the crest of the sternum in depth, in comparison with the + same bones in the European water-hen (<i>G. chloropus</i>). On the other + hand, the thigh-bones and pelvis are increased in length, the former by + four lines, relatively to the same bones in the common water-hen. Hence + in the skeleton of this natural species nearly the same changes have + occurred, only carried a little further, as with our domestic ducks, and + in this latter case I presume no one will dispute that they have resulted + from the lessened use of the wings and the increased use of the legs.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">The Goose</span>.</p> + + <p>This bird deserves some notice, as hardly any other anciently + domesticated bird or quadruped has varied so little. That geese were + anciently domesticated we know from certain verses in Homer; and from + these birds having been kept (388 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) in the + Capitol at Rome as sacred to Juno, which sacredness implies great + antiquity<a name="NtA_455" href="#Nt_455"><sup>[455]</sup></a>. That the + goose has varied in some degree, we may infer from naturalists not being + unanimous with respect to its wild parent-form; though the difficulty is + chiefly due to the existence of three or four closely allied wild + European species<a name="NtA_456" href="#Nt_456"><sup>[456]</sup></a>. A + large majority of capable judges are convinced that our geese are + descended from the wild Grey-lag goose (<i>A. ferus</i>); the young of + which can easily be tamed,<a name="NtA_457" + href="#Nt_457"><sup>[457]</sup></a> and are domesticated by the + Laplanders. This species, when crossed with the domestic goose, produced + in the Zoological Gardens, as I was assured in <!-- Page 288 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page288"></a>{288}</span>1849, perfectly fertile + offspring.<a name="NtA_458" href="#Nt_458"><sup>[458]</sup></a> Yarrell<a + name="NtA_459" href="#Nt_459"><sup>[459]</sup></a> has observed that the + lower part of the trachea of the domestic goose is sometimes flattened, + and that a ring of white feathers sometimes surrounds the base of the + beak. These characters seem at first good indications of a cross at some + former period with the white-fronted goose (<i>A. albifrons</i>); but the + white ring is variable in this latter species, and we must not overlook + the law of analogous variation; that is, of one species assuming some of + the characters of allied species.</p> + + <p>As the goose has proved so inflexible in its organization under + long-continued domestication, the amount of variation which can be + detected is worth giving. It has increased in size and in + productiveness;<a name="NtA_460" href="#Nt_460"><sup>[460]</sup></a> and + varies from white to a dusky colour. Several observers<a name="NtA_461" + href="#Nt_461"><sup>[461]</sup></a> have stated that the gander is more + frequently white than the goose, and that when old it almost invariably + becomes white; but this is not the case with the parent-form, the <i>A. + ferus</i>. Here, again, the law of analogous variation may have come into + play, as the snow-white male of the Rock-Goose (<i>Bernicla + antarctica</i>) standing on the sea-shore by his dusky partner is a sight + well known to all those who have traversed the sounds of Tierra del Fuego + and the Falkland Islands. Some geese have topknots; and the skull + beneath, as before stated, is perforated. A sub-breed has lately been + formed with the feathers reversed at the back of the head and neck.<a + name="NtA_462" href="#Nt_462"><sup>[462]</sup></a> The beak varies a + little in size, and is of a yellower tint than in the wild species; but + its colour and that of the legs are both slightly variable.<a + name="NtA_463" href="#Nt_463"><sup>[463]</sup></a> This latter fact + deserves attention, because the colour of the legs and beak is highly + serviceable in discriminating the several closely allied wild forms.<a + name="NtA_464" href="#Nt_464"><sup>[464]</sup></a> At our <!-- Page 289 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page289"></a>{289}</span>Shows two + breeds are exhibited; viz. the Embden and Toulouse; but they differ in + nothing except colour.<a name="NtA_465" + href="#Nt_465"><sup>[465]</sup></a> Recently a smaller and singular + variety has been imported from Sebastopol,<a name="NtA_466" + href="#Nt_466"><sup>[466]</sup></a> with the scapular feathers (as I hear + from Mr. Tegetmeier, who sent me specimens) greatly elongated, curled, + and even spirally twisted. The margins of these feathers are rendered + plumose by the divergence of the barbs and barbules, so that they + resemble in some degree those on the back of the black Australian swan. + These feathers are likewise remarkable from the central shaft, which is + excessively thin and transparent, being split into fine filaments, which, + after running for a space free, sometimes coalesce again. It is a curious + fact that these filaments are regularly clothed on each side with fine + down or barbules, precisely like those on the proper barbs of the + feather. This structure of the feathers is transmitted to half-bred + birds. In <i>Gallus sonneratii</i> the barbs and barbules blend together, + and form thin horny plates of the same nature with the shaft: in this + variety of the goose, the shaft divides into filaments which acquire + barbules, and thus resemble true barbs.</p> + + <p>Although the domestic goose certainly differs somewhat from any known + wild species, yet the amount of variation which it has undergone, as + compared with most domesticated animals, is singularly small. This fact + can be partially accounted for by selection not having come largely into + play. Birds of all kinds which present many distinct races are valued as + pets or ornaments; no one makes a pet of the goose; the name, indeed, in + more languages than one, is a term of reproach. The goose is valued for + its size and flavour, for the whiteness of its feathers which adds to + their value, and for its prolificness and tameness. In all these points + the goose differs from the wild parent-form; and these are the points + which have been selected. Even in ancient times the Roman gourmands + valued the liver of the <i>white</i> goose; and Pierre Belon<a + name="NtA_467" href="#Nt_467"><sup>[467]</sup></a> in 1555 speaks of two + varieties, one of which was larger, more fecund, and of a better colour + than the other; and he expressly states that good managers <!-- Page 290 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page290"></a>{290}</span>attended to + the colour of their goslings, so that they might know which to preserve + and select for breeding.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">The Peacock.</span></p> + + <p>This is another bird which has hardly varied under domestication, + except in sometimes being white or piebald. Mr. Waterhouse carefully + compared, as he informs me, skins of the wild Indian and domestic bird, + and they were identical in every respect, except that the plumage of the + latter was perhaps rather thicker. Whether our birds are descended from + those introduced into Europe in the time of Alexander, or have been + subsequently imported, is doubtful. They do not breed very freely with + us, and are seldom kept in large numbers,—circumstances which would + greatly interfere with the gradual selection and formation of new + breeds.</p> + + <p>There is one strange fact with respect to the peacock, namely, the + occasional appearance in England of the "japanned" or "black-shouldered" + kind. This form has lately been named on the high authority of Mr. + Sclater as a distinct species, viz. <i>Pavo nigripennis</i>, which he + believes will hereafter be found wild in some country, but not in India, + where it is certainly unknown. These japanned birds differ conspicuously + from the common peacock in the colour of their secondary wing-feathers, + scapulars, wing-coverts, and thighs; the females are much paler, and the + young, as I hear from Mr. Bartlett, likewise differ. They can be + propagated perfectly true. Although they do not resemble the hybrids + which have been raised between <i>P. cristatus</i> and <i>muticus</i>, + nevertheless they are in some respects intermediate in character between + these two species; and this fact favours, as Mr. Sclater believes, the + view that they form a distinct and natural species.<a name="NtA_468" + href="#Nt_468"><sup>[468]</sup></a></p> + + <p>On the other hand, Sir R. Heron states<a name="NtA_469" + href="#Nt_469"><sup>[469]</sup></a> that this breed suddenly appeared + within his memory in Lord Brownlow's large stock of pied, white, and + common peacocks. The same thing occurred in Sir J. Trevelyan's flock + composed entirely of the <!-- Page 291 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page291"></a>{291}</span>common kind, and in Mr. Thornton's stock + of common and pied peacocks. It is remarkable that in these two latter + instances the black-shouldered kind increased, "to the extinction of the + previously existing breed." I have also received through Mr. Sclater a + statement from Mr. Hudson Gurney that he reared many years ago a pair of + black-shouldered peacocks from the common kind; and another + ornithologist, Prof. A. Newton, states that, five or six years ago, a + female bird, in all respects similar to the female of the + black-shouldered kind, was produced from a stock of common peacocks in + his possession, which during more than twenty years had not been crossed + with birds of any other strain. Here we have five distinct cases of + japanned birds suddenly appearing in flocks of the common kind kept in + England. Better evidence of the first appearance of a new variety could + hardly be desired. If we reject this evidence, and believe that the + japanned peacock is a distinct species, we must suppose in all these + cases that the common breed had at some former period been crossed with + the supposed <i>P. nigripennis</i>, but had lost every trace of the + cross, yet that the birds occasionally produced offspring which suddenly + and completely reacquired through reversion the characters of <i>P. + nigripennis</i>. I have heard of no other such case in the animal or + vegetable kingdom. To perceive the full improbability of such an + occurrence, we may suppose that a breed of dogs had been crossed at some + former period with a wolf, but had lost every trace of the wolf-like + character, yet that the breed gave birth in five instances in the same + country, within no great length of time, to a wolf perfect in every + character; and we must further suppose that in two of the cases the newly + produced wolves afterwards spontaneously increased to such an extent as + to lead to the extinction of the parent-breed of dogs. So remarkable a + form as the <i>P. nigripennis</i>, when first imported, would have + realized a large price; it is therefore improbable that it should have + been silently introduced and its history subsequently lost. On the whole + the evidence seems to me, as it did to Sir R. Heron, to preponderate + strongly in favour of the black-shouldered breed being a variation, + induced either by the climate of England, or by some unknown cause, such + as reversion to a primordial and extinct condition of the species. On the + view that the black-shouldered <!-- Page 292 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page292"></a>{292}</span>peacock is a variety, the case is the most + remarkable ever recorded of the abrupt appearance of a new form, which so + closely resembles a true species that it has deceived one of the most + experienced of living ornithologists.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">The Turkey.</span></p> + + <p><span class="sc">It</span> seems fairly well established by Mr. + Gould,<a name="NtA_470" href="#Nt_470"><sup>[470]</sup></a> that the + turkey, in accordance with the history of its first introduction, is + descended from a wild Mexican species (<i>Meleagris Mexicana</i>) which + had been already domesticated by the natives before the discovery of + America, and which differs specifically, as it is generally thought, from + the common wild species of the United States. Some naturalists, however, + think that these two forms should be ranked only as well-marked + geographical races. However this may be, the case deserves notice because + in the United States wild male turkeys sometimes court the domestic hens, + which are descended from the Mexican form, "and are generally received by + them with great pleasure."<a name="NtA_471" + href="#Nt_471"><sup>[471]</sup></a> Several accounts have likewise been + published of young birds, reared in the United States from the eggs of + the wild species, crossing and commingling with the common breed. In + England, also, this same species has been kept in several parks; from two + of which the Rev. W. D. Fox procured birds, and they crossed freely with + the common domestic kind, and during many years afterwards, as he informs + me, the turkeys in his neighbourhood clearly showed traces of their + crossed parentage. We here have an instance of a domestic race being + modified by a cross with a distinct species or wild race. F. Michaux<a + name="NtA_472" href="#Nt_472"><sup>[472]</sup></a> suspected in 1802 that + the common domestic turkey was not descended from the United States + species alone, but likewise from a southern form, and he went so far as + to believe that English and French <!-- Page 293 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page293"></a>{293}</span>turkeys differed from + having different proportions of the blood of the two parent-forms.</p> + + <p>English turkeys are smaller than either wild form. They have not + varied in any great degree; but there are some breeds which can be + distinguished—as Norfolks, Suffolks, Whites, and Copper-coloured + (or Cambridge), all of which, if precluded from crossing with other + breeds, propagate their kind truly. Of these kinds, the most distinct is + the small, hardy, dull-black Norfolk turkey, of which the chickens are + black, with occasionally white patches about the head. The other breeds + scarcely differ except in colour, and their chickens are generally + mottled all over with brownish-grey.<a name="NtA_473" + href="#Nt_473"><sup>[473]</sup></a> The tuft of hair on the breast, which + is proper to the male alone, occasionally appears on the breast of the + domesticated female.<a name="NtA_474" href="#Nt_474"><sup>[474]</sup></a> + The inferior tail-coverts vary in number, and according to a German + superstition the hen lays as many eggs as the cock has feathers of this + kind.<a name="NtA_475" href="#Nt_475"><sup>[475]</sup></a> In Holland + there was formerly, according to Temminck, a beautiful buff-yellow breed, + furnished with an ample white topknot. Mr. Wilmot has described<a + name="NtA_476" href="#Nt_476"><sup>[476]</sup></a> a white turkey-cock + with a crest formed of "feathers about four inches long, with bare + quills, and a tuft of soft white down growing at the end." Many of the + young birds whilst young inherited this kind of crest, but afterwards it + either fell off or was pecked out by the other birds. This is an + interesting case, as with care a new breed might probably have been + formed; and a topknot of this nature would have been to a certain extent + analogous to that borne by the males in several allied genera, such as + Euplocomus, Lophophorus, and Pavo.</p> + + <p>Wild turkeys, believed in every instance to have been imported from + the United States, have been kept in the parks of Lords Powis, Leicester, + Hill, and Derby. The Rev. W. D. Fox procured birds from the two + first-named parks, and he informs me that they certainly differed a + little from each other in the shape of their bodies and in the barred + plumage on their wings. These birds likewise differed from Lord Hill's + stock. Some of the latter kept at Oulton by Sir P. Egerton, though + precluded from <!-- Page 294 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page294"></a>{294}</span>crossing with common turkeys, occasionally + produced much paler-coloured birds, and one that was almost white, but + not an albino. These half-wild turkeys in thus slightly differing from + each other present an analogous case with the wild cattle kept in the + several British parks. We must suppose that the differences have resulted + from the prevention of free intercrossing between birds ranging over a + wide area, and from the changed conditions to which they have been + exposed in England. In India the climate has apparently wrought a still + greater change in the turkey, for it is described by Mr. Blyth<a + name="NtA_477" href="#Nt_477"><sup>[477]</sup></a> as being much + degenerated in size, "utterly incapable of rising on the wing," of a + black colour, and "with the long pendulous appendages over the beak + enormously developed."</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">The Guinea Fowl</span>.</p> + + <p>The domesticated guinea-fowl is now believed by naturalists to be + descended from the <i>Numida ptilorhynca</i>, which inhabits very hot, + and, in parts, extremely arid districts in Eastern Africa; consequently + it has been exposed in this country to extremely different conditions of + life. Nevertheless it has hardly varied at all, except in the plumage + being either paler or darker-coloured. It is a singular fact that this + bird varies more in colour in the West Indies and on the Spanish Main, + under a hot though humid climate, than in Europe.<a name="NtA_478" + href="#Nt_478"><sup>[478]</sup></a> The guinea-fowl has become thoroughly + feral in Jamaica and in St. Domingo,<a name="NtA_479" + href="#Nt_479"><sup>[479]</sup></a> and has diminished in size; the legs + are black, whereas the legs of the aboriginal African bird are said to be + grey. This small change is worth notice on account of the often-repeated + statement that all feral animals invariably revert in every character to + their original type.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 295 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page295"></a>{295}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">The Canary Bird.</span></p> + + <p>As this bird has been recently domesticated, namely, within the last + 350 years, its variability deserves notice. It has been crossed with nine + or ten other species of Fringillidæ, and some of the hybrids are almost + completely fertile; but we have no evidence that any distinct breed has + originated from such crosses. Notwithstanding the modern domestication of + the canary, many varieties have been produced; even before the year 1718 + a list of twenty-seven varieties was published in France,<a + name="NtA_480" href="#Nt_480"><sup>[480]</sup></a> and in 1779 a long + schedule of the desired qualities was printed by the London Canary + Society, so that methodical selection has been practised during a + considerable period. The greater number of the varieties differ only in + colour and in the markings of their plumage. Some breeds, however, differ + in shape, such as the hooped or bowed canaries, and the Belgian canaries + with their much elongated bodies. Mr. Brent<a name="NtA_481" + href="#Nt_481"><sup>[481]</sup></a> measured one of the latter and found + it eight inches in length, whilst the wild canary is only five and a + quarter inches long. There are topknotted canaries, and it is a singular + fact, that, if two topknotted birds are matched, the young, instead of + having very fine topknots, are generally bald, or even have a wound on + their heads.<a name="NtA_482" href="#Nt_482"><sup>[482]</sup></a> It + would appear as if the topknot were due to some morbid condition which is + increased to an injurious degree when two birds in this state are paired. + There is a feather-footed breed, and another with a kind of frill running + down the breast. One other character deserves notice from being confined + to one period of life and from being strictly inherited at the same + period: namely, the wing and tail feathers in prize canaries being black, + "but this colour is retained only until the first moult; once moulted, + the peculiarity ceases."<a name="NtA_483" + href="#Nt_483"><sup>[483]</sup></a> Canaries differ much in disposition + and character, and in some small degree in song. They produce eggs three + or four times during the year.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 296 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page296"></a>{296}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Gold-Fish</span>.</p> + + <p>Besides mammals and birds, few animals belonging to the other great + classes have been domesticated; but to show that it is an almost + universal law that animals, when removed from their natural conditions of + life, vary, and that races can be formed when selection is applied, it is + necessary to say a few words on gold-fish, bees, and silk-moths.</p> + + <p>Gold-fish (<i>Cyprinus auratus</i>) were introduced into Europe only + two or three centuries ago; but it is believed that they have been kept + in confinement from an ancient period in China. Mr. Blyth<a + name="NtA_484" href="#Nt_484"><sup>[484]</sup></a> suspects from the + analogous variation of other fishes that golden-coloured fish do not + occur in a state of nature. These fishes frequently live under the most + unnatural conditions, and their variability in colour, size, and in some + important points of structure is very great. M. Sauvigny has described + and given coloured drawings of no less than eighty-nine varieties.<a + name="NtA_485" href="#Nt_485"><sup>[485]</sup></a> Many of the varieties, + however, such as triple tail-fins, &c., ought to be called + monstrosities; but it is difficult to draw any distinct line between a + variation and a monstrosity. As gold-fish are kept for ornament or + curiosity, and as "the Chinese are just the people to have secluded a + chance variety of any kind, and to have matched and paired from it,"<a + name="NtA_486" href="#Nt_486"><sup>[486]</sup></a> we may feel nearly + confident that selection has been largely practised in the formation of + new breeds. It is however a singular fact that some of the monstrosities + or variations are not inherited; for Sir R. Heron<a name="NtA_487" + href="#Nt_487"><sup>[487]</sup></a> kept many of these fishes, and placed + all the deformed fishes, namely those destitute of dorsal fins, and those + furnished with a double anal fin, or triple tail, in a pond by + themselves; but they did "not produce a greater proportion of deformed + offspring than the perfect fishes."</p> + + <p>Passing over an almost infinite diversity of colour, we meet with the + most extraordinary modifications of structure. Thus, out of about two + dozen specimens bought in London, Mr. Yarrell observed some with the + dorsal fin extending along more than <!-- Page 297 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page297"></a>{297}</span>half the length of the + back; others with this fin reduced to only five or six rays; and one with + no dorsal fin. The anal fins are sometimes double, and the tail is often + triple. This latter deviation of structure seems generally to occur "at + the expense of the whole or part of some other fin;"<a name="NtA_488" + href="#Nt_488"><sup>[488]</sup></a> but Bory de Saint Vincent<a + name="NtA_489" href="#Nt_489"><sup>[489]</sup></a> saw at Madrid + gold-fish furnished with a dorsal fin and a triple tail. One variety is + characterized by a hump on its back near the head; and the Rev. L. + Jenyns<a name="NtA_490" href="#Nt_490"><sup>[490]</sup></a> has described + a most singular variety, imported from China, almost globular in form + like a Diodon, with "the fleshy part of the tail as if entirely cut away; + the caudal fin being set on a little behind the dorsal and immediately + above the anal." In this fish the anal and caudal fins were double; the + anal fin being attached to the body in a vertical line: the eyes also + were enormously large and protuberant.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Hive-Bees</span>.</p> + + <p>Bees have been domesticated from an ancient period; if indeed their + state can be considered one of domestication, for they search for their + own food, with the exception of a little generally given to them during + the winter. Their habitation is a hive instead of a hole in a tree. Bees, + however, have been transported into almost every quarter of the world, so + that climate ought to have produced whatever direct effect it is capable + of producing. It is frequently asserted that the bees in different parts + of Great Britain differ in size, colour, and temper; and Godron<a + name="NtA_491" href="#Nt_491"><sup>[491]</sup></a> says that they are + generally larger in the south than in other parts of France; it has also + been asserted that the little brown bees of High Burgundy, when + transported to La Bresse, become large and yellow in the second + generation. But these statements require confirmation. As far as size is + concerned, it is known that bees produced in very old combs are smaller, + owing to the cells having become smaller from the <!-- Page 298 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page298"></a>{298}</span>successive old cocoons. + The best authorities<a name="NtA_492" href="#Nt_492"><sup>[492]</sup></a> + concur that, with the exception of the Ligurian race or species, + presently to be mentioned, distinct breeds do not exist in Britain or on + the Continent. There is, however, even in the same stock, some + variability in colour. Thus Mr. Woodbury states<a name="NtA_493" + href="#Nt_493"><sup>[493]</sup></a> that he has several times seen queen + bees of the common kind annulated with yellow like Ligurian queens, and + the latter dark-coloured like common bees. He has also observed + variations in the colour of the drones, without any corresponding + difference in the queens or workers of the same hive. The great apiarian + Dzierzon, in answer to my queries on this subject, says<a name="NtA_494" + href="#Nt_494"><sup>[494]</sup></a> that in Germany bees of some stocks + are decidedly dark, whilst others are remarkable for their yellow colour. + Bees also seem to differ in habits in different districts, for Dzierzon + adds, "If many stocks with their offspring are more inclined to swarm, + whilst others are richer in honey, so that some bee-keepers even + distinguish between swarming and honey-gathering bees, this is a habit + which has become second nature, caused by the customary mode of keeping + the bees and the pasturage of the district. For example; what a + difference in this respect one may perceive to exist between the bees of + the Lüneburg heath and those of this country!"... "Removing an old queen + and substituting a young one of the current year is here an infallible + mode of keeping the strongest stock from swarming and preventing + drone-breeding; whilst the same means if adopted in Hanover would + certainly be of no avail." I procured a hive full of dead bees from + Jamaica, where they have long been naturalised, and, on carefully + comparing them under the microscope with my own bees, I could detect not + a trace of difference.</p> + + <p>This remarkable uniformity in the hive-bee, wherever kept, may + probably be accounted for by the great difficulty, or rather + impossibility, of bringing selection into play by pairing particular + queens and drones, for these insects unite only during <!-- Page 299 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page299"></a>{299}</span>flight. Nor is + there any record, with a single partial exception, of any person having + separated and bred from a hive in which the workers presented some + appreciable difference. In order to form a new breed, seclusion from + other bees would, as we now know, be indispensable; for since the + introduction of the Ligurian bee into Germany and England, it has been + found that the drones wander at least two miles from their own hives, and + often cross with the queens of the common bee.<a name="NtA_495" + href="#Nt_495"><sup>[495]</sup></a> The Ligurian bee, although perfectly + fertile when crossed with the common kind, is ranked by most naturalists + as a distinct species, whilst by others it is ranked as a natural + variety: but this form need not here be noticed, as there is no reason to + believe that it is the product of domestication. The Egyptian and some + other bees are likewise ranked by Dr. Gerstäcker,<a name="NtA_496" + href="#Nt_496"><sup>[496]</sup></a> but not by other highly competent + judges, as geographical races; and he grounds his conclusion in chief + part on the fact that in certain districts, as in the Crimea and Rhodes, + the hive-bee varies so much in colour, that the several geographical + races can be closely connected by intermediate forms.</p> + + <p>I have alluded to a single instance of the separation and preservation + of a particular stock of bees. Mr. Lowe<a name="NtA_497" + href="#Nt_497"><sup>[497]</sup></a> procured some bees from a cottager a + few miles from Edinburgh, and perceived that they differed from the + common bee in the hairs on the head and thorax being lighter coloured and + more profuse in quantity. From the date of the introduction of the + Ligurian bee into Great Britain we may feel sure that these bees had not + been crossed with this form. Mr. Lowe propagated this variety, but + unfortunately did not separate the stock from his other bees, and after + three generations the new character was almost completely lost. + Nevertheless, as he adds, "a great number of the bees still retain + traces, though faint, of the original colony." This case shows us what + could probably be effected by careful and long-continued selection + applied exclusively to the workers, for, as we have seen, queens and + drones cannot be selected and paired.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 300 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page300"></a>{300}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Silk-Moths</span>.</p> + + <p>These insects are in several respects interesting to us, more + especially because they have varied largely at early periods of life, and + the variations have been inherited at corresponding periods. As the value + of the silk-moth depends entirely on the cocoon, every change in its + structure and qualities has been carefully attended to, and races + differing much in the cocoon, but hardly at all in the adult state, have + been produced. With the races of most other domestic animals, the young + resemble each other closely, whilst the adults differ much.</p> + + <p>It would be useless, even if it were possible, to describe all the + many kinds of silk-worms. Several distinct species exist in India and + China which produce useful silk, and some of these are capable of freely + crossing with the common silk-moth, as has been recently ascertained in + France. Captain Hutton<a name="NtA_498" + href="#Nt_498"><sup>[498]</sup></a> states that throughout the world at + least six species have been domesticated; and he believes that the + silk-moths reared in Europe belong to two or three species. This, + however, is not the opinion of several capable judges who have + particularly attended to the cultivation of this insect in France; and + hardly accords with some facts presently to be given.</p> + + <p>The common silk-moth (<i>Bombyx mori</i>) was brought to + Constantinople in the sixth century, whence it was carried into Italy, + and in 1494 into France.<a name="NtA_499" + href="#Nt_499"><sup>[499]</sup></a> Everything has been favourable for + the variation of this insect. It is believed to have been domesticated in + China as long ago as 2700 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> It has been kept + under unnatural and diversified conditions of life, and has been + transported into many countries. There is reason to believe that the + nature of the food given to the caterpillar influences to a certain + extent the character of the breed.<a name="NtA_500" + href="#Nt_500"><sup>[500]</sup></a> Disuse has apparently aided in + checking the development of the wings. But the most important element in + the production of the many now existing, much modified races, no doubt + has <!-- Page 301 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page301"></a>{301}</span>been the close attention which has long + been applied in many countries to every promising variation. The care + taken in Europe in the selection of the best cocoons and moths for + breeding is notorious,<a name="NtA_501" + href="#Nt_501"><sup>[501]</sup></a> and the production of eggs is + followed as a distinct trade in parts of France. I have made inquiries + through Dr. Falconer, and am assured that in India the natives are + equally careful in the process of selection. In China the production of + eggs is confined to certain favourable districts, and the raisers are + precluded by law from producing silk, so that their whole attention may + be necessarily given up to this one object.<a name="NtA_502" + href="#Nt_502"><sup>[502]</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>The following details on the differences between the several breeds + are taken, when not stated to the contrary, from M. Robinet's excellent + work,<a name="NtA_503" href="#Nt_503"><sup>[503]</sup></a> which bears + every sign of care and large experience. The <i>eggs</i> in the different + races vary in colour, in shape (being round, elliptic, or oval), and in + size. The eggs laid in June in the south of France, and in July in the + central provinces, do not hatch until the following spring; and it is in + vain, says M. Robinet, to expose them to a temperature gradually raised, + in order that the caterpillar may be quickly developed. Yet occasionally, + without any known cause, batches of eggs are produced, which immediately + begin to undergo the proper changes, and are hatched in from twenty to + thirty days. From these and some other analogous facts it may be + concluded that the Trevoltini silkworms of Italy, of which the + caterpillars are hatched in from fifteen to twenty days, do not + necessarily form, as has been maintained, a distinct species. Although + the breeds which live in temperate countries produce eggs which cannot be + immediately hatched by artificial heat, yet when they are removed to and + reared in a hot country they gradually acquire the character of quick + development, as in the Trevoltini races.<a name="NtA_504" + href="#Nt_504"><sup>[504]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Caterpillars.</i>—These vary greatly in size and colour. The + skin is generally white, sometimes mottled with black or grey, and + occasionally quite black. The colour, however, as M. Robinet asserts, is + not constant, even in perfectly pure breeds; except in the <i>race + tigrée</i>, so called from being marked with transverse black stripes. As + the general colour of the caterpillar is not correlated with that of the + silk,<a name="NtA_505" href="#Nt_505"><sup>[505]</sup></a> this character + is disregarded <!-- Page 302 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page302"></a>{302}</span>by cultivators, and has not been fixed by + selection. Captain Hutton, in the paper before referred to, has argued + with much force that the dark tiger-like marks, which so frequently + appear during the later moults in the caterpillars of various breeds, are + due to reversion; for the caterpillars of several allied wild species of + Bombyx are marked and coloured in this manner. He separated some + caterpillars with the tiger-like marks, and in the succeeding spring (pp. + 149, 298) nearly all the caterpillars reared from them were + dark-brindled, and the tints became still darker in the third generation. + The moths reared from these caterpillars<a name="NtA_506" + href="#Nt_506"><sup>[506]</sup></a> also became darker, and resembled in + colouring the wild <i>B. Huttoni</i>. On this view of the tiger-like + marks being due to reversion, the persistency with which they are + transmitted is intelligible.</p> + + <p>Several years ago Mrs. Whitby took great pains in breeding silkworms + on a large scale, and she informed me that some of her caterpillars had + dark eyebrows. This is probably the first step in reversion towards the + tiger-like marks, and I was curious to know whether so trifling a + character would be inherited; at my request she separated in 1848 twenty + of these caterpillars, and having kept the moths separate, bred from + them. Of the many caterpillars thus reared, "every one without exception + had eyebrows, some darker and more decidedly marked than the others, but + <i>all</i> had eyebrows more or less plainly visible." Black caterpillars + occasionally appear amongst those of the common kind, but in so variable + a manner, that according to M. Robinet the same race will one year + exclusively produce white caterpillars, and the next year many black + ones; nevertheless, I have been informed by M. A. Bossi of Geneva, that, + if these black caterpillars are separately bred from, they reproduce the + same colour; but the cocoons and moths reared from them do not present + any difference.</p> + + <p>The caterpillar in Europe ordinarily moults four times before passing + into the cocoon stage; but there are races "à trois mues," and the + Trevoltini race likewise moults only thrice. It might have been thought + that so important a physiological difference would not have arisen under + domestication; but M. Robinet<a name="NtA_507" + href="#Nt_507"><sup>[507]</sup></a> states that, on the one hand, + ordinary caterpillars occasionally spin their cocoons after only three + moults, and, on the other hand, "presque toutes les races à trois mues, + que nous avons expérimentées, ont fait quatre mues à la seconde ou à la + troisième année, ce qui semble prouver qu'il a suffi de les placer dans + des conditions favorables pour leur rendre une faculté qu'elles avaient + perdue sous des influences moins favorables."</p> + + <p><i>Cocoons.</i>—The caterpillar in changing into the cocoon + loses about 50 per cent. of its weight; but the amount of loss differs in + different breeds, and this is of importance to the cultivator. The cocoon + in the different races presents characteristic differences; being large + or small;—nearly spherical with no constriction, as in the <i>Race + de Loriol</i>, or cylindrical with either a deep or slight constriction + in the middle;—with the two ends, or with one end alone, more or + less pointed. The silk varies in fineness and quality, and in being + nearly white, of two tints, or yellow. Generally the colour of <!-- Page + 303 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303"></a>{303}</span>the silk + is not strictly inherited: but in the chapter on Selection I shall give a + curious account how, in the course of sixty-five generations, the number + of yellow cocoons in one breed has been reduced in France from one + hundred to thirty-five in the thousand. According to Robinet, the white + race, called Sina, by careful selection during the last seventy-five + years, "est arrivée à un tel état de pureté, qu'on ne voit pas un seul + cocon jaune dans des millions de cocons blancs."<a name="NtA_508" + href="#Nt_508"><sup>[508]</sup></a> Cocoons are sometimes formed, as is + well known, entirely destitute of silk, which yet produce moths; + unfortunately Mrs. Whitby was prevented by an accident from ascertaining + whether this character would prove hereditary.</p> + + <p><i>Adult stage.</i>—I can find no account of any constant + difference in the moths of the most distinct races. Mrs. Whitby assured + me that there was none in the several kinds bred by her; and I have + received a similar statement from the eminent naturalist M. de + Quatrefages. Captain Hutton also says<a name="NtA_509" + href="#Nt_509"><sup>[509]</sup></a> that the moths of all kinds vary much + in colour, but in nearly the same inconstant manner. Considering how much + the cocoons in the several races differ, this fact is of interest, and + may probably be accounted for on the same principle as the fluctuating + variability of colour in the caterpillar, namely, that there has been no + motive for selecting and perpetuating any particular variation.</p> + + <p>The males of the wild Bombycidæ "fly swiftly in the day-time and + evening, but the females are usually very sluggish and inactive."<a + name="NtA_510" href="#Nt_510"><sup>[510]</sup></a> In several moths of + this family the females have abortive wings, but no instance is known of + the males being incapable of flight, for in this case the species could + hardly have been perpetuated. In the silk-moth both sexes have imperfect, + crumpled wings, and are incapable of flight; but still there is a trace + of the characteristic difference in the two sexes; for though, on + comparing a number of males and-females, I could detect no difference in + the development of their wings, yet I was assured by Mrs. Whitby that the + males of the moths bred by her used their wings more than the females, + and could flutter downwards, though never upwards. She also states that, + when the females first emerge from the cocoon, their wings are less + expanded than those of the male. The degree of imperfection, however, in + the wings varies much in different races and under different + circumstances; M. Quatrefages<a name="NtA_511" + href="#Nt_511"><sup>[511]</sup></a> says that he has seen a number of + moths with their wings reduced to a third, fourth, or tenth part of their + normal dimensions, and even to mere short straight stumps: "il me semble + qu'il y a là un véritable arrêt de développement partiel." On the other + hand, he describes the female moths of the André Jean breed as having + "leurs ailes larges et étalées. Un seul présente quelques courbures + irrégulières et des plis anomaux." As moths and butterflies of all kinds + reared from wild caterpillars under confinement often have crippled + wings, the same cause, whatever it may be, has probably acted on <!-- + Page 304 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page304"></a>{304}</span>silk-moths, but the disuse of their wings + during so many generations has, it may be suspected, likewise come into + play.</p> + + <p>The moths of many breeds fail to glue their eggs to the surface on + which they are laid,<a name="NtA_512" href="#Nt_512"><sup>[512]</sup></a> + but this proceeds, according to Capt. Hutton,<a name="NtA_513" + href="#Nt_513"><sup>[513]</sup></a> merely from the glands of the + ovipositor being weakened.</p> + + <p>As with other long-domesticated animals, the instincts of the + silk-moth have suffered. The caterpillars, when placed on a + mulberry-tree, often commit the strange mistake of devouring the base of + the leaf on which they are feeding, and consequently fall down; but they + are capable, according to M. Robinet,<a name="NtA_514" + href="#Nt_514"><sup>[514]</sup></a> of again crawling up the trunk. Even + this capacity sometimes fails, for M. Martins<a name="NtA_515" + href="#Nt_515"><sup>[515]</sup></a> placed some caterpillars on a tree, + and those which fell were not able to remount and perished of hunger; + they were even incapable of passing from leaf to leaf.</p> + + <p>Some of the modifications which the silk-moth has undergone stand in + correlation with each other. Thus the eggs of the moths which produce + white cocoons and of those which produce yellow cocoons differ slightly + in tint. The abdominal feet also of the caterpillars which yield white + cocoons are always white, whilst those which give yellow cocoons are + invariably yellow.<a name="NtA_516" href="#Nt_516"><sup>[516]</sup></a> + We have seen that the caterpillars with dark tiger-like stripes produce + moths which are more darkly shaded than other moths. It seems well + established<a name="NtA_517" href="#Nt_517"><sup>[517]</sup></a> that in + France the caterpillars of the races which produce white silk, and + certain black caterpillars, have resisted, better than other races, the + disease which has recently devastated the silk-districts. Lastly, the + races differ constitutionally, for some do not succeed so well under a + temperate climate as others; and a damp soil does not equally injure all + the races.<a name="NtA_518" href="#Nt_518"><sup>[518]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>From these various facts we learn that silk-moths, like the higher + animals, vary greatly under long-continued domestication. We learn also + the more important fact that variations may occur at various periods of + life, and be inherited at corresponding periods. And finally we see that + insects are amenable to the great principle of Selection.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 305 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page305"></a>{305}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">CULTIVATED PLANTS: CEREAL AND CULINARY PLANTS.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>PRELIMINARY REMARKS <span class="scac">ON THE NUMBER AND PARENTAGE OF + CULTIVATED PLANTS</span>—<span class="scac">FIRST STEPS IN + CULTIVATION</span>—<span class="scac">GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF + CULTIVATED PLANTS</span>.</p> + + <p>CEREALIA.—<span class="scac">DOUBTS ON THE NUMBER OF + SPECIES.</span>—<span class="scac">WHEAT: VARIETIES + OF</span>—<span class="scac">INDIVIDUAL + VARIABILITY</span>—<span class="scac">CHANGED + HABITS</span>—<span class="scac">SELECTION</span>—<span + class="scac">ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE VARIETIES.</span>—<span + class="scac">MAIZE: GREAT VARIATION OF</span>—<span + class="scac">DIRECT ACTION OF CLIMATE ON</span>.</p> + + <p>CULINARY PLANTS.—<span class="scac">CABBAGES: VARIETIES OF, IN + FOLIAGE AND STEMS, BUT NOT IN OTHER PARTS</span>—<span + class="scac">PARENTAGE OF</span>—<span class="scac">OTHER SPECIES + OF BRASSICA.</span>—<span class="scac">PEAS: AMOUNT OF DIFFERENCE + IN THE SEVERAL KINDS, CHIEFLY IN THE PODS AND SEED</span>—<span + class="scac">SOME VARIETIES CONSTANT, SOME HIGHLY + VARIABLE</span>—<span class="scac">DO NOT + INTERCROSS.</span>—<span class="scac">BEANS.</span>—<span + class="scac">POTATOES: NUMEROUS VARIETIES OF</span>—<span + class="scac">DIFFERING LITTLE, EXCEPT IN THE TUBERS</span>—<span + class="scac">CHARACTERS INHERITED</span>.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>I shall not enter into so much detail on the variability of cultivated + plants, as in the case of domesticated animals. The subject is involved + in much difficulty. Botanists have generally neglected cultivated + varieties, as beneath their notice. In several cases the wild prototype + is unknown or doubtfully known; and in other cases it is hardly possible + to distinguish between escaped seedlings and truly wild plants, so that + there is no safe standard of comparison by which to judge of any supposed + amount of change. Not a few botanists believe that several of our + anciently cultivated plants have become so profoundly modified that it is + not possible now to recognise their aboriginal parent-forms. Equally + perplexing are the doubts whether some of them are descended from one + species, or from several inextricably commingled by crossing and + variation. Variations often pass into, and cannot be distinguished from, + monstrosities; and monstrosities are of little significance for our + purpose. Many varieties are propagated solely by grafts, buds, layers, + bulbs, &c., and frequently it is not known how far their + peculiarities can be transmitted by seminal generation. Nevertheless some + facts of value can be gleaned; and other facts will hereafter be <!-- + Page 306 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page306"></a>{306}</span>incidentally given. One chief object in + the two following chapters is to show how generally almost every + character in our cultivated plants has become variable.</p> + + <p>Before entering on details a few general remarks on the origin of + cultivated plants may be introduced. M. Alph. de Candolle<a + name="NtA_519" href="#Nt_519"><sup>[519]</sup></a> in an admirable + discussion on this subject, in which he displays a wonderful amount of + knowledge, gives a list of 157 of the most useful cultivated plants. Of + these he believes that 85 are almost certainly known in their wild state; + but on this head other competent judges<a name="NtA_520" + href="#Nt_520"><sup>[520]</sup></a> entertain great doubts. Of 40 of + them, the origin is admitted by M. De Candolle to be doubtful, either + from a certain amount of dissimilarity which they present when compared + with their nearest allies in a wild state, or from the probability of the + latter not being truly wild plants, but seedlings escaped from culture. + Of the entire 157, 32 alone are ranked by M. De Candolle as quite unknown + in their aboriginal condition. But it should be observed that he does not + include in his list several plants which present ill-defined characters, + namely, the various forms of pumpkins, millet, sorghum, kidney-bean, + dolichos, capsicum, and indigo. Nor does he include flowers; and several + of the more anciently cultivated flowers, such as certain roses, the + common Imperial lily, the tuberose, and even the lilac, are said<a + name="NtA_521" href="#Nt_521"><sup>[521]</sup></a> not to be known in the + wild state.</p> + + <p>From the relative numbers above given, and from other arguments of + much weight, M. De Candolle concludes that plants have rarely been so + much modified by culture that they cannot be identified with their wild + prototypes. But on this view, considering that savages probably would not + have chosen rare plants for cultivation, that useful plants are generally + conspicuous, and that they could not have been the inhabitants of deserts + or of remote and recently discovered islands, it appears strange to me + that so many of our cultivated plants should be still unknown or only + doubtfully known in the wild state. If, on the other hand, many of these + plants have been profoundly modified by culture, the difficulty + disappears. Their <!-- Page 307 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page307"></a>{307}</span>extermination during the progress of + civilisation would likewise remove the difficulty; but M. De Candolle has + shown that this probably has seldom occurred. As soon as a plant became + cultivated in any country, the half-civilised inhabitants would no longer + have need to search the whole surface of the land for it, and thus lead + to its extirpation; and even if this did occur during a famine, dormant + seeds would be left in the ground. In tropical countries the wild + luxuriance of nature, as was long ago remarked by Humboldt, overpowers + the feeble efforts of man. In anciently civilised temperate countries, + where the whole face of the land has been greatly changed, it can hardly + be doubted that some plants have been exterminated; nevertheless De + Candolle has shown that all the plants historically known to have been + first cultivated in Europe still exist here in the wild state.</p> + + <p>MM. Loiseleur-Deslongchamps <a name="NtA_522" + href="#Nt_522"><sup>[522]</sup></a> and De Candolle have remarked that + our cultivated plants, more especially the cereals, must originally have + existed in nearly their present state; for otherwise they would not have + been noticed and valued as objects of food. But these authors apparently + have not considered the many accounts given by travellers of the wretched + food collected by savages. I have read an account of the savages of + Australia cooking, during a dearth, many vegetables in various ways, in + the hopes of rendering them innocuous and more nutritious. Dr. Hooker + found the half-starved inhabitants of a village in Sikhim suffering + greatly from having eaten arum-roots,<a name="NtA_523" + href="#Nt_523"><sup>[523]</sup></a> which they had pounded and left for + several days to ferment, so as partially to destroy their poisonous + nature; and he adds that they cooked and ate many other deleterious + plants. Sir Andrew Smith informs me that in South Africa a large number + of fruits and succulent leaves, and especially roots, are used in times + of scarcity. The natives, indeed, know the properties of a long catalogue + of plants, some having <!-- Page 308 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page308"></a>{308}</span>been found during famines to be eatable, + others injurious to health, or even destructive to life. He met a party + of Baquanas who, having been expelled by the conquering Zulus, had lived + for years on any roots or leaves which afforded some little nutriment, + and distended their stomachs, so as to relieve the pangs of hunger. They + looked like walking skeletons, and suffered fearfully from constipation. + Sir Andrew Smith also informs me that on such occasions the natives + observe as a guide for themselves, what the wild animals, especially + baboons and monkeys, eat.</p> + + <p>From innumerable experiments made through dire necessity by the + savages of every land, with the results handed down by tradition, the + nutritious, stimulating, and medicinal properties of the most unpromising + plants were probably first discovered. It appears, for instance, at first + an inexplicable fact that untutored man, in three distant quarters of the + world, should have discovered amongst a host of native plants that the + leaves of the tea-plant and mattee, and the berries of the coffee, all + included a stimulating and nutritious essence, now known to be chemically + the same. We can also see that savages suffering from severe constipation + would naturally observe whether any of the roots which they devoured + acted as aperients. We probably owe our knowledge of the uses of almost + all plants to man having originally existed in a barbarous state, and + having been often compelled by severe want to try as food almost + everything which he could chew and swallow.</p> + + <p>From what we know of the habits of savages in many quarters of the + world, there is no reason to suppose that our cereal plants originally + existed in their present state so valuable to man. Let us look to one + continent alone, namely, Africa: Barth<a name="NtA_524" + href="#Nt_524"><sup>[524]</sup></a> states that the slaves over a large + part of the central region regularly collect the seeds of a wild grass, + the <i>Pennisetum distichum</i>; in another district he saw women + collecting the seeds of a Poa by swinging a sort of basket through the + rich meadow-land. Near Tete Livingstone observed the natives collecting + the seeds <!-- Page 309 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page309"></a>{309}</span>of a wild grass; and farther south, as + Andersson informs me, the natives largely use the seeds of a grass of + about the size of canary-seed, which they boil in water. They eat also + the roots of certain reeds, and every one has read of the Bushmen + prowling about and digging up with a fire-hardened stake various roots. + Similar facts with respect to the collection of seeds of wild grasses in + other parts of the world could be given.<a name="NtA_525" + href="#Nt_525"><sup>[525]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Accustomed as we are to our excellent vegetables and luscious fruits, + we can hardly persuade ourselves that the stringy roots of the wild + carrot and parsnip, or the little shoots of the wild asparagus, or crabs, + sloes, &c., should ever have been valued; yet, from what we know of + the habits of Australian and South African savages, we need feel no doubt + on this head. The inhabitants of Switzerland during the Stone-period + largely collected wild crabs, sloes, bullaces, hips of roses, + elderberries, beech-mast, and other wild berries and fruit.<a + name="NtA_526" href="#Nt_526"><sup>[526]</sup></a> Jemmy Button, a + Fuegian on board the <i>Beagle</i>, remarked to me that the poor and acid + black-currants of Tierra del Fuego were too sweet for his taste.</p> + + <p>The savage inhabitants of each land, having found out by many and hard + trials what plants were useful, or could be rendered useful by various + cooking processes, would after a time take the first step in cultivation + by planting them near their usual abodes. Livingstone<a name="NtA_527" + href="#Nt_527"><sup>[527]</sup></a> states that the savage Batokas + sometimes left wild fruit-trees standing in their gardens, and + occasionally even planted them, "a practice seen nowhere else amongst the + natives." But Du Chaillu saw a palm and some other wild fruit-trees which + had been planted; and these trees were considered private property. The + next step in cultivation, and this would require but little forethought, + would be to sow <!-- Page 310 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page310"></a>{310}</span>the seeds of useful plants; and as the + soil near the hovels of the natives<a name="NtA_528" + href="#Nt_528"><sup>[528]</sup></a> would often be in some degree + manured, improved varieties would sooner or later arise. Or a wild and + unusually good variety of a native plant might attract the attention of + some wise old savage; and he would transplant it, or sow its seed. That + superior varieties of wild fruit-trees occasionally are found is certain, + as in the case of the American species of hawthorns, plums, cherries, + grapes, and hickories, specified by Professor Asa Gray.<a name="NtA_529" + href="#Nt_529"><sup>[529]</sup></a> Downing also refers to certain wild + varieties of the hickory, as being "of much larger size and finer flavour + than the common species." I have referred to American fruit-trees, + because we are not in this case troubled with doubts whether or not the + varieties are seedlings which have escaped from cultivation. + Transplanting any superior variety, or sowing its seeds, hardly implies + more forethought than might be expected at an early and rude period of + civilisation. Even the Australian barbarians "have a law that no plant + bearing seeds is to be dug up after it has flowered;" and Sir G. Grey<a + name="NtA_530" href="#Nt_530"><sup>[530]</sup></a> never saw this law, + evidently framed for the preservation of the plant, violated. We see the + same spirit in the superstitious belief of the Fuegians, that killing + water-fowl whilst very young will be followed by "much rain, snow, blow + much."<a name="NtA_531" href="#Nt_531"><sup>[531]</sup></a> I may add, as + showing forethought in the lowest barbarians, that the Fuegians when they + find a stranded whale bury large portions in the sand, and during the + often-recurrent famines travel from great distances for the remnants of + the half-putrid mass.</p> + + <p>It has often been remarked<a name="NtA_532" + href="#Nt_532"><sup>[532]</sup></a> that we do not owe a single useful + plant to Australia or the Cape of Good Hope,—countries abounding to + an unparalleled degree with endemic species,—or to New Zealand, or + to America south of the Plata; and, according to some authors, not to + America northward of Mexico. I do not believe that any edible or valuable + plant, except the <!-- Page 311 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page311"></a>{311}</span>canary-grass, has been derived from an + oceanic or uninhabited island. If nearly all our useful plants, natives + of Europe, Asia, and South America, had originally existed in their + present condition, the complete absence of similarly useful plants in the + great countries just named would indeed be a surprising fact. But if + these plants have been so greatly modified and improved by culture as no + longer closely to resemble any natural species, we can understand why the + above-named countries have given us no useful plants, for they were + either inhabited by men who did not cultivate the ground at all, as in + Australia and the Cape of Good Hope, or who cultivated it very + imperfectly, as in some parts of America. These countries do yield plants + which are useful to savage man; and Dr. Hooker<a name="NtA_533" + href="#Nt_533"><sup>[533]</sup></a> enumerates no less than 107 such + species in Australia alone; but these plants have not been improved, and + consequently cannot compete with those which have been cultivated and + improved during thousands of years in the civilised world.</p> + + <p>The case of New Zealand, to which fine island we as yet owe no widely + cultivated plant, may seem opposed to this view; for, when first + discovered, the natives cultivated several plants; but all inquirers + believe, in accordance with the traditions of the natives, that the early + Polynesian colonists brought with them seeds and roots, as well as the + dog, which had all been wisely preserved during their long voyage. The + Polynesians are so frequently lost on the ocean, that this degree of + prudence would occur to any wandering party: hence the early colonists of + New Zealand, like the later European colonists, would not have had any + strong inducement to cultivate the aboriginal plants. According to De + Candolle we owe thirty-three useful plants to Mexico, Peru, and Chile; + nor is this surprising when we remember the civilized state of the + inhabitants, as shown by the fact of their having practised artificial + irrigation and made tunnels through hard rocks without the use of iron or + gunpowder, and who, as we shall see in a future chapter, fully + recognised, as far as animals were concerned, and therefore probably in + the case of plants, the important principle of selection. We owe some + plants to Brazil; and the early voyagers, namely Vespucius and Cabral, + describe the country as thickly peopled <!-- Page 312 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page312"></a>{312}</span>and cultivated. In + North America<a name="NtA_534" href="#Nt_534"><sup>[534]</sup></a> the + natives cultivated maize, pumpkins, gourds, beans, and peas, "all + different from ours," and tobacco; and we are hardly justified in + assuming that none of our present plants are descended from these North + American forms. Had North America been civilized for as long a period, + and as thickly peopled, as Asia or Europe, it is probable that the native + vines, walnuts, mulberries, crabs, and plums, would have given rise, + after a long course of cultivation, to a multitude of varieties, some + extremely different from their parent-stocks; and escaped seedlings would + have caused in the New, as in the Old World, much perplexity with respect + to their specific distinctness and parentage.<a name="NtA_535" + href="#Nt_535"><sup>[535]</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Cerealia.</i>—I will now enter on details. The cereals + cultivated in Europe consist of four genera—wheat, rye, barley, and + oats. Of wheat the best modern authorities<a name="NtA_536" + href="#Nt_536"><sup>[536]</sup></a> make four or five, or even seven + distinct species; of rye, one; of barley, three; and of oats, two, three, + or four species. So that altogether our cereals are ranked by different + authors under from ten to fifteen distinct species. These have given rise + to a multitude of varieties. It is a remarkable fact that botanists are + not universally agreed on the aboriginal parent-form of any one cereal + plant. For instance, a high authority writes in 1855,<a name="NtA_537" + href="#Nt_537"><sup>[537]</sup></a> "We ourselves have no hesitation in + stating our conviction, as the result of all the most reliable evidence, + that none of these Cerealia exist, or have existed, truly wild in their + present state, but that all are cultivated varieties of species now + growing in great abundance in S. Europe or W. Asia." On the other hand, + Alph. De Candolle<a name="NtA_538" href="#Nt_538"><sup>[538]</sup></a> + has adduced abundant evidence that common wheat (<i>Triticum vulgare</i>) + has been found wild in various parts of Asia, where it is not likely to + have escaped from cultivation; and there is <!-- Page 313 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page313"></a>{313}</span>force in M. Godron's + remark, that, supposing these plants to be escaped seedlings,<a + name="NtA_539" href="#Nt_539"><sup>[539]</sup></a> if they have + propagated themselves in a wild state for several generations, their + continued resemblance to cultivated wheat renders it probable that the + latter has retained its aboriginal character. M. De Candolle insists + strongly on the frequent occurrence in the Austrian dominions of rye and + of one kind of oats in an apparently wild condition. With the exception + of these two cases, which however are rather doubtful, and with the + exception of two forms of wheat and one of barley, which he believes to + have been found truly wild, M. De Candolle does not seem fully satisfied + with the other reported discoveries of the parent-forms of our other + cereals. With respect to oats, according to Mr. Buckman,<a name="NtA_540" + href="#Nt_540"><sup>[540]</sup></a> the wild English <i>Avena fatua</i> + can be converted by a few years of careful cultivation and selection into + forms almost identical with two very distinct cultivated races. The whole + subject of the origin and specific distinctness of the various cereal + plants is a most difficult one; but we shall perhaps be able to judge a + little better after considering the amount of variation which wheat has + undergone.</p> + + <p>Metzger describes seven species of wheat, Godron refers to five, and + De Candolle to only four. It is not improbable that, besides the kinds + known in Europe, other strongly characterised forms exist in the more + distant parts of the world; for Loiseleur-Deslongchamps<a name="NtA_541" + href="#Nt_541"><sup>[541]</sup></a> speaks of three new species or + varieties, sent to Europe in 1822 from Chinese Mongolia, which he + considers as being there indigenous. Moorcroft<a name="NtA_542" + href="#Nt_542"><sup>[542]</sup></a> also speaks of Hasora wheat in Ladakh + as very peculiar. If those botanists are right who believe that at least + seven species of wheat originally existed, then the amount of variation + in any important character which wheat has undergone under cultivation + has been slight; but if only four or a lesser number of species + originally existed, then it is evident that varieties so strongly marked + have arisen, that they have been considered by capable judges as + specifically distinct. But the impossibility of deciding which forms + ought to be ranked as species and which as varieties, makes it useless to + specify in detail the differences between the various kinds of wheat. + Speaking generally, the organs of vegetation differ little;<a + name="NtA_543" href="#Nt_543"><sup>[543]</sup></a> but some kinds grow + close and upright, whilst others spread and trail along the ground. The + straw differs in being more or less hollow, and in quality. The ears<a + name="NtA_544" href="#Nt_544"><sup>[544]</sup></a> <!-- Page 314 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page314"></a>{314}</span>differ in colour and in + shape, being quadrangular, compressed, or nearly cylindrical; and the + florets differ in their approximation to each other, in their pubescence, + and in being more or less elongated. The presence or absence of barbs is + a conspicuous difference, and in certain Gramineæ serves even as a + generic character;<a name="NtA_545" href="#Nt_545"><sup>[545]</sup></a> + although, as remarked by Godron,<a name="NtA_546" + href="#Nt_546"><sup>[546]</sup></a> the presence of barbs is variable in + certain wild grasses, and especially in those, such as <i>Bromus + secalinus</i> and <i>Lolium temulentum</i>, which habitually grow mingled + with our cereal crops, and which have thus unintentionally been exposed + to culture. The grains differ in size, weight, and colour; in being more + or less downy at one end, in being smooth or wrinkled, in being either + nearly globular, oval, or elongated; and finally in internal texture, + being tender or hard, or even almost horny, and in the proportion of + gluten which they contain.</p> + + <p>Nearly all the races or species of wheat vary, as Godron<a + name="NtA_547" href="#Nt_547"><sup>[547]</sup></a> has remarked, in an + exactly parallel manner,—in the seed being downy or glabrous, and + in colour,—and in the florets being barbed or not barbed, &c. + Those who believe that all the kinds are descended from a single wild + species may account for this parallel variation by the inheritance of a + similar constitution, and a consequent tendency to vary in the same + manner; and those who believe in the general theory of descent with + modification may extend this view to the several species of wheat, if + such ever existed in a state of nature.</p> + + <p>Although few of the varieties of wheat present any conspicuous + difference, their number is great. Dalbret cultivated during thirty years + from 150 to 160 kinds, and excepting in the quality of the grain they all + kept true: Colonel Le Couteur possessed upwards of 150, and Philippar 322 + varieties.<a name="NtA_548" href="#Nt_548"><sup>[548]</sup></a> As wheat + is an annual, we thus see how strictly many trifling differences in + character are inherited through many generations. Colonel Le Couteur + insists strongly on this same fact: in his persevering and successful + attempts to raise new varieties by selection, he began by choosing the + best ears, but soon found that the grains in the same ear differed so + that he was compelled to select them separately; and each grain generally + transmitted its own character. The great amount of variability in the + plants of the same variety is another interesting point, which would + never have been detected except by an eye long practised to the work; + thus Colonel Le Couteur relates<a name="NtA_549" + href="#Nt_549"><sup>[549]</sup></a> that in a field of his own wheat, + which he considered at least as pure as that of any of his neighbours, + Professor La Gasca found twenty-three sorts; and Professor Henslow has + observed similar facts. Besides such individual variations, forms + sufficiently well marked to be valued and to become widely cultivated + <!-- Page 315 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page315"></a>{315}</span>sometimes suddenly appear: thus Mr. + Sheriff has had the good fortune to raise in his lifetime seven new + varieties, which are now extensively grown in many parts of Britain.<a + name="NtA_550" href="#Nt_550"><sup>[550]</sup></a></p> + + <p>As in the case of many other plants, some varieties, both old and new, + are far more constant in character than others. Colonel Le Couteur was + forced to reject some of his new sub-varieties, which he suspected had + been produced from a cross, as incorrigibly sportive. With respect to the + tendency to vary, Metzger<a name="NtA_551" + href="#Nt_551"><sup>[551]</sup></a> gives from his own experience some + interesting facts: he describes three Spanish sub-varieties, more + especially one known to be constant in Spain, which in Germany assumed + their proper character only during hot summers; another variety kept true + only in good land, but after having been cultivated for twenty-five years + became more constant. He mentions two other sub-varieties which were at + first inconstant, but subsequently became, apparently without any + selection, accustomed to their new homes, and retained their proper + character. These facts show what small changes in the conditions of life + cause variability, and they further show that a variety may become + habituated to new conditions. One is at first inclined to conclude with + Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, that wheat cultivated in the same country is + exposed to remarkably uniform conditions; but manures differ, seed is + taken from one soil to another, and what is far more important the plants + are exposed as little as possible to struggle with other plants, and are + thus enabled to exist under diversified conditions. In a state of nature + each plant is confined to that particular station and kind of nutriment + which it can seize from the other plants by which it is surrounded.</p> + + <p>Wheat quickly assumes new habits of life. The summer and winter kinds + were classed by Linnæus as distinct species; but M. Monnier<a + name="NtA_552" href="#Nt_552"><sup>[552]</sup></a> has proved that the + difference between them is only temporary. He sowed winter-wheat in + spring, and out of one hundred plants four alone produced ripe seeds; + these were sown and resown, and in three years plants were reared which + ripened all their seed. Conversely, nearly all the plants raised from + summer-wheat, which was sown in autumn, perished from frost; but a few + were saved and produced seed, and in three years this summer-variety was + converted into a winter-variety. Hence it is not surprising that wheat + soon becomes to a certain extent acclimatised, and that seed brought from + distant countries and sown in Europe vegetates at first, or even for a + considerable period,<a name="NtA_553" href="#Nt_553"><sup>[553]</sup></a> + differently from our European varieties. In Canada the first settlers, + according to Kalm,<a name="NtA_554" href="#Nt_554"><sup>[554]</sup></a> + found their winters too severe for winter-wheat brought from France, and + their summers often too short for summer-wheat; and until they procured + summer-wheat from the northern parts of Europe, which succeeded well, + they thought that their <!-- Page 316 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page316"></a>{316}</span>country was useless for corn crops. It is + notorious that the proportion of gluten differs much under different + climates. The weight of the grain is also quickly affected by climate: + Loiseleur-Deslongchamps<a name="NtA_555" + href="#Nt_555"><sup>[555]</sup></a> sowed near Paris 54 varieties, + obtained from the South of France and from the Black Sea, and 52 of these + yielded seed from 10 to 40 per cent. heavier than the parent-seed. He + then sent these heavier grains back to the South of France, but there + they immediately yielded lighter seed.</p> + + <p>All those who have closely attended to the subject insist on the close + adaptation of numerous varieties of wheat to various soils and climates + even within the same country; thus Colonel Le Couteur<a name="NtA_556" + href="#Nt_556"><sup>[556]</sup></a> says, "It is the suitableness of each + sort to each soil that will enable the farmer to pay his rent by sowing + one variety, where he would be unable to do so by attempting to grow + another of a seemingly better sort." This may be in part due to each kind + becoming habituated to its conditions of life, as Metzger has shown + certainly occurs, but it is probably in main part due to innate + differences between the several varieties.</p> + + <p>Much has been written on the deterioration of wheat; that the quality + of the flour, size of grain, time of flowering, and hardiness may be + modified by climate and soil, seems nearly certain; but that the whole + body of any one sub-variety ever becomes changed into another and + distinct sub-variety, there is no reason to believe. What apparently does + take place, according to Le Couteur,<a name="NtA_557" + href="#Nt_557"><sup>[557]</sup></a> is, that some one sub-variety out of + the many which may always be detected in the same field is more prolific + than the others, and gradually supplants the variety which was first + sown.</p> + + <p>With respect to the natural crossing of distinct varieties the + evidence is conflicting, but preponderates against its frequent + occurrence. Many authors maintain that impregnation takes place in the + closed flower, but I am sure from my own observations that this is not + the case, at least with those varieties to which I have attended. But as + I shall have to discuss this subject in another work, it may be here + passed over.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>In conclusion, all authors admit that numerous varieties of wheat have + arisen; but their differences are unimportant, unless, indeed, some of + the so-called species are ranked as varieties. Those who believe that + from four to seven wild species of Triticum originally existed in nearly + the same condition as at present, rest their belief chiefly on the great + antiquity of the several forms.<a name="NtA_558" + href="#Nt_558"><sup>[558]</sup></a> It is an important fact, which we + have recently learnt from the admirable researches <!-- Page 317 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page317"></a>{317}</span>of Heer,<a + name="NtA_559" href="#Nt_559"><sup>[559]</sup></a> that the inhabitants + of Switzerland, even so early as the Neolithic period, cultivated no less + than ten cereal plants, namely, five kinds of wheat, of which at least + four are commonly looked at as distinct species, three kinds of barley, a + panicum, and a setaria. If it could be shown that at the earliest dawn of + agriculture five kinds of wheat and three of barley had been cultivated, + we should of course be compelled to look at these forms as distinct + species. But, as Heer has remarked, agriculture even at the period of the + lake-habitations had already made considerable progress; for, besides the + ten cereals, peas, poppies, flax, and apparently apples, were cultivated. + It may also be inferred, from one variety of wheat being the so-called + Egyptian, and from what is known of the native country of the panicum and + setaria, as well as from the nature of the weeds which then grew mingled + with the crops, that the lake-inhabitants either still kept up commercial + intercourse with some southern people or had originally proceeded as + colonists from the South.</p> + + <p>Loiseleur-Deslongchamps<a name="NtA_560" + href="#Nt_560"><sup>[560]</sup></a> has argued that, if our cereal plants + had been greatly modified by cultivation, the weeds which habitually grow + mingled with them would have been equally modified. But this argument + shows how completely the principle of selection has been overlooked. That + such weeds have not varied, or at least do not vary now in any extreme + degree, is the opinion of Mr. H. C. Watson and Professor Asa Gray, as + they inform me; but who will pretend to say that they do not vary as much + as the individual plants of the same sub-variety of wheat? We have + already seen that pure varieties of wheat, cultivated in the same field, + offer many slight variations, which can be selected and separately + propagated; and that occasionally more strongly pronounced variations + appear, which, as Mr. Sheriff has proved, are well worthy of extensive + cultivation. Not until equal attention be paid to the variability and + selection of weeds, can the argument from their constancy under + unintentional culture be of any value. In accordance with the principles + of selection we can understand how it is that in the several cultivated + varieties of wheat the organs of vegetation differ so little; for if a + plant <!-- Page 318 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page318"></a>{318}</span>with peculiar leaves appeared, it would be + neglected unless the grains of corn were at the same time superior in + quality or size. The selection of seed-corn was strongly recommended<a + name="NtA_561" href="#Nt_561"><sup>[561]</sup></a> in ancient times by + Columella and Celsus; and as Virgil says,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"I've seen the largest seeds, tho' view'd with care,</p> + <p>Degenerate, unless th' industrious hand</p> + <p>Did yearly cull the largest."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>But whether in ancient times selection was methodically pursued we may + well doubt, when we hear how laborious the work was found by Le Couteur. + Although the principle of selection is so important, yet the little which + man has effected, by incessant efforts<a name="NtA_562" + href="#Nt_562"><sup>[562]</sup></a> during thousands of years, in + rendering the plants more productive or the grains more nutritious than + they were in the time of the old Egyptians, would seem to speak strongly + against its efficacy. But we must not forget that at each successive + period the state of agriculture and the quantity of manure supplied to + the land will have determined the maximum degree of productiveness; for + it would be impossible to cultivate a highly productive variety, unless + the land contained a sufficient supply of the necessary chemical + elements.</p> + + <p>We now know that man was sufficiently civilized to cultivate the + ground at an immensely remote period; so that wheat might have been + improved long ago up to that standard of excellence which was possible + under the then existing state of agriculture. One small class of facts + supports this view of the slow and gradual improvement of our cereals. In + the most ancient lake-habitations of Switzerland, when men employed only + flint-tools, the most extensively cultivated wheat was a peculiar kind, + with remarkably small ears and grains.<a name="NtA_563" + href="#Nt_563"><sup>[563]</sup></a> "Whilst the grains of the modern + forms are in section from seven to eight millimètres in length, the + larger grains from the lake-habitations are six, seldom seven, and the + smaller ones only four. The ear is thus much narrower, and the spikelets + stand out more horizontally, than in our present forms." So again with + barley, the most ancient and most extensively cultivated kind had small + ears, and the grains <!-- Page 319 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page319"></a>{319}</span>were "smaller, shorter, and nearer to each + other, than in that now grown; without the husk they were 2½ lines long, + and scarcely 1½ broad, whilst those now grown have a length of three + lines, and almost the same in breadth."<a name="NtA_564" + href="#Nt_564"><sup>[564]</sup></a> These small-grained varieties of + wheat and barley are believed by Heer to be the parent-forms of certain + existing allied varieties, which have supplanted their early + progenitors.</p> + + <p>Heer gives an interesting account of the first appearance and final + disappearance of the several plants which were cultivated in greater or + less abundance in Switzerland during former successive periods, and which + generally differed more or less from our existing varieties. The peculiar + small-eared and small-grained wheat, already alluded to, was the + commonest kind during the Stone period; it lasted down to the + Helvetico-Roman age, and then became extinct. A second kind was rare at + first, but afterwards became more frequent. A third, the Egyptian wheat + (<i>T. turgidum</i>), does not agree exactly with any existing variety, + and was rare during the Stone period. A fourth kind (<i>T. dicoccum</i>) + differs from all known varieties of this form. A fifth kind (<i>T. + monococcum</i>) is known to have existed during the Stone period only by + the presence of a single ear. A sixth kind, the common <i>T. spelta</i>, + was not introduced into Switzerland until the Bronze age. Of barley, + besides the short-eared and small-grained kind, two others were + cultivated, one of which was very scarce, and resembled our present + common <i>H. distichum</i>. During the Bronze age rye and oats were + introduced; the oat-grains being somewhat smaller than those produced by + our existing varieties. The poppy was largely cultivated during the Stone + period, probably for its oil; but the variety which then existed is not + now known. A peculiar pea with small seeds lasted from the Stone to the + Bronze age, and then became extinct; whilst a peculiar bean, likewise + having small seeds, came in at the Bronze period and lasted to the time + of the Romans. These details sound like the description given by a + palæontologist of the mutations in form, of the first appearance, the + increasing rarity, and final extinction of fossil species, embedded in + the successive stages of a geological formation.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 320 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page320"></a>{320}</span></p> + + <p>Finally, every one must judge for himself whether it is more probable + that the several forms of wheat, barley, rye, and oats are descended from + between ten and fifteen species, most of which are now either unknown or + extinct, or whether they are descended from between four and eight + species, which may have either closely resembled our present cultivated + forms, or have been so widely different as to escape identification. In + this latter case, we must conclude that man cultivated the cereals at an + enormously remote period, and that he formerly practised some degree of + selection, which in itself is not improbable. We may, perhaps, further + believe that, when wheat was first cultivated, the ears and grains + increased quickly in size, in the same manner as the roots of the wild + carrot and parsnip are known to increase quickly in bulk under + cultivation.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Maize: Zea Mays.</i>—Botanists are nearly unanimous that all + the cultivated kinds belong to the same species. It is undoubtedly<a + name="NtA_565" href="#Nt_565"><sup>[565]</sup></a> of American origin, + and was grown by the aborigines throughout the continent from New England + to Chili. Its cultivation must have been extremely ancient, for Tschudi<a + name="NtA_566" href="#Nt_566"><sup>[566]</sup></a> describes two kinds, + now extinct or not known in Peru, which were taken from tombs apparently + prior to the dynasty of the Incas. But there is even stronger evidence of + antiquity, for I found on the coast of Peru<a name="NtA_567" + href="#Nt_567"><sup>[567]</sup></a> heads of maize, together with + eighteen species of recent sea-shell, embedded in a beach which had been + upraised at least 85 feet above the level of the sea. In accordance with + this ancient cultivation, numerous American varieties have arisen. The + aboriginal form has not as yet been discovered in the wild state. A + peculiar kind,<a name="NtA_568" href="#Nt_568"><sup>[568]</sup></a> in + which the grains, instead of being naked, are concealed by husks as much + as eleven lines in length, has been stated on insufficient evidence to + grow wild in Brazil. It is almost certain that the aboriginal form would + have had its grains thus protected;<a name="NtA_569" + href="#Nt_569"><sup>[569]</sup></a> but the seeds of the Brazilian + variety produce, as I hear from Professor Asa Gray, and as is stated in + two published accounts, either common or husked maize; and it is not <!-- + Page 321 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page321"></a>{321}</span>credible that a wild species, when first + cultivated, should vary so quickly and in so great a degree.</p> + + <p>Maize has varied in an extraordinary and conspicuous manner. + Metzger,<a name="NtA_570" href="#Nt_570"><sup>[570]</sup></a> who paid + particular attention to the cultivation of this plant, makes twelve races + (unter-art) with numerous sub-varieties; of the latter some are tolerably + constant, others quite inconstant. The different races vary in height + from 15-18 feet to only 16-18 inches, as in a dwarf variety described by + Bonafous. The whole ear is variable in shape, being long and narrow, or + short and thick, or branched. The ear in one variety is more than four + times as long as in a dwarf kind. The seeds are arranged in the ear in + from six to even twenty rows, or are placed irregularly. The seeds are + coloured—white, pale-yellow, orange, red, violet, or elegantly + streaked with black;<a name="NtA_571" href="#Nt_571"><sup>[571]</sup></a> + and in the same ear there are sometimes seeds of two colours. In a small + collection I found that a single grain of one variety nearly equalled in + weight seven grains of another variety. The shape of the seed varies + greatly, being very flat, or nearly globular, or oval; broader than long, + or longer than broad; without any point, or produced into a sharp tooth, + and this tooth is sometimes recurved. One variety (the rugosa of + Bonafous) has its seeds curiously wrinkled, giving to the whole ear a + singular appearance. Another variety (the cymosa of Bon.) carries its + ears so crowded together that it is called <i>maïs à bouquet</i>. The + seeds of some varieties contain much glucose instead of starch. Male + flowers sometimes appear amongst the female flowers, and Mr. J. Scott has + lately observed the rarer case of female flowers on a true male panicle, + and likewise hermaphrodite flowers.<a name="NtA_572" + href="#Nt_572"><sup>[572]</sup></a> Azara describes<a name="NtA_573" + href="#Nt_573"><sup>[573]</sup></a> a variety in Paraguay the grains of + which are very tender, and he states that several varieties are fitted + for being cooked in various ways. The varieties also differ greatly in + precocity, and have different powers of resisting dryness and the action + of violent wind.<a name="NtA_574" href="#Nt_574"><sup>[574]</sup></a> + Some of the foregoing differences would certainly be considered of + specific value with plants in a state of nature.</p> + + <p>Le Comte Ré states that the grains of all the varieties which he + cultivated ultimately assumed a yellow colour. But Bonafous<a + name="NtA_575" href="#Nt_575"><sup>[575]</sup></a> found that most of + those which he sowed for ten consecutive years kept true to their proper + tints; and he adds that in the valleys of the Pyrenees and on the plains + of Piedmont a white maize has been cultivated for more than a century, + and has undergone no change.</p> + + <p>The tall kinds grown in southern latitudes, and therefore exposed to + great heat, require from six to seven months to ripen their seed; whereas + the dwarf kinds, grown in northern and colder climates, require only from + <!-- Page 322 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page322"></a>{322}</span>three to four months.<a name="NtA_576" + href="#Nt_576"><sup>[576]</sup></a> Peter Kalm,<a name="NtA_577" + href="#Nt_577"><sup>[577]</sup></a> who particularly attended to this + plant, says, that in the United States, in proceeding from south to + north, the plants steadily diminish in bulk. Seeds brought from lat. 37° + in Virginia, and sown in lat. 43°-44° in New England, produce plants + which will not ripen their seed, or ripen them with the utmost + difficulty. So it is with seed carried from New England to lat. 45°-47° + in Canada. By taking great care at first, the southern kinds after some + years' culture ripen their seed perfectly in their northern homes, so + that this is an analogous case with that of the conversion of summer into + winter wheat, and conversely. When tall and dwarf maize are planted + together, the dwarf kinds are in full flower before the others have + produced a single flower; and in Pennsylvania they ripen their seed six + weeks earlier than the tall maize. Metzger also mentions a European maize + which ripens its seed four weeks earlier than another European kind. With + these facts, so plainly showing inherited acclimatisation, we may readily + believe Kalm, who states that in North America maize and some other + plants have gradually been cultivated further and further northward. All + writers agree that to keep the varieties of maize pure they must be + planted separately so that they shall not cross.</p> + + <p>The effects of the climate of Europe on the American varieties is + highly remarkable. Metzger obtained seed from various parts of America, + and cultivated several kinds in Germany. I will give an abstract of the + changes observed<a name="NtA_578" href="#Nt_578"><sup>[578]</sup></a> in + one case, namely, with a tall kind (Breit-korniger mays, Zea altissima) + brought from the warmer parts of America. During the first year the + plants were twelve feet high, and few seeds were perfected; the lower + seeds in the ear kept true to their proper form, but the upper seeds + became slightly changed. In the second generation the plants were from + nine to ten feet in height, and ripened their seed better; the depression + on the outer side of the seed had almost disappeared, and the original + beautiful white colour had become duskier. Some of the seeds had even + become yellow, and in their now rounded form they approached common + European maize. In the third generation nearly all resemblance to the + original and very distinct American parent-form was lost. In the sixth + generation this maize perfectly resembled a European variety, described + as the second sub-variety of the fifth race. When Metzger published his + book, this variety was still cultivated near Heidelberg, and could be + distinguished from the common kind only by a somewhat more vigorous + growth. Analogous results were obtained by the cultivation of another + American race, the "white-tooth corn," in which the tooth nearly + disappeared even in the second generation. A third race, the + "chicken-corn," did not undergo so great a change, but the seeds became + less polished and pellucid.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>These facts afford the most remarkable instance known to me of the + direct and prompt action of climate on a plant. It might <!-- Page 323 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page323"></a>{323}</span>have been + expected that the tallness of the stem, the period of vegetation, and the + ripening of the seed, would have been thus affected; but it is a much + more surprising fact that the seeds should have undergone so rapid and + great a change. As, however, flowers, with their product the seed, are + formed by the metamorphosis of the stem and leaves, any modification in + these latter organs would be apt to extend, through correlation, to the + organs of fructification.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Cabbage</i> (<i>Brassica oleracea</i>).—Every one knows how + greatly the various kinds of cabbage differ in appearance. In the island + of Jersey, from the effects of particular culture and of climate, a stalk + has grown to the height of sixteen feet, and "had its spring shoots at + the top occupied by a magpie's nest:" the woody stems are not + unfrequently from ten to twelve feet in height, and are there used as + rafters<a name="NtA_579" href="#Nt_579"><sup>[579]</sup></a> and as + walking-sticks. We are thus reminded that in certain countries plants + belonging to the generally herbaceous order of the Cruciferæ are + developed into trees. Every one can appreciate the difference between + green or red cabbages with great single heads; Brussel-sprouts with + numerous little heads; broccolis and cauliflowers with the greater number + of their flowers in an aborted condition, incapable of producing seed, + and borne in a dense corymb instead of an open panicle; savoys with their + blistered and wrinkled leaves; and borecoles and kales, which come + nearest to the wild parent-form. There are also various frizzled and + laciniated kinds, some of such beautiful colours that Vilmorin in his + Catalogue of 1851 enumerates ten varieties, valued solely for ornament, + which are propagated by seed. Some kinds are less commonly known, such as + the Portuguese Couve Tronchuda, with the ribs of its leaves greatly + thickened; and the Kohlrabi or choux-raves, with their stems enlarged + into great turnip-like masses above the ground; and the recently formed + new race<a name="NtA_580" href="#Nt_580"><sup>[580]</sup></a> of + choux-raves, already including nine sub-varieties, in which the enlarged + part lies beneath the ground like a turnip.</p> + + <p>Although we see such great differences in the shape, size, colour, + arrangement, and manner of growth of the leaves and stem, and of the + flower-stems in the broccoli and cauliflower, it is remarkable that the + flowers themselves, the seed-pods, and seeds, present extremely slight + differences or none at all.<a name="NtA_581" + href="#Nt_581"><sup>[581]</sup></a> I compared the flowers of all the + principal kinds; those of the Couve Tronchuda are white and rather + smaller than in common cabbages; those of the Portsmouth broccoli have + narrower sepals, and smaller, less elongated petals; and in no other + cabbage could any difference be detected. With respect to the seed-pods, + in the purple Kohlrabi alone, <!-- Page 324 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page324"></a>{324}</span>do they differ, being a little longer and + narrower than usual. I made a collection of the seeds of twenty-eight + different kinds, and most of them were undistinguishable; when there was + any difference it was excessively slight; thus, the seeds of various + broccolis and cauliflowers, when seen in mass, are a little redder; those + of the early green Ulm savoy are rather smaller; and those of the Breda + kail slightly larger than usual, but not larger than the seeds of the + wild cabbage from the coast of Wales. What a contrast in the amount of + difference is presented if, on the one hand, we compare the leaves and + stems of the various kinds of cabbage with their flowers, pods, and + seeds, and on the other hand the corresponding parts in the varieties of + maize and wheat! The explanation is obvious; the seeds alone are valued + in our cereals, and their variations have been selected; whereas the + seeds, seed-pods, and flowers have been utterly neglected in the cabbage, + whilst many useful variations in their leaves and stems have been noticed + and preserved from an extremely remote period, for cabbages were + cultivated by the old Celts.<a name="NtA_582" + href="#Nt_582"><sup>[582]</sup></a></p> + + <p>It would be useless to give a classified description<a name="NtA_583" + href="#Nt_583"><sup>[583]</sup></a> of the numerous races, sub-races, and + varieties of the cabbage; but it may be mentioned that Dr. Lindley has + lately proposed<a name="NtA_584" href="#Nt_584"><sup>[584]</sup></a> a + system founded on the state of development of the terminal and lateral + leaf-buds, and of the flower-buds. Thus, I. All the leaf-buds active and + open, as in the wild-cabbage, kail, &c. II. All the leaf-buds active, + but forming heads, as in Brussel-sprouts, &c. III. Terminal leaf-bud + alone active, forming a head as in common cabbages, savoys, &c. IV. + Terminal leaf-bud alone active and open, with most of the flowers + abortive and succulent, as in the cauliflower and broccoli. V. All the + leaf-buds active and open, with most of the flowers abortive and + succulent, as in the sprouting-broccoli. This latter variety is a new + one, and bears the same relation to common broccoli, as Brussel-sprouts + do to common cabbages; it suddenly appeared in a bed of common broccoli, + and was found faithfully to transmit its newly-acquired and remarkable + characters.</p> + + <p>The principal kinds of cabbage existed at least as early as the + sixteenth century,<a name="NtA_585" href="#Nt_585"><sup>[585]</sup></a> + so that numerous modifications of structure have been inherited for a + long period. This fact is the more remarkable as great care must be taken + to prevent the crossing of the different kinds. To give one proof of + this: I raised 233 seedlings from cabbages of different kinds, which had + purposely been planted near each other, and of the seedlings no less than + 155 were plainly deteriorated and mongrelized; nor were the remaining 78 + all perfectly true. It may be doubted whether many permanent varieties + have been formed by intentional or accidental crosses; for such crossed + plants are found to be very inconstant. One kind, however, called + "Cottager's Kale," has lately been produced by crossing common kale and + Brussel-sprouts, recrossed with purple broccoli,<a name="NtA_586" + href="#Nt_586"><sup>[586]</sup></a> and is said to be true, but plants + <!-- Page 325 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page325"></a>{325}</span>raised by me were not nearly so constant + in character as any common cabbage.</p> + + <p>Although most of the kinds keep true if carefully preserved from + crossing, yet the seed-beds must be yearly examined, and a few seedlings + are generally found false; but even in this case the force of inheritance + is shown, for, as Metzger has remarked<a name="NtA_587" + href="#Nt_587"><sup>[587]</sup></a> when speaking of Brussel-sprouts, the + variations generally keep to their "unter art," or main race. But in + order that any kind may be truly propagated there must be no great change + in the conditions of life; thus cabbages will not form heads in hot + countries, and the same thing has been observed with an English variety + grown during an extremely warm and damp autumn near Paris.<a + name="NtA_588" href="#Nt_588"><sup>[588]</sup></a> Extremely poor soil + also affects the characters of certain varieties.</p> + + <p>Most authors believe that all the races are descended from the wild + cabbage found on the western shores of Europe; but Alph. De Candolle<a + name="NtA_589" href="#Nt_589"><sup>[589]</sup></a> forcibly argues on + historical and other grounds that it is more probable that two or three + closely allied forms, generally ranked as distinct species, still living + in the Mediterranean region, are the parents, now all commingled + together, of the various cultivated kinds. In the same manner as we have + often seen with domesticated animals, the supposed multiple origin of the + cabbage throws no light on the characteristic differences between the + cultivated forms. If our cabbages are the descendants of three or four + distinct species, every trace of any sterility which may originally have + existed between them is now lost, for none of the varieties can be kept + distinct without scrupulous care to prevent intercrossing.</p> + + <p>The other cultivated forms of the genus Brassica are descended, + according to the view adopted by Godron and Metzger,<a name="NtA_590" + href="#Nt_590"><sup>[590]</sup></a> from two species, <i>B. napus</i> and + <i>rapa</i>; but according to other botanists from three species; whilst + others again strongly suspect that all these forms, both wild and + cultivated, ought to be ranked as a single species. <i>Brassica napus</i> + has given rise to two large groups, namely, Swedish turnips (by some + believed to be of hybrid origin)<a name="NtA_591" + href="#Nt_591"><sup>[591]</sup></a> and Colzas, the seeds of which yield + oil. <i>Brassica rapa</i> (of Koch) has also given rise to two races, + namely, common turnips and the oil-giving rape. The evidence is unusually + clear that these latter plants, though so different in external + appearance, belong to the same species; for the turnip has been observed + by Koch and Godron to lose its thick roots in uncultivated soil, and when + rape and turnips are sown together they cross to such a degree that + scarcely a single plant comes true.<a name="NtA_592" + href="#Nt_592"><sup>[592]</sup></a> Metzger by culture converted the + biennial or winter rape into the annual or summer rape,—varieties + which have been thought by some authors to be specifically distinct.<a + name="NtA_593" href="#Nt_593"><sup>[593]</sup></a></p> + + <p>In the production of large, fleshy, turnip-like stems, we have a case + <!-- Page 326 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page326"></a>{326}</span>of analogous variation in three forms + which are generally considered as distinct species. But scarcely any + modification seems so easily acquired as a succulent enlargement of the + stem or root—that is a store of nutriment laid up for the plant's + own future use. We see this in our radishes, beet, and in the less + generally known "turnip-rooted" celery, and in the finocchio or Italian + variety of the common fennel. Mr. Buckman has lately proved by his + interesting experiments how quickly the roots of the wild parsnip can be + enlarged, as Vilmorin formerly proved in the case of the carrot.<a + name="NtA_594" href="#Nt_594"><sup>[594]</sup></a> This latter plant, in + its cultivated state, differs in scarcely any character from the wild + English species, except in general luxuriance and in the size and quality + of its roots; but in the root ten varieties, differing in colour, shape, + and quality, are cultivated<a name="NtA_595" + href="#Nt_595"><sup>[595]</sup></a> in England, and come true by seed. + Hence, with the carrot, as in so many other cases, for instance with the + numerous varieties and sub-varieties of the radish, that part of the + plant which is valued by man, falsely appears alone to have varied. The + truth is that variations in this part alone have been selected; and the + seedlings inheriting a tendency to vary in the same way, analogous + modifications have been again and again selected, until at last a great + amount of change has been effected.</p> + + <p><i>Pea</i> (<i>Pisum sativum</i>).—Most botanists look at the + garden-pea as specifically distinct from the field-pea (<i>P. + arvense</i>). The latter exists in a wild state in Southern Europe; but + the aboriginal parent of the garden-pea has been found by one collector + alone, as he states, in the Crimea.<a name="NtA_596" + href="#Nt_596"><sup>[596]</sup></a> Andrew Knight crossed, as I am + informed by the Rev. A. Fitch, the field-pea with a well-known garden + variety, the Prussian pea, and the cross seems to have been perfectly + fertile. Dr. Alefeld has recently studied<a name="NtA_597" + href="#Nt_597"><sup>[597]</sup></a> the genus with care, and, after + having cultivated about fifty varieties, concludes that they all + certainly belong to the same species. It is an interesting fact already + alluded to, that, according to O. Heer,<a name="NtA_598" + href="#Nt_598"><sup>[598]</sup></a> the peas found in the + lake-habitations of Switzerland of the Stone and Bronze ages, belong to + an extinct variety, with exceedingly small seeds, allied to <i>P. + arvense</i>, or field-pea. The varieties of the common garden-pea are + numerous, and differ considerably from each other. For comparison I + planted at the same time forty-one English and French varieties, and in + this one case I will describe minutely their differences. The varieties + <!-- Page 327 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page327"></a>{327}</span>differ greatly in height,—namely + from between 6 and 12 inches to 8 feet,<a name="NtA_599" + href="#Nt_599"><sup>[599]</sup></a>—in manner of growth, and in + period of maturity. Some varieties differ in general aspect even while + only two or three inches in height. The stems of the <i>Prussian</i> pea + are much branched. The tall kinds have larger leaves than the dwarf + kinds, but not in strict proportion to their height:—<i>Hairs' + Dwarf Monmouth</i> has very large leaves, and the <i>Pois nain hatif</i>, + and the moderately tall <i>Blue Prussian</i>, have leaves about + two-thirds of the size of the tallest kind. In the <i>Danecroft</i> the + leaflets are rather small and a little pointed; in the <i>Queen of + Dwarfs</i> rather rounded; and in the <i>Queen of England</i> broad and + large. In these three peas the slight differences in the shape of the + leaves are accompanied by slight differences in colour. In the <i>Pois + géant sans parchemin</i>, which bears purple flowers, the leaflets in the + young plant are edged with red; and in all the peas with purple flowers + the stipules are marked with red.</p> + + <p>In the different varieties, one or two, or several flowers in a small + cluster, are borne on the same peduncle; and this is a difference which + with some of the Leguminosæ is considered of specific value. In all the + varieties the flowers closely resemble each other except in colour and + size. They are generally white, sometimes purple, but the colour is + inconstant even in the same variety. In <i>Warner's Emperor</i>, which is + a tall kind, the flowers are nearly double the size of those of the + <i>Pois nain hatif</i>, but <i>Hairs' Dwarf Monmouth</i>, which has large + leaves, likewise has large flowers. The calyx in the <i>Victoria + Marrow</i> is large, and in <i>Bishop's Long Pod</i> the sepals are + rather narrow. In no other kind is there any difference in the + flower.</p> + + <p>The pods and seeds, which with natural species afford such constant + characters, differ greatly in the cultivated varieties of the pea; and + these are the valuable, and consequently the selected parts. <i>Sugar + peas</i>, or <i>Pois sans parchemin</i>, are remarkable from their thin + pods, which, whilst young, are cooked and eaten whole; and in this group, + which, according to Mr. Gordon includes eleven sub-varieties, it is the + pod which differs most: thus <i>Lewis's Negro-podded pea</i> has a + straight, broad, smooth, and dark-purple pod, with the husk not so thin + as in the other kinds; the pod of another variety is extremely bowed; + that of the <i>Pois géant</i> is much pointed at the extremity; and in + the variety "<i>à grands cosses</i>" the peas are seen through the husk + in so conspicuous a manner that the pod, especially when dry, can hardly + at first be recognised as that of a pea.</p> + + <p>In the ordinary varieties the pods also differ much in size;—in + colour, that of <i>Woodford's Green Marrow</i> being bright-green when + dry, instead of pale brown, and that of the purple-podded pea being + expressed by its name;—in smoothness, that of <i>Danecroft</i> + being remarkably glossy, whereas that of the <i>Ne plus ultra</i> is + rugged;—in being either nearly cylindrical, or broad and + flat;—in being pointed at the end as in <i>Thurston's Reliance</i>, + or much truncated as in the <i>American Dwarf</i>. In the <i>Auvergne + pea</i> the whole end of <!-- Page 328 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page328"></a>{328}</span>the pod is bowed upwards. In the <i>Queen + of the Dwarfs</i> and in <i>Scimitar peas</i> the pod is almost elliptic + in shape. I here give drawings of the four most distinct pods produced by + the plants cultivated by me.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:48%;"> + <a href="images/Dom141.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom141.png" + alt="Fig. 41.--Pods and Peas." title="Fig. 41.--Pods and Peas." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 41.—Pods and Peas. I. Queen of Dwarfs. II. + American Dwarf. III. Thurston's Reliance. IV. Pois Géant sans + parchemin. <i>a.</i> Dan O'Rourke Pea. <i>b.</i> Queen of Dwarfs Pea. + <i>c.</i> Knight's Tall White Marrow. <i>d.</i> Lewis's Negro Pea.</p> + </div> + <p>In the pea itself we have every tint between almost pure white, brown, + yellow, and intense green; in the varieties of the <i>sugar peas</i> we + have these same tints, together with red passing through fine purple into + a dark chocolate tint. These colours are either uniform or distributed in + dots, striæ, or moss-like marks; they depend in some cases on the colour + of the cotyledons seen through the skin, and in other cases on the outer + coats of the pea itself. In the different varieties the pods contain, + according to Mr. Gordon, from eleven or twelve to only four or five peas. + The largest peas are nearly twice as much in diameter as the smallest; + and the latter are not always borne by the most dwarfed kinds. Peas + differ much in <!-- Page 329 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page329"></a>{329}</span>shape, being smooth and spherical, smooth + and oblong, nearly oval in the <i>Queen of Dwarfs</i>, and nearly cubical + and crumpled in many of the larger kinds.</p> + + <p>With respect to the value of the differences between the chief + varieties, it cannot be doubted that, if one of the tall + <i>Sugar-peas</i>, with purple flowers, thin-skinned pods of an + extraordinary shape, including large, dark-purple peas, grew wild by the + side of the lowly <i>Queen of the Dwarfs</i>, with white flowers, + greyish-green, rounded leaves, scimitar-like pods, containing oblong, + smooth, pale-coloured peas, which became mature at a different season; or + by the side of one of the gigantic sorts, like the <i>Champion of + England</i>, with leaves of great size, pointed pods, and large, green, + crumpled, almost cubical peas,—all three kinds would be ranked as + indisputably distinct species.</p> + + <p>Andrew Knight<a name="NtA_600" href="#Nt_600"><sup>[600]</sup></a> has + observed that the varieties of peas keep very true, because they are not + crossed by insects. As far as the fact of keeping true is concerned, I + hear from Mr. Masters of Canterbury, well known as the originator of + several new kinds, that certain varieties have remained constant for a + considerable time,—for instance, <i>Knight's Blue Dwarf</i>, which + came out about the year 1820.<a name="NtA_601" + href="#Nt_601"><sup>[601]</sup></a> But the greater number of varieties + have a singularly short existence: thus Loudon remarks<a name="NtA_602" + href="#Nt_602"><sup>[602]</sup></a> that "sorts which were highly + approved in 1821, are now, in 1833, nowhere to be found;" and on + comparing the lists of 1833 with those of 1855, I find that nearly all + the varieties have changed. Mr. Masters informs me that the nature of the + soil causes some varieties to lose their character. As with other plants, + certain varieties can be propagated truly, whilst others show a + determined tendency to vary; thus two peas differing in shape, one round + and the other wrinkled, were found by Mr. Masters within the same pod, + but the plants raised from the wrinkled kind always evinced a strong + tendency to produce round peas. Mr. Masters also raised from a plant of + another variety four distinct sub-varieties, which bore blue and round, + white and round, blue and wrinkled, and white and wrinkled peas; and + although he sowed these four varieties separately during several + successive years, each kind always reproduced all four kinds mixed + together!</p> + + <p>With respect to the varieties not naturally intercrossing, I have + ascertained that the pea, which in this respect differs from some other + Leguminosæ, is perfectly fertile without the aid of insects. Yet I have + seen humble-bees whilst sucking the nectar depress the keel-petals, and + become so thickly dusted with pollen, that some could hardly fail to be + left on the stigma of the next flower which was visited. I have made + inquiries from several great raisers of seed-peas, and I find that but + few sow them separately; the majority take no precaution; and it is + certain, as I have myself found, that true seed may be saved during at + least several generations from distinct varieties growing close + together.<a name="NtA_603" href="#Nt_603"><sup>[603]</sup></a> Under + these circumstances, Mr. Fitch raised, as he informs me, one variety for + twenty <!-- Page 330 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page330"></a>{330}</span>years, which always came true. From the + analogy of kidney-beans I should have expected<a name="NtA_604" + href="#Nt_604"><sup>[604]</sup></a> that occasionally, perhaps at long + intervals of time, when some slight degree of sterility had supervened + from long-continued self-fertilisation, varieties thus growing near each + other would have crossed; and I shall give in the eleventh chapter two + cases of distinct varieties which spontaneously intercrossed, as shown + (in a manner hereafter to be explained) by the pollen of the one variety + having acted directly on the seeds of the other. Whether the incessant + supply of new varieties is partly due to such occasional and accidental + crosses, and their fleeting existence to changes of fashion; or again, + whether the varieties which arise after a long course of continued + self-fertilisation are weakly and soon perish, I cannot even conjecture. + It may, however, be noticed that several of Andrew Knight's varieties, + which have endured longer than most kinds, were raised towards the close + of the last century by artificial crosses; some of them, I believe, were + still, in 1860, vigorous; but now, in 1865, a writer, speaking<a + name="NtA_605" href="#Nt_605"><sup>[605]</sup></a> of Knight's four kinds + of marrows, says, they have acquired a famous history, but their glory + has departed.</p> + + <p>With respect to Beans (<i>Faba vulgaris</i>), I will say but little. + Dr. Alefeld has given<a name="NtA_606" + href="#Nt_606"><sup>[606]</sup></a> short diagnostic characters of forty + varieties. Every one who has seen a collection must have been struck with + the great difference in shape, thickness, proportional length and + breadth, colour, and size which beans present. What a contrast between a + Windsor and Horse-bean! As in the case of the pea, our existing varieties + were preceded during the Bronze age in Switzerland by a peculiar and now + extinct variety producing very small beans.<a name="NtA_607" + href="#Nt_607"><sup>[607]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Potato (Solanum tuberosum).</i>—There is little doubt about + the parentage of this plant; for the cultivated varieties differ + extremely little in general appearance from the wild species, which can + be recognised in its native land at the first glance.<a name="NtA_608" + href="#Nt_608"><sup>[608]</sup></a> The varieties cultivated in Britain + are numerous; thus Lawson<a name="NtA_609" + href="#Nt_609"><sup>[609]</sup></a> gives a description of 175 kinds. I + planted eighteen kinds in adjoining rows; their stems and leaves differed + but little, and in several cases there was as great an amount of + difference between the individuals of the same variety as between the + different varieties. The flowers vary in size, and in colour between + white and purple, but in no other respect, except that in one kind the + sepals were somewhat elongated. One strange variety has been described + which always produces two sorts of flowers, the first double and sterile, + the second single and fertile.<a name="NtA_610" + href="#Nt_610"><sup>[610]</sup></a> The fruit or berries also differ, but + only in a slight degree.<a name="NtA_611" + href="#Nt_611"><sup>[611]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 331 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page331"></a>{331}</span></p> + + <p>The tubers, on the other hand, present a wonderful amount of + diversity. This fact accords with the principle that the valuable and + selected parts of all cultivated productions present the greatest amount + of modification. They differ much in size and shape, being globular, + oval, flattened, kidney-like, or cylindrical. One variety from Peru is + described<a name="NtA_612" href="#Nt_612"><sup>[612]</sup></a> as being + quite straight, and at least six inches in length, though no thicker than + a man's finger. The eyes or buds differ in form, position, and colour. + The manner in which the tubers are arranged on the so-called roots is + different; thus in the <i>gurken-kartoffeln</i> they form a pyramid with + the apex downwards, and in another variety they bury themselves deep in + the ground. The roots themselves run either near the surface or deep in + the ground. The tubers also differ in smoothness and colour, being + externally white, red, purple, or almost black, and internally white, + yellow, or almost black. They differ in flavour and quality, being either + waxy or mealy; in their period of maturity, and in their capacity for + long preservation.</p> + + <p>As with many other plants which have been long propagated by bulbs, + tubers, cuttings, &c., by which means the same individual is exposed + during a length of time to diversified conditions, seedling potatoes + generally display innumerable slight differences. Several varieties, even + when propagated by tubers, are far from constant, as will be seen in the + chapter on Bud-variation. Dr. Anderson<a name="NtA_613" + href="#Nt_613"><sup>[613]</sup></a> procured seed from an Irish purple + potato, which grew far from any other kind, so that it could not at least + in this generation have been crossed, yet the many seedlings varied in + almost every possible respect, so that "scarcely two plants were exactly + alike." Some of the plants which closely resembled each other above + ground, produced extremely dissimilar tubers; and some tubers which + externally could hardly be distinguished, differed widely in quality when + cooked. Even in this case of extreme variability, the parent-stock had + some influence on the progeny, for the greater number of the seedlings + resembled in some degree the parent Irish potato. Kidney potatoes must be + ranked amongst the most highly cultivated and artificial races; yet their + peculiarities can often be strictly propagated by seed. A great + authority, Mr. Rivers,<a name="NtA_614" + href="#Nt_614"><sup>[614]</sup></a> states that "seedlings from the + ash-leaved kidney always bear a strong resemblance to their parent. + Seedlings from the fluke-kidney are still more remarkable for their + adherence to their parent-stock, for, on closely observing a great number + during two seasons, I have not been able to observe the least difference + either in earliness, productiveness, or in the size or shape of their + tubers."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 332 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page332"></a>{332}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER X.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">PLANTS <i>continued</i>—<span class="sc">FRUITS—ORNAMENTAL TREES—FLOWERS.</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>FRUITS.—<span class="scac">GRAPES</span>—<span + class="scac">VARY IN ODD AND TRIFLING PARTICULARS.</span>—<span + class="scac">MULBERRY.</span>—<span class="scac">THE ORANGE + GROUP</span>—<span class="scac">SINGULAR RESULTS FROM + CROSSING.</span>—<span class="scac">PEACH AND + NECTARINE</span>—<span + class="scac">BUD-VARIATION</span>—<span class="scac">ANALOGOUS + VARIATION</span>—<span class="scac">RELATION TO THE + ALMOND.</span>—<span class="scac">APRICOT.</span>—<span + class="scac">PLUMS</span>—<span class="scac">VARIATION IN THEIR + STONES.</span>—<span class="scac">CHERRIES</span>—<span + class="scac">SINGULAR VARIETIES OF.</span>—<span + class="scac">APPLE.</span>—<span + class="scac">PEAR.</span>—<span + class="scac">STRAWBERRY</span>—<span class="scac">INTERBLENDING OF + THE ORIGINAL FORMS.</span>—<span + class="scac">GOOSEBERRY</span>—<span class="scac">STEADY INCREASE + IN SIZE OF THE FRUIT</span>—<span class="scac">VARIETIES + OF.</span>—<span class="scac">WALNUT.</span>—<span + class="scac">NUT.</span>—<span class="scac">CUCURBITACEOUS + PLANTS</span>—<span class="scac">WONDERFUL VARIATION OF.</span></p> + + <p>ORNAMENTAL TREES—<span class="scac">THEIR VARIATION IN DEGREE + AND KIND</span>—<span class="scac">ASH-TREE</span>—<span + class="scac">SCOTCH-FIR</span>—<span + class="scac">HAWTHORN.</span></p> + + <p>FLOWERS—<span class="scac">MULTIPLE ORIGIN OF MANY + KINDS</span>—<span class="scac">VARIATION IN CONSTITUTIONAL + PECULIARITIES</span>—<span class="scac">KIND OF + VARIATION.</span>—<span class="scac">ROSES</span>—<span + class="scac">SEVERAL SPECIES CULTIVATED.</span>—<span + class="scac">PANSY.</span>—<span + class="scac">DAHLIA.</span>—<span class="scac">HYACINTH, HISTORY + AND VARIATION OF.</span></p> + +</blockquote> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>The Vine</i> (<i>Vitis vinifera</i>).—The best authorities + consider all our grapes as the descendants of one species which now grows + wild in western Asia, which grew during the Bronze-age wild in Italy,<a + name="NtA_615" href="#Nt_615"><sup>[615]</sup></a> and which has recently + been found fossil in a tufaceous deposit in the south of France.<a + name="NtA_616" href="#Nt_616"><sup>[616]</sup></a> Some authors, however, + entertain much doubt about the single parentage of our cultivated + varieties, owing to the number of semi-wild forms found in Southern + Europe, especially as described by Clemente,<a name="NtA_617" + href="#Nt_617"><sup>[617]</sup></a> in a forest in Spain; but as the + grape sows itself freely in Southern Europe, and as several of the chief + kinds transmit their characters by seed,<a name="NtA_618" + href="#Nt_618"><sup>[618]</sup></a> whilst others are extremely variable, + the existence of many different escaped forms could hardly fail to occur + in countries where this plant has been cultivated from the remotest + antiquity. That the vine varies much when propagated by seed, we may + infer from the largely increased number of varieties since the earlier + historical records. New hot-house varieties are produced almost every + year; for instance,<a name="NtA_619" href="#Nt_619"><sup>[619]</sup></a> + a golden-coloured variety has been recently raised in England from a + black grape without the aid of a cross. <!-- Page 333 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page333"></a>{333}</span>Van Mons<a + name="NtA_620" href="#Nt_620"><sup>[620]</sup></a> reared a multitude of + varieties from the seed of one vine, which was completely separated from + all others, so that there could not, at least in this generation, have + been any crossing, and the seedlings presented "les analogues de toutes + les sortes," and differed in almost every possible character both in the + fruit and foliage.</p> + + <p>The cultivated varieties are extremely numerous; Count Odart says that + he will not deny that there may exist throughout the world 700 or 800, + perhaps even 1000 varieties, but not a third of these have any value. In + the Catalogue of fruit cultivated in the Horticultural Gardens of London, + published in 1842, 99 varieties are enumerated. Wherever the grape is + grown many varieties occur: Pallas describes 24 in the Crimea, and Burnes + mentions 10 in Cabool. The classification of the varieties has much + perplexed writers, and Count Odart is reduced to a geographical system; + but I will not enter on this subject, nor on the many and great + differences between the varieties. I will merely specify a few curious + and trifling peculiarities, all taken from Odart's highly esteemed + work,<a name="NtA_621" href="#Nt_621"><sup>[621]</sup></a> for the sake + of showing the diversified variability of this plant. Simon has classed + grapes into two main divisions, those with downy leaves and those with + smooth leaves, but he admits that in one variety, namely the Rebazo, the + leaves are either smooth or downy; and Odart (p. 70) states that some + varieties have the nerves alone, and other varieties their young leaves, + downy, whilst the old ones are smooth. The Pedro-Ximenes grape (Odart, p. + 397) presents a peculiarity by which it can be at once recognised amongst + a host of other varieties, namely, that when the fruit is nearly ripe the + nerves of the leaves or even the whole surface becomes yellow. The + Barbera d'Asti is well marked by several characters (p. 426), amongst + others, "by some of the leaves, and it is always the lowest on the + branches, suddenly becoming of a dark red colour." Several authors in + classifying grapes have founded their main divisions on the berries being + either round or oblong; and Odart admits the value of this character; yet + there is one variety, the Maccabeo (p. 71), which often produces small + round, and large oblong, berries in the same bunch. Certain grapes called + Nebbiolo (p. 429) present a constant character, sufficient for their + recognition, namely, "the slight adherence of that part of the pulp which + surrounds the seeds to the rest of the berry, when cut through + transversely." A Rhenish variety is mentioned (p. 228) which likes a dry + soil; the fruit ripens well, but at the moment of maturity, if much rain + falls, the berries are apt to rot; on the other hand, the fruit of a + Swiss variety (p. 243) is valued for well sustaining prolonged humidity. + This latter variety sprouts late in the spring, yet matures its fruit + early; other varieties (p. 362) have the fault of being too much excited + by the April sun, and in consequence suffer from frost. A Styrian variety + (p. 254) has brittle foot-stalks, so that the clusters of fruit are often + blown off; this variety is said to be particularly attractive to wasps + and bees. Other varieties have tough stalks, which resist the wind. Many + other variable characters could be given, but the foregoing facts are + sufficient to show in how many small structural and <!-- Page 334 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page334"></a>{334}</span>constitutional + details the vine varies. During the vine disease in France certain whole + groups of varieties<a name="NtA_622" href="#Nt_622"><sup>[622]</sup></a> + have suffered far more from mildew than others. Thus "the group of the + Chasselas, so rich in varieties, did not afford a single fortunate + exception;" certain other groups suffered much less; the true old + Burgundy, for instance, was comparatively free from disease, and the + Carminat likewise resisted the attack. The American vines, which belong + to a distinct species, entirely escaped the disease in France; and we + thus see that those European varieties which best resist the disease must + have acquired in a slight degree the same constitutional peculiarities as + the American species.</p> + + <p><i>White Mulberry</i> (<i>Morus alba</i>).—I mention this plant + because it has varied in certain characters, namely, in the texture and + quality of the leaves, fitting them to serve as food for the domesticated + silkworm, in a manner not observed with other plants; but this has arisen + simply from such variations in the mulberry having been attended to, + selected, and rendered more or less constant. M. de Quatrefages<a + name="NtA_623" href="#Nt_623"><sup>[623]</sup></a> briefly describes six + kinds cultivated in one valley in France: of these the <i>amourouso</i> + produces excellent leaves, but is rapidly being abandoned because it + produces much fruit mingled with the leaves: the <i>antofino</i> yields + deeply cut leaves of the finest quality, but not in great quantity: the + <i>claro</i> is much sought for because the leaves can be easily + collected: lastly, the <i>roso</i> bears strong hardy leaves, produced in + large quantity, but with the one inconvenience, that they are best + adapted for the worms after their fourth moult. MM. Jacquemet-Bonnefont, + of Lyon, however, remark in their catalogue (1862) that two sub-varieties + have been confounded under the name of the <i>roso,</i> one having leaves + too thick for the caterpillars, the other being valuable because the + leaves can easily be gathered from the branches without the bark being + torn.</p> + + <p>In India the mulberry has also given rise to many varieties. The + Indian form is thought by many botanists to be a distinct species; but as + Royle remarks,<a name="NtA_624" href="#Nt_624"><sup>[624]</sup></a> "so + many varieties have been produced by cultivation that it is difficult to + ascertain whether they all belong to one species;" they are, as he adds, + nearly as numerous as those of the silkworm.</p> + + <p><i>The Orange Group.</i>—We here meet with great confusion in + the specific distinction and parentage of the several kinds. Gallesio,<a + name="NtA_625" href="#Nt_625"><sup>[625]</sup></a> who almost devoted his + life-time to the subject, considers that there are four species, namely, + sweet and bitter oranges, lemons, and citrons, each of which has given + rise to whole groups of varieties, monsters, and supposed hybrids. One + high authority<a name="NtA_626" href="#Nt_626"><sup>[626]</sup></a> + believes that these four reputed species are all <!-- Page 335 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page335"></a>{335}</span>varieties of the wild + <i>Citrus medica</i>, but that the shaddock (<i>Citrus decumana</i>), + which is not known in a wild state, is a distinct species; though its + distinctness is doubted by another writer "of great authority on such + matters," namely, Dr. Buchanan Hamilton. Alph. De Candolle,<a + name="NtA_627" href="#Nt_627"><sup>[627]</sup></a> on the other + hand—and there cannot be a more capable judge—advances what + he considers sufficient evidence of the orange (he doubts whether the + bitter and sweet kinds are specifically distinct), the lemon, and citron, + having been found wild, and consequently that they are distinct. He + mentions two other forms cultivated in Japan and Java, which he ranks as + undoubted species; he speaks rather more doubtfully about the shaddock, + which varies much, and has not been found wild; and finally he considers + some forms, such as Adam's apple and the bergamotte, as probably + hybrids.</p> + + <p>I have briefly abstracted these opinions for the sake of showing those + who have never attended to such subjects, how perplexed with doubt they + are. It would, therefore, be useless for my purpose to give a sketch of + the conspicuous differences between the several forms. Besides the + ever-recurrent difficulty of determining whether forms found wild are + truly aboriginal or are escaped seedlings, many of the forms, which must + be ranked as varieties, transmit their characters almost perfectly by + seed. Sweet and bitter oranges differ in no important respect except in + the flavour of their fruit, but Gallesio<a name="NtA_628" + href="#Nt_628"><sup>[628]</sup></a> is most emphatic that both kinds can + be propagated by seed with absolute certainty. Consequently, in + accordance with his simple rule, he classes them as distinct species; as + he does sweet and bitter almonds, the peach and nectarine, &c. He + admits, however, that the soft-shelled pine-tree produces not only + soft-shelled but some hard-shelled seedlings, so that a little greater + force in the power of inheritance would, according to this rule, raise + the soft-shelled pine-tree into the dignity of an aboriginally created + species. The positive assertion made by Macfayden<a name="NtA_629" + href="#Nt_629"><sup>[629]</sup></a> that the pips of sweet oranges + produce in Jamaica, according to the nature of the soil in which they are + sown, either sweet or bitter oranges, is probably an error; for M. Alph. + De Candolle informs me that since the publication of his great work he + has received accounts from Guiana, the Antilles, and Mauritius, that in + these countries sweet oranges faithfully transmit their character. + Gallesio found that the willow-leafed and the Little China oranges + reproduced their proper leaves and fruit; but the seedlings were not + quite equal in merit to their parents. The red-fleshed orange, on the + other hand, fails to reproduce itself. Gallesio also observed that the + seeds of several other singular varieties all reproduced trees having a + peculiar physiognomy, but partly resembling their parent-forms. I can + adduce another case: the myrtle-leaved orange is ranked by all authors as + a variety, but is very distinct in general aspect: in my father's + greenhouse, during many years, it rarely yielded any seed, but at last + produced one; and a tree thus raised was identical with the + parent-form.</p> + + <p>Another and more serious difficulty in determining the rank of the + several forms is that, according to Gallesio,<a name="NtA_630" + href="#Nt_630"><sup>[630]</sup></a> they largely intercross without <!-- + Page 336 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page336"></a>{336}</span>artificial aid; thus he positively states + that seeds taken from lemon-trees (<i>C. lemonum</i>) growing mingled + with the citron (<i>C. medica</i>), which is generally considered as a + distinct species, produced a graduated series of varieties between these + two forms. Again, an Adam's apple was produced from the seed of a sweet + orange, which grew close to lemons and citrons. But such facts hardly aid + us in determining whether to rank these forms as species or varieties; + for it is now known that undoubted species of Verbascum, Cistus, Primula, + Salix, &c., frequently cross in a state of nature. If indeed it were + proved that plants of the orange tribe raised from these crosses were + even partially sterile, it would be a strong argument in favour of their + rank as species. Gallesio asserts that this is the case; but he does not + distinguish between sterility from hybridism and from the effects of + culture; and he almost destroys the force of this statement by another,<a + name="NtA_631" href="#Nt_631"><sup>[631]</sup></a> namely, that when he + impregnated the flowers of the common orange with the pollen taken from + undoubted <i>varieties</i> of the orange, monstrous fruits were produced, + which included "little pulp, and had no seeds, or imperfect seeds."</p> + + <p>In this tribe of plants we meet with instances of two highly + remarkable facts in vegetable physiology: Gallesio<a name="NtA_632" + href="#Nt_632"><sup>[632]</sup></a> impregnated an orange with pollen + from a lemon, and the fruit borne on the mother tree had a raised stripe + of peel like that of a lemon both in colour and taste, but the pulp was + like that of an orange and included only imperfect seeds. The possibility + of pollen from one variety or species directly affecting the fruit + produced by another variety or species, is a subject which I shall fully + discuss in the following chapter.</p> + + <p>The second remarkable fact is that two supposed hybrids<a + name="NtA_633" href="#Nt_633"><sup>[633]</sup></a> (for their hybrid + nature was not ascertained) between an orange and either a lemon or + citron produced, on the same tree, leaves, flowers, and fruit of both + pure parent-forms, as well as of a mixed or crossed nature. A bud taken + from any one of the branches and grafted on another tree produces either + one of the pure kinds or a capricious tree reproducing the three kinds. + Whether the sweet lemon, which includes within the same fruit segments of + differently flavoured pulp,<a name="NtA_634" + href="#Nt_634"><sup>[634]</sup></a> is an analogous case, I know not. But + to this subject I shall have to recur.</p> + + <p>I will conclude by giving from A. Risso<a name="NtA_635" + href="#Nt_635"><sup>[635]</sup></a> a short account of a very singular + variety of the common orange. It is the "<i>citrus aurantium fructu + variabili</i>," which on the young shoots produces rounded-oval leaves + spotted with yellow, borne on petioles with heart-shaped wings; when + these leaves fall off, they are succeeded by longer and narrower leaves, + with undulated margins, of a pale-green colour embroidered with yellow, + borne on foot-stalks without wings. The fruit whilst young is + pear-shaped, yellow, longitudinally striated, and sweet; but as it + ripens, it becomes spherical, of a reddish-yellow, and bitter.</p> + + <p><i>Peach and Nectarine (Amygdalus Persica).</i> The best authorities + are <!-- Page 337 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page337"></a>{337}</span>nearly unanimous that the peach has never + been found wild. It was introduced from Persia into Europe a little + before the Christian era, and at this period few varieties existed. Alph. + De Candolle,<a name="NtA_636" href="#Nt_636"><sup>[636]</sup></a> from + the fact of the peach not having spread from Persia at an earlier period, + and from its not having pure Sanscrit or Hebrew names, believes that it + is not an aboriginal of Western Asia, but came from the <i>terra + incognita</i> of China. The supposition, however, that the peach is a + modified almond which acquired its present character at a comparatively + late period, would, I presume, account for these facts; on the same + principle that the nectarine, the offspring of the peach, has few native + names, and became known in Europe at a still later period.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:44%;"> + <a href="images/Dom142.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom142.png" + alt="Fig. 42.--Peach and Almond Stones." title="Fig. 42.--Peach and Almond Stones." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 42.—Peach and Almond Stones, of natural + size, viewed edgeways. 1. Common English Peach. 2. Double, + crimson-flowered, Chinese Peach. 3. Chinese Honey Peach. 4. English + Almond. 5. Barcelona Almond. 6. Malaga Almond. 7. Soft-shelled French + Almond. 8. Smyrna Almond.</p> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 338 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page338"></a>{338}</span></p> + + <p>Andrew Knight,<a name="NtA_637" href="#Nt_637"><sup>[637]</sup></a> + from finding that a seedling-tree, raised from a sweet almond fertilised + by the pollen of a peach, yielded fruit quite like that of a peach, + suspected that the peach-tree is a modified almond; and in this he has + been followed by various authors.<a name="NtA_638" + href="#Nt_638"><sup>[638]</sup></a> A first-rate peach, almost globular + in shape, formed of soft and sweet pulp, surrounding a hard, much + furrowed, and slightly-flattened stone, certainly differs greatly from an + almond, with its soft, slightly furrowed, much flattened, and elongated + stone, protected by a tough, greenish layer of bitter flesh. Mr. + Bentham<a name="NtA_639" href="#Nt_639"><sup>[639]</sup></a> has + particularly called attention to the stone of the almond being so much + more flattened than that of the peach. But in the several varieties of + the almond, the stone differs greatly in the degree to which it is + compressed, in size, shape, strength, and in the depth of the furrows, as + may be seen in the accompanying drawings (Nos. 4 to 8) of such kinds as I + have been able to collect. With peach-stones, also (Nos. 1 to 3) the + degree of compression and elongation is seen to vary; so that the stone + of the Chinese Honey-peach (fig. 3) is much more elongated and compressed + than that of the (No. 8) Smyrna almond. Mr. Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, to + whom I am indebted for some of the specimens above figured, and who has + had such great horticultural experience, has called my attention to + several varieties which connect the almond and the peach. In France there + is a variety called the Peach-almond, which Mr. Rivers formerly + cultivated, and which is correctly described in a French catalogue as + being oval and swollen, with the aspect of a peach, including a hard + stone surrounded by a fleshy covering, which is sometimes eatable.<a + name="NtA_640" href="#Nt_640"><sup>[640]</sup></a> A remarkable statement + by M. Luizet has recently appeared in the 'Revue Horticole,'<a + name="NtA_641" href="#Nt_641"><sup>[641]</sup></a> namely, that a + Peach-almond, grafted on a peach, bore during 1863 and 1864 almonds + alone, but in 1865 bore six peaches and no almonds. M. Carrière, in + commenting on this fact, cites the case of a double-flowered almond + which, after producing during several years almonds, suddenly bore for + two years in succession spherical fleshy peach-like fruits, but in 1865 + reverted to its former state and produced large almonds.</p> + + <p>Again, as I hear from Mr. Rivers, the double-flowering Chinese peaches + resemble almonds in their manner of growth and in their flowers; the + fruit is much elongated and flattened, with the flesh both bitter and + sweet, but <!-- Page 339 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page339"></a>{339}</span>not uneatable, and it is said to be of + better quality in China. From this stage one small step leads us to such + inferior peaches as are occasionally raised from seed. For instance, Mr. + Rivers sowed a number of peach-stones imported from the United States, + where they are collected for raising stocks, and some of the trees raised + by him produced peaches which were very like almonds in appearance, being + small and hard, with the pulp not softening till very late in the autumn. + Van Mons<a name="NtA_642" href="#Nt_642"><sup>[642]</sup></a> also states + that he once raised from a peach-stone a peach having the aspect of a + wild tree, with fruit like that of the almond. From inferior peaches, + such as these just described, we may pass by small transitions, through + clingstones of poor quality, to our best and most melting kinds. From + this gradation, from the cases of sudden variation above recorded, and + from the fact that the peach has not been found wild, it seems to me by + far the most probable view, that the peach is the descendant of the + almond, improved and modified in a marvellous manner.</p> + + <p>One fact, however, is opposed to this conclusion. A hybrid, raised by + Knight from the sweet almond by the pollen of the peach, produced flowers + with little or no pollen, yet bore fruit, having been apparently + fertilised by a neighbouring nectarine. Another hybrid from a sweet + almond by the pollen of a nectarine produced during the first three years + imperfect blossoms, but afterwards perfect flowers with an abundance of + pollen. If this slight degree of sterility cannot be accounted for by the + youth of the trees (and this often causes lessened fertility), or by the + monstrous state of the flowers, or by the conditions to which the trees + were exposed, these two cases would afford a strong argument against the + peach being the descendant of the almond.</p> + + <p>Whether or not the peach has proceeded from the almond, it has + certainly given rise to nectarines, or smooth peaches, as they are called + by the French. Most of the varieties both of the peach and nectarine + reproduce themselves truly by seed. Gallesio<a name="NtA_643" + href="#Nt_643"><sup>[643]</sup></a> says he has verified this with + respect to eight races of the peach. Mr. Rivers<a name="NtA_644" + href="#Nt_644"><sup>[644]</sup></a> has given some striking instances + from his own experience, and it is notorious that good peaches are + constantly raised in North America from seed. Many of the American + sub-varieties come true or nearly true to their kind, such as the + white-blossom, several of the yellow-fruited freestone peaches, the blood + clingstone, the heath, and the lemon-clingstone. On the other hand, a + clingstone peach has been known to give rise to a freestone.<a + name="NtA_645" href="#Nt_645"><sup>[645]</sup></a> In England it has been + noticed that seedlings inherit from their parents flowers of the same + size and colour. Some characters, however, contrary to what might have + been expected, often are not inherited; such as the presence and form of + the glands on the leaves.<a name="NtA_646" + href="#Nt_646"><sup>[646]</sup></a> With respect to nectarines, both + cling and <!-- Page 340 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page340"></a>{340}</span>freestones are known in North America to + reproduce themselves by seed.<a name="NtA_647" + href="#Nt_647"><sup>[647]</sup></a> In England the new white nectarine + was a seedling of the old white, and Mr. Rivers<a name="NtA_648" + href="#Nt_648"><sup>[648]</sup></a> has recorded several similar cases. + From this strong tendency to inheritance, which both peach and nectarine + trees exhibit,—from certain slight constitutional differences<a + name="NtA_649" href="#Nt_649"><sup>[649]</sup></a> in their + nature,—and from the great difference in their fruit both in + appearance and flavour, it is not surprising, notwithstanding that the + trees differ in no other respects and cannot even be distinguished, as I + am informed by Mr. Rivers, whilst young, that they have been ranked by + some authors as specifically distinct. Gallesio does not doubt that they + are distinct; even Alph. De Candolle does not appear perfectly assured of + their specific identity; and an eminent botanist has quite recently<a + name="NtA_650" href="#Nt_650"><sup>[650]</sup></a> maintained that the + nectarine "probably constitutes a distinct species."</p> + + <p>Hence it may be worth while to give all the evidence on the origin of + the nectarine. The facts in themselves are curious, and will hereafter + have to be referred to when the important subject of bud-variation is + discussed. It is asserted<a name="NtA_651" + href="#Nt_651"><sup>[651]</sup></a> that the Boston nectarine was + produced from a peach-stone, and this nectarine reproduced itself by + seed.<a name="NtA_652" href="#Nt_652"><sup>[652]</sup></a> Mr. Rivers + states<a name="NtA_653" href="#Nt_653"><sup>[653]</sup></a> that from + stones of three distinct varieties of the peach he raised three varieties + of nectarine; and in one of these cases no nectarine grew near the parent + peach-tree. In another instance Mr. Rivers raised a nectarine from a + peach, and in the succeeding generation another nectarine from this + nectarine.<a name="NtA_654" href="#Nt_654"><sup>[654]</sup></a> Other + such instances have been communicated to me, but they need not be given. + Of the converse case, namely, of nectarine-stones yielding peach-trees + (both free and cling-stones), we have six undoubted instances recorded by + Mr. Rivers; and in two of these instances the parent nectarines had been + seedlings from other nectarines.<a name="NtA_655" + href="#Nt_655"><sup>[655]</sup></a></p> + + <p>With respect to the more curious case of full-grown peach-trees + suddenly producing nectarines by bud-variation (or sports as they are + called by gardeners), the evidence is superabundant; there is also good + evidence of the same tree producing both peaches and nectarines, or half + and half fruit;—by this term I mean a fruit with the one-half a + perfect peach, and the other half a perfect nectarine.</p> + + <p>Peter Collinson in 1741 recorded the first case of a peach-tree + producing a nectarine,<a name="NtA_656" + href="#Nt_656"><sup>[656]</sup></a> and in 1766 he added two other + instances. In the same work, the editor, Sir J. E. Smith, describes the + more remarkable case of a tree in Norfolk, which usually bore both + perfect nectarines and perfect peaches; but during two seasons some of + the fruit were half-and-half in nature.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 341 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page341"></a>{341}</span></p> + + <p>Mr. Salisbury in 1808<a name="NtA_657" + href="#Nt_657"><sup>[657]</sup></a> records six other cases of + peach-trees producing nectarines. Three of the varieties are named; viz., + the Alberge, Belle Chevreuse, and Royal George. This latter tree seldom + failed to produce both kinds of fruit. He gives another case of a + half-and-half fruit.</p> + + <p>At Radford in Devonshire<a name="NtA_658" + href="#Nt_658"><sup>[658]</sup></a> a clingstone peach, purchased as the + Chancellor, was planted in 1815, and in 1824, after having previously + produced peaches alone, bore on one branch twelve nectarines; in 1825 the + same branch yielded twenty-six nectarines, and in 1826 thirty-six + nectarines together with eighteen peaches. One of the peaches was almost + as smooth on one side as a nectarine. The nectarines were as dark as, but + smaller than, the Elruge.</p> + + <p>At Beccles a Royal George peach<a name="NtA_659" + href="#Nt_659"><sup>[659]</sup></a> produced a fruit, "three parts of it + being peach and one part nectarine, quite distinct in appearance as well + as in flavour." The lines of division were longitudinal, as represented + in the engraving. A nectarine-tree grew five yards from this tree.</p> + + <p>Professor Chapman states<a name="NtA_660" + href="#Nt_660"><sup>[660]</sup></a> that he has often seen in Virginia + very old peach-trees bearing nectarines.</p> + + <p>A writer in the 'Gardener's Chronicle' says that a peach-tree planted + fifteen years previously<a name="NtA_661" + href="#Nt_661"><sup>[661]</sup></a> produced this year a nectarine + between two peaches; a nectarine-tree grew close by.</p> + + <p>In 1844<a name="NtA_662" href="#Nt_662"><sup>[662]</sup></a> a + Vanguard peach-tree produced, in the midst of its ordinary fruit, a + single red Roman nectarine.</p> + + <p>Mr. Calver is stated<a name="NtA_663" + href="#Nt_663"><sup>[663]</sup></a> to have raised in the United States a + seedling peach which produced a mixed crop of both peaches and + nectarines.</p> + + <p>Near Dorking<a name="NtA_664" href="#Nt_664"><sup>[664]</sup></a> a + branch of the Têton de Venus peach, which reproduces itself truly by + seed,<a name="NtA_665" href="#Nt_665"><sup>[665]</sup></a> bore its own + fruit "so remarkable for its prominent point, and a nectarine rather + smaller but well formed and quite round."</p> + + <p>The previous cases all refer to peaches suddenly producing nectarines, + but at Carclew<a name="NtA_666" href="#Nt_666"><sup>[666]</sup></a> the + unique case occurred, of a nectarine-tree, raised twenty years before + from seed and never grafted, producing a fruit half peach and half + nectarine; subsequently it bore a perfect peach.</p> + + <p>To sum up the foregoing facts: we have excellent evidence of + peach-stones producing nectarine-trees, and of nectarine-stones producing + peach-trees,—of the same tree bearing peaches and + nectarines,—of peach-trees suddenly producing by bud-variation + nectarines (such nectarines reproducing nectarines by seed), as well as + fruit in part nectarine and in part peach,—and lastly of one + nectarine-tree first bearing half-and-half fruit, and subsequently true + peaches. As the peach came into existence before the nectarine, it might + have been expected from the law of reversion that <!-- Page 342 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page342"></a>{342}</span>nectarines would give + birth by bud-variation or by seed to peaches, oftener than peaches to + nectarines; but this is by no means the case.</p> + + <p>Two explanations have been suggested to account for these conversions. + First, that the parent-trees have been in every case hybrids<a + name="NtA_667" href="#Nt_667"><sup>[667]</sup></a> between the peach and + nectarine, and have reverted by bud-variation or by seed to one of their + pure parent-forms. This view in itself is not very improbable; for the + Mountaineer peach, which was raised by Knight from the red nutmeg peach + by pollen of the violette hâtive nectarine,<a name="NtA_668" + href="#Nt_668"><sup>[668]</sup></a> produces peaches, but these are said + <i>sometimes</i> to partake of the smoothness and flavour of the + nectarine. But let it be observed that in the previous list no less than + six well-known varieties and several other unnamed varieties of the peach + have once suddenly produced perfect nectarines by bud-variation; and it + would be an extremely rash supposition that all these varieties of the + peach, which have been cultivated for years in many districts, and which + show not a vestige of a mixed parentage, are, nevertheless, hybrids. A + second explanation is, that the fruit of the peach has been directly + affected by the pollen of the nectarine: although this certainly is + possible, it cannot here apply; for we have not a shadow of evidence that + a branch which has borne fruit directly affected by foreign pollen is so + profoundly modified as afterwards to produce buds which continue to yield + fruit of the new and modified form. Now it is known that when a bud on a + peach-tree has once borne a nectarine the same branch has in several + instances gone on during successive years producing nectarines. The + Carclew nectarine, on the other hand, first produced half-and-half fruit, + and subsequently pure peaches. Hence we may confidently accept the common + view that the nectarine is a variety of the peach, which may be produced + either by bud-variation or from seed. In the following chapter many + analogous cases of bud-variation will be given.</p> + + <p>The varieties of the peach and nectarine run in parallel lines. In + both classes the kinds differ from each other in the flesh of the fruit + being white, red, or yellow; in being clingstones or freestones; in the + flowers being large or small, with certain other characteristic + differences; and in the leaves being serrated without glands, or crenated + and furnished with globose or reniform glands.<a name="NtA_669" + href="#Nt_669"><sup>[669]</sup></a> We can hardly account for this + parallelism by supposing that each variety of the nectarine is descended + from a corresponding variety of the peach; for though our nectarines are + certainly the descendants of several kinds of peaches, yet a large number + are the descendants of other nectarines, and they vary so much when thus + reproduced that we can scarcely admit the above explanation.</p> + + <p>The varieties of the peach have largely increased in number since the + Christian era, when from two to five varieties alone were known;<a + name="NtA_670" href="#Nt_670"><sup>[670]</sup></a> and the nectarine was + unknown. At the present time, besides many varieties said to exist in + China, Downing describes in the United States seventy-nine <!-- Page 343 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page343"></a>{343}</span>native and + imported varieties of the peach; and a few years ago Lindley<a + name="NtA_671" href="#Nt_671"><sup>[671]</sup></a> enumerated one hundred + and sixty-four varieties of the peach and nectarine grown in England. I + have already indicated the chief points of difference between the several + varieties. Nectarines, even when produced from distinct kinds of peaches, + always possess their own peculiar flavour, and are smooth and small. + Clingstone and freestone peaches, which differ in the ripe flesh either + firmly adhering to the stone, or easily separating from it, also differ + in the character of the stone itself; that of the freestones or melters + being more deeply fissured, with the sides of the fissures smoother than + in clingstones. In the various kinds, the flowers differ not only in + size, but in the larger flowers the petals are differently shaped, more + imbricated, generally red in the centre and pale towards the margin; + whereas in the smaller flowers the margins of the petal are usually more + darkly coloured. One variety has nearly white flowers. The leaves are + more or less serrated, and are either destitute of glands, or have + globose or reniform glands;<a name="NtA_672" + href="#Nt_672"><sup>[672]</sup></a> and some few peaches, such as the + Brugnon, bear on the same tree both globular and kidney-shaped glands.<a + name="NtA_673" href="#Nt_673"><sup>[673]</sup></a> According to + Robertson<a name="NtA_674" href="#Nt_674"><sup>[674]</sup></a> the trees + with glandular leaves are liable to blister, but not in any great degree + to mildew; whilst the non-glandular trees are more subject to curl, to + mildew, and to the attacks of aphides. The varieties differ in the period + of their maturity, in the fruit keeping well, and in hardiness,—the + latter circumstance being especially attended to in the United States. + Certain varieties, such as the Bellegarde, stand forcing in hot-houses + better than other varieties. The flat-peach of China is the most + remarkable of all the varieties; it is so much depressed towards the + summit, that the stone is here covered only by roughened skin and not by + a fleshy layer.<a name="NtA_675" href="#Nt_675"><sup>[675]</sup></a> + Another Chinese variety, called the Honey-peach, is remarkable from the + fruit terminating in a long sharp point; its leaves are glandless and + widely dentate.<a name="NtA_676" href="#Nt_676"><sup>[676]</sup></a> The + Emperor of Russia peach is a third singular variety, having deeply and + doubly serrated leaves; the fruit is deeply cleft with one-half + projecting considerably beyond the other; it originated in America, and + its seedlings inherit similar leaves.<a name="NtA_677" + href="#Nt_677"><sup>[677]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The peach has also produced in China a small class of trees valued for + ornament, namely the double-flowered; of these five varieties are now + known in England, varying from pure white, through rose, to intense + crimson.<a name="NtA_678" href="#Nt_678"><sup>[678]</sup></a> One of + these varieties, called the camellia-flowered, bears flowers above 2¼ + inches in diameter, whilst those of the fruit-bearing kinds do not at + most exceed 1¼ inch in diameter. The flowers of the <!-- Page 344 + --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page344"></a>{344}</span>double-flowered peaches have the singular + property<a name="NtA_679" href="#Nt_679"><sup>[679]</sup></a> of + frequently producing double or treble fruit. Finally, there is good + reason to believe that the peach is an almond profoundly modified; but + whatever its origin may have been, there can be no doubt that it has + yielded during the last eighteen centuries many varieties, some of them + strongly characterised, belonging both to the nectarine and peach + form.</p> + + <p><i>Apricot</i> (<i>Prunus armeniaca</i>).—It is commonly + admitted that this tree is descended from a single species, now found + wild in the Caucasian region.<a name="NtA_680" + href="#Nt_680"><sup>[680]</sup></a> On this view the varieties deserve + notice, because they illustrate differences supposed by some botanists to + be of specific value in the almond and plum. The best monograph on the + apricot is by Mr. Thompson,<a name="NtA_681" + href="#Nt_681"><sup>[681]</sup></a> who describes seventeen varieties. We + have seen that peaches and nectarines vary in a strictly parallel manner; + and in the apricot, which forms a closely allied genus, we again meet + with variations analogous to those of the peach, as well as to those of + the plum. The varieties differ considerably in the shape of their leaves, + which are either serrated or crenated, sometimes with ear-like appendages + at their bases, and sometimes with glands on the petioles. The flowers + are generally alike, but are small in the Masculine. The fruit varies + much in size, shape, and in having the suture little pronounced or + absent; in the skin being smooth, or downy as in the orange-apricot; and + in the flesh clinging to the stone, as in the last-mentioned kind, or in + readily separating from it, as in the Turkey-apricot. In all these + differences we see the closest analogy with the varieties of the peach + and nectarine. In the stone we have more important differences, and these + in the case of the plum have been esteemed of specific value: in some + apricots the stone is almost spherical, in others much flattened, being + either sharp in front or blunt at both ends, sometimes channelled along + the back, or with a sharp ridge along both margins. In the Moorpark, and + generally in the Hemskirke, the stone presents a singular character in + being perforated, with a bundle of fibres passing through the perforation + from end to end. The most constant and important character, according to + Thompson, is whether the kernel is bitter or sweet; yet in this respect + we have a graduated difference, for the kernel is very bitter in + Shipley's apricot; in the Hemskirke less bitter than in some other kinds; + slightly bitter in the Royal; and "sweet like a hazel-nut" in the Breda, + Angoumois, and others. In the case of the almond, bitterness has been + thought by some high authorities to indicate specific difference.</p> + + <p>In N. America the Roman apricot endures "cold and unfavourable + situations, where no other sort, except the Masculine, will succeed; and + its blossoms bear quite a severe frost without injury."<a name="NtA_682" + href="#Nt_682"><sup>[682]</sup></a> According to Mr. Rivers<a + name="NtA_683" href="#Nt_683"><sup>[683]</sup></a> seedling apricots + deviate but little from the character of <!-- Page 345 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page345"></a>{345}</span>their race: in France + the Alberge is constantly reproduced from seed with but little variation. + In Ladakh, according to Moorcroft,<a name="NtA_684" + href="#Nt_684"><sup>[684]</sup></a> ten varieties of the apricot, very + different from each other, are cultivated, and all are raised from seed, + excepting one, which is budded.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/Dom143.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Dom143.png" + alt="Fig. 43.--Plum Stones." title="Fig. 43.--Plum Stones." /></a> + <p class="poem">Fig. 43.—Plum Stones, of natural size, viewed + laterally. 1. Bullace Plum. 2. Shropshire Damson. 3. Blue Gage. 4. + Orleans. 5. Elvas. 6. Denyer's Victoria. 7. Diamond.</p> + </div> + <p><i>Plums</i> (<i>Prunus insititia</i>).—Formerly the sloe, <i>P. + spinosa</i>, was thought to be the parent of all our plums; but now this + honour is very commonly accorded to <i>P. insititia</i> or the bullace, + which is found wild in the Caucasus and N.-Western India, and is + naturalised in England.<a name="NtA_685" + href="#Nt_685"><sup>[685]</sup></a> It is not at all improbable, in + accordance with some observations made by Mr. Rivers<a name="NtA_686" + href="#Nt_686"><sup>[686]</sup></a> that both these forms, which some + botanists rank as a single species, may be the parents of our + domesticated plums. Another supposed parent-form, the <i>P. + domestica</i>, is said to be found wild in the region of the Caucasus. + Godron remarks<a name="NtA_687" href="#Nt_687"><sup>[687]</sup></a> that + the cultivated varieties may be divided into two main groups, which he + supposes to be descended from two aboriginal stocks; namely, those with + oblong fruit and stones pointed at both ends, having narrow separate + petals and upright branches; and those with rounded fruit, with stones + blunt at both ends, with rounded petals and spreading branches. From what + we know of the variability of the flowers in the peach and of the + diversified manner of growth in our various fruit-trees, it is difficult + to lay much weight on these latter <!-- Page 346 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page346"></a>{346}</span>characters. With + respect to the shape of the fruit, we have conclusive evidence that it is + extremely variable: Downing<a name="NtA_688" + href="#Nt_688"><sup>[688]</sup></a> gives outlines of the plums of two + seedlings, namely, the red and imperial gages, raised from the greengage; + and the fruit of both is more elongated than that of the greengage. The + latter has a very blunt broad stone, whereas the stone of the imperial + gage is "oval and pointed at both ends." These trees also differ in their + manner of growth: "the greengage is a very short-jointed, slow-growing + tree, of spreading and rather dwarfish habit;" whilst its offspring, the + imperial gage, "grows freely and rises rapidly, and has long dark + shoots." The famous Washington plum bears a globular fruit, but its + offspring, the emerald drop, is nearly as much elongated as the most + elongated plum figured by Downing, namely, Manning's prune. I have made a + small collection of the stones of twenty-five kinds, and they graduate in + shape from the bluntest into the sharpest kinds. As characters derived + from seeds are generally of high systematic importance, I have thought it + worth while to give drawings of the most distinct kinds in my small + collection; and they may be seen to differ in a surprising manner in + size, outline, thickness, prominence of the ridges, and state of surface. + It deserves notice that the shape of the stone is not always strictly + correlated with that of the fruit: thus the Washington plum is spherical + and depressed at the pole, with a somewhat elongated stone, whilst the + fruit of the Goliath is more elongated, but the stone less so, than in + the Washington. Again, Denyer's Victoria and Goliath bear fruit closely + resembling each other, but their stones are widely different. On the + other hand, the Harvest and Black Margate plums are very dissimilar, yet + include closely similar stones.</p> + + <p>The varieties of the plum are numerous, and differ greatly in size, + shape, quality, and colour,—being bright yellow, green, almost + white, blue, purple, or red. There are some curious varieties, such as + the double or Siamese, and the Stoneless plum: in the latter the kernel + lies in a roomy cavity surrounded only by the pulp. The climate of North + America appears to be singularly favourable for the production of new and + good varieties; Downing describes no less than forty, seven of which of + first-rate quality have been recently introduced into England.<a + name="NtA_689" href="#Nt_689"><sup>[689]</sup></a> Varieties occasionally + arise having an innate adaptation for certain soils, almost as strongly + pronounced as with natural species growing on the most distinct + geological formations; thus in America the imperial gage, differently + from almost all other kinds, "is peculiarly fitted for <i>dry light</i> + soils where many sorts drop their fruit," whereas on rich heavy soils the + fruit is often insipid.<a name="NtA_690" + href="#Nt_690"><sup>[690]</sup></a> My father could never succeed in + making the Wine-Sour yield even a moderate crop in a sandy orchard near + Shrewsbury, whilst in some parts of the same county and in its native + Yorkshire it bears abundantly: one of my <!-- Page 347 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page347"></a>{347}</span>relations also + repeatedly tried in vain to grow this variety in a sandy district in + Staffordshire.</p> + + <p>Mr. Rivers has given<a name="NtA_691" + href="#Nt_691"><sup>[691]</sup></a> a number of interesting facts, + showing how truly many varieties can be propagated by seed. He sowed the + stones of twenty bushels of the greengage for the sake of raising stocks, + and closely observed the seedlings; "all had the smooth shoots, the + prominent buds, and the glossy leaves of the greengage, but the greater + number had smaller leaves and thorns." There are two kinds of damson, one + the Shropshire with downy shoots, and the other the Kentish with smooth + shoots, and these differ but slightly in any other respect: Mr. Rivers + sowed some bushels of the Kentish damson, and all the seedlings-had + smooth shoots, but in some the fruit was oval, in others round or + roundish, and in a few the fruit was small, and, except in being sweet, + closely resembled that of the wild sloe. Mr. Rivers gives several other + striking instances of inheritance: thus, he raised eighty thousand + seedlings from the common German Quetsche plum, and "not one could be + found varying in the least, in foliage or habit." Similar facts were + observed with the Petite Mirabelle plum, yet this latter kind (as well as + the Quetsche) is known to have yielded some well-established varieties; + but, as Mr. Rivers remarks, they all belong to the same group with the + Mirabelle.</p> + + <p><i>Cherries (Prunus cerasus, avium</i>, &c.).—Botanists + believe that our cultivated cherries are descended from one, two, four, + or even more wild stocks.<a name="NtA_692" + href="#Nt_692"><sup>[692]</sup></a> That there must be at least two + parent-species we may infer from the sterility of twenty hybrids raised + by Mr. Knight from the morello fertilized by pollen of the Elton cherry; + for these hybrids produced in all only five cherries, and one alone of + these contained a seed.<a name="NtA_693" + href="#Nt_693"><sup>[693]</sup></a> Mr. Thompson<a name="NtA_694" + href="#Nt_694"><sup>[694]</sup></a> has classified the varieties in an + apparently natural method in two main groups by characters taken from the + flowers, fruit, and leaves; but some varieties which stand widely + separate in this classification are quite fertile when crossed; thus + Knight's Early Black cherry is the product of a cross between two such + kinds.</p> + + <p>Mr. Knight states that seedling cherries are more variable than those + of any other fruit-tree.<a name="NtA_695" + href="#Nt_695"><sup>[695]</sup></a> In the Catalogue of the Horticultural + Society for 1842, eighty varieties are enumerated. Some varieties present + singular characters: thus the flower of the Cluster cherry includes as + many as twelve pistils, of which the majority abort; and they are said + generally to produce from two to five or six cherries aggregated together + and borne on a single peduncle. In the Ratafia cherry several + flower-peduncles arise from a common peduncle, upwards of an inch in + length. The fruit of Gascoigne's Heart has its apex produced into a + globule or drop: that of the white <!-- Page 348 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page348"></a>{348}</span>Hungarian Gean has + almost transparent flesh. The Flemish cherry is "a very odd-looking + fruit," much flattened at the summit and base, with the latter deeply + furrowed, and borne on a stout very short footstalk. In the Kentish + cherry the stone adheres so firmly to the footstalk, that it can be drawn + out of the flesh; and this renders the fruit well fitted for drying. The + Tobacco-leaved cherry, according to Sageret and Thompson, produces + gigantic leaves, more than a foot and sometimes even eighteen inches in + length, and half a foot in breadth. The Weeping cherry, on the other + hand, is valuable only as an ornament, and, according to Downing, is "a + charming little tree with slender weeping branches, clothed with small + almost myrtle-like foliage." There is also a peach-leaved variety.</p> + + <p>Sageret describes a remarkable variety, <i>le griottier de la + Toussaint</i>, which bears at the same time, even as late as September, + flowers and fruit of all degrees of maturity. The fruit, which is of + inferior quality, is borne on long, very thin footstalks. But the + extraordinary statement is made that all the leaf-bearing shoots spring + from old flower-buds. Lastly, there is an important physiological + distinction between those kinds of cherries which bear fruit on young or + on old wood; but Sageret positively asserts that a Bigarreau in his + garden bore fruit on wood of both ages.<a name="NtA_696" + href="#Nt_696"><sup>[696]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Apple (Pyrus malus).</i>—The one source of doubt felt by + botanists with respect to the parentage of the apple is whether, besides + <i>P. malus</i>, two or three other closely allied wild forms, namely, + <i>P. acerba</i> and <i>præcox</i> or <i>paradisiaca</i>, do not deserve + to be ranked as distinct species. The <i>P. præcox</i> is supposed by + some authors<a name="NtA_697" href="#Nt_697"><sup>[697]</sup></a> to be + the parent of the dwarf paradise stock, which, owing to the fibrous roots + not penetrating deeply into the ground, is so largely used for grafting; + but the paradise stock, it is asserted,<a name="NtA_698" + href="#Nt_698"><sup>[698]</sup></a> cannot be propagated true by seed. + The common wild crab varies considerably in England; but many of the + varieties are believed to be escaped seedlings.<a name="NtA_699" + href="#Nt_699"><sup>[699]</sup></a> Every one knows the great difference + in the manner of growth, in the foliage, flowers, and especially in the + fruit, between the almost innumerable varieties of the apple. The pips or + seeds (as I know by comparison) likewise differ considerably in shape, + size, and colour. The fruit is adapted for eating or for cooking in + different ways, and keeps for only a few weeks or for nearly two years. + Some few kinds have the fruit covered with a powdery secretion, called + bloom, like that on plums; <!-- Page 349 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page349"></a>{349}</span>and "it is extremely remarkable that this + occurs almost exclusively among varieties cultivated in Russia."<a + name="NtA_700" href="#Nt_700"><sup>[700]</sup></a> Another Russian apple, + the white Astracan, possesses the singular property of becoming + transparent, when ripe, like some sorts of crabs. The <i>api étoilé</i> + has five prominent ridges, hence its name; the <i>api noir</i> is nearly + black: the <i>twin cluster pippin</i> often bears fruit joined in + pairs.<a name="NtA_701" href="#Nt_701"><sup>[701]</sup></a> The trees of + the several sorts differ greatly in their periods of leafing and + flowering; in my orchard the <i>Court Pendu Plat</i> produces its leaves + so late, that during several springs I have thought it dead. The Tiffin + apple scarcely bears a leaf when in full bloom; the Cornish crab, on the + other hand, bears so many leaves at this period that the flowers can + hardly be seen.<a name="NtA_702" href="#Nt_702"><sup>[702]</sup></a> In + some kinds the fruit ripens in midsummer; in others, late in the autumn. + These several differences in leafing, flowering, and fruiting, are not at + all necessarily correlated; for, as Andrew Knight has remarked,<a + name="NtA_703" href="#Nt_703"><sup>[703]</sup></a> no one can judge from + the early flowering of a new seedling, or from the early shedding or + change of colour of the leaves, whether it will mature its fruit early in + the season.</p> + + <p>The varieties differ greatly in constitution. It is notorious that our + summers are not hot enough for the Newtown Pippin,<a name="NtA_704" + href="#Nt_704"><sup>[704]</sup></a> which is the glory of the orchards + near New York; and so it is with several varieties which we have imported + from the Continent. On the other hand, our Court of Wick succeeds well + under the severe climate of Canada. The <i>Calville rouge de Micoud</i> + occasionally bears two crops during the same year. The Burr Knot is + covered with small excrescences, which emit roots so readily that a + branch with blossom-buds may be stuck in the ground, and will root and + bear a few fruit even during the first year.<a name="NtA_705" + href="#Nt_705"><sup>[705]</sup></a> Mr. Rivers has recently described<a + name="NtA_706" href="#Nt_706"><sup>[706]</sup></a> some seedlings + valuable from their roots running near the surface. One of these + seedlings was remarkable from its extremely dwarfed size, "forming itself + into a bush only a few inches in height." Many varieties are particularly + liable to canker in certain soils. But perhaps the strangest + constitutional peculiarity is that the Winter Majetin is not attacked by + the mealy bug or coccus; Lindley<a name="NtA_707" + href="#Nt_707"><sup>[707]</sup></a> states that in an orchard in Norfolk + infested with these insects the Majetin was quite free, though the stock + on which it was grafted was affected: Knight makes a similar statement + with respect to a cider apple, and adds that he only once saw these + insects just above the stock, but that three days afterwards they + entirely disappeared; this apple, however, was raised from a cross + between <!-- Page 350 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page350"></a>{350}</span>the Golden Harvey and the Siberian Crab; + and the latter, I believe, is considered by some authors as specifically + distinct.</p> + + <p>The famous St. Valery apple must not be passed over; the flower has a + double calyx with ten divisions, and fourteen styles surmounted by + conspicuous oblique stigmas, but is destitute of stamens or corolla. The + fruit is constricted round the middle, and is formed of five seed-cells, + surmounted by nine other cells.<a name="NtA_708" + href="#Nt_708"><sup>[708]</sup></a> Not being provided with stamens, the + tree requires artificial fertilisation; and the girls of St. Valery + annually go to "<i>faire ses pommes</i>," each marking her own fruit with + a ribbon; and as different pollen is used, the fruit differs, and we here + have an instance of the direct action of foreign pollen on the + mother-plant. These monstrous apples include, as we have seen, fourteen + seed-cells; the pigeon-apple,<a name="NtA_709" + href="#Nt_709"><sup>[709]</sup></a> on the other hand, has only four, + instead of, as with all common apples, five cells; and this certainly is + a remarkable difference.</p> + + <p>In the catalogue of apples published in 1842 by the Horticultural + Society, 897 varieties are enumerated; but the differences between most + of them are of comparatively little interest, as they are not strictly + inherited. No one can raise, for instance, from the seed of the Ribston + Pippin, a tree of the same kind; and it is said that the "Sister Ribston + Pippin" was a white, semi-transparent, sour-fleshed apple, or rather + large crab.<a name="NtA_710" href="#Nt_710"><sup>[710]</sup></a> Yet it + is a mistake to suppose that with most varieties the characters are not + to a certain extent inherited. In two lots of seedlings raised from two + well-marked kinds, many worthless, crab-like seedlings will appear, but + it is now known that the two lots not only usually differ from each + other, but resemble to a certain extent their parents. We see this indeed + in the several sub-groups of Russetts, Sweetings, Codlins, Pearmains, + Reinettes, &c.,<a name="NtA_711" href="#Nt_711"><sup>[711]</sup></a> + which are all believed, and many are known, to be descended from other + varieties bearing the same names.</p> + + <p><i>Pears (Pyrus communis).</i>—I need say little on this fruit, + which varies much in the wild state, and to an extraordinary degree when + cultivated, in its fruit, flowers, and foliage. One of the most + celebrated botanists in Europe, M. Decaisne, has carefully studied the + many varieties;<a name="NtA_712" href="#Nt_712"><sup>[712]</sup></a> + although he formerly believed that they were derived from more than one + species, he is now convinced that all belong to one. He has arrived at + this conclusion from finding in the several varieties a perfect gradation + between the most extreme characters; so perfect is this gradation that he + maintains it to be impossible to classify the varieties by any natural + method. M. Decaisne raised many seedlings from four distinct kinds, and + has carefully recorded the variations in each. Notwithstanding this + extreme degree of <!-- Page 351 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page351"></a>{351}</span>variability, it is now positively known + that many kinds reproduce by seed the leading characters of their race.<a + name="NtA_713" href="#Nt_713"><sup>[713]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Strawberries (Fragaria).</i>—This fruit is remarkable, on + account of the number of species which have been cultivated, and from + their rapid improvement within the last fifty or sixty years. Let any one + compare the fruit of one of the largest varieties exhibited at our Shows + with that of the wild wood strawberry, or, which will be a fairer + comparison, with the somewhat larger fruit of the wild American Virginian + Strawberry, and he will see what prodigies horticulture has effected.<a + name="NtA_714" href="#Nt_714"><sup>[714]</sup></a> The number of + varieties has likewise increased in a surprisingly rapid manner. Only + three kinds were known in France, in 1746, where this fruit was early + cultivated. In 1766 five species had been introduced, the same which are + now cultivated, but only five varieties of <i>Fragaria vesca</i>, with + some sub-varieties, had been produced. At the present day the varieties + of the several species are almost innumerable. The species consist of, + firstly, the wood or Alpine cultivated strawberries, descended from <i>F. + vesca</i>, a native of Europe and of North America. There are eight wild + European varieties, as ranked by Duchesne, of <i>F. vesca</i>, but + several of these are considered species by some botanists. Secondly, the + green strawberries, descended from the European <i>F. collina</i>, and + little cultivated in England. Thirdly, the Hautbois, from the European + <i>F. elatior</i>. Fourthly, the Scarlets, descended from <i>F. + Virginiana</i>, a native of the whole breadth of North America. Fifthly, + the Chili, descended from <i>F. Chiloensis</i>, an inhabitant of the west + coast of the temperate parts both of North and South America. Lastly, the + Pines or Carolinas (including the old Blacks), which have been ranked by + most authors under the name of <i>F. grandiflora</i> as a distinct + species, said to inhabit Surinam; but this is a manifest error. This form + is considered by the highest authority, M. Gay, to be merely a strongly + marked race of <i>F. Chiloensis</i>.<a name="NtA_715" + href="#Nt_715"><sup>[715]</sup></a> These five or six forms have been + ranked by most botanists as specifically distinct; but this may be + doubted, for Andrew Knight,<a name="NtA_716" + href="#Nt_716"><sup>[716]</sup></a> who raised no less than 400 crossed + strawberries, asserts that the <i>F. Virginiana</i>, <i>Chiloensis</i>, + and <i>grandiflora</i> "may be made to breed together indiscriminately," + and he found, in accordance with the principle of analogous variation, + "that similar varieties could be obtained from the seeds of any one of + them."</p> + + <p>Since Knight's time there is abundant and additional evidence<a + name="NtA_717" href="#Nt_717"><sup>[717]</sup></a> of the extent to which + the American forms spontaneously cross. We owe <!-- Page 352 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page352"></a>{352}</span>indeed to such crosses + most of our choicest existing varieties. Knight did not succeed in + crossing the European wood-strawberry with the American Scarlet or with + the Hautbois. Mr. Williams, of Pitmaston, however, succeeded; but the + hybrid offspring from the Hautbois, though fruiting well, never produced + seed, with the exception of a single one, which reproduced the parent + hybrid form.<a name="NtA_718" href="#Nt_718"><sup>[718]</sup></a> Major + E. Trevor Clarke informs me that he crossed two members of the Pine class + (Myatt's B. Queen and Keen's Seedling), with the wood and hautbois, and + that in each case he raised only a single seedling; one of these fruited, + but was almost barren. Mr. W. Smith, of York, has raised similar hybrids + with equally poor success.<a name="NtA_719" + href="#Nt_719"><sup>[719]</sup></a> We thus see<a name="NtA_720" + href="#Nt_720"><sup>[720]</sup></a> that the European and American + species can with some difficulty be crossed; but it is improbable that + hybrids sufficiently fertile to be worth cultivation will ever be thus + produced. This fact is surprising, as these forms structurally are not + widely distinct, and are sometimes connected in the districts where they + grow wild, as I hear from Professor Asa Gray, by puzzling intermediate + forms.</p> + + <p>The energetic culture of the strawberry is of recent date, and the + cultivated varieties can in most cases still be classed under some one of + the above five native stocks. As the American strawberries cross so + freely and spontaneously, we can hardly doubt that they will ultimately + become inextricably confused. We find, indeed, that horticulturists at + present disagree under which class to rank some few of the varieties; and + a writer in the 'Bon Jardinier' of 1840 remarks that formerly it was + possible to class all of them under some one species, but that now this + is quite impossible with the American forms, the new English varieties + having completely filled up the gaps between them.<a name="NtA_721" + href="#Nt_721"><sup>[721]</sup></a> The blending together of two or more + aboriginal forms, which there is every reason to believe has occurred + with some of our anciently cultivated productions, we now see actually + occurring with our strawberries.</p> + + <p>The cultivated species offer some variations worth notice. The Black + Prince, a seedling from Keen's Imperial (this latter being a seedling of + a very white strawberry, the white Carolina), is remarkable from "its + peculiar dark and polished surface, and from presenting an appearance + entirely unlike that of any other kind."<a name="NtA_722" + href="#Nt_722"><sup>[722]</sup></a> Although the fruit in the different + varieties differs so greatly in form, size, colour, and quality, the + so-called seed (which corresponds with the whole fruit in the plum), with + the exception of being more or less deeply embedded in the pulp, is, + according to De Jonghe,<a name="NtA_723" + href="#Nt_723"><sup>[723]</sup></a> absolutely the same in all; and this + no doubt may be accounted for by the seed being of no value, and + consequently not having been subjected to selection. The strawberry is + properly three-leaved, but in 1761 Duchesne raised a single-leaved + variety of the European <!-- Page 353 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page353"></a>{353}</span>wood-strawberry, which Linnæus doubtfully + raised to the rank of a species. Seedlings of this variety, like those of + most varieties not fixed by long-continued selection, often revert to the + ordinary form, or present intermediate states.<a name="NtA_724" + href="#Nt_724"><sup>[724]</sup></a> A variety raised by Mr. Myatt,<a + name="NtA_725" href="#Nt_725"><sup>[725]</sup></a> apparently belonging + to one of the American forms, presents a variation of an opposite nature, + for it has five leaves; Godron and Lambertye also mention a five-leaved + variety of <i>F. collina</i>.</p> + + <p>The Red Bush Alpine strawberry (one of the <i>F. vesca</i> section) + does not produce stolons or runners, and this remarkable deviation of + structure is reproduced truly by seed. Another sub-variety, the White + Bush Alpine, is similarly characterised, but when propagated by seed it + often degenerates and produces plants with runners.<a name="NtA_726" + href="#Nt_726"><sup>[726]</sup></a> A strawberry of the American Pine + section is also said to make but few runners.<a name="NtA_727" + href="#Nt_727"><sup>[727]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Much has been written on the sexes of strawberries; the true Hautbois + properly bears the male and female organs on separate plants,<a + name="NtA_728" href="#Nt_728"><sup>[728]</sup></a> and was consequently + named by Duchesne <i>dioica</i>; but it frequently produces + hermaphrodites; and Lindley,<a name="NtA_729" + href="#Nt_729"><sup>[729]</sup></a> by propagating such plants by + runners, at the same time destroying the males, soon raised a + self-prolific stock. The other species often show a tendency towards an + imperfect separation of the sexes, as I have noticed with plants forced + in a hot-house. Several English varieties, which in this country are free + from any such tendency, when cultivated in rich soils under the climate + of North America<a name="NtA_730" href="#Nt_730"><sup>[730]</sup></a> + commonly produce plants with separate sexes. Thus a whole acre of Keen's + Seedlings in the United States has been observed to be almost sterile + from the absence of male flowers; but the more general rule is, that the + male plants overrun the females. Some members of the Cincinnati + Horticultural Society, especially appointed to investigate this subject, + report that "few varieties have the flowers perfect in both sexual + organs," &c. The most successful cultivators in Ohio, plant for every + seven rows of "pistillata," or female plants, one row of hermaphrodites, + which afford pollen for both kinds; but the hermaphrodites, owing to + their expenditure in the production of pollen, bear less fruit than the + female plants.</p> + + <p>The varieties differ in constitution. Some of our best English kinds, + such as Keen's Seedlings, are too tender for certain parts of North + America, where other English and many American varieties succeed + perfectly. That splendid fruit, the British Queen, can be cultivated but + in few places either in England or France; but this apparently depends + more on the nature of the soil than on the climate: a famous gardener + says that "no mortal could grow the British Queen at Shrubland Park + unless the whole nature of the soil was altered."<a name="NtA_731" + href="#Nt_731"><sup>[731]</sup></a> La Constantina is one of the <!-- + Page 354 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page354"></a>{354}</span>hardiest kinds, and can withstand Russian + winters, but is easily burnt by the sun, so that it will not succeed in + certain soils either in England or the United States.<a name="NtA_732" + href="#Nt_732"><sup>[732]</sup></a> The Filbert Pine Strawberry "requires + more water than any other variety; and if the plants once suffer from + drought, they will do little or no good afterwards."<a name="NtA_733" + href="#Nt_733"><sup>[733]</sup></a> Cuthill's Black Prince Strawberry + evinces a singular tendency to mildew: no less than six cases have been + recorded of this variety suffering severely, whilst other varieties + growing close by, and treated in exactly the same manner, were not at all + infested by this fungus.<a name="NtA_734" + href="#Nt_734"><sup>[734]</sup></a> The time of maturity differs much in + the different varieties; some belonging to the wood or alpine section + produce a succession of crops throughout the summer.</p> + + <p><i>Gooseberry</i> (<i>Ribes grossularia</i>).—No one, I believe, + has hitherto doubted that all the cultivated kinds are sprung from the + wild plant bearing this name, which is common in Central and Northern + Europe; therefore it will be desirable briefly to specify all the points, + though not very important, which have varied. If it be admitted that + these differences are due to culture, authors perhaps will not be so + ready to assume the existence of a large number of unknown wild + parent-stocks for our other cultivated plants. The gooseberry is not + alluded to by writers of the classical period. Turner mentions it in + 1573, and Parkinson, in 1629, specifies eight varieties; the Catalogue of + the Horticultural Society for 1842 gives 149 varieties, and the lists of + the Lancashire nurserymen are said to include above 300 names.<a + name="NtA_735" href="#Nt_735"><sup>[735]</sup></a> In the 'Gooseberry + Grower's Register for 1862' I find that 243 distinct varieties have at + various periods won prizes; so that a vast number must have been + exhibited. No doubt the difference between many of the varieties is very + small; but Mr. Thompson in classifying the fruit for the Horticultural + Society found less confusion in the nomenclature of the gooseberry than + of any other fruit, and he attributes this "to the great interest which + the prize-growers have taken in detecting sorts with wrong names," and + this shows that all the kinds, numerous as they are, can be recognised + with certainty.</p> + + <p>The bushes differ in their manner of growth, being erect, or + spreading, or pendulous. The periods of leafing and flowering differ both + absolutely and relatively to each other; thus the Whitesmith produces + early flowers, which from not being protected by the foliage, as it is + believed, continually fail to produce fruit.<a name="NtA_736" + href="#Nt_736"><sup>[736]</sup></a> The leaves vary in size, tint, and in + depth of lobes; they are smooth, downy, or hairy on the upper surface. + The branches are more or less downy or spinose; "the Hedgehog has + probably derived its name from the singular bristly condition of its + shoots and fruit." The branches of the wild gooseberry, I may remark, are + smooth, with the exception of thorns at the bases of the buds. The thorns + themselves are either very small, few and single, or very large and + triple; they are <!-- Page 355 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page355"></a>{355}</span>sometimes reflexed and much dilated at + their bases. In the different varieties the fruit varies in abundance, in + the period of maturity, in hanging until shrivelled, and greatly in size, + "some sorts having their fruit large during a very early period of + growth, whilst others are small until nearly ripe." The fruit varies also + much in colour, being red, yellow, green, and white—the pulp of one + dark-red gooseberry being tinged with yellow; in flavour; in being smooth + or downy,—few, however, of the Red gooseberries, whilst many of the + so-called Whites, are downy; or in being so spinose that one kind is + called Henderson's Porcupine. Two kinds acquire when mature a powdery + bloom on their fruit. The fruit varies in the thickness and veining of + the skin, and, lastly, in shape, being spherical, oblong, oval, or + obovate.<a name="NtA_737" href="#Nt_737"><sup>[737]</sup></a></p> + + <p>I cultivated fifty-four varieties, and, considering how greatly the + fruit differs, it was curious how closely similar the flowers were in all + these kinds. In only a few I detected a trace of difference in the size + or colour of the corolla. The calyx differed in a rather greater degree, + for in some kinds it was much redder than in others; and in one smooth + white gooseberry it was unusually red. The calyx also differed in the + basal part being smooth or woolly, or covered with glandular hairs. It + deserves notice, as being contrary to what might have been expected from + the law of correlation, that a smooth red gooseberry had a remarkably + hairy calyx. The flowers of the Sportsman are furnished with very large + coloured bracteæ; and this is the most singular deviation of structure + which I have observed. These same flowers also varied much in the number + of the petals, and occasionally in the number of the stamens and pistils; + so that they were semi-monstrous in structure, yet they produced plenty + of fruit. Mr. Thompson remarks that in the Pastime gooseberry "extra + bracts are often attached to the sides of the fruit."<a name="NtA_738" + href="#Nt_738"><sup>[738]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The most interesting point in the history of the gooseberry is the + steady increase in the size of the fruit. Manchester is the metropolis of + the fanciers, and prizes from five shillings to five or ten pounds are + yearly given for the heaviest fruit. The 'Gooseberry Grower's Register' + is published annually; the earliest known copy is dated 1786, but it is + certain that meetings for the adjudication of prizes were held some years + previously.<a name="NtA_739" href="#Nt_739"><sup>[739]</sup></a> The + 'Register' for 1845 gives an account of 171 Gooseberry Shows, held in + different places during that year; and this fact shows on how large a + scale the culture has been carried on. The fruit of the wild gooseberry + is said<a name="NtA_740" href="#Nt_740"><sup>[740]</sup></a> to weigh + about a quarter of an ounce or 5 dwts., that is, 120 grains; about the + year 1786 gooseberries were exhibited weighing 10 dwts., so that the + weight was then doubled; in 1817 26 dwts. 17 grs. was attained; there was + no advance till 1825, when 31 dwts. 16 grs. was reached; in <!-- Page 356 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page356"></a>{356}</span>1830 "Teazer" + weighed 32 dwts. 13 grs.; in 1841 "Wonderful" weighed 32 dwts. 16 grs.; + in 1844 "London" weighed 35 dwts. 12 grs., and in the following year 36 + dwts. 16 grs.; and in 1852 in Staffordshire the fruit of this same + variety reached the astonishing weight of 37 dwts. 7 grs.,<a + name="NtA_741" href="#Nt_741"><sup>[741]</sup></a> or 895 grs.; that is, + between seven and eight times the weight of the wild fruit. I find that a + small apple, 6½ inches in circumference, has exactly this same weight. + The "London" gooseberry (which in 1862 had altogether gained 343 prizes) + has, up to the present year of 1864, never reached a greater weight than + that attained in 1852. Perhaps the fruit of the gooseberry has now + reached the greatest possible weight, unless in the course of time some + quite new and distinct variety shall arise.</p> + + <p>This gradual, and on the whole steady increase of weight from the + latter part of the last century to the year 1852, is probably in large + part due to improved methods of cultivation, for extreme care is now + taken; the branches and roots are trained, composts are made, the soil is + mulched, and only a few berries are left on each bush;<a name="NtA_742" + href="#Nt_742"><sup>[742]</sup></a> but the increase no doubt is in main + part due to the continued selection of seedlings which have been found to + be more and more capable of yielding such extraordinary fruit. Assuredly + the "Highwayman" in 1817 could not have produced fruit like that of the + "Roaring Lion" in 1825; nor could the "Roaring Lion," though it was grown + by many persons in many places, gain the supreme triumph achieved in 1852 + by the "London" Gooseberry.</p> + + <p><i>Walnut</i> (<i>Juglans regia</i>).—This tree and the common + nut belong to a widely different order from the foregoing fruits, and are + therefore here noticed. The walnut grows wild in the Caucasus and + Himalaya, where Dr. Hooker<a name="NtA_743" + href="#Nt_743"><sup>[743]</sup></a> found the fruit of full size, but "as + hard as a hickory-nut." In England the walnut presents considerable + differences, in the shape and size of the fruit, in the thickness of the + husk, and in the thinness of the shell; this latter quality has given + rise to a variety called the thin-shelled, which is valuable, but suffers + from the attacks of tom-tits.<a name="NtA_744" + href="#Nt_744"><sup>[744]</sup></a> The degree to which the kernel fills + the shell varies much. In France there is a variety called the Grape or + cluster-walnut, in which the nuts grow in "bunches of ten, fifteen, or + even twenty together." There is another variety which bears on the same + tree differently shaped leaves, like the heterophyllous hornbeam; this + tree is also remarkable from having pendulous branches, and bearing + elongated, large, thin-shelled nuts.<a name="NtA_745" + href="#Nt_745"><sup>[745]</sup></a> M. Cardan has minutely described<a + name="NtA_746" href="#Nt_746"><sup>[746]</sup></a> some singular + physiological peculiarities in the June-leafing variety, which produces + its leaves and flowers four or five weeks later, and retains its leaves + and fruit in the autumn much longer, than the common varieties; <!-- Page + 357 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page357"></a>{357}</span>but in + August is in exactly the same state with them. These constitutional + peculiarities are strictly inherited. Lastly, walnut-trees, which are + properly monoicous, sometimes entirely fail to produce male flowers.<a + name="NtA_747" href="#Nt_747"><sup>[747]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Nuts</i> (<i>Corylus avellana</i>).—Most botanists rank all + the varieties under the same species, the common wild nut.<a + name="NtA_748" href="#Nt_748"><sup>[748]</sup></a> The husk, or + involucre, differs greatly, being extremely short in Barr's Spanish, and + extremely long in filberts, in which it is contracted so as to prevent + the nut falling out. This kind of husk also protects the nut from birds, + for titmice (<i>Parus</i>) have been observed<a name="NtA_749" + href="#Nt_749"><sup>[749]</sup></a> to pass over filberts, and attack + cobs and common nuts growing in the same orchard. In the purple-filbert + the husk is purple, and in the frizzled-filbert it is curiously + laciniated; in the red-filbert the pellicle of the kernel is red. The + shell is thick in some varieties, but is thin in Cosford's-nut, and in + one variety is of a bluish colour. The nut itself differs much in size + and shape, being ovate and compressed in filberts, nearly round and of + great size in cobs and Spanish nuts, oblong and longitudinally striated + in Cosford's, and obtusely four-sided in the Downton Square nut.</p> + + <p><i>Cucurbitaceous plants.</i>—These plants have been for a long + period the opprobrium of botanists; numerous varieties have been ranked + as species, and, what happens more rarely, forms which now must be + considered as species have been classed as varieties. Owing to the + admirable experimental researches of a distinguished botanist, M. + Naudin,<a name="NtA_750" href="#Nt_750"><sup>[750]</sup></a> a flood of + light has recently been thrown on this group of plants. M. Naudin, during + many years, observed and experimented on above 1200 living specimens, + collected from all quarters of the world. Six species are now recognised + in the genus Cucurbita; but three alone have been cultivated and concern + us, namely, <i>C. maxima</i> and <i>pepo</i>, which include all pumpkins, + gourds, squashes, and vegetable marrow, and <i>C. moschata</i>, the + water-melon. These three species are not known in a wild state; but Asa + Gray<a name="NtA_751" href="#Nt_751"><sup>[751]</sup></a> gives good + reason for believing that some pumpkins are natives of N. America.</p> + + <p>These three species are closely allied, and have the same general + habit, but their innumerable varieties can always be distinguished, + according to Naudin, by certain almost fixed characters; and what is + still more important, when crossed they yield no seed, or only sterile + seed; whilst the varieties spontaneously intercross with the utmost + freedom. Naudin insists strongly (p. 15), that, though these three + species have varied greatly in many characters, yet it has been in so + closely an analogous manner that the varieties can be arranged in almost + parallel series, as we have seen with the forms of wheat, with the two + main races of the peach, and in other cases. Though some of the varieties + are inconstant in character, yet others, when grown separately under + uniform conditions of life, are, as Naudin repeatedly (pp. 6, 16, 35) + urges, "douées d'une stabilité <!-- Page 358 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page358"></a>{358}</span>presque comparable à celle des espèces les + mieux caractérisées." One variety, l'Orangin (pp. 43, 63), has such + prepotency in transmitting its character that when crossed with other + varieties a vast majority of the seedlings come true. Naudin, referring + (p. 47) to <i>C. pepo</i>, says that its races "ne diffèrent des espèces + véritables qu'en ce qu'elles peuvent s'allier les unes aux autres par + voie d'hybridité, sans que leur descendance perde la faculté de se + perpétuer." If we were to trust to external differences alone, and give + up the test of sterility, a multitude of species would have to be formed + out of the varieties of these three species of Cucurbita. Many + naturalists at the present day lay far too little stress, in my opinion, + on the test of sterility; yet it is not improbable that distinct species + of plants after a long course of cultivation and variation may have their + mutual sterility eliminated, as we have every reason to believe has + occurred with domesticated animals. Nor, in the case of plants under + cultivation, should we be justified in assuming that varieties never + acquire a slight degree of mutual sterility, as we shall more fully see + in a future chapter when certain facts are given on the high authority of + Gärtner and Kölreuter.<a name="NtA_752" + href="#Nt_752"><sup>[752]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The forms of <i>C. pepo</i> are classed by Naudin under seven + sections, each including subordinate varieties. He considers this plant + as probably the most variable in the world. The fruit of one variety (pp. + 33, 46) exceeds in volume that of another by more than two thousand fold! + When the fruit is of very large size, the number produced is few (p. 45); + when of small size, many are produced. No less astonishing (p. 33) is the + variation in the shape of the fruit; the typical form apparently is + egg-like, but this becomes either drawn out into a cylinder, or shortened + into a flat disc. We have also an almost infinite diversity in the colour + and state of surface of the fruit, in the hardness both of the shell and + of the flesh, and in the taste of the flesh, which is either extremely + sweet, farinaceous, or slightly bitter. The seeds also differ in a slight + degree in shape, and wonderfully in size (p. 34), namely, from six or + seven to more than twenty-five millimètres in length.</p> + + <p>In the varieties which grow upright or do not run and climb, the + tendrils, though useless (p. 31), are either present or are represented + by various semi-monstrous organs, or are quite absent. The tendrils are + even absent in some running varieties in which the stems are much + elongated. It is a singular fact that (p. 31), in all the varieties with + dwarfed stems, the leaves closely resemble each other in shape.</p> + + <p>Those naturalists who believe in the immutability of species often + maintain that, even in the most variable forms, the characters which they + consider of specific value are unchangeable. To give an example from a + conscientious writer,<a name="NtA_753" + href="#Nt_753"><sup>[753]</sup></a> who, relying on the labours of M. + Naudin and <!-- Page 359 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page359"></a>{359}</span>referring to the species of Cucurbita, + says, "au milieu de toutes les variations du fruit, les tiges, les + feuilles, les calices, les corolles, les étamines restent invariables + dans chacune d'elles." Yet M. Naudin in describing <i>Cucurbita pepo</i> + (p. 30) says, "Ici, d'ailleurs, ce ne sont pas seulement les fruits qui + varient, c'est aussi le feuillage et tout le port de la plante. + Néanmoins, je crois qu'on la distinguera toujours facilement des deux + autres espèces, si l'on veut ne pas perdre de vue les caractères + différentiels que je m'efforce de faire ressortir. Ces caractères sont + quelquefois peu marqués: il arrive même que plusieurs d'entre eux + s'effacent presque entièrement, mais il en reste toujours quelques-uns + qui remettent l'observateur sur la voie." Now let it be noted what a + difference, with regard to the immutability of the so-called specific + characters, this paragraph produces on the mind, from that above quoted + from M. Godron.</p> + + <p>I will add another remark: naturalists continually assert that no + important organ varies; but in saying this they unconsciously argue in a + vicious circle; for if an organ, let it be what it may, is highly + variable, it is regarded as unimportant, and under a systematic point of + view this is quite correct. But as long as constancy is thus taken as the + criterion of importance, it will indeed be long before an important organ + can be shown to be inconstant. The enlarged form of the stigmas, and + their sessile position on the summit of the ovary, must be considered as + important characters, and were used by Gasparini to separate certain + pumpkins as a <i>distinct genus</i>; but Naudin says (p. 20) these parts + have no constancy, and in the flowers of the Turban varieties of <i>C. + maxima</i> they sometimes resume their ordinary structure. Again, in + <i>C. maxima</i>, the carpels (p. 19) which form the Turban project even + as much as two-thirds of their length out of the receptacle, and this + latter part is thus reduced to a sort of platform; but this remarkable + structure occurs only in certain varieties, and graduates into the common + form in which the carpels are almost entirely enveloped within the + receptacle. In <i>C. moschata</i> the ovarium (p. 50) varies greatly in + shape, being oval, nearly spherical, or cylindrical, more or less swollen + in the upper part, or constricted round the middle, and either straight + or curved. When the ovarium is short and oval the interior structure does + not differ from that of <i>C. maxima</i> and <i>pepo</i>, but when it is + elongated the carpels occupy only the terminal and swollen portion. I may + add that in one variety of the cucumber (<i>Cucumis sativus</i>) the + fruit regularly contains five carpels instead of three.<a name="NtA_754" + href="#Nt_754"><sup>[754]</sup></a> I presume that it will not be + disputed that we here have instances of great variability in organs of + the highest physiological importance, and with most plants of the highest + classificatory importance.</p> + + <p>Sageret<a name="NtA_755" href="#Nt_755"><sup>[755]</sup></a> and + Naudin found that the cucumber (<i>C. sativus</i>) could not be crossed + with any other species of the genus; therefore no doubt it is + specifically distinct from the melon. This will appear to most persons a + superfluous statement; yet we hear from Naudin<a name="NtA_756" + href="#Nt_756"><sup>[756]</sup></a> that there is a race <!-- Page 360 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page360"></a>{360}</span>of melons, in + which the fruit is so like that of the cucumber, "both externally and + internally, that it is hardly possible to distinguish the one from the + other except by the leaves." The varieties of the melon seem to be + endless, for Naudin after six years' study has not come to the end of + them: he divides them into ten sections, including numerous sub-varieties + which all intercross with perfect ease.<a name="NtA_757" + href="#Nt_757"><sup>[757]</sup></a> Of the forms considered by Naudin to + be varieties, botanists have made thirty distinct species! "and they had + not the slightest acquaintance with the multitude of new forms which have + appeared since their time." Nor is the creation of so many species at all + surprising when we consider how strictly their characters are transmitted + by seed, and how wonderfully they differ in appearance: "Mira est quidem + foliorum et habitus diversitas, sed multo magis fructuum," says Naudin. + The fruit is the valuable part, and this, in accordance with the common + rule, is the most modified part. Some melons are only as large as small + plums, others weigh as much as sixty-six pounds. One variety has a + scarlet fruit! Another is not more than an inch in diameter, but + sometimes more than a yard in length, "twisting about in all directions + like a serpent." It is a singular fact that in this latter variety many + parts of the plant, namely, the stems, the footstalks of the female + flowers, the middle lobe of the leaves, and especially the ovarium, as + well as the mature fruit, all show a strong tendency to become elongated. + Several varieties of the melon are interesting from assuming the + characteristic features of distinct species and even of distinct though + allied genera: thus the serpent-melon has some resemblance to the fruit + of <i>Trichosanthes anguina</i>; we have seen that other varieties + closely resemble cucumbers; some Egyptian varieties have their seeds + attached to a portion of the pulp, and this is characteristic of certain + wild forms. Lastly, a variety of melon from Algiers is remarkable from + announcing its maturity by "a spontaneous and almost sudden dislocation," + when deep cracks suddenly appear, and the fruit falls to pieces; and this + occurs with the wild <i>C. momordica</i>. Finally, M. Naudin well remarks + that this "extraordinary production of races and varieties by a single + species, and their permanence when not interfered with by crossing, are + phenomena well calculated to cause reflection."</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Useful and Ornamental Trees.</span></p> + + <p>Trees deserve a passing notice on account of the numerous varieties + which they present, differing in their precocity, in their manner of + growth, foliage, and bark. Thus of the common ash (<i>Fraxinus + excelsior</i>) the catalogue of Messrs. Lawson of Edinburgh includes + twenty-one varieties, some of which differ much in their bark; there is a + yellow, a streaked reddish-white, a purple, a wart-barked and a + fungous-barked variety.<a name="NtA_758" + href="#Nt_758"><sup>[758]</sup></a> Of hollies no less than eighty-four + varieties are grown alongside each other in Mr. <!-- Page 361 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page361"></a>{361}</span>Paul's nursery.<a + name="NtA_759" href="#Nt_759"><sup>[759]</sup></a> In the case of trees, + all the recorded varieties, as far as I can find out, have been suddenly + produced by one single act of variation. The length of time required to + raise many generations, and the little value set on the fanciful + varieties, explains how it is that successive modifications have not been + accumulated by selection; hence, also it follows that we do not here meet + with sub-varieties subordinate to varieties, and these again subordinate + to higher groups. On the Continent, however, where the forests are more + carefully attended to than in England, Alph. De Candolle<a name="NtA_760" + href="#Nt_760"><sup>[760]</sup></a> says that there is not a forester who + does not search for seeds from that variety which he esteems the most + valuable.</p> + + <p>Our useful trees have seldom been exposed to any great change of + conditions; they have not been richly manured, and the English kinds grow + under their proper climate. Yet in examining extensive beds of seedlings + in nursery-gardens considerable differences may be generally observed in + them; and whilst touring in England I have been surprised at the amount + of difference in the appearance of the same species in our hedgerows and + woods. But as plants vary so much in a truly wild state, it would be + difficult for even a skilful botanist to pronounce whether, as I believe + to be the case, hedgerow trees vary more than those growing in a primeval + forest. Trees when planted by man in woods or hedges do not grow where + they would naturally be able to hold their place against a host of + competitors, and are therefore exposed to conditions not strictly + natural: even this slight change would probably suffice to cause + seedlings raised from such trees to be variable. Whether or not our + half-wild English trees, as a general rule, are more variable than trees + growing in their native forests, there can hardly be a doubt that they + have yielded a greater number of strongly-marked and singular variations + of structure.</p> + + <p>In manner of growth, we have weeping or pendulous varieties of the + willow, ash, elm, oak, and yew, and other trees; and this weeping habit + is sometimes inherited, though in a singularly capricious manner. In the + Lombardy poplar, and in certain fastigate or pyramidal varieties of + thorns, junipers, oaks, &c., we have an opposite kind of growth. The + Hessian oak,<a name="NtA_761" href="#Nt_761"><sup>[761]</sup></a> which + is famous from its fastigate habit and size, bears hardly any resemblance + in general appearance to a common oak; "its acorns are not sure to + produce plants of the same habit; some, however, turn out the same as the + parent-tree." Another fastigate oak is said to have been found wild in + the Pyrenees, and this is a surprising circumstance; it generally comes + so true by seed, that De Candolle considered it as specifically + distinct.<a name="NtA_762" href="#Nt_762"><sup>[762]</sup></a> The + fastigate Juniper (<i>J. suecica</i>) likewise transmits its character by + seed.<a name="NtA_763" href="#Nt_763"><sup>[763]</sup></a> Dr. Falconer + informs me that in the Botanic Gardens at Calcutta the great heat causes + apple-trees to become fastigate; and we <!-- Page 362 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page362"></a>{362}</span>thus see the same + result following from the effects of climate and from an innate + spontaneous tendency.<a name="NtA_764" + href="#Nt_764"><sup>[764]</sup></a></p> + + <p>In foliage we have variegated leaves which are often inherited; dark + purple or red leaves, as in the hazel, barberry, and beech, the colour in + these two latter trees being sometimes strongly and sometimes weakly + inherited;<a name="NtA_765" href="#Nt_765"><sup>[765]</sup></a> + deeply-cut leaves; and leaves covered with prickles, as in the variety of + the holly well called <i>ferox</i>, which is said to reproduce itself by + seed.<a name="NtA_766" href="#Nt_766"><sup>[766]</sup></a> In fact, + nearly all the peculiar varieties evince a tendency, more or less + strongly marked, to reproduce themselves by seed.<a name="NtA_767" + href="#Nt_767"><sup>[767]</sup></a> This is to a certain extent the case, + according to Bose,<a name="NtA_768" href="#Nt_768"><sup>[768]</sup></a> + with three varieties of the elm, namely, the broad-leafed, lime-leafed, + and twisted elm, in which latter the fibres of the wood are twisted. Even + with the heterophyllous hornbeam (<i>Carpinus betulus</i>), which bears + on each twig leaves of two shapes, "several plants raised from seed all + retained the same peculiarity."<a name="NtA_769" + href="#Nt_769"><sup>[769]</sup></a> I will add only one other remarkable + case of variation in foliage, namely, the occurrence of two sub-varieties + of the ash with simple instead of pinnated leaves, and which generally + transmit their character by seed.<a name="NtA_770" + href="#Nt_770"><sup>[770]</sup></a> The occurrence, in trees belonging to + widely different orders, of weeping and fastigate varieties, and of trees + bearing deeply cut, variegated, and purple leaves, shows that these + deviations of structure must result from some very general physiological + laws.</p> + + <p>Differences in general appearance and foliage, not more strongly + marked than those above indicated, have led good observers to rank as + distinct species certain forms which are now known to be mere varieties. + Thus a plane-tree long cultivated in England was considered by almost + every one as a North American species; but is now ascertained by old + records, as I am informed by Dr. Hooker, to be a variety. So again the + <i>Thuja pendula</i> or <i>filiformis</i> was ranked by such good + observers as Lambert, Wallich, and others as a true species; but it is + now known that the original plants, five in number, suddenly appeared in + a bed of seedlings, raised at Mr. Loddige's nursery, from <i>T. + orientalis</i>; and Dr. Hooker has adduced excellent evidence that at + Turin seeds of <i>T. pendula</i> have reproduced the parent-form, <i>T. + orientalis</i>.<a name="NtA_771" href="#Nt_771"><sup>[771]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Every one must have noticed how certain individual trees regularly put + forth and shed their leaves earlier or later than others of the same + species. There is a famous horse-chesnut in the Tuileries which is named + from <!-- Page 363 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page363"></a>{363}</span>leafing so much earlier than the others. + There is also an oak near Edinburgh which retains its leaves to a very + late period. These differences have been attributed by some authors to + the nature of the soil in which the trees grow; but Archbishop Whately + grafted an early thorn on a late one, and <i>vice versâ</i>, and both + grafts kept to their proper periods, which differed by about a fortnight, + as if they still grew on their own stocks.<a name="NtA_772" + href="#Nt_772"><sup>[772]</sup></a> There is a Cornish variety of the elm + which is almost an evergreen, and is so tender that the shoots are often + killed by the frost; and the varieties of the Turkish oak (<i>Q. + cerris</i>) may be arranged as deciduous, sub-evergreen, and evergreen.<a + name="NtA_773" href="#Nt_773"><sup>[773]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Scotch Fir</i> (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>).—I allude to this + tree as it bears on the question of the greater variability of our + hedgerow trees compared with those under strictly natural conditions. A + well-informed writer<a name="NtA_774" href="#Nt_774"><sup>[774]</sup></a> + states that the Scotch fir presents few varieties in its native Scotch + forests; but that it "varies much in figure and foliage, and in the size, + shape, and colour of its cones, when several generations have been + produced away from its native locality." There is little doubt that the + highland and lowland varieties differ in the value of their timber, and + that they can be propagated truly by seed; thus justifying Loudon's + remark, that "a variety is often of as much importance as a species, and + sometimes far more so."<a name="NtA_775" + href="#Nt_775"><sup>[775]</sup></a> I may mention one rather important + point in which this tree occasionally varies; in the classification of + the Coniferæ, sections are founded on whether two, three, or five leaves + are included in the same sheath; the Scotch fir has properly only two + leaves thus enclosed, but specimens have been observed with groups of + three leaves in a sheath.<a name="NtA_776" + href="#Nt_776"><sup>[776]</sup></a> Besides these differences in the + semi-cultivated Scotch fir, there are in several parts of Europe natural + or geographical races, which have been ranked by some authors as distinct + species.<a name="NtA_777" href="#Nt_777"><sup>[777]</sup></a> Loudon<a + name="NtA_778" href="#Nt_778"><sup>[778]</sup></a> considers <i>P. + pumilio</i>, with its several sub-varieties, as <i>Mughus</i>, + <i>nana</i>, &c., which differ much when planted in different soils + and only come "tolerably true from seed," as alpine varieties of the + Scotch fir; if this were proved to be the case, it would be an + interesting fact as showing that dwarfing from long exposure to a severe + climate is to a certain extent inherited.</p> + + <p>The <i>Hawthorn</i> (<i>Cratægus oxycantha</i>) has varied much. + Besides endless slighter variations in the form of the leaves, and in the + size, hardness, fleshiness, and shape of the berries, Loudon<a + name="NtA_779" href="#Nt_779"><sup>[779]</sup></a> enumerates twenty-nine + well-marked varieties. Besides those cultivated for their pretty flowers, + there are others with golden-yellow, black, and whitish berries; others + <!-- Page 364 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page364"></a>{364}</span>with woolly berries, and others with + recurved thorns. Loudon truly remarks that the chief reason why the + hawthorn has yielded more varieties than most other trees, is that + curious nurserymen select any remarkable variety out of the immense beds + of seedlings which are annually raised for making hedges. The flowers of + the hawthorn usually include from one to three pistils; but in two + varieties, named <i>Monogyna</i> and <i>Sibirica</i>, there is only a + single pistil; and d'Asso states that the common thorn in Spain is + constantly in this state.<a name="NtA_780" + href="#Nt_780"><sup>[780]</sup></a> There is also a variety which is + apetalous, or has its petals reduced to mere rudiments. The famous + Glastonbury thorn flowers and leafs towards the end of December, at which + time it bears berries produced from an earlier crop of flowers.<a + name="NtA_781" href="#Nt_781"><sup>[781]</sup></a> It is worth notice + that several varieties of the hawthorn, as well as of the lime and + juniper, are very distinct in their foliage and habit whilst young, but + in the course of thirty or forty years become extremely like each + other;<a name="NtA_782" href="#Nt_782"><sup>[782]</sup></a> thus + reminding us of the well-known fact that the deodar, the cedar of + Lebanon, and that of the Atlas, are distinguished with the greatest ease + whilst young, but with difficulty when old.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Flowers</span>.</p> + + <p>I shall not for several reasons treat the variability of plants which + are cultivated for their flowers alone at any great length. Many of our + favourite kinds in their present state are the descendants of two or more + species crossed and commingled together, and this circumstance alone + would render it difficult to detect the differences due to variation. For + instance, our Roses, Petunias, Calceolarias, Fuchsias, Verbenas, + Gladioli, Pelargoniums, &c., certainly have had a multiple origin. A + botanist well acquainted with the parent-forms would probably detect some + curious structural differences in their crossed and cultivated + descendant; and he would certainly observe many new and remarkable + constitutional peculiarities. I will give a few instances, all relating + to the Pelargonium, and taken chiefly from Mr. Beck,<a name="NtA_783" + href="#Nt_783"><sup>[783]</sup></a> a famous cultivator of this plant: + some varieties require more water than others; some are "very impatient + of the knife if too greedily used in making cuttings;" some, when potted, + scarcely "show a root at the outside of the ball of the earth;" one + variety requires a certain amount of confinement in the pot to make it + throw up a flower-stem; some varieties bloom well at the commencement of + the season, others at the close; one variety is known,<a name="NtA_784" + href="#Nt_784"><sup>[784]</sup></a> which will stand "even pine-apple top + and bottom heat, without looking any more drawn than if it had stood in a + common greenhouse; and Blanche Fleur seems as if made on purpose for + growing in winter, like many bulbs, and to rest all summer." These odd + constitutional peculiarities would fit a plant when growing in a state of + nature for widely different circumstances and climates.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 365 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page365"></a>{365}</span></p> + + <p>Flowers possess little interest under our present point of view, + because they have been almost exclusively attended to and selected for + their beautiful colours, size, perfect outline, and manner of growth. In + these particulars hardly one long-cultivated flower can be named which + has not varied greatly. What does a florist care for the shape and + structure of the organs of fructification, unless, indeed, they add to + the beauty of the flower? When this is the case, flowers become modified + in important points; stamens and pistils may be converted into petals, + and additional petals may be developed, as in all double flowers. The + process of gradual selection by which flowers have been rendered more and + more double, each step in the process of conversion being inherited, has + been recorded in several instances. In the so-called double flowers of + the Compositæ, the corollas of the central florets are greatly modified, + and the modifications are likewise inherited. In the columbine + <i>(Aquilegia vulgaris)</i> some of the stamens are converted into petals + having the shape of nectaries, one neatly fitting into the other; but in + one variety they are converted into simple petals.<a name="NtA_785" + href="#Nt_785"><sup>[785]</sup></a> In the hose and hose primulæ, the + calyx becomes brightly coloured and enlarged so as to resemble a corolla; + and Mr. W. Wooler informs me that this peculiarity is transmitted; for he + crossed a common polyanthus with one having a coloured calyx,<a + name="NtA_786" href="#Nt_786"><sup>[786]</sup></a> and some of the + seedlings inherited the coloured calyx during at least six generations. + In the "hen-and-chicken" daisy the main flower is surrounded by a brood + of small flowers developed from buds in the axils of the scales of the + involucre. A wonderful poppy has been described, in which the stamens are + converted into pistils; and so strictly was this peculiarity inherited + that, out of 154 seedlings, one alone reverted to the ordinary and common + type.<a name="NtA_787" href="#Nt_787"><sup>[787]</sup></a> Of the + cock's-comb (<i>Celosia cristata</i>), which is an annual, there are + several races in which the flower-stem is wonderfully "fasciated" or + compressed; and one has been exhibited<a name="NtA_788" + href="#Nt_788"><sup>[788]</sup></a> actually eighteen inches in breadth. + Peloric races of <i>Gloxinia speciosa</i> and <i>Antirrhinum majus</i> + can be propagated by seed, and they differ in a wonderful manner from the + typical form both in structure and appearance.</p> + + <p>A much more remarkable modification has been recorded by Sir William + and Dr. Hooker<a name="NtA_789" href="#Nt_789"><sup>[789]</sup></a> in + <i>Begonia frigida</i>. This plant properly produces male and female + flowers on the same fascicles; and in the female flowers the perianth is + superior; but a plant at Kew produced, besides the ordinary flowers, + others which graduated towards a perfect hermaphrodite structure; and in + these flowers the perianth was inferior. To show the importance of this + modification under a classificatory point of view, I may quote what Prof. + Harvey says, namely, that had it "occurred in a state of nature, and had + a botanist collected a plant with such flowers, he would not only have + <!-- Page 366 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page366"></a>{366}</span>placed it in a distinct genus from + Begonia, but would probably have considered it as the type of a new + natural order." This modification cannot in one sense be considered as a + monstrosity, for analogous structures naturally occur in other orders, as + with Saxifragas and Aristolochiaceæ. The interest of the case is largely + added to by Mr. C. W. Crocker's observation that seedlings from the + <i>normal</i> flowers produced plants which bore, in about the same + proportion as the parent-plant, hermaphrodite flowers having inferior + perianths. The hermaphrodite flowers fertilised with their own pollen + were sterile.</p> + + <p>If florists had attended to, selected, and propagated by seed other + modifications of structure besides those which are beautiful, a host of + curious varieties would certainly have been raised; and they would + probably have transmitted their characters so truly that the cultivator + would have felt aggrieved, as in the case of culinary vegetables, if his + whole bed had not presented a uniform appearance. Florists have attended + in some instances to the leaves of their plant, and have thus produced + the most elegant and symmetrical patterns of white, red, and green, + which, as in the case of the pelargonium, are sometimes strictly + inherited.<a name="NtA_790" href="#Nt_790"><sup>[790]</sup></a> Any one + who will habitually examine highly-cultivated flowers in gardens and + greenhouses will observe numerous deviations in structure; but most of + these must be ranked as mere monstrosities, and are only so far + interesting as showing how plastic the organisation becomes under high + cultivation. From this point of view such works as Professor + Moquin-Tandon's 'Tératologie' are highly instructive.</p> + + <p><i>Roses.</i>—These flowers offer an instance of a number of + forms generally ranked as species, namely, <i>R. centifolia</i>, + <i>gallica</i>, <i>alba</i>, <i>damascena</i>, <i>spinosissima</i>, + <i>bracteata</i>, <i>Indica</i>, <i>semperflorens</i>, <i>moschata</i>, + &c., which have largely varied and been intercrossed. The genus Rosa + is a notoriously difficult one, and, though some of the above forms are + admitted by all botanists to be distinct species, others are doubtful; + thus, with respect to the British forms, Babington makes seventeen, and + Bentham only five species. The hybrids from some of the most distinct + forms—for instance, from <i>R. Indica</i>, fertilised by the pollen + of <i>R. centifolia</i>—produce an abundance of seed; I state this + on the authority of Mr. Rivers,<a name="NtA_791" + href="#Nt_791"><sup>[791]</sup></a> from whose work I have drawn most of + the following statements. As almost all the aboriginal forms brought from + different countries have been crossed and recrossed, it is no wonder that + Targioni-Tozzetti, in speaking of the common roses of the Italian + gardens, remarks that "the native country and precise form of the wild + type of most of them are involved in much uncertainty."<a name="NtA_792" + href="#Nt_792"><sup>[792]</sup></a> Nevertheless Mr. Rivers in referring + to <i>R. Indica</i> (p. 68) says that the descendants of each group may + generally be recognised by a close observer. The same author often speaks + of roses as having been a little hybridised; but <!-- Page 367 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page367"></a>{367}</span>it is evident that in + very many cases the differences due to variation and to hybridisation can + now only be conjecturally distinguished.</p> + + <p>The species have varied both by seed and by buds; such modified buds + being often called by gardeners sports. In the following chapter I shall + fully discuss this latter subject, and shall show that bud-variations can + be propagated not only by grafting and budding, but often even by seed. + Whenever a new rose appears with any peculiar character, however + produced, if it yields seed, Mr. Rivers (p. 4) fully expects it to become + the parent-type of a new family. The tendency to vary is so strong in + some kinds, as in the Village Maid (Rivers, p. 16), that when grown in + different soils it varies so much in colour that it has been thought to + form several distinct kinds. Altogether the number of kinds is very + great: thus M. Desportes, in his Catalogue for 1829, enumerates 2562 as + cultivated in France; but no doubt a large proportion of these are merely + nominal.</p> + + <p>It would be useless to specify the many points of difference between + the various kinds, but some constitutional peculiarities may be + mentioned. Several French roses (Rivers, p. 12) will not succeed in + England; and an excellent horticulturist<a name="NtA_793" + href="#Nt_793"><sup>[793]</sup></a> remarks, that "Even in the same + garden you will find that a rose that will do nothing under a south wall + will do well under a north one. That is the case with Paul Joseph here. + It grows strongly and blooms beautifully close to a north wall. For three + years seven plants have done nothing under a south wall." Many roses can + be forced, "many are totally unfit for forcing, among which is General + Jacqueminot."<a name="NtA_794" href="#Nt_794"><sup>[794]</sup></a> From + the effects of crossing and variation Mr. Rivers enthusiastically + anticipates (p. 87) that the day will come when all our roses, even + moss-roses, will have evergreen foliage, brilliant and fragrant flowers, + and the habit of blooming from June till November. "A distant view this + seems, but perseverance in gardening will yet achieve wonders," as + assuredly it has already achieved wonders.</p> + + <p>It may be worth while briefly to give the well-known history of one + class of roses. In 1793 some wild Scotch roses (<i>R. spinosissima</i>) + were transplanted into a garden;<a name="NtA_795" + href="#Nt_795"><sup>[795]</sup></a> and one of these bore flowers + slightly tinged with red, from which a plant was raised with + semi-monstrous flowers, also tinged with red; seedlings from this flower + were semi-double, and by continued selection, in about nine or ten years, + eight sub-varieties were raised. In the course of less than twenty years + these double Scotch roses had so much increased in number and kind, that + twenty-six well-marked varieties, classed in eight sections, were + described by Mr. Sabine. In 1841<a name="NtA_796" + href="#Nt_796"><sup>[796]</sup></a> it is said that three hundred + varieties could be procured in the nursery-gardens near Glasgow; and + these are described as blush, crimson, purple, red, marbled, + two-coloured, white, and yellow, and as differing much in the size and + shape of the flower.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 368 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page368"></a>{368}</span></p> + + <p><i>Pansy or Heartsease</i> (<i>Viola tricolor</i>, &c.).—The + history of this flower seems to be pretty well known; it was grown in + Evelyn's garden in 1687; but the varieties were not attended to till + 1810-1812, when Lady Monke, together with Mr. Lee the well-known + nurseryman, energetically commenced their culture; and in the course of a + few years twenty varieties could be purchased.<a name="NtA_797" + href="#Nt_797"><sup>[797]</sup></a> At about the same period, namely in + 1813 or 1814, Lord Gambier collected some wild plants, and his gardener, + Mr. Thomson, cultivated them together with some common garden varieties, + and soon effected a great improvement. The first great change was the + conversion of the dark lines in the centre of the flower into a dark eye + or centre, which at that period had never been seen, but is now + considered one of the chief requisites of a first-rate flower. In 1835 a + book entirely devoted to this flower was published, and four hundred + named varieties were on sale. From these circumstances this plant seemed + to me worth studying, more especially from the great contrast between the + small, dull, elongated, irregular flowers of the wild pansy, and the + beautiful, flat, symmetrical, circular, velvet-like flowers, more than + two inches in diameter, magnificently and variously coloured, which are + exhibited at our shows. But when I came to inquire more closely, I found + that, though the varieties were so modern, yet that much confusion and + doubt prevailed about their parentage. Florists believe that the + varieties<a name="NtA_798" href="#Nt_798"><sup>[798]</sup></a> are + descended from several wild stocks, namely, <i>V. tricolor</i>, + <i>lutea</i>, <i>grandiflora</i>, <i>amœna</i>, and <i>Altaica</i>, + more or less intercrossed. And when I looked to botanical works to + ascertain whether these forms ought to be ranked as species, I found + equal doubt and confusion. <i>Viola Altaica</i> seems to be a distinct + form, but what part it has played in the origin of our varieties I know + not; it is said to have been crossed with <i>V. lutea</i>. <i>Viola + amœna</i><a name="NtA_799" href="#Nt_799"><sup>[799]</sup></a> is + now looked at by all botanists as a natural variety of <i>V. + grandiflora</i>; and this and <i>V. sudetica</i> have been proved to be + identical with <i>V. lutea</i>. The latter and <i>V. tricolor</i> + (including its admitted variety <i>V. arvensis</i>) are ranked as + distinct species by Babington; and likewise by M. Gay,<a name="NtA_800" + href="#Nt_800"><sup>[800]</sup></a> who has paid particular attention to + the genus; but the specific distinction between <i>V. lutea</i> and + <i>tricolor</i> is chiefly grounded on the one being strictly and the + other not strictly perennial, as well as on some other slight and + unimportant differences in the form of the stem and stipules. Bentham + unites these two forms; and a high authority on such matters, Mr. H. C. + Watson,<a name="NtA_801" href="#Nt_801"><sup>[801]</sup></a> says that, + "while <i>V. tricolor</i> passes into <i>V. arvensis</i> on the one side, + it approximates so much towards <i>V. lutea</i> and <i>V. Curtisii</i> on + the other side, that a distinction becomes scarcely more easy between + them."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 369 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page369"></a>{369}</span></p> + + <p>Hence, after having carefully compared numerous varieties, I gave up + the attempt as too difficult for any one except a professed botanist. + Most of the varieties present such inconstant characters, that when grown + in poor soil, or when flowering out of their proper season, they produce + differently coloured and much smaller flowers. Cultivators speak of this + or that kind as being remarkably constant or true; but by this they do + not mean, as in other cases, that the kind transmits its character by + seed, but that the individual plant does not change much under culture. + The principle of inheritance, however, does hold good to a certain extent + even with the fleeting varieties of the Heartease, for to gain good sorts + it is indispensable to sow the seed of good sorts. Nevertheless in every + large seed-bed a few almost wild seedlings often reappear through + reversion. On comparing the choicest varieties with the nearest allied + wild forms, besides the difference in the size, outline, and colour of + the flowers, the leaves are seen sometimes to differ in shape, as does + the calyx occasionally in the length and breadth of the sepals. The + differences in the form of the nectary more especially deserve notice; + because characters derived from this organ have been much used in the + discrimination of most of the species of Viola. In a large number of + flowers compared in 1842 I found that in the greater number the nectary + was straight; in others the extremity was a little turned upwards, or + downwards, or inwards, so as to be completely hooked; in others, instead + of being hooked, it was first turned rectangularly downwards, and then + backwards and upwards; in others the extremity was considerably enlarged; + and lastly, in some the basal part was depressed, becoming, as usual, + laterally compressed towards the extremity. In a large number of flowers, + on the other hand, examined by me in 1856 from a nursery-garden in a + different part of England, the nectary hardly varied at all. Now M. Gay + says that in certain districts, especially in Auvergne, the nectary of + the wild <i>V. grandiflora</i> varies in the manner just described. Must + we conclude from this that the cultivated varieties first mentioned were + all descended from <i>V. grandiflora</i>, and that the second lot, though + having the same general appearance, were descended from <i>V. + tricolor</i>, of which the nectary, according to M. Gay, is subject to + little variation? Or is it not more probable that both these wild forms + would be found under other conditions to vary in the same manner and + degree, thus showing that they ought not to be ranked as specifically + distinct?</p> + + <p>The <i>Dahlia</i> has been referred to by almost every author who has + written on the variation of plants, because it is believed that all the + varieties are descended from a single species, and because all have + arisen since 1802 in France, and since 1804 in England.<a name="NtA_802" + href="#Nt_802"><sup>[802]</sup></a> Mr. Sabine remarks that "it seems as + if some period of cultivation had been required before the fixed + qualities of the native plant gave way and began to sport into those + changes which now so delight us."<a name="NtA_803" + href="#Nt_803"><sup>[803]</sup></a> The flowers have been greatly + modified in shape from a flat to a globular form. Anemone and <!-- Page + 370 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page370"></a>{370}</span>ranunculus-like races,<a name="NtA_804" + href="#Nt_804"><sup>[804]</sup></a> which differ in the form and + arrangement of the florets, have arisen; also dwarfed races, one of which + is only eighteen inches in height. The seeds vary much in size. The + petals are uniformly coloured or tipped or striped, and present an almost + infinite diversity of tints. Seedlings of fourteen different colours<a + name="NtA_805" href="#Nt_805"><sup>[805]</sup></a> have been raised from + the same plant; yet, as Mr. Sabine has remarked, "many of the seedlings + follow their parents in colour." The period of flowering has been + considerably hastened, and this has probably been effected by continued + selection. Salisbury, writing 1808, says that they then flowered from + September to November; in 1828 some new dwarf varieties began flowering + in June;<a name="NtA_806" href="#Nt_806"><sup>[806]</sup></a> and Mr. + Grieve informs me that the dwarf purple Zelinda in his garden is in full + bloom by the middle of June and sometimes even earlier. Slight + constitutional differences have been observed between certain varieties: + thus, some kinds succeed much better in one part of England than in + another;<a name="NtA_807" href="#Nt_807"><sup>[807]</sup></a> and it has + been noticed that some varieties require much more moisture than + others.<a name="NtA_808" href="#Nt_808"><sup>[808]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Such flowers as the carnation, common tulip, and hyacinth, which are + believed to be descended, each from a single wild form, present + innumerable varieties, differing almost exclusively in the size, form, + and colour of the flowers. These and some other anciently cultivated + plants which have been long propagated by offsets, pipings, bulbs, + &c., become so excessively variable, that almost each new plant + raised from seed forms a new variety, "all of which to describe + particularly," as old Gerarde wrote in 1597, "were to roll Sisyphus's + stone, or to number the sands."</p> + + <p><i>Hyacinth</i> (<i>Hyacinthus orientalis</i>).—It may, however, + be worth while to give a short account of this plant, which was + introduced into England in 1596 from the Levant.<a name="NtA_809" + href="#Nt_809"><sup>[809]</sup></a> The petals of the original flower, + says Mr. Paul, were narrow, wrinkled, pointed, and of a flimsy texture; + now they are broad, smooth, solid, and rounded. The erectness, breadth, + and length of the whole spike, and the size of the flowers, have all + increased. The colours have been intensified and diversified. Gerarde, in + 1597, enumerates four, and Parkinson, in 1629, eight varieties. Now the + varieties are very numerous, and they were still more numerous a century + ago. Mr. Paul remarks that "it is interesting to compare the Hyacinths of + 1629 with those of 1864, and to mark the improvement. Two hundred and + thirty-five years have elapsed since then, and this simple flower serves + well to illustrate the great fact that the original forms of nature do + not remain fixed and stationary, at least when brought under cultivation. + While looking at the extremes, we must not however forget that there are + intermediate stages which are for the most part lost to us. Nature will + <!-- Page 371 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page371"></a>{371}</span>sometimes indulge herself with a leap, but + as a rule her march is slow and gradual." He adds that the cultivator + should have "in his mind an ideal of beauty, for the realisation of which + he works with head and hand." We thus see how clearly Mr. Paul, an + eminently successful cultivator of this flower, appreciates the action of + methodical selection.</p> + + <p>In a curious and apparently trustworthy treatise, published at + Amsterdam<a name="NtA_810" href="#Nt_810"><sup>[810]</sup></a> in 1768, + it is stated that nearly 2000 sorts were then known; but in 1864 Mr. Paul + found only 700 in the largest garden at Haarlem. In this treatise it is + said that not an instance is known of any one variety reproducing itself + truly by seed: the white kinds, however, now<a name="NtA_811" + href="#Nt_811"><sup>[811]</sup></a> almost always yield white hyacinths, + and the yellow kinds come nearly true. The hyacinth is remarkable from + having given rise to varieties with bright blue, pink, and distinctly + yellow flowers. These three primary colours do not occur in the varieties + of any other species; nor do they often all occur even in the distinct + species of the same genus. Although the several kinds of hyacinths differ + but slightly from each other except in colour, yet each kind has its own + individual character, which can be recognised by a highly educated eye; + thus the writer of the Amsterdam treatise asserts (p. 43) that some + experienced florists, such as the famous G. Voorholm, seldom failed in a + collection of above twelve hundred sorts to recognise each variety by the + bulb alone! This same writer mentions some few singular variations: for + instance, the hyacinth commonly produces six leaves, but there is one + kind (p. 35) which scarcely ever has more than three leaves; another + never more than five; whilst others regularly produce either seven or + eight leaves. A variety, called la Coriphée, invariably produces (p. 116) + two flower-stems, united together and covered by one skin. The + flower-stem in another kind (p. 128) comes out of the ground in a + coloured sheath, before the appearance of the leaves, and is consequently + liable to suffer from frost. Another variety always pushes a second + flower-stem after the first has begun to develop itself. Lastly, white + hyacinths with red, purple, or violet centres (p. 129) are the most + liable to rot. Thus, the hyacinth, like so many previous plants, when + long cultivated and closely watched, is found to offer many singular + variations.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>In the two last chapters I have given in some detail the range of + variation, and the history, as far as known, of a considerable number of + plants, which have been cultivated for various purposes. But some of the + most variable plants, such as Kidney-beans, Capsicum, Millets, Sorghum, + &c., have been passed over; for botanists are not agreed which kinds + ought to rank as species and which as varieties; and the wild + parent-species are unknown.<a name="NtA_812" + href="#Nt_812"><sup>[812]</sup></a> Many plants long cultivated in + tropical <!-- Page 372 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page372"></a>{372}</span>countries, such as the Banana, have + produced numerous varieties; but as these have never been described with + even moderate care, they also are here passed over. Nevertheless a + sufficient, and perhaps more than sufficient, number of cases have been + given, so that the reader may be enabled to judge for himself on the + nature and extent of the variation which cultivated plants have + undergone.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<p><!-- Page 373 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page373"></a>{373}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON BUD-VARIATION, AND ON CERTAIN ANOMALOUS MODES OF +REPRODUCTION AND VARIATION.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><span class="scac">BUD-VARIATIONS IN THE PEACH, PLUM, CHERRY, VINE, + GOOSEBERRY, CURRANT, AND BANANA, AS SHOWN BY THE MODIFIED + FRUIT</span>—<span class="scac">IN FLOWERS: CAMELLIAS, AZALEAS, + CHRYSANTHEMUMS, ROSES, ETC.</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE + RUNNING OF THE COLOUR IN CARNATIONS</span>—<span + class="scac">BUD-VARIATIONS IN LEAVES</span>—<span + class="scac">VARIATIONS BY SUCKERS, TUBERS, AND BULBS</span>—<span + class="scac">ON THE BREAKING OF TULIPS</span>—<span + class="scac">BUD-VARIATIONS GRADUATE INTO CHANGES CONSEQUENT ON CHANGED + CONDITIONS OF LIFE</span>—<span class="scac">CYTISUS ADAMI, ITS + ORIGIN AND TRANSFORMATION</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE UNION OF + TWO DIFFERENT EMBRYOS IN ONE SEED</span>—<span class="scac">THE + TRIFACIAL ORANGE</span>—<span class="scac">ON REVERSION BY BUDS IN + HYBRIDS AND MONGRELS</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE PRODUCTION OF + MODIFIED BUDS BY THE GRAFTING OF ONE VARIETY OR SPECIES ON + ANOTHER</span>—<span class="scac">ON THE DIRECT OR IMMEDIATE ACTION + OF FOREIGN POLLEN ON THE MOTHER-PLANT</span>—<span class="scac">ON + THE EFFECTS IN FEMALE ANIMALS OF A FIRST IMPREGNATION ON THE SUBSEQUENT + OFFSPRING</span>—<span class="scac">CONCLUSION AND + SUMMARY.</span></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>This chapter will be chiefly devoted to a subject in many respects + important, namely, bud-variation. By this term I include all those sudden + changes in structure or appearance which occasionally occur in full-grown + plants in their flower-buds or leaf-buds. Gardeners call such changes + "Sports;" but this, as previously remarked, is an ill-defined expression, + as it has often been applied to strongly marked variations in seedling + plants. The difference between seminal and bud reproduction is not so + great as it at first appears; for each bud is in one sense a new and + distinct individual; but such individuals are produced through the + formation of various kinds of buds without the aid of any special + apparatus, whilst fertile seeds are produced by the concourse of the two + sexual elements. The modifications which arise through bud-variation can + generally be propagated to any extent by grafting, budding, cuttings, + bulbs, &c., and occasionally even by seed. Some few of our most + beautiful and useful productions have arisen by bud-variation.</p> + + <p>Bud-variations have as yet been observed only in the vegetable <!-- + Page 374 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page374"></a>{374}</span>kingdom; but it is probable that if + compound animals, such as corals, &c., had been subjected to a long + course of domestication, they would have varied by buds; for they + resemble plants in many respects. Thus any new or peculiar character + presented by a compound animal is propagated by budding, as occurs with + differently coloured Hydras, and as Mr. Gosse has shown to be the case + with a singular variety of a true coral. Varieties of the Hydra have also + been grafted on other varieties, and have retained their character.</p> + + <p>I will in the first place give all the cases of bud-variations which I + have been able to collect, and afterwards show their importance. These + cases prove that those authors who, like Pallas, attribute all + variability to the crossing either of distinct races, or of individuals + belonging to the same race but somewhat different from each other, are in + error; as are those authors who attribute all variability to the mere act + of sexual union. Nor can we account in all cases for the appearance + through bud-variation of new characters by the principle of reversion to + long-lost characters. He who wishes to judge how far the conditions of + life directly cause each particular variation ought to reflect well on + the cases immediately to be given. I will commence with bud-variations, + as exhibited in the fruit, and then pass on to flowers, and finally to + leaves.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Peach</i> (<i>Amygdalus Persica</i>).—In the last chapter I + gave two cases of a peach-almond and double-flowered almond which + suddenly produced fruit closely resembling true peaches. I have also + recorded many cases of peach-trees producing buds, which, when developed + into branches, have yielded nectarines. We have seen that no less than + six named and several unnamed varieties of the peach have thus produced + several varieties of nectarine. I have shown that it is highly improbable + that all these peach-trees, some of which are old varieties, and have + been propagated by the million, are hybrids from the peach and nectarine, + and that it is opposed to all analogy to attribute the occasional + production of nectarines on peach-trees to the direct action of pollen + from some neighbouring nectarine-tree. Several of the cases are highly + remarkable, because, firstly, the fruit thus produced has sometimes been + in part a nectarine and in part a peach; secondly, because nectarines + thus suddenly produced have reproduced themselves by seed; and thirdly, + because nectarines are produced from peach-trees from seed as well as + from buds. The seed of the nectarine, on the other hand, occasionally + produces peaches; and we have seen in one instance that a nectarine-tree + yielded peaches by bud-variation. As the peach is certainly the oldest or + primary variety, the <!-- Page 375 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page375"></a>{375}</span>production of peaches from nectarines, + either by seeds or buds, may perhaps be considered as a case of + reversion. Certain trees have also been described as indifferently + bearing peaches or nectarines, and this may be considered as + bud-variation carried to an extreme degree.</p> + + <p>The <i>grosse mignonne</i> peach at Montreuil produced "from a + sporting branch" the <i>grosse mignonne tardive</i>, "a most excellent + variety," which ripens its fruit a fortnight later than the parent tree, + and is equally good.<a name="NtA_813" href="#Nt_813"><sup>[813]</sup></a> + This same peach has likewise produced by bud-variation the <i>early + grosse mignonne</i>. Hunt's large tawny nectarine "originated from Hunt's + small tawny nectarine, but not through seminal reproduction."<a + name="NtA_814" href="#Nt_814"><sup>[814]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Plums.</i>—Mr. Knight states that a tree of the yellow magnum + bonum plum, forty years old, which had always borne ordinary fruit, + produced a branch which yielded red magnum bonums.<a name="NtA_815" + href="#Nt_815"><sup>[815]</sup></a> Mr. Rivers, of Sawbridgeworth, + informs me (Jan. 1863) that a single tree out of 400 or 500 trees of the + Early Prolific plum, which is a purple kind, descended from an old French + variety bearing purple fruit, produced when about ten years old bright + yellow plums; these differed in no respect except colour from those on + the other trees, but were unlike any other known kind of yellow plum.<a + name="NtA_816" href="#Nt_816"><sup>[816]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Cherry</i> (<i>Prunus cerasus</i>).—Mr. Knight has recorded + (<i>idem</i>) the case of a branch of a May-Duke cherry, which, though + certainly never grafted, always produced fruit, ripening later, and more + oblong, than the fruit on the other branches. Another account has been + given of two May-Duke cherry-trees in Scotland, with branches bearing + oblong, and very fine fruit, which invariably ripened, as in Knight's + case, a fortnight later than the other cherries.<a name="NtA_817" + href="#Nt_817"><sup>[817]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Grapes</i> (<i>Vitis vinifera</i>).—The black or purple + Frontignan in one case produced during two successive years (and no doubt + permanently) spurs which bore white Frontignan grapes. In another case, + on the same footstalk, the lower berries "were well-coloured black + Frontignans; those next the stalk were white, with the exception of one + black and one streaked berry;" and altogether there were fifteen black + and twelve white berries on the same stalk. In another kind of grape + black and amber-coloured berries were produced in the same cluster.<a + name="NtA_818" href="#Nt_818"><sup>[818]</sup></a> Count Odart describes + a variety which often bears on the same stalk small round and large + oblong berries; though the shape of the berry is generally a fixed + character.<a name="NtA_819" href="#Nt_819"><sup>[819]</sup></a> Here is + another striking case given on the excellent authority of M. Carrière:<a + name="NtA_820" href="#Nt_820"><sup>[820]</sup></a> "a black Hamburgh + grape (Frankenthal) was cut down, and produced three suckers; one of + these was layered, and after a time produced much smaller berries, which + always ripened at least a fortnight <!-- Page 376 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page376"></a>{376}</span>earlier than the + others. Of the remaining two suckers, one produced every year fine + grapes, whilst the other, although it set an abundance of fruit, matured + only a few, and these of inferior quality.</p> + + <p><i>Gooseberry</i> (<i>Ribes grossularia</i>).—A remarkable case + has been described by Dr. Lindley<a name="NtA_821" + href="#Nt_821"><sup>[821]</sup></a> of a bush which bore at the same time + no less than four kinds of berries, namely, hairy and red,—smooth, + small and red,—green,—and yellow tinged with buff; the two + latter kinds had a different flavour from the red berries, and their + seeds were coloured red. Three twigs on this bush grew close together; + the first bore three yellow berries and one red; the second twig bore + four yellow and one red; and the third four red and one yellow. Mr. + Laxton also informs me that he has seen a Red Warrington gooseberry + bearing both red and yellow fruit on the same branch.</p> + + <p><i>Currant</i> (<i>Ribes rubrum</i>).—A bush purchased as the + Champagne, which is a variety that bears blush-coloured fruit + intermediate between red and white, produced during fourteen years, on + separate branches and mingled on the same branch, berries of the red, + white, and champagne kinds.<a name="NtA_822" + href="#Nt_822"><sup>[822]</sup></a> The suspicion naturally arises that + this variety may have originated from a cross between a red and white + variety, and that the above transformation may be accounted for by + reversion to both parent-forms; but from the foregoing complex case of + the gooseberry this view is doubtful. In France, a branch of a + red-currant bush, about ten years old, produced near the summit five + white berries, and lower down, amongst the red berries, one berry half + red and half white.<a name="NtA_823" href="#Nt_823"><sup>[823]</sup></a> + Alexander Braun<a name="NtA_824" href="#Nt_824"><sup>[824]</sup></a> also + has often seen branches bearing red berries on white currants.</p> + + <p><i>Pear</i> (<i>Pyrus communis</i>).—Dureau de la Malle states + that the flowers on some trees of an ancient variety, the <i>doyenné + galeux</i>, were destroyed by frost: other flowers appeared in July, + which produced six pears; these exactly resembled in their skin and taste + the fruit of a distinct variety, the <i>gros doyenné blanc</i>, but in + shape were like the <i>bon-chrétien</i>: it was not ascertained whether + this new variety could be propagated by budding or grafting. The same + author grafted a <i>bon-chrétien</i> on a quince, and it produced, + besides its proper fruit, an apparently new variety, of a peculiar form, + with thick and rough skin.<a name="NtA_825" + href="#Nt_825"><sup>[825]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Apple</i> (<i>Pyrus malus</i>).—In Canada, a tree of the + variety called Pound Sweet, produced,<a name="NtA_826" + href="#Nt_826"><sup>[826]</sup></a> between two of its proper fruit, an + apple which was well russetted, small in size, different in shape, and + with a short peduncle. As no russet apple grew anywhere near, this case + apparently cannot be accounted for by the direct action of foreign + pollen. I shall hereafter give <!-- Page 377 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page377"></a>{377}</span>cases of apple-trees which regularly + produce fruit of two kinds, or half-and-half fruit; these trees are + generally supposed, and probably with truth, to be of crossed parentage, + and that the fruit reverts to both parent-forms.</p> + + <p><i>Banana</i> (<i>Musa sapientium</i>).—Sir R. Schomburgk states + that he saw in St. Domingo a raceme on the Fig Banana which bore towards + the base 125 fruits of the proper kind; and these were succeeded, as is + usual, higher up the raceme, by barren flowers, and these by 420 fruits, + having a widely different appearance, and ripening earlier than the + proper fruit. The abnormal fruit closely resembled, except in being + smaller, that of the <i>Musa Chinensis</i> or <i>Cavendishii</i>, which + has generally been ranked as a distinct species.<a name="NtA_827" + href="#Nt_827"><sup>[827]</sup></a></p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p><span class="sc">Flowers.</span>—Many cases have been recorded + of a whole plant, or single branch, or bud, suddenly producing flowers + different from the proper type in colour, form, size, doubleness, or + other character. Half the flower, or a smaller segment, sometimes changes + colour.</p> + + <p><i>Camellia.</i>—The myrtle-leaved species (<i>C. + myrtifolia</i>), and two or three varieties of the common species, have + been known to produce hexagonal and imperfectly quadrangular flowers; and + the branches producing such flowers have been propagated by grafting.<a + name="NtA_828" href="#Nt_828"><sup>[828]</sup></a> The Pompone variety + often bears "four distinguishable kinds of flowers,—the pure white + and the red-eyed, which appear promiscuously; the brindled pink and the + rose-coloured, which may be kept separate with tolerable certainty by + grafting from the branches that bear them." A branch, also, on an old + tree of the rose-coloured variety has been seen to "revert to the pure + white colour, an occurrence less common than the departure from it."<a + name="NtA_829" href="#Nt_829"><sup>[829]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Cratægus oxycantha.</i>—A dark pink hawthorn has been known + to throw out a single tuft of pure white blossoms;<a name="NtA_830" + href="#Nt_830"><sup>[830]</sup></a> and Mr. A. Clapham, nurseryman, of + Bradford, informs me that his father had a deep crimson thorn grafted on + a white thorn, which, during several years, always bore, high above the + graft, bunches of white, pink, and deep crimson flowers.</p> + + <p><i>Azalea Indica</i> is well known often to produce by buds new + varieties. I have myself seen several cases. A plant of <i>Azalea Indica + variegata</i> has been exhibited bearing a truss of flowers of <i>A. Ind. + Gledstanesii</i> "as true as could possibly be produced, thus evidencing + the origin of that fine variety." On another plant of <i>A. Ind. + variegata</i> a perfect flower of <i>A. Ind. lateritia</i> was produced; + so that both <i>Gledstanesii</i> and <i>lateritia</i> no doubt originally + appeared as sporting branches of <i>A. Ind. variegata</i>.<a + name="NtA_831" href="#Nt_831"><sup>[831]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Cistus tricuspis.</i>—A seedling of this plant, when some + years old, produced, at Saharunpore,<a name="NtA_832" + href="#Nt_832"><sup>[832]</sup></a> some branches "which bore leaves and + flowers widely different from the normal form." "The abnormal leaf is + much less <!-- Page 378 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page378"></a>{378}</span>divided, and not acuminated. The petals + are considerably larger, and quite entire. There is also in the fresh + state a conspicuous, large, oblong gland, full of a viscid secretion, on + the back of each of the calycine segments."</p> + + <p><i>Althæa rosea.</i>—A double yellow Hollyock suddenly turned + one year into a pure white single kind; subsequently a branch bearing the + original double yellow flowers reappeared in the midst of the branches of + the single white kind.<a name="NtA_833" + href="#Nt_833"><sup>[833]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Pelargonium.</i>—These highly cultivated plants seem + eminently liable to bud-variation. I will give only a few well-marked + cases. Gärtner has seen<a name="NtA_834" + href="#Nt_834"><sup>[834]</sup></a> a plant of <i>P. zonale</i> with a + branch having white-edged leaves, which remained constant for years, and + bore flowers of a deeper red than usual. Generally speaking, such + branches present little or no difference in their flowers: thus a + writer<a name="NtA_835" href="#Nt_835"><sup>[835]</sup></a> pinched off + the leading shoot of a seedling <i>P. zonale</i>, and it threw out three + branches, which differed in the size and colour of their leaves and + stems; but on all three branches "the flowers were identical," except in + being largest in the green-stemmed variety, and smallest in that with + variegated foliage: these three varieties were subsequently propagated + and distributed. Many branches, and some whole plants, of a variety + called <i>compactum</i>, which bears orange-scarlet flowers, have been + seen to produce pink flowers.<a name="NtA_836" + href="#Nt_836"><sup>[836]</sup></a> Hill's Hector, which is a pale red + variety, produced a branch with lilac flowers, and some trusses with both + red and lilac flowers. This apparently is a case of reversion, for Hill's + Hector was a seedling from a lilac variety.<a name="NtA_837" + href="#Nt_837"><sup>[837]</sup></a> Of all Pelargoniums, Rollisson's + Unique seems to be the most sportive; its origin is not positively known, + but is believed to be from a cross. Mr. Salter, of Hammersmith, states<a + name="NtA_838" href="#Nt_838"><sup>[838]</sup></a> that he has himself + known this purple variety to produce the lilac, the rose-crimson or + <i>conspicuum</i>, and the red or <i>coccineum</i> varieties; the latter + has also produced the <i>rose d'amour</i>; so that altogether four + varieties have originated by bud variation from Rollisson's Unique. Mr. + Salter remarks that these four varieties "may now be considered as fixed, + although they occasionally produce flowers of the original colour. This + year <i>coccineum</i> has pushed flowers of three different colours, red, + rose, and lilac, upon the same truss, and upon other trusses are flowers + half red and half lilac." Besides these four varieties, two other scarlet + Uniques are known to exist, both of which occasionally produce lilac + flowers identical with Rollisson's Unique;<a name="NtA_839" + href="#Nt_839"><sup>[839]</sup></a> but one at least of these did not + arise through bud-variation, but is believed to be a seedling from + Rollisson's Unique.<a name="NtA_840" href="#Nt_840"><sup>[840]</sup></a> + There are, also, in the trade<a name="NtA_841" + href="#Nt_841"><sup>[841]</sup></a> two other slightly different + varieties, of unknown origin, of Rollisson's Unique: so that altogether + we have a curiously complex case <!-- Page 379 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page379"></a>{379}</span>of variation both by + buds and seeds.<a name="NtA_842" href="#Nt_842"><sup>[842]</sup></a> An + English wild plant, the <i>Geranium pratense</i>, when cultivated in a + garden, has been seen to produce on the same plant both blue and white, + and striped blue and white flowers.<a name="NtA_843" + href="#Nt_843"><sup>[843]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Chrysanthemum.</i>—This plant frequently sports, both by its + lateral branches and occasionally by suckers. A seedling raised by Mr. + Salter has produced by bud-variation six distinct sorts, five different + in colour and one in foliage, all of which are now fixed.<a + name="NtA_844" href="#Nt_844"><sup>[844]</sup></a> The varieties which + were first introduced from China were so excessively variable, "that it + was extremely difficult to tell which was the original colour of the + variety, and which was the sport." The same plant would produce one year + only buff-coloured, and next year only rose-coloured flowers; and then + would change again, or produce at the same time flowers of both colours. + These fluctuating varieties are now all lost, and, when a branch sports + into a new variety, it can generally be propagated and kept true; but, as + Mr. Salter remarks, "every sport should be thoroughly tested in different + soils before it can be really considered as fixed, as many have been + known to run back when planted in rich compost; but when sufficient care + and time are expended in proving, there will exist little danger of + subsequent disappointment." Mr. Salter informs me that with all the + varieties the commonest kind of bud-variation is the production of yellow + flowers, and, as this is the primordial colour, these cases may be + attributed to reversion. Mr. Salter has given me a list of seven + differently coloured chrysanthemums, which have all produced branches + with yellow flowers; but three of them have also sported into other + colours. With any change of colour in the flower, the foliage generally + changes in a corresponding manner in lightness or darkness.</p> + + <p>Another Compositous plant, namely, <i>Centauria cyanus</i>, when + cultivated in a garden, not unfrequently produces on the same root + flowers of four different colours, viz., blue, white, dark-purple, and + particoloured.<a name="NtA_845" href="#Nt_845"><sup>[845]</sup></a> The + flowers of Anthemis also vary on the same plant.<a name="NtA_846" + href="#Nt_846"><sup>[846]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Roses.</i>—Many varieties of the rose are known or are + believed to have originated by bud-variation.<a name="NtA_847" + href="#Nt_847"><sup>[847]</sup></a> The common double moss-rose was + imported into England from Italy about the year 1735.<a name="NtA_848" + href="#Nt_848"><sup>[848]</sup></a> Its origin is unknown, but from + analogy it probably arose from the Provence rose (<i>R. centifolia</i>) + by bud-variation; for branches of the common moss-rose have several times + been known to produce Provence roses, wholly or partially destitute of + moss: I have seen one such instance, and several others have been + recorded.<a name="NtA_849" href="#Nt_849"><sup>[849]</sup></a> <!-- Page + 380 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page380"></a>{380}</span>Mr. Rivers + also informs me that he raised two or three roses of the Provence class + from seed of the old single moss-rose;<a name="NtA_850" + href="#Nt_850"><sup>[850]</sup></a> and this latter kind was produced in + 1807 by bud-variation from the common moss-rose. The white moss-rose was + also produced in 1788 by an offset from the common red moss-rose: it was + at first pale blush-coloured, but became white by continued budding. On + cutting down the shoots which had produced this white moss-rose, two weak + shoots were thrown up, and buds from these yielded the beautiful striped + moss-rose. The common moss-rose has yielded by bud-variation, besides the + old single red moss-rose, the old scarlet semi-double moss-rose, and the + sage-leaf moss-rose, which "has a delicate shell-like form, and is of a + beautiful blush colour; it is now (1852) nearly extinct."<a + name="NtA_851" href="#Nt_851"><sup>[851]</sup></a> A white moss-rose has + been seen to bear a flower half white and half pink.<a name="NtA_852" + href="#Nt_852"><sup>[852]</sup></a> Although several moss-roses have thus + certainly arisen by bud-variation, the greater number probably owe their + origin to seed of moss-roses. For Mr. Rivers informs me that his + seedlings from the old single moss-rose almost always produced + moss-roses; and the old single moss-rose was, as we have seen, the + product by bud-variation of the double moss-rose originally imported from + Italy. That the original moss-rose was the product of bud-variation is + probable, from the facts above given and from the moss-rose de Meaux + (also a var. of <i>R. centifolia</i>)<a name="NtA_853" + href="#Nt_853"><sup>[853]</sup></a> having appeared as a sporting branch + on the common rose de Meaux.</p> + + <p>Prof. Caspary has carefully described<a name="NtA_854" + href="#Nt_854"><sup>[854]</sup></a> the case of a six-year-old white + moss-rose, which sent up several suckers, one of which was thorny, and + produced red flowers, destitute of moss, exactly like those of the + Provence rose (<i>R. centifolia</i>): another shoot bore both kinds of + flowers and in addition longitudinally striped flowers. As this white + moss-rose had been grafted on the Provence rose, Prof. Caspary attributes + the above changes to the influence of the stock; but from the facts + already given, and from others to be given, bud-variation, with + reversion, is probably a sufficient explanation.</p> + + <p>Many other instances could be added of roses varying by buds. The + white Provence rose apparently thus originated.<a name="NtA_855" + href="#Nt_855"><sup>[855]</sup></a> The double and highly-coloured + Belladonna rose has been known<a name="NtA_856" + href="#Nt_856"><sup>[856]</sup></a> to produce by suckers both + semi-double and almost single white roses; whilst suckers from one of + these semi-double white roses reverted to perfectly characterised + Belladonnas. Varieties of the China rose propagated by cuttings in St. + Domingo often revert after a year or two into the old China rose.<a + name="NtA_857" href="#Nt_857"><sup>[857]</sup></a> Many cases <!-- Page + 381 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page381"></a>{381}</span>have been + recorded of roses suddenly becoming striped or changing their character + by segments: some plants of the Comtesse de Chabrillant, which is + properly rose-coloured, were exhibited in 1862,<a name="NtA_858" + href="#Nt_858"><sup>[858]</sup></a> with crimson flakes on a rose ground. + I have seen the Beauty of Billiard with a quarter and with half the + flower almost white. The Austrian bramble (<i>R. lutea</i>) not rarely<a + name="NtA_859" href="#Nt_859"><sup>[859]</sup></a> produces branches with + pure yellow flowers; and Prof. Henslow has seen exactly half the flower + of a pure yellow, and I have seen narrow yellow streaks on a single + petal, of which the rest was of the usual copper colour.</p> + + <p>The following cases are highly remarkable. Mr. Rivers, as I am + informed by him, possessed a new French rose with delicate smooth shoots, + pale glaucous-green leaves, and semi-double pale flesh-coloured flowers + striped with dark red; and on branches thus characterised there suddenly + appeared, in more than one instance, the famous old rose called the + Baronne Prevost, with its stout thorny shoots, and immense, uniformly and + richly coloured, double flowers; so that in this case the shoots, leaves, + and flowers, all at once changed their character by bud-variation. + According to M. Verlot<a name="NtA_860" + href="#Nt_860"><sup>[860]</sup></a> a variety called <i>Rosa + cannabifolia</i>, which has peculiarly shaped leaflets, and differs from + every member of the family in the leaves being opposite instead of + alternate, suddenly appeared on a plant of <i>R. alba</i> in the gardens + of the Luxembourg. Lastly, "a running shoot" was observed by Mr. H. + Curtis<a name="NtA_861" href="#Nt_861"><sup>[861]</sup></a> on the old + Aimée Vibert Noisette, and he budded it on Celine; thus a climbing Aimée + Vibert was first produced and afterwards propagated.</p> + + <p><i>Dianthus.</i>—It is quite common with the Sweet William + (<i>D. barbatus</i>) to see differently coloured flowers on the same + root; and I have observed on the same truss four differently coloured and + shaded flowers. Carnations and pinks (<i>D. caryophyllus</i>, &c.) + occasionally vary by layers; and some kinds are so little certain in + character that they are called by floriculturists "catch-flowers."<a + name="NtA_862" href="#Nt_862"><sup>[862]</sup></a> Mr. Dickson has ably + discussed the "running" of particoloured or striped carnations, and says + it cannot be accounted for by the compost in which they are grown: + "layers from the same clean flower would come part of them clean and part + foul, even when subjected to precisely the same treatment; and frequently + one flower alone appears influenced by the taint, the remainder coming + perfectly clean."<a name="NtA_863" href="#Nt_863"><sup>[863]</sup></a> + This running of the parti-coloured flowers apparently is a case of + reversion by buds to the original uniform tint of the species.</p> + + <p>I will briefly mention some other cases of bud-variation to show how + many plants belonging to many orders have varied in their flowers; + numerous cases might be added. I have seen on a snap-dragon + (<i>Antirrhinum majus</i>) white, pink, and striped flowers on the same + plant, and branches with striped flowers on a red-coloured variety. On a + double stock (<i>Matthiola incana</i>) I have seen a branch bearing + single flowers; and <!-- Page 382 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page382"></a>{382}</span>on a dingy-purple, double variety of the + wall-flower (<i>Cheiranthus cheiri</i>) a branch which had reverted to + the ordinary copper colour. On other branches of the same plant, some + flowers were exactly divided across the middle, one half being purple and + the other coppery; but some of the smaller petals towards the centre of + these same flowers were purple longitudinally streaked with coppery + colour, or coppery streaked with purple. A Cyclamen<a name="NtA_864" + href="#Nt_864"><sup>[864]</sup></a> has been observed to bear white and + pink flowers of two forms, the one resembling the Persicum strain, and + the other the Coum strain. <i>Oenothera biennis</i> has been seen<a + name="NtA_865" href="#Nt_865"><sup>[865]</sup></a> bearing flowers of + three different colours. The hybrid <i>Gladiolus colvillii</i> + occasionally bears uniformly coloured flowers, and one case is recorded<a + name="NtA_866" href="#Nt_866"><sup>[866]</sup></a> of all the flowers on + a plant thus changing colour. A Fuchsia has been seen<a name="NtA_867" + href="#Nt_867"><sup>[867]</sup></a> bearing two kinds of flowers. + <i>Mirabilis jalapa</i> is eminently sportive, sometimes bearing on the + same root pure red, yellow, and white flowers, and others striped with + various combinations of these three colours.<a name="NtA_868" + href="#Nt_868"><sup>[868]</sup></a> The plants of the Mirabilis which + bear such extraordinarily variable flowers, in most, probably in all + cases, owe their origin, as shown by Prof. Lecoq, to crosses between + differently-coloured varieties.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p><i>Leaves and Shoots.</i>—Changes, through bud-variation, in + fruits and flowers have hitherto been treated of, but incidentally some + remarkable modifications in the leaves and shoots of the rose and Cistus, + and in a lesser degree in the foliage of the Pelargonium and + Chrysanthemum, have been noticed. I will now add a few more cases of + variation in leaf-buds. Verlot<a name="NtA_869" + href="#Nt_869"><sup>[869]</sup></a> states that on <i>Aralia + trifoliata</i>, which properly has leaves with three leaflets, branches + bearing simple leaves of various forms frequently appear; these can be + propagated by buds or grafting, and have given rise, as he states, to + several nominal species.</p> + + <p>With respect to trees, the history of but few of the many varieties + with curious or ornamental foliage is known; but several probably have + originated by bud-variation. Here is one case:—An old ash-tree + (<i>Fraxinus excelsior</i>) in the grounds of Necton, as Mr. Mason + states, "for many years has had one bough of a totally different + character to the rest of the tree, or of any other ash-tree which I have + seen; being short-jointed and densely covered with foliage." It was + ascertained that this variety could be propagated by grafts.<a + name="NtA_870" href="#Nt_870"><sup>[870]</sup></a> The varieties of some + trees with cut leaves, as the oak-leaved laburnum, the parsley-leaved + vine, and especially the fern-leaved beech, are apt to revert by buds to + the common form.<a name="NtA_871" href="#Nt_871"><sup>[871]</sup></a> The + fern-like leaves of the beech sometimes revert only partially, and the + branches display here and there sprouts bearing common leaves, fern-like, + and variously shaped leaves. Such cases differ but little from the + so-called <!-- Page 383 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page383"></a>{383}</span>heterophyllous varieties, in which the + tree habitually bears leaves of various forms; but it is probable that + most heterophyllous trees have originated as seedlings. There is a + sub-variety of the weeping willow with leaves rolled up into a spiral + coil; and Mr. Masters states that a tree of this kind kept true in his + garden for twenty-five years, and then threw out a single upright shoot + bearing flat leaves.<a name="NtA_872" + href="#Nt_872"><sup>[872]</sup></a></p> + + <p>I have often noticed single twigs and branches on beech and other + trees with their leaves fully expanded before those on the other branches + had opened; and as there was nothing in their exposure or character to + account for this difference, I presume that they had appeared as + bud-variations, like the early and late fruit-maturing varieties of the + peach and nectarine.</p> + + <p>Cryptogamic plants are liable to bud-variation, for fronds on the same + fern are often seen to display remarkable deviations of structure. + Spores, which are of the nature of buds, taken from such abnormal fronds, + reproduce, with remarkable fidelity, the same variety, after passing + through the sexual stage.<a name="NtA_873" + href="#Nt_873"><sup>[873]</sup></a></p> + + <p>With respect to colour, leaves often become by bud-variation zoned, + blotched, or spotted with white, yellow, and red; and this occasionally + occurs even with plants in a state of nature. Variegation, however, + appears still more frequently in plants produced from seed; even the + cotyledons or seed-leaves being thus affected.<a name="NtA_874" + href="#Nt_874"><sup>[874]</sup></a> There have been endless disputes + whether variegation should be considered as a disease. In a future + chapter we shall see that it is much influenced, both in the case of + seedlings and of mature plants, by the nature of the soil. Plants which + have become variegated as seedlings, generally transmit their character + by seed to a large proportion of their progeny; and Mr. Salter has given + me a list of eight genera in which this occurred.<a name="NtA_875" + href="#Nt_875"><sup>[875]</sup></a> Sir F. Pollock has given me more + precise information: he sowed seed from a variegated plant of <i>Ballota + nigra</i> which was found growing wild, and thirty per cent. of the + seedlings were variegated; seed from these latter being sown, sixty per + cent. came up variegated. When branches become variegated by + bud-variation, and the variety is attempted to be propagated by seed, the + seedlings are rarely variegated; Mr. Salter found this to be the case + with plants belonging to eleven genera, in which the greater number of + the seedlings proved to be green-leaved; yet a few were slightly + variegated, or were quite white, but none were worth keeping. Variegated + plants, whether originally produced from seeds or buds, can generally be + propagated by budding, grafting, &c.; but all are apt to revert by + bud-variation to their ordinary foliage. This tendency, however, differs + much in the varieties of even the same species; for instance, the + golden-striped variety of <i>Euonymus Japonicus</i> "is very liable to + run back to the green-leaved, while the silver-striped <!-- Page 384 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page384"></a>{384}</span>variety hardly + ever changes."<a name="NtA_876" href="#Nt_876"><sup>[876]</sup></a> I + have seen a variety of the holly, with its leaves having a central yellow + patch, which had everywhere partially reverted to the ordinary foliage, + so that on the same small branch there were many twigs of both kinds. In + the pelargonium, and in some other plants, variegation is generally + accompanied by some degree of dwarfing, as is well exemplified in the + "Dandy" pelargonium. When such dwarf varieties sport back by buds or + suckers to the ordinary foliage, the dwarfed stature sometimes still + remains.<a name="NtA_877" href="#Nt_877"><sup>[877]</sup></a> It is + remarkable that plants propagated from branches which have reverted from + variegated to plain leaves<a name="NtA_878" + href="#Nt_878"><sup>[878]</sup></a> do not always (or never, as one + observer asserts) perfectly resemble the original plain-leaved plant from + which the variegated branch arose: it seems that a plant, in passing by + bud-variation from plain leaves to variegated, and back again from + variegated to plain, is generally in some degree affected so as to assume + a slightly different aspect.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p><i>Bud-variation by Suckers, Tubers, and Bulbs.</i>—All the + cases hitherto given of bud-variation in fruits, flowers, leaves, and + shoots, have been confined to buds on the stems or branches, with the + exception of a few cases incidentally noticed of varying suckers in the + rose, pelargonium, and chrysanthemum. I will now give a few instances of + variation in subterranean buds, that is, by suckers, tubers, and bulbs; + not that there is any essential difference between buds above and beneath + the ground. Mr. Salter informs me that two variegated varieties of Phlox + originated as suckers; but I should not have thought these worth + mentioning, had not Mr. Salter found, after repeated trials, that he + could not propagate them by "root-joints," whereas, the variegated + <i>Tussilago farfara</i> can thus be safely propagated;<a name="NtA_879" + href="#Nt_879"><sup>[879]</sup></a> but this latter plant may have + originated as a variegated seedling, which would account for its greater + fixedness of character. The Barberry (<i>Berberis vulgaris</i>) offers an + analogous case; there is a well-known variety with seedless fruit, which + can be propagated by cuttings or layers; but suckers always revert to the + common form, which produces fruit containing seeds.<a name="NtA_880" + href="#Nt_880"><sup>[880]</sup></a> My father repeatedly tried this + experiment, and always with the same result.</p> + + <p>Turning now to tubers: in the common Potato (<i>Solanum tuberosum</i>) + a single bud or eye sometimes varies and produces a new variety; or, + occasionally, and this is a much more remarkable circumstance, all the + eyes in a tuber vary in the same manner and at the same time, so that the + whole tuber assumes a new character. For instance, a single eye in a + tuber of the <!-- Page 385 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page385"></a>{385}</span>old <i>Forty-fold potato</i>, which is a + purple variety, was observed<a name="NtA_881" + href="#Nt_881"><sup>[881]</sup></a> to become white; this eye was cut out + and planted separately, and the kind has since been largely propagated. + <i>Kemp's Potato</i> is properly white, but a plant in Lancashire + produced two tubers which were red, and two which were white; the red + kind was propagated in the usual manner by eyes, and kept true to its new + colour, and, being found a more productive variety, soon became widely + known under the name of <i>Taylor's Forty-fold</i>.<a name="NtA_882" + href="#Nt_882"><sup>[882]</sup></a> The <i>Old Forty-fold</i> potato, as + already stated, is a purple variety; but a plant long cultivated on the + same ground produced, not as in the case above given a single white eye, + but a whole white tuber, which has since been propagated and keeps + true.<a name="NtA_883" href="#Nt_883"><sup>[883]</sup></a> Several cases + have been recorded of large portions of whole rows of potatoes slightly + changing their character.<a name="NtA_884" + href="#Nt_884"><sup>[884]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Dahlias propagated by tubers under the hot climate of St. Domingo vary + much; Sir R. Schomburgk gives the case of the "Butterfly variety," which + the second year produced on the same plant "double and single flowers; + here white petals edged with maroon; there of a uniform deep maroon."<a + name="NtA_885" href="#Nt_885"><sup>[885]</sup></a> Mr. Bree also mentions + a plant "which bore two different kinds of self-coloured flowers, as well + as a third kind which partook of both colours beautifully intermixed."<a + name="NtA_886" href="#Nt_886"><sup>[886]</sup></a> Another case is + described of a dahlia with purple flowers which bore a white flower + streaked with purple.<a name="NtA_887" + href="#Nt_887"><sup>[887]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Considering how long and extensively many Bulbous plants have been + cultivated, and how numerous are the varieties produced from seed, these + plants have not varied so much by offsets,—that is, by the + production of new bulbs,—as might have been expected. With the + Hyacinth a case has been recorded of a blue variety which for three + successive years gave offsets which produced white flowers with a red + centre.<a name="NtA_888" href="#Nt_888"><sup>[888]</sup></a> Another + hyacinth has been described<a name="NtA_889" + href="#Nt_889"><sup>[889]</sup></a> as bearing on the same truss a + perfectly pink and a perfectly blue flower.</p> + + <p>Mr. John Scott informs me that in 1862 <i>Imatophyllum miniatum</i>, + in the Botanic Gardens of Edinburgh, threw up a sucker which differed + from the normal form, in the leaves being two-ranked instead of + four-ranked. The leaves were also smaller, with the upper surface raised + instead of being channelled.</p> + + <p>In the propagation of <i>Tulips</i>, seedlings are raised, called + <i>selfs</i> or <i>breeders</i>, which "consist of one plain colour on a + white or yellow bottom. These, being cultivated on a dry and rather poor + soil, become broken or variegated and produce new varieties. The time + that elapses before they break varies from one to twenty years or more, + and sometimes this change never takes place."<a name="NtA_890" + href="#Nt_890"><sup>[890]</sup></a> The various broken or variegated + colours which give value to all tulips are due to bud-variation; for + although the <!-- Page 386 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page386"></a>{386}</span>Bybloemens and some other kinds have been + raised from several distinct breeders, yet all the Baguets are said to + have come from a single breeder or seedling. This bud-variation, in + accordance with the views of MM. Vilmorin and Verlot,<a name="NtA_891" + href="#Nt_891"><sup>[891]</sup></a> is probably an attempt to revert to + that uniform colour which is natural to the species. A tulip, however, + which has already become broken, when treated with too strong manure, is + liable to flush or lose by a second act of reversion its variegated + colours. Some kinds, as Imperatrix Florum, are much more liable than + others to flushing; and Mr. Dickson maintains<a name="NtA_892" + href="#Nt_892"><sup>[892]</sup></a> that this can no more be accounted + for than the variation of any other plant. He believes that English + growers, from care in choosing seed from broken flowers instead of from + plain flowers, have to a certain extent diminished the tendency in + flowers already broken to flushing or secondary reversion.</p> + + <p>During two consecutive years all the early flowers in a bed of + <i>Tigridia conchiflora</i><a name="NtA_893" + href="#Nt_893"><sup>[893]</sup></a> resembled those of the old <i>T. + pavonia</i>; but the later flowers assumed their proper colour of fine + yellow spotted with crimson. An apparently authentic account has been + published<a name="NtA_894" href="#Nt_894"><sup>[894]</sup></a> of two + forms of Hemerocallis, which have been universally considered as distinct + species, changing into each other; for the roots of the large-flowered + tawny <i>H. fulva</i>, being divided and planted in a different soil and + place, produced the small-flowered yellow <i>H. flava</i>, as well as + some intermediate forms. It is doubtful whether such cases as these + latter, as well as the "flushing" of broken tulips and the "running" of + particoloured carnations,—that is, their more or less complete + return to a uniform tint,—ought to be classed under bud-variation, + or ought to be retained for the chapter in which I treat of the direct + action of the conditions of life on organic beings. These cases, however, + have this much in common with bud-variation, that the change is effected + through buds and not through seminal reproduction. But, on the other + hand, there is this difference—that in ordinary cases of + bud-variation, one bud alone changes, whilst in the foregoing cases all + the buds on the same plant were modified together; yet we have an + intermediate case, for with the potato all the eyes in one tuber alone + simultaneously changed their character.</p> + + <p>I will conclude with a few allied cases, which may be ranked either + under bud-variation, or under the direct action of the conditions of + life. When the common Hepatica is transplanted from its native woods, the + flowers change colour, even during the first year.<a name="NtA_895" + href="#Nt_895"><sup>[895]</sup></a> It is notorious that the improved + varieties of the Heartsease (<i>Viola tricolor</i>) when transplanted + often produce flowers widely different in size, form, and colour: for + instance, I transplanted a large uniformly-coloured dark purple variety, + whilst in full flower, and it then produced much smaller, more elongated + flowers, with the lower petals yellow; these were succeeded by flowers + marked with large purple spots, and ultimately, towards the end of the + same summer, by the original large dark purple flowers. The slight + changes which some <!-- Page 387 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page387"></a>{387}</span>fruit-trees undergo from being grafted and + regrafted on various stocks,<a name="NtA_896" + href="#Nt_896"><sup>[896]</sup></a> were considered by Andrew Knight<a + name="NtA_897" href="#Nt_897"><sup>[897]</sup></a> as closely allied to + "sporting branches," or bud-variations. Again, we have the case of young + fruit-trees changing their character as they grow old; seedling pears, + for instance, lose with age their spines and improve in the flavour of + their fruit. Weeping birch-trees, when grafted on the common variety, do + not acquire a perfect pendulous habit until they grow old: on the other + hand, I shall hereafter give the case of some weeping ashes which slowly + and gradually assumed an upright habit of growth. All such changes, + dependent on age, may be compared with the changes, alluded to in the + last chapter, which many trees naturally undergo; as in the case of the + Deodar and Cedar of Lebanon, which are unlike in youth and closely + resemble each other in old age; and as with certain oaks, and with some + varieties of the lime and hawthorn.<a name="NtA_898" + href="#Nt_898"><sup>[898]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Before giving a summary on Bud-variation I will discuss some singular + and anomalous cases, which are more or less closely related to this same + subject. I will begin with the famous case of Adam's laburnum or + <i>Cytisus Adami</i>, a form or hybrid intermediate between two very + distinct species, namely, <i>C. laburnum</i> and <i>purpureus</i>, the + common and purple laburnum; but as this tree has often been described, I + will be as brief as I can.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Throughout Europe, in different soils and under different climates, + branches on this tree have repeatedly and suddenly reverted to both + parent-species in their flowers and leaves. To behold mingled on the same + tree tufts of dingy-red, bright yellow, and purple flowers, borne on + branches having widely different leaves and manner of growth, is a + surprising sight. The same raceme sometimes bears two kinds of flowers; + and I have seen a single flower exactly divided into halves, one side + being bright yellow and the other purple; so that one half of the + standard-petal was yellow and of larger size, and the other half purple + and smaller. In another flower the whole corolla was bright yellow, but + exactly half the calyx was purple. In another, one of the dingy-red + wing-petals had a bright yellow narrow stripe on it; and lastly, in + another flower, one of the stamens, which had become slightly foliaceous, + was half yellow and half purple; so that the tendency to segregation of + character or reversion affects even single parts <!-- Page 388 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page388"></a>{388}</span>and organs.<a + name="NtA_899" href="#Nt_899"><sup>[899]</sup></a> The most remarkable + fact about this tree is that in its intermediate state, even when growing + near both parent-species, it is quite sterile; but when the flowers + become pure yellow or pure purple they yield seed. I believe that the + pods from the yellow flowers yield a full complement of seed; they + certainly yield a large number. Two seedlings raised by Mr. Herbert from + such seed<a name="NtA_900" href="#Nt_900"><sup>[900]</sup></a> exhibited + a purple tinge on the stalks of their flowers; but several seedlings + raised by myself resembled in every character the common laburnum, with + the exception that some of them had remarkably long racemes: these + seedlings were perfectly fertile. That such purity of character and + fertility should be suddenly reacquired from so hybridized and sterile a + form is an astonishing phenomenon. The branches with purple flowers + appear at first sight exactly to resemble those of <i>C. purpureus</i>; + but on careful comparison I found that they differed from the pure + species in the shoots being thicker, the leaves a little broader, and the + flowers slightly shorter, with the corolla and calyx less brightly + purple: the basal part of the standard-petal also plainly showed a trace + of the yellow stain. So that the flowers, at least in this instance, had + not perfectly recovered their true character; and in accordance with + this, they were not perfectly fertile, for many of the pods contained no + seed, some produced one, and very few contained as many as two seeds; + whilst numerous pods on a tree of the pure <i>C. purpureus</i> in my + garden contained three, four, and five fine seeds. The pollen, moreover, + was very imperfect, a multitude of grains being small and shrivelled; and + this is a singular fact; for, as we shall immediately see, the + pollen-grains in the dingy-red and sterile flowers on the parent-tree, + were, in external appearance, in a much better state, and included very + few shrivelled grain. Although the pollen of the reverted purple flowers + was in so poor a condition, the ovules were well-formed, and, when + mature, germinated freely with me. Mr. Herbert also raised plants from + seeds of the reverted purple flowers, and they differed <i>very + little</i> from the usual state of <i>C. purpureus</i>; but this + expression shows that they had not perfectly recovered their proper + character.</p> + + <p>Prof. Caspary has examined the ovules of the dingy-red and sterile + flowers in several plants of <i>C. adami</i> on the Continent,<a + name="NtA_901" href="#Nt_901"><sup>[901]</sup></a> and finds them + generally monstrous. In three plants examined by me in England, the + ovules were likewise monstrous, the nucleus varying much in shape, and + projecting irregularly beyond the proper coats. The pollen-grains, on the + other hand, judging from their external appearance, were remarkably good, + and readily protruded their tubes. By repeatedly counting, under the + microscope, the proportional number of bad grains, Prof. Caspary + ascertained that only 2.5 per cent. were bad, which is a less proportion + than in the pollen of three pure species of Cytisus in their cultivated + state, viz. <i>C. purpureus</i>, <i>laburnum</i>, and <i>alpinus</i>. + Although the pollen of <i>C. adami</i> is thus in appearance good, it + does not follow, according <!-- Page 389 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page389"></a>{389}</span>to M. Naudin's observations<a + name="NtA_902" href="#Nt_902"><sup>[902]</sup></a> on Mirabilis, that it + would be functionally effective. The fact of the ovules of <i>C. + adami</i> being monstrous, and the pollen apparently sound, is all the + more remarkable, because it is opposed to what usually occurs not only + with most hybrids,<a name="NtA_903" href="#Nt_903"><sup>[903]</sup></a> + but with two hybrids in the same genus, namely in <i>C. + purpureo-elongatus</i>, and <i>C. alpino-laburnum</i>. In both these + hybrids, the ovules, as observed by Prof. Caspary and myself, were + well-formed, whilst many of the pollen-grains were ill-formed; in the + latter hybrid 20.3 per cent., and in the former no less than 84.8 per + cent. of the grains were ascertained by Prof. Caspary to be bad. This + unusual condition of the male and female reproductive elements in <i>C. + adami</i> has been used by Prof. Caspary as an argument against this + plant being considered as an ordinary hybrid produced from seed; but we + should remember that with hybrids the ovules have not been examined + nearly so frequently as the pollen, and they may be much oftener + imperfect than is generally supposed. Dr. E. Bornet, of Antibes, informs + me (through Mr. J. Traherne Moggridge) that with hybrid Cisti the ovarium + is frequently deformed, the ovules being in some cases quite absent, and + in other cases incapable of fertilisation.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p>Several theories have been propounded to account for the origin of + <i>C. adami</i>, and for the transformations which it undergoes. These + transformations have been attributed by some authors to simple + bud-variation; but considering the wide difference between <i>C. + laburnum</i> and <i>purpureus</i>, both of which are natural species, and + considering the sterility of the intermediate form, this view may be + summarily rejected. We shall presently see that, with hybrid plants, two + different embryos may be developed within the same seed and cohere; and + it has been supposed that <i>C. adami</i> might have thus originated. It + is known that when a plant with variegated leaves is budded on a plain + stock, the latter is sometimes affected, and it is believed by some that + the laburnum has been thus affected. Thus Mr. Purser states<a + name="NtA_904" href="#Nt_904"><sup>[904]</sup></a> that a common + laburnum-tree in his garden, into which three <i>grafts</i> of the + <i>Cytisus purpureus</i> had been inserted, gradually assumed the + character of <i>C. adami</i>; but more evidence and copious details would + be requisite to make so extraordinary a statement credible.</p> + + <p>Many authors maintain that <i>C. adami</i> is a hybrid produced in the + common way by seed, and that it has reverted by buds to its two + parent-forms. Negative results are of little value; but Reisseck, + Caspary, and I myself, tried in vain to cross <i>C. laburnum</i> and + <i>purpureus</i>; when I fertilised the former with pollen of the latter, + I had the nearest approach to success, for pods were formed, but in + sixteen days after the withering of the flowers they fell off. + Nevertheless, the belief that <i>C. adami</i> is a spontaneously produced + hybrid between these two species is strongly supported by the fact that + hybrids between these species and two others have spontaneously <!-- Page + 390 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page390"></a>{390}</span>arisen. In + a bed of seedlings from <i>C. elongatus</i>, which grew near to <i>C. + purpureus,</i> and was probably fertilised by it, through the agency of + insects (for these, as I know by experiment, play an important part in + the fertilisation of the laburnum), the sterile hybrid <i>C. + purpureo-elongatus</i> appeared.<a name="NtA_905" + href="#Nt_905"><sup>[905]</sup></a> Thus, also, Waterer's laburnum, the + <i>C. alpino-laburnum</i>,<a name="NtA_906" + href="#Nt_906"><sup>[906]</sup></a> spontaneously appeared, as I am + informed by Mr. Waterer, in a bed of seedlings.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, we have a clear and distinct account given by M. + Adam, who raised the plant, to Poiteau,<a name="NtA_907" + href="#Nt_907"><sup>[907]</sup></a> showing that <i>C. adami</i> is not + an ordinary hybrid. M. Adam inserted in the usual manner a shield of the + bark of <i>C. purpureus</i> into a stock of <i>C. laburnum</i>; and the + bud lay dormant, as often happens, for a year; the shield then produced + many buds and shoots, one of which grew more upright and vigorous with + larger leaves than the shoots of <i>C. purpureus</i>, and was + consequently propagated. Now it deserves especial notice that these + plants were sold by M. Adam, as a variety of <i>C. purpureus</i>, before + they had flowered; and the account was published by Poiteau after the + plants had flowered, but before they had exhibited their remarkable + tendency to revert into the two parent-species. So that there was no + conceivable motive for falsification, and it is difficult to see how + there could have been any error. If we admit as true M. Adam's account, + we must admit the extraordinary fact that two distinct species can unite + by their cellular tissue, and subsequently produce a plant bearing leaves + and sterile flowers intermediate in character between the scion and + stock, and producing buds liable to reversion; in short, resembling in + every important respect a hybrid formed in the ordinary way by seminal + reproduction. Such plants, if really thus formed, might be called + graft-hybrids.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p>I will now give all the facts which I have been able to collect + illustrative of the above theories, not for the sake of merely throwing + light on the origin of <i>C. adami</i>, but to show in how many + extraordinary and complex methods one kind of plant may affect another, + generally in connection with bud-variation. The supposition that either + <i>C. laburnum</i> or <i>purpureus</i> produced by ordinary bud-variation + the intermediate and the other form, may, as already remarked, be + absolutely excluded, from the want of any evidence, from the great amount + of change thus implied, <!-- Page 391 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page391"></a>{391}</span>and from the sterility of the intermediate + form. Nevertheless such cases as nectarines suddenly appearing on + peach-trees, occasionally with the fruit half-and-half in + nature,—moss-roses appearing on other roses, with the flowers + divided into halves, or striped with different colours,—and other + such cases, are closely analogous in the result produced, though not in + origin, with the case of <i>C. adami</i>.</p> + + <p>A distinguished botanist, Mr. G. H. Thwaites,<a name="NtA_908" + href="#Nt_908"><sup>[908]</sup></a> has recorded a remarkable case of a + seed from <i>Fuchsia coccinea</i> fertilised by <i>F. fulgens</i>, which + contained two embryos, and was "a true vegetable twin." The two plants + produced from the two embryos were "extremely different in appearance and + character," though both resembled other hybrids of the same parentage + produced at the same time. These twin plants "were closely coherent, + below the two pairs of cotyledon-leaves, into a single cylindrical stem, + so that they had subsequently the appearance of being branches on one + trunk." Had the two united stems grown up to their full height, instead + of dying, a curiously mixed hybrid would have been produced; but even if + some of the buds had subsequently reverted to both parent-forms, the + case, although more complex, would not have been strictly analogous with + that of <i>C. adami</i>. On the other hand, a mongrel melon described by + Sageret<a name="NtA_909" href="#Nt_909"><sup>[909]</sup></a> perhaps did + thus originate; for the two main branches, which arose from two + cotyledon-buds, produced very different fruit,—on the one branch + like that of the paternal variety, and on the other branch to a certain + extent like that of the maternal variety, the melon of China.</p> + + <p>The famous <i>bizzarria Orange</i> offers a strictly parallel case to + that of <i>Cytisus adami</i>. The gardener who in 1644 in Florence raised + this tree, declared that it was a seedling which had been grafted; and + after the graft had perished, the stock sprouted and produced the + bizzarria. Gallesio, who carefully examined several living specimens and + compared them with the description given by the original describer P. + Nato,<a name="NtA_910" href="#Nt_910"><sup>[910]</sup></a> states that + the tree produces at the same time leaves, flowers, and fruit, identical + with the bitter orange and with the citron of Florence, and likewise + compound fruit with the two kinds either blended together, both + externally and internally, or segregated in various ways. This tree can + be propagated by cuttings, and retains its diversified character. The + so-called trifacial orange of Alexandria and Smyrna<a name="NtA_911" + href="#Nt_911"><sup>[911]</sup></a> resembles in its general nature the + bizzarria, but differs from it in the <i>sweet</i> orange and citron + being blended together in the same fruit, and separately produced on the + same tree: nothing is known of its origin. In regard to the bizzarria, + many authors believe that it is a graft-hybrid; Gallesio on the other + hand thinks that it is an ordinary hybrid, with the habit of partially + reverting <!-- Page 392 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page392"></a>{392}</span>by buds to the two parent-forms; and we + have seen in the last chapter that the species in this genus often cross + spontaneously.</p> + + <p>Here is another analogous, but doubtful case. A writer in the + 'Gardener's Chronicle'<a name="NtA_912" + href="#Nt_912"><sup>[912]</sup></a> states that an <i>Æsculus + rubicunda</i> in his garden yearly produced on one of its branches + "spikes of pale yellow flowers, smaller in size and somewhat similar in + colour to those of <i>Æ. flava</i>." If as the editor believes <i>Æsculus + rubicunda</i> is a hybrid descended on one side from <i>Æ. flava</i>, we + have a case of partial reversion to one of the parent-forms. If, as some + botanists maintain, <i>Æ. rubicunda</i> is not a hybrid, but a natural + species, the case is one of simple bud-variation.</p> + + <p>The following facts show that hybrids produced from seed in the + ordinary way, certainly sometimes revert by buds to their parent-forms. + Hybrids between <i>Tropæolum minus</i> and <i>majus</i><a name="NtA_913" + href="#Nt_913"><sup>[913]</sup></a> at first produced flowers + intermediate in size, colour, and structure between their two parents; + but later in the season some of these plants produced flowers in all + respects like those of the mother-form, mingled with flowers still + retaining the usual intermediate condition. A hybrid Cereus between <i>C. + speciosissimus</i> and <i>phyllanthus</i>,<a name="NtA_914" + href="#Nt_914"><sup>[914]</sup></a> plants which are widely different in + appearance, produced for the first three years angular, five-sided stems, + and then some flat stems like those of <i>C. phyllanthus</i>. Kölreuter + also gives cases of hybrid Lobelias and Verbascums, which at first + produced flowers of one colour, and later in the season flowers of a + different colour.<a name="NtA_915" href="#Nt_915"><sup>[915]</sup></a> + Naudin<a name="NtA_916" href="#Nt_916"><sup>[916]</sup></a> raised forty + hybrids from <i>Datura lævis</i> fertilised by <i>D. stramonium</i>; and + three of these hybrids produced many capsules, of which a half, or + quarter, or lesser segment was smooth and of small size like the capsule + of the pure <i>D. lævis</i>, the remaining part being spinose and of + larger size like the capsule of the pure <i>D. stramonium</i>: from one + of these composite capsules, plants were raised which perfectly resembled + both parent-forms.</p> + + <p>Turning now to varieties. A <i>seedling</i> apple, conjectured to be + of crossed parentage, has been described in France,<a name="NtA_917" + href="#Nt_917"><sup>[917]</sup></a> which bears fruit, with one half + larger than the other, of a red colour, acid taste, and peculiar odour; + the other side being greenish-yellow and very sweet: it is said scarcely + ever to include perfectly developed seed. I suppose that this is not the + same tree with that which Gaudichaud<a name="NtA_918" + href="#Nt_918"><sup>[918]</sup></a> exhibited before the French + Institute, bearing on the same branch two distinct kinds of apples, one a + <i>reinette rouge</i>, and the other like a <i>reinette canada + jaunâtre</i>: this double-bearing variety can be propagated by grafts, + and continues to produce both kinds; its origin is unknown. The Rev. J. + D. La Touche sent me a coloured drawing of an apple which he brought from + Canada, of which half, surrounding and including the whole of the calyx + and the insertion of the <!-- Page 393 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page393"></a>{393}</span>footstalk, is green, the other half being + brown and of the nature of the <i>pomme gris</i> apple, with the line of + separation between the two halves exactly defined. The tree was a grafted + one, and Mr. La Touche thinks that the branch which bore this curious + apple sprung from the point of junction of the graft and stock: had this + fact been ascertained, the case would probably have come into the small + class of graft-hybrids presently to be given. But the branch may have + sprung from the stock, which no doubt was a seedling.</p> + + <p>Prof. H. Lecoq, who has made a great number of crosses between the + differently coloured varieties of <i>Mirabilis jalapa</i>,<a + name="NtA_919" href="#Nt_919"><sup>[919]</sup></a> finds that in the + seedlings the colours rarely combine, but form distinct stripes; or half + the flower is of one colour and half of a different colour. Some + varieties regularly bear flowers striped with yellow, white, and red; but + plants of such varieties occasionally produce on the same root branches + with uniformly coloured flowers of all three tints, and other branches + with half-and-half coloured flowers and others with marbled flowers. + Gallesio<a name="NtA_920" href="#Nt_920"><sup>[920]</sup></a> crossed + reciprocally white and red carnations, and the seedlings were striped; + but some of the striped plants also bore entirely white and entirely red + flowers. Some of these plants produced one year red flowers alone, and in + the following year striped flowers; or conversely, some plants, after + having borne for two or three years striped flowers, would revert and + bear exclusively red flowers. It may be worth mentioning that I + fertilised the <i>Purple Sweet-pea</i> (<i>Lathyrus odoratus</i>) with + pollen from the light-coloured <i>Painted Lady</i>: seedlings raised from + one and the same pod were not intermediate in character, but perfectly + resembled both parents. Later in the summer, the plants which had at + first borne flowers identical with those of the <i>Painted Lady</i>, + produced flowers streaked and blotched with purple; showing in these + darker marks a tendency to reversion to the mother-variety. Andrew + Knight<a name="NtA_921" href="#Nt_921"><sup>[921]</sup></a> fertilised + two white grapes with pollen of the Aleppo grape, which is darkly + variegated both in its leaves and fruit. The result was that the young + seedlings were not at first variegated, but all became variegated during + the succeeding summer; besides this, many produced on the same plant + bunches of grapes which were all black, or all white, or lead-coloured + striped with white, or white dotted with minute black stripes; and grapes + of all these shades could frequently be found on the same footstalk.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>In most of these cases of crossed varieties, and in some of the cases + of crossed species, the colours proper to both parents appeared in the + seedlings, as soon as they first flowered, in the form of stripes or + larger segments, or as whole flowers or fruit of two kinds borne on the + same plant; and in this case the appearance of the two colours cannot + strictly be said to be due to reversion, but to some incapacity of + fusion, leading to their <!-- Page 394 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page394"></a>{394}</span>segregation. When, however, the later + flowers or fruit, produced during the same season or during a succeeding + year or generation, become striped or half-in-half, &c., the + segregation of the two colours is strictly a case of reversion by + bud-variation. In a future chapter I shall show that, with animals of + crossed parentage, the same individual has been known to change its + character during growth, and to revert to one of its parents which it did + not at first resemble. From the various facts now given there can be no + doubt that the same individual plant, whether a hybrid or a mongrel, + sometimes returns in its leaves, flowers, and fruit, either wholly or by + segments, to both parent-forms, in the same manner as the <i>Cytisus + adami</i>, and the <i>Bizzarria Orange</i>.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p>We will now consider the few facts which have been recorded in support + of the belief that a variety when grafted or budded on another variety + sometimes affects the whole stock, or at the point of junction gives rise + to a bud, or graft-hybrid, which partakes of the characters of both stock + and scion.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>It is notorious that when the variegated Jessamine is budded on the + common kind, the stock sometimes produces buds bearing variegated leaves: + Mr. Rivers, as he informs me, has seen instances of this. The same thing + occurs with the Oleander.<a name="NtA_922" + href="#Nt_922"><sup>[922]</sup></a> Mr. Rivers, on the authority of a + trustworthy friend, states that some buds of a golden-variegated ash, + which were inserted into common ashes, all died except one; but the + ash-stocks were affected,<a name="NtA_923" + href="#Nt_923"><sup>[923]</sup></a> and produced, both above and below + the points of insertion of the plates of bark bearing the dead buds, + shoots which bore variegated leaves. Mr. J. Anderson Henry has + communicated to me a nearly similar case: Mr. Brown, of Perth, observed + many years ago, in a Highland glen, an ash-tree with yellow leaves; and + buds taken from this tree were inserted into common ashes, which in + consequence were affected, and produced the <i>Blotched Breadalbane + Ash</i>. This variety has been propagated, and has preserved its + character during the last fifty years. Weeping ashes, also, were budded + on the affected stocks, and became similarly variegated. Many authors + consider variegation as the result of disease; and on this view, which + however is doubtful, for some variegated plants are perfectly healthy and + vigorous, the foregoing cases may be looked at as the direct result of + the inoculation of a disease. Variegation is much influenced, as we shall + hereafter see, by the nature of the soil in which the <!-- Page 395 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page395"></a>{395}</span>plants are + grown; and it does not seem improbable that whatever change in the sap or + tissues certain soils induce, whether or not called a disease, might + spread from the inserted piece of bark to the stock. But a change of this + kind cannot be considered to be of the nature of a graft-hybrid.</p> + + <p>There is a variety of the hazel with dark-purple leaves, like those of + the copper-beech: no one has attributed this colour to disease, and it + apparently is only an exaggeration of a tint which may often be seen on + the leaves of the common hazel. When this variety is grafted on the + common hazel,<a name="NtA_924" href="#Nt_924"><sup>[924]</sup></a> it + sometimes colours, as has been asserted, the leaves below the graft; but + I should add that Mr. Rivers, who has possessed hundreds of such grafted + trees, has never seen an instance.</p> + + <p>Gärtner<a name="NtA_925" href="#Nt_925"><sup>[925]</sup></a> quotes + two separate accounts of branches of dark and white-fruited vines which + had been united in various ways, such as being split longitudinally, and + then joined, &c.; and these branches produced distinct bunches of + grapes of the two colours, and other bunches with grapes either striped + or of an intermediate and new tint. Even the leaves in one case were + variegated. These facts are the more remarkable because Andrew Knight + never succeeded in raising variegated grapes by fertilising white kinds + by pollen of dark kinds; though, as we have seen, he obtained seedlings + with variegated fruit and leaves, by fertilising a white variety by the + variegated dark Aleppo grape. Gärtner attributes the above-quoted cases + merely to bud-variation; but it is a strange coincidence that the + branches which had been grafted in a peculiar manner should alone have + thus varied; and H. Adorne de Tscharner positively asserts that he + produced the described result more than once, and could do so at will, by + splitting and uniting the branches in the manner described by him.</p> + + <p>I should not have quoted the following case had not the author of 'Des + Jacinthes'<a name="NtA_926" href="#Nt_926"><sup>[926]</sup></a> impressed + me with the belief not only of his extensive knowledge, but of his + truthfulness: he says that bulbs of blue and red hyacinths may be cut in + two, and that they will grow together and throw up a united stem (and + this I have myself seen), with flowers of the two colours on the opposite + sides. But the remarkable point is, that flowers are sometimes produced + with the two colours blended together, which makes the case closely + analogous with that of the blended colours of the grapes on the united + vine-branches.</p> + + <p>Mr. E. Trail stated in 1867, before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh + (and has since given me fuller information), that several years ago he + cut about sixty blue and white potatoes into halves through the eyes or + buds, and then carefully joined them, destroying at the same time the + other eyes. Some of these united tubers produced white, and others blue + tubers; and it is probable that in these cases the one half alone of the + bud grew. Some, however, produced tubers partly white and partly blue; + and the tubers from about four or five were regularly mottled with the + two colours. in these latter cases we may conclude that a stem had been + formed by <!-- Page 396 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page396"></a>{396}</span>the union of the bisected buds; and as + tubers are produced by the enlargement of subterranean branches arising + from the main stem, their mottled colour apparently affords clear + evidence of the intimate commingling of the two varieties. I have + repeated these experiments on the potato and on the hyacinth on a large + scale, but with no success.</p> + + <p>The most reliable instance known to me of the formation of a + graft-hybrid is one, recorded by Mr. Poynter,<a name="NtA_927" + href="#Nt_927"><sup>[927]</sup></a> who assures me, in a letter of the + entire accuracy of the statement, <i>Rosa Devoniensis</i> had been budded + some years previously on a white Banksian rose; and from the much + enlarged point of junction, whence the Devoniensis and Banksian still + continued to grow, a third branch issued, which was neither pure Banksian + nor pure Devoniensis, but partook of the character of both; the flowers + resembled, but were superior in character to those of the variety called + <i>Lamarque</i> (one of the Noisettes), while the shoots were similar in + their manner of growth to those of the Banksian rose, with the exception + that the longer and more robust shoots were furnished with prickles. This + rose was exhibited before the Floral Committee of the Horticultural + Society of London. Dr. Lindley examined it, and concluded that it had + certainly been produced by the mingling of <i>R. Banksiæ</i> with some + rose like <i>R. Devoniensis</i>, "for while it was very greatly increased + in vigour and in the size of all the parts, the leaves were half-way + between a Banksian and Tea-scented rose." It appears that rose-growers + were aware that the Banksian rose sometimes affects other roses. Had it + not been for this latter statement, it might have been suspected that + this new variety was simply due to bud-variation, and that it had + occurred by a mere accident at the point of junction between the two old + kinds.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>To sum up the foregoing facts: the statement that <i>Cytisus adami</i> + originated as a graft-hybrid is so precise that it can hardly be + rejected, and, as we have just seen, some analogous facts render the + statement to a certain extent probable. The peculiar, monstrous condition + of the ovules, and the apparently sound condition of the pollen, favour + the belief that it is not an ordinary or seminal hybrid. On the other + hand, the fact that the same two species, viz. <i>C. laburnum</i> and + <i>purpureus</i>, have spontaneously produced hybrids by seed, is a + strong argument in support of the belief that C. <i>adami</i> originated + in a similar manner. With respect to the extraordinary tendency which + this tree exhibits to complete or partial reversion, we have seen that + undoubted seminal hybrids and mongrels are similarly liable. On the + whole, I am inclined to put trust in M. Adam's statement; and if it + should ever be proved true, the same view would probably have <!-- Page + 397 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page397"></a>{397}</span>to be + extended to the Bizzarria and Trifacial oranges and to the apples above + described; but more evidence is requisite before the possibility of the + production of graft-hybrids can be fully admitted. Although it is at + present impossible to arrive at any certain conclusion with respect to + the origin of these remarkable trees, the various facts above given + appear to me to deserve attention under several points of view, more + especially as showing that the power of reversion is inherent in + Buds.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p><i>On the direct or immediate action of the Male Element on the Mother + Form.</i>—Another remarkable class of facts must be here + considered, because they have been supposed to account for some cases of + bud-variation: I refer to the direct action of the male element, not in + the ordinary way on the ovules, but on certain parts of the female plant, + or in the case of animals on the subsequent progeny of the female by a + second male. I may premise that with plants the ovarium and the coats of + the ovules are obviously parts of the female, and it could not have been + anticipated that they would be affected by the pollen of a foreign + variety or species, although the development of the embryo, within the + embryonic sack, within the ovule, within the ovarium, of course depends + on the male element.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Even as long ago as 1729 it was observed<a name="NtA_928" + href="#Nt_928"><sup>[928]</sup></a> that white and blue varieties of the + Pea, when planted near each other, mutually crossed, no doubt through the + agency of bees, and in the autumn blue and white peas were found within + the same pods. Wiegmann made an exactly similar observation in the + present century. The same result has followed several times when a + variety with peas of one colour has been artificially crossed by a + differently-coloured variety.<a name="NtA_929" + href="#Nt_929"><sup>[929]</sup></a> These statements led Gärtner, who was + highly sceptical on the subject, carefully to try a long series of + experiments: he selected the most constant varieties, and the result + conclusively showed that the colour of the skin of the pea is modified + when pollen of a differently coloured variety is used. This conclusion + has since been confirmed by experiments made by the Rev. J. M. + Berkeley.<a name="NtA_930" href="#Nt_930"><sup>[930]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Mr. Laxton of Stamford, whilst making experiments on peas for the + express purpose of ascertaining the influence of foreign pollen on the + mother-plant, has recently<a name="NtA_931" + href="#Nt_931"><sup>[931]</sup></a> observed an important additional + fact. He fertilised the Tall Sugar pea, which bears very thin green pods, + becoming <!-- Page 398 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page398"></a>{398}</span>brownish-white when dry, with pollen of + the Purple-podded pea, which, as its name expresses, has dark-purple pods + with very thick skin, becoming pale reddish-purple when dry. Mr. Laxton + has cultivated the tall sugar-pea during twenty years, and has never seen + or heard of it producing a purple pod; nevertheless, a flower fertilised + by pollen from the purple-pod yielded a pod clouded with purplish-red, + which Mr. Laxton kindly gave to me. A space of about two inches in length + towards the extremity of the pod, and a smaller space near the stalk, + were thus coloured. On comparing the colour with that of the purple-pod, + both pods having been first dried and then soaked in water, it was found + to be identically the same; and in both the colour was confined to the + cells lying immediately beneath the outer skin of the pod. The valves of + the crossed pod were also decidedly thicker and stronger than those of + the pods of the mother-plant, but this may have been an accidental + circumstance, for I know not how far their thickness in the Tall + Sugar-pea is a variable character.</p> + + <p>The peas of the Tall Sugar-pea, when dry, are pale greenish-brown, + thickly covered with dots of dark purple so minute as to be visible only + through a lens, and Mr. Laxton has never seen or heard of this variety + producing a purple pea; but in the crossed pod one of the peas was of a + uniform beautiful violet-purple tint, and a second was irregularly + clouded with pale purple. The colour lies in the outer of the two coats + which surround the pea. As the peas of the purple-podded variety when dry + are of a pale greenish-buff, it would at first appear that this + remarkable change of colour in the peas in the crossed pod could not have + been caused by the direct action of the pollen of the purple-pod: but + when we bear in mind that this latter variety has purple flowers, purple + marks on its stipules, and purple pods; and that the Tall sugar-pea + likewise has purple flowers and stipules, and microscopically minute + purple dots on the peas, we can hardly doubt that the tendency to the + production of purple in both parents has in combination modified the + colour of the peas in the crossed pod. After having examined these + specimens, I crossed the same two varieties, and the peas in one pod, but + not the pods themselves, were clouded and tinted with purplish-red in a + much more conspicuous manner than the peas in the uncrossed pods produced + at the same time by the same plants. I may notice as a caution that Mr. + Laxton sent me various other crossed peas slightly, or even greatly, + modified in colour; but the change in these cases was due, as had been + suspected by Mr. Laxton, to the altered colour of the cotyledons, seen + through the transparent coats of the peas; and as the cotyledons are + parts of the embryo, these cases are not in any way remarkable.</p> + + <p>Turning now to the genus Matthiola. The pollen of one kind of stock + sometimes affects the colour of the seeds of another kind, used as the + mother-plant. I give the following case the more readily, as Gärtner + doubted similar statements with respect to the stock previously made by + other observers. A well-known horticulturist, Major Trevor Clarke, + informs me<a name="NtA_932" href="#Nt_932"><sup>[932]</sup></a> that the + seeds of the large red-flowered <i>biennial</i> stock <!-- Page 399 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page399"></a>{399}</span>(<i>Matthiola + annua</i>; <i>Cocardeau</i> of the French) are light brown, and those of + the purple branching Queen stock (<i>M. incana</i>) are violet-black; and + he found that, when flowers of the red stock were fertilised by pollen + from the purple stock, they yielded about fifty per cent. of <i>black</i> + seeds. He sent me four pods from a red-flowered plant, two of which had + been fertilised by their own pollen, and they included pale brown seed; + and two which had been crossed by pollen from the purple kind, and they + included seeds all deeply tinged with black. These latter seeds yielded + purple-flowered plants like their father; whilst the pale brown seeds + yielded normal red-flowered plants; and Major Clarke, by sowing similar + seeds, has observed on a greater scale the same result. The evidence in + this case of the direct action of the pollen of one species on the colour + of the seeds of another species appears to me conclusive.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>In the foregoing cases, with the exception of that of the + purple-podded pea, the coats of the seeds alone have been affected in + colour. We shall now see that the ovarium itself, whether forming a large + fleshy fruit or a mere thin envelope, may be modified by foreign pollen, + in colour, flavour, texture, size, and shape.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>The most remarkable instance, because carefully recorded by highly + competent authorities, is one of which I have seen an account in a letter + written, in 1867, by M. Naudin to Dr. Hooker. M. Naudin states that he + has seen fruit growing on <i>Chamærops humilis</i>, which had been + fertilised by M. Denis with pollen from the Phœnix or date-palm. + The fruit or drupe thus produced was twice as large as, and more + elongated than, that proper to the Chamærops; so that it was intermediate + in these respects, as well as in texture, between the fruit of the two + parents. These hybridised seeds germinated, and produced young plants + likewise intermediate in character. This case is the more remarkable as + the Chamærops and Phœnix belong not only to distinct genera, but in + the estimation of some botanists to distinct sections of the family.</p> + + <p>Gallesio<a name="NtA_933" href="#Nt_933"><sup>[933]</sup></a> + fertilised the flowers of an orange with pollen from the lemon; and one + fruit thus produced bore a longitudinal stripe of peel having the colour, + flavour, and other characters of the lemon. Mr. Anderson<a name="NtA_934" + href="#Nt_934"><sup>[934]</sup></a> fertilised a green-fleshed melon with + pollen from a scarlet-fleshed kind; in two of the fruits "a sensible + change was perceptible; and four other fruits were somewhat altered both + internally and externally." The seeds of the two first-mentioned fruits + produced plants partaking of the good properties of both parents. In the + United States, where Cucurbitaceæ are largely cultivated, it is the + popular belief<a name="NtA_935" href="#Nt_935"><sup>[935]</sup></a> that + the fruit is thus directly affected by foreign pollen; and I have + received a similar statement with respect to <!-- Page 400 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page400"></a>{400}</span>the cucumber in + England. It is known that grapes have been thus affected in colour, size, + and shape: in France a pale-coloured grape had its juice tinted by the + pollen of the dark-coloured Teinturier; in Germany a variety bore berries + which were affected by the pollen of two adjoining kinds; some of the + berries being only partially affected or mottled.<a name="NtA_936" + href="#Nt_936"><sup>[936]</sup></a> As long ago as 1751<a name="NtA_937" + href="#Nt_937"><sup>[937]</sup></a> it was observed that, when + differently coloured varieties of maize grow near each other, they + mutually affect each other's seeds, and this is now a popular belief in + the United States. Dr. Savi<a name="NtA_938" + href="#Nt_938"><sup>[938]</sup></a> tried the experiment with care: he + sowed yellow and black-seeded maize together, and on the same ear some of + the seeds were yellow, some black, and some mottled,<a name="NtA_939" + href="#Nt_939"><sup>[939]</sup></a> the differently coloured seeds being + arranged in rows or irregularly. Mr. Sabine states<a name="NtA_940" + href="#Nt_940"><sup>[940]</sup></a> that he has seen the form of the + nearly globular seed-capsule of <i>Amaryllis vittata</i> altered by the + application of the pollen of another species, of which the capsule has + gibbous angles. Mr. J. Anderson Henry<a name="NtA_941" + href="#Nt_941"><sup>[941]</sup></a> crossed <i>Rhododendron Dalhousiæ</i> + with the pollen of <i>R. Nuttallii</i>, which is one of the + largest-flowered and noblest species of the genus. The largest pod + produced by the former species, when fertilised with its own pollen, + measured 1-2/8 inch in length and 1½ in girth; whilst three of the pods + which had been fertilised by pollen of <i>R. Nuttallii</i> measured + 1⅝ inch in length and no less than 2 inches in girth. Here we see + the effect of foreign pollen apparently confined to increasing the size + of the ovarium; but we must be cautious in assuming, as the following + case shows, that in this instance size has been directly transferred from + the male parent to the capsule of the female plant. Mr. Henry fertilised + <i>Arabis blepharophylla</i> with pollen of <i>A. Soyeri</i>, and the + pods thus produced, of which he was so kind as to send me detailed + measurements and sketches, were much larger in all their dimensions than + those naturally produced by either the male or female parent-species. In + a future chapter we shall see <!-- Page 401 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page401"></a>{401}</span>that the organs of vegetation in hybrid + plants, independently of the character of either parent, are sometimes + developed to a monstrous size; and the increased size of the pods in the + foregoing cases may be an analogous fact.</p> + + <p>No case of the direct action of the pollen of one variety on another + is better authenticated or more remarkable than that of the common apple. + The fruit here consists of the lower part of the calyx and of the upper + part of the flower-peduncle<a name="NtA_942" + href="#Nt_942"><sup>[942]</sup></a> in a metamorphosed condition, so that + the effect of the foreign pollen has extended even beyond the limits of + the ovarium. Cases of apples thus affected were recorded by Bradley in + the early part of the last century; and other cases are given in old + volumes of the Philosophical Transactions;<a name="NtA_943" + href="#Nt_943"><sup>[943]</sup></a> in one of these a Russeting apple and + an adjoining kind mutually affected each other's fruit; and in another + case a smooth apple affected a rough-coated kind. Another instance has + been given<a name="NtA_944" href="#Nt_944"><sup>[944]</sup></a> of two + very different apple-trees growing close to each other, which bore fruit + resembling each other, but only on the adjoining branches. It is, + however, almost superfluous to adduce these or other cases, after that of + the St. Valery apple, which, from the abortion of the stamens, does not + produce pollen, but, being annually fertilised by the girls of the + neighbourhood with pollen of many kinds, bears fruit, "differing from + each other in size, flavour, and colour, but resembling in character the + hermaphrodite kinds by which they have been fertilised."<a name="NtA_945" + href="#Nt_945"><sup>[945]</sup></a></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>I have now shown, on the authority of several excellent observers, in + the case of plants belonging to widely different orders, that the pollen + of one species or variety, when applied to a distinct form, occasionally + causes the coats of the seeds and the ovarium or fruit, including even in + one instance the calyx and upper part of the peduncle of the + mother-plant, to become modified. Sometimes the whole of the ovarium or + all the seeds are thus affected; sometimes only a certain number of the + seeds, as in the case of the pea, or only a part of the ovarium, as with + the striped orange, mottled grapes and maize, are thus affected. It must + not be supposed that any direct or immediate effect invariably follows + the use of foreign pollen: this is far from being the case; nor is it + known on what conditions the result depends. Mr. Knight<a name="NtA_946" + href="#Nt_946"><sup>[946]</sup></a> expressly states that he has never + seen <!-- Page 402 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page402"></a>{402}</span>the fruit thus affected, though he has + crossed thousands of apple and other fruit-trees. There is not the least + reason to believe that a branch which has borne seed or fruit directly + modified by foreign pollen is itself affected, so as subsequently to + produce modified buds: such an occurrence, from the temporary connection + of the flower with the stem, would be hardly possible. Hence but very + few, if any, of the cases of sudden modifications in the fruit of trees, + given in the early part of this chapter, can be accounted for by the + action of foreign pollen; for such modified fruits have commonly been + afterwards propagated by budding or grafting. It is also obvious that + changes of colour in the flower which necessarily supervene long before + it is ready for fertilisation, and changes in the shape or colour of the + leaves, can have no relation to the action of foreign pollen: all such + cases must be attributed to simple bud-variation.</p> + + <p>The proofs of the action of foreign pollen on the mother-plant have + been given in considerable detail, because this action, as we shall see + in a future chapter, is of the highest theoretical importance, and + because it is in itself a remarkable and apparently anomalous + circumstance. That it is remarkable under a physiological point of view + is clear, for the male element not only affects, in accordance with its + proper function, the germ, but the surrounding tissues of the + mother-plant. That the action is anomalous in appearance is true, but + hardly so in reality, for apparently it plays the same part in the + ordinary fertilisation of many flowers. Gärtner has shown,<a + name="NtA_947" href="#Nt_947"><sup>[947]</sup></a> by gradually + increasing the number of pollen-grains until he succeeded in fertilising + a Malva, that many grains are expended in the development, or, as he + expresses it, in the satiation, of the pistil and ovarium. Again, when + one plant is fertilised by a widely distinct species, it often happens + that the ovarium is fully and quickly developed without any seeds being + formed, or the coats of the seeds are developed without an embryo being + formed within. Dr. Hildebrand also has lately shown in a valuable paper<a + name="NtA_948" href="#Nt_948"><sup>[948]</sup></a> that, with several + Orchideæ, the action of the plant's own <!-- Page 403 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page403"></a>{403}</span>pollen is necessary for + the development of the ovarium, and that this development takes place not + only long before the pollen-tubes have reached the ovules, but even + before the placentæ and ovules have been formed; so that with these + orchids the pollen apparently acts directly on the ovarium. On the other + hand, we must not overrate the efficacy of pollen in this respect; for in + the case of hybridised plants it might be argued that an embryo had been + formed and had affected the surrounding tissues of the mother-plant + before it perished at a very early age. Again, it is well known that with + many plants the ovarium may be fully developed, though pollen be wholly + excluded. And lastly, Mr. Smith, the late Curator at Kew (as I hear + through Dr. Hooker), observed the singular fact with an orchid, the + <i>Bonatea speciosa</i>, the development of the ovarium could be effected + by mechanical irritation of the stigma. Nevertheless, from the number of + the pollen-grains expended "in the satiation of the ovarium and + pistil,"—from the generality of the formation of the ovarium and + seed-coats in sterile hybridised plants,—and from Dr. Hildebrand's + observations on orchids, we may admit that in most cases the swelling of + the ovarium, and the formation of the seed-coats, are at least aided, if + not wholly caused, by the direct action of the pollen, independently of + the intervention of the fertilised germ. Therefore, in the + previously-given cases we have only to add to our belief in the power of + the plant's own pollen on the development of the ovarium and seed-coats, + its further power, when applied to a distinct species or variety, of + influencing the shape, size, colour, texture, &c., of these same + parts.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p>Turning now to the animal kingdom. If we could imagine the same flower + to yield seeds during successive years, then it would not be very + surprising that a flower of which the ovarium had been modified by + foreign pollen should next year produce, when self-fertilised, offspring + modified by the previous male influence. Closely analogous cases have + actually occurred with animals. In the case often quoted from Lord + Morton,<a name="NtA_949" href="#Nt_949"><sup>[949]</sup></a> a nearly + purely-bred, Arabian, chesnut mare bore a hybrid to a quagga; she was + subsequently sent to Sir Gore Ouseley, and produced <!-- Page 404 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page404"></a>{404}</span>two colts by a + black Arabian horse. These colts were partially dun-coloured, and were + striped on the legs more plainly than the real hybrid, or even than the + quagga. One of the two colts had its neck and some other parts of its + body plainly marked with stripes. Stripes on the body, not to mention + those on the legs, and the dun-colour, are extremely rare,—I speak + after having long attended to the subject,—with horses of all kinds + in Europe, and are unknown in the case of Arabians. But what makes the + case still more striking is that the hair of the mane in these colts + resembled that of the quagga, being short, stiff, and upright. Hence + there can be no doubt that the quagga affected the character of the + offspring subsequently begot by the black Arabian horse. With respect to + the varieties of our domesticated animals, many similar and + well-authenticated facts have been published,<a name="NtA_950" + href="#Nt_950"><sup>[950]</sup></a> and others have been communicated to + me, plainly showing the influence of the first male on the progeny + subsequently borne by the mother to other males. It will suffice to give + a single instance, recorded in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' in a + paper following that by Lord Morton: Mr. Giles put a sow of Lord + Western's black and white Essex breed to a wild boar of a deep chesnut + colour; and the "pigs produced partook in appearance of both boar and + sow, but in some the chesnut colour of the boar strongly prevailed." + After the boar had long been dead, the sow was put to a boar of her own + black and white breed,—a kind which is well known to breed very + true and never to show any chesnut colour,—yet from this union the + sow produced some young pigs which were plainly marked with the same + chesnut tint as in the first litter. Similar cases have so frequently + occurred, that careful breeders avoid putting a choice female to an + inferior male on account of the injury to her subsequent progeny which + may be expected to follow.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 405 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page405"></a>{405}</span></p> + + <p>Some physiologists have attempted to account for these remarkable + results from a first impregnation by the close attachment and freely + intercommunicating blood-vessels between the modified embryo and the + mother. But it is a most improbable hypothesis that the mere blood of one + individual should affect the reproductive organs of another individual in + such a manner as to modify the subsequent offspring. The analogy from the + direct action of foreign pollen on the ovarium and seed-coats of the + mother-plant strongly supports the belief that the male element acts + directly on the reproductive organs of the female, wonderful as is this + action, and not through the intervention of the crossed embryo. With + birds there is no such close connection between the embryo and mother as + in the case of mammals: yet a careful observer, Dr. Chapuis, states<a + name="NtA_951" href="#Nt_951"><sup>[951]</sup></a> that with pigeons the + influence of a first male sometimes makes itself perceived in the + succeeding broods; but this statement, before it can be fully trusted, + requires confirmation.</p> + +<hr class="short" > + + <p><i>Conclusion and Summary of the Chapter.</i>—The facts given in + the latter half of this chapter are well worthy of consideration, as they + show us in how many extraordinary modes one organic form may lead to the + modification of another, and often without the intervention of seminal + reproduction. There is ample evidence, as we have just seen, that the + male element may either directly affect the structure of the female, or + in the case of animals lead to the modification of her offspring. There + is a considerable but insufficient body of evidence showing that the + tissues of two plants may unite and form a bud having a blended + character; or again, that buds inserted into a stock may affect all the + buds subsequently produced by this stock. Two embryos, differing from + each other and contained in the same seed, may cohere and form a single + plant. Offspring from a cross between two species or varieties may in the + first or in a succeeding generation revert in various degrees by + bud-variation to their parent-forms; and this reversion or segregation of + character may affect the whole flower, fruit, or leaf-bud, or only the + half or smaller segment, or a single organ. In some cases this + segregation of character apparently depends on some <!-- Page 406 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page406"></a>{406}</span>incapacity of + union rather than on reversion, for the flowers or fruit which are first + produced display by segments the characters of both parents. In the + <i>Cytisus adami</i> and the Bizzarria orange, whatever their origin may + have been, the two parent species occur blended together under the form + of a sterile hybrid, or reappear with their characters perfect and their + reproductive organs effective; and these trees, retaining the same + sportive character, can be propagated by buds. These various facts ought + to be well considered by any one who wishes to embrace under a single + point of view the various modes of reproduction by gemmation, division, + and sexual union, the reparation of lost parts, variation, inheritance, + reversion, and other such phenomena. In a chapter towards the close of + the following volume I shall attempt to connect these facts together by a + provisional hypothesis.</p> + + <p>In the early half of this chapter I have given a long list of plants + in which through bud-variation, that is, independently of reproduction by + seed, the fruit has suddenly become modified in size, colour, flavour, + hairiness, shape, and time of maturity; flowers have similarly changed in + shape, colour, and doubleness, and greatly in the character of the calyx; + young branches or shoots have changed in colour, in bearing spines, and + in habit of growth, as in climbing and weeping; leaves have changed in + colour, variegation, shape, period of unfolding, and in their arrangement + on the axis. Buds of all kinds, whether produced on ordinary branches or + on subterranean stems, whether simple or, as in tubers and bulbs, much + modified and supplied with a stock of nutriment, are all liable to sudden + variations of the same general nature.</p> + + <p>In the list, many of the cases are certainly due to reversion to + characters not acquired from a cross, but which were formerly present, + and have been lost for a longer or shorter period of time;—as when + a bud on a variegated plant produces plain leaves, or when + variously-coloured flowers on the Chrysanthemum revert to the aboriginal + yellow tint. Many other cases included in the list are probably due to + the plants being of crossed parentage, and to the buds reverting to one + of the two parent-forms. In illustration of the origin of <i>Cytisus + adami</i>, several cases were given of partial or complete reversion, + both <!-- Page 407 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page407"></a>{407}</span>with hybrid and mongrel plants; hence we + may suspect that the strong tendency in the Chrysanthemum, for instance, + to produce by bud-variation differently-coloured flowers, results from + the varieties formerly having been intentionally or accidentally crossed; + and that their descendants at the present day still occasionally revert + by buds to the colours of the more persistent parent-varieties. This is + almost certainly the case with Rollisson's Unique Pelargonium; and so it + may be to a large extent with the bud-varieties of the Dahlia and with + the "broken colours" of Tulips.</p> + + <p>Many cases of bud-variation, however, cannot be attributed to + reversion, but to spontaneous variability, such as so commonly occurs + with cultivated plants when raised from seed. As a single variety of the + Chrysanthemum has produced by buds six other varieties, and as one + variety of the gooseberry has borne at the same time four distinct + varieties of fruit, it is scarcely possible to believe that all these + variations are reversions to former parents. We can hardly believe, as + remarked in a previous chapter, that all the many peaches which have + yielded nectarine-buds are of crossed parentage. Lastly, in such cases as + that of the moss-rose with its peculiar calyx, and of the rose which + bears opposite leaves, in that of the Imatophyllum, &c., there is no + known natural species or seedling variety, from which the characters in + question could have been derived by crossing. We must attribute all such + cases to actual variability in the buds. The varieties which have thus + arisen cannot be distinguished by any external character from seedlings; + this is notoriously the case with the varieties of the Rose, Azalea, and + many other plants. It deserves notice that all the plants which have + yielded bud-variations have likewise varied greatly by seed.</p> + + <p>These plants belong to so many orders that we may infer that almost + every plant would be liable to bud-variation if placed under the proper + exciting conditions. These conditions, as far as we can judge, mainly + depend on long-continued and high cultivation; for almost all the plants + in the foregoing lists are perennials, and have been largely propagated + in many soils and under different climates, by cuttings, offsets, bulbs, + tubers, and especially by budding or grafting. The instances of annuals + varying by buds, or producing on the same plant <!-- Page 408 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page408"></a>{408}</span>differently coloured + flowers, are comparatively rare: Hopkirk<a name="NtA_952" + href="#Nt_952"><sup>[952]</sup></a> has seen this with <i>Convolvulus + tricolor</i>; and it is not rare with the Balsam and annual Delphinium. + According to Sir R. Schomburgk, plants from the warmer temperate regions, + when cultivated under the hot climate of St. Domingo, are eminently + liable to bud-variation; but change of climate is by no means a necessary + contingent, as we see with the gooseberry, currant, and some others. + Plants living under their natural conditions are very rarely subject to + bud-variation: variegated and coloured leaves have, however, been + occasionally observed; and I have given an instance of the variation of + buds on an ash-tree; but it is doubtful whether any tree planted in + ornamental grounds can be considered as living under strictly natural + conditions. Gärtner has seen white and dark-red flowers produced from the + same root of the wild <i>Achillea millefolium</i>; and Prof. Caspary has + seen <i>Viola lutea</i>, in a completely wild condition, bearing flowers + of different colours and sizes.<a name="NtA_953" + href="#Nt_953"><sup>[953]</sup></a></p> + + <p>As wild plants are so rarely liable to bud-variation, whilst highly + cultivated plants long propagated by artificial means have yielded by + this form of reproduction many varieties, we are led through a series + such as the following,—namely, all the eyes in the same tuber of + the potato varying in the same manner,—all the fruit on a purple + plum-tree suddenly becoming yellow,—all the fruit on a + double-flowered almond suddenly becoming peach-like,—all the buds + on grafted trees being in some very slight degree affected by the stock + on which they have been worked,—all the flowers on a transplanted + heartsease changing for a time in colour, size, and shape,—we are + led through such facts to look at every case of bud-variation as the + direct result of the particular conditions of life to which the plant has + been exposed. But if we turn to the other end of the series, namely, to + such cases as that of a peach-tree which, after having been cultivated by + tens of thousands during many years in many countries, and after having + annually produced thousands of buds, all of which have apparently been + exposed to precisely the same conditions, yet at last suddenly produces a + single bud with its whole character greatly transformed, we are driven to + an opposite <!-- Page 409 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page409"></a>{409}</span>conclusion. In such cases as the latter it + would appear that the transformation stands in no <i>direct</i> relation + to the conditions of life.</p> + + <p>We have seen that varieties produced from seeds and from buds resemble + each other so closely in general appearance, that they cannot possibly be + distinguished. Just as certain species and groups of species, when + propagated by seed, are more variable than other species or genera, so it + is in the case of certain bud-varieties. Thus the Queen of England + Chrysanthemum has produced by this latter process no less than six, and + Rollisson's Unique Pelargonium four distinct varieties; moss-roses have + also produced several other moss-roses. The Rosaceæ have varied by buds + more than any other group of plants; but this may be in large part due to + so many members having been long cultivated; but within this one group, + the peach has often varied by buds, whilst the apple and pear, both + grafted trees extensively cultivated, have afforded, as far as I can + ascertain, extremely few instances of bud-variation.</p> + + <p>The law of analogous variation holds good with varieties produced by + buds, as with those produced from seed: more than one kind of rose has + sported into a moss-rose; more than one kind of camellia has assumed an + hexagonal form; and at least seven or eight varieties of the peach have + produced nectarines.</p> + + <p>The laws of inheritance seem to be nearly the same with seminal and + bud-varieties. We know how commonly reversion comes into play with both, + and it may affect the whole, or only segments, of a leaf, flower, or + fruit. When the tendency to reversion affects many buds on the same tree, + it becomes covered with different kinds of leaves, flowers, or fruit; but + there is reason to believe that such fluctuating varieties have generally + arisen from seed. It is well known that, out of a number of seedling + varieties, some transmit their character much more truly by seed than + others; so with bud-varieties some retain their character by successive + buds more truly than others; of which instances have been given with two + kinds of variegated Euonymus and with certain kinds of tulips. + Notwithstanding the sudden production of bud-varieties, the characters + thus acquired are sometimes capable of transmission by seminal + reproduction: Mr. Rivers has found that moss-roses generally <!-- Page + 410 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page410"></a>{410}</span>reproduce + themselves by seed; and the mossy character has been transferred by + crossing, from one species of rose to another. The Boston nectarine, + which appeared as a bud-variation, produced by seed a closely allied + nectarine. We have however seen, on the authority of Mr. Salter, that + seed taken from a branch with leaves variegated through bud-variation, + transmits this character very feebly; whilst many plants, which became + variegated as seedlings, transmit variegation to a large proportion of + their progeny.</p> + + <p>Although I have been able to collect a good many cases of + bud-variation, as shown in the previous lists, and might probably, by + searching foreign horticultural works, have collected more cases, yet + their total number is as nothing in comparison with that of seminal + varieties. With seedlings raised from the more variable cultivated + plants, the variations are almost infinitely numerous, but their + differences are generally slight: only at long intervals of time a + strongly marked modification appears. On the other hand, it is a singular + and inexplicable fact that, when plants vary by buds, the variations, + though they occur with comparative rarity, are often, or even generally, + strongly pronounced. It struck me that this might perhaps be a delusion, + and that slight changes often occurred in buds, but from being of no + value were overlooked or not recorded. Accordingly I applied to two great + authorities on this subject, namely, to Mr. Rivers with respect to + fruit-trees, and to Mr. Salter with respect to flowers. Mr. Rivers is + doubtful, but does not remember having noticed very slight variations in + fruit-buds. Mr. Salter informs me that with flowers such do occur, but, + if propagated, they generally lose their new character in the following + year; yet he concurs with me that bud-variations usually at once assume a + decided and permanent character. We can hardly doubt that this is the + rule, when we reflect on such cases as that of the peach, which has been + so carefully observed and of which such trifling seminal varieties have + been propagated, yet this tree has repeatedly produced by bud-variation + nectarines, and only twice (as far as I can learn) any other variety, + namely, the Early and Late Grosse Mignonne peaches; and these differ from + the parent-tree in hardly any character except the period of maturity. + <!-- Page 411 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page411"></a>{411}</span></p> + + <p>To my surprise I hear from Mr. Salter that he brings the great + principle of selection to bear on variegated plants propagated by buds, + and has thus greatly improved and fixed several varieties. He informs me + that at first a branch often produces variegated leaves on one side + alone, and that the leaves are marked only with an irregular edging or + with a few lines of white and yellow. To improve and fix such varieties, + he finds it necessary to encourage the buds at the bases of the most + distinctly marked leaves, and to propagate from them alone. By following + with perseverance this plan during three or four successive seasons, a + distinct and fixed variety can generally be secured.</p> + + <p>Finally, the facts given in this chapter prove in how close and + remarkable a manner the germ of a fertilised seed and the small cellular + mass forming a bud resemble each other in function,—in their powers + of inheritance with occasional reversion,—and in their capacity for + variation of the same general nature, in obedience to the same laws. This + resemblance, or rather identity, is rendered far more striking if the + facts can be trusted which apparently render it probable that the + cellular tissue of one species or variety, when budded or grafted on + another, may give rise to a bud having an intermediate character. In this + chapter we clearly see that variability is not necessarily contingent on + sexual generation, though much more frequently its concomitant than on + bud-reproduction. We see that bud-variability is not solely dependent on + reversion or atavism to long-lost characters, or to those formerly + acquired from a cross, but that it is often spontaneous. But when we ask + ourselves what is the cause of any particular bud-variation, we are lost + in doubt, being driven in some cases to look to the direct action of the + external conditions of life as sufficient, and in other cases to feel a + profound conviction that these have played a quite subordinate part, of + not more importance than the nature of the spark which ignites a mass of + combustible matter.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">END OF VOL. I.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">LONDON:<br /> +PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,<br /> +AND CHARING CROSS.</p> + +<hr class="full" > + +<h2>NOTES</h2> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Nt_1" href="#NtA_1">[1]</a> To any one who has attentively + read my 'Origin of Species' this Introduction will be superfluous. As I + stated that work that I should soon publish the facts on which the + conclusions given in it were founded, I here beg permission to remark + that the great delay in publishing this first work has been caused by + continued ill-health.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_2" href="#NtA_2">[2]</a> M. Pouchet has recently + ('Plurality of Races,' Eng. Translat., 1864, p. 83, &c.) insisted + that variation under domestication throws no light on the natural + modification of species. I cannot perceive the force of his arguments, + or, to speak more accurately, of his assertions to this effect.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_3" href="#NtA_3">[3]</a> Léon Dufour in 'Annales des + Scienc. Nat.' (3rd series, Zoolog.), tom. v. p. 6.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_4" href="#NtA_4">[4]</a> In treating the several subjects + included in the present and succeeding works I have continually been led + to ask for information from many zoologists, botanists, geologists, + breeders of animals, and horticulturists, and I have invariably received + from them the most generous assistance. Without such aid I could have + effected little. I have repeatedly applied for information and specimens + to foreigners, and to British merchants and officers of the Government + residing in distant lands, and, with the rarest exceptions, I have + received prompt, open-handed, and valuable assistance. I cannot express + too strongly my obligations to the many persons who have assisted me, and + who, I am convinced, would be equally willing to assist others in any + scientific investigation.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_5" href="#NtA_5">[5]</a> Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' + p. 123 to 133. Pictet's 'Traité de Pal.,' 1853, tom. i. p. 202. De + Blainville, in his 'Ostéographie, Canidæ,' p. 142, has largely discussed + the whole subject, and concludes that the extinct parent of all + domesticated dogs came nearest to the wolf in organization, and to the + jackal in habits.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_6" href="#NtA_6">[6]</a> Pallas, I believe, originated + this doctrine in 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, Part ii. Ehrenberg + has advocated it, as may be seen in De Blainville's 'Ostéographie,' p. + 79. It has been carried to an extreme extent by Col. Hamilton Smith in + the 'Naturalist Library,' vol. ix. and x. Mr. W. C. Martin adopts it in + his excellent 'History of the Dog,' 1845; as does Dr. Morton, as well as + Nott and Gliddon, in the United States. Prof. Low, in his 'Domesticated + Animals,' 1845, p. 666, comes to this same conclusion. No one has argued + on this side with more clearness and force than the late James Wilson, of + Edinburgh, in various papers read before the Highland Agricultural and + Wernerian Societies. Isidore Geoffroy Saint Hilaire ('Hist. Nat. Gén.,' + 1860, tom. iii. p. 107), though he believes that most dogs have descended + from the jackal, yet inclines to the belief that some are descended from + the wolf. Prof. Gervais ('Hist. Nat. Mamm.,' 1855, tom. ii. p. 69), + referring to the view that all the domestic races are the modified + descendants of a single species, after a long discussion, says, "Cette + opinion est, suivant nous du moins, la moins probable."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_7" href="#NtA_7">[7]</a> Berjeau, 'The Varieties of the + Dog; in old Sculptures and Pictures,' 1863. 'Der Hund,' von Dr. F. L. + Walther, s. 48, Giessen, 1817: this author seems carefully to have + studied all classical works on the subject. <i>See</i> also 'Volz, + Beiträge zur Kultur-geschichte,' Leipzig, 1852, s. 115. 'Youatt on the + Dog,' 1845, p. 6. A very full history is given by De Blainville in his + 'Ostéographie, Canidæ.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_8" href="#NtA_8">[8]</a> I have seen drawings of this dog + from the tomb of the son of Esar Haddon, and clay models in the British + Museum. Nott and Gliddon, in their 'Types of Mankind,' 1854, p. 393, give + a copy of these drawings. This dog has been called a Thibetan mastiff, + but Mr. H. A. Oldfield, who is familiar with the so-called Thibet + mastiff, and has examined the drawings in the British Museum, informs me + that he considers them different.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_9" href="#NtA_9">[9]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' July 12th, + 1831.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_10" href="#NtA_10">[10]</a> 'Sporting in Algeria,' p. + 51.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_11" href="#NtA_11">[11]</a> Berjeau gives fac-similes of + the Egyptian drawings. Mr. C. L. Martin, in his 'History of the Dog,' + 1845, copies several figures from the Egyptian monuments, and speaks with + much confidence with respect to their identity with still living dogs. + Messrs. Nott and Gliddon ('Types of Mankind,' 1854, p. 388) give still + more numerous figures. Mr. Gliddon asserts that a curl-tailed greyhound, + like that represented on the most ancient monuments, is common in Borneo; + but the Rajah, Sir J. Brooke, informs me that no such dog exists + there.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_12" href="#NtA_12">[12]</a> These, and the following facts + on the Danish remains, are taken from M. Morlot's most interesting memoir + in 'Soc. Vaudoise des Sc. Nat.,' tom. vi., 1860, pp. 281, 299, 320.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_13" href="#NtA_13">[13]</a> 'Die Fauna der Pfahlbauten,' + 1861, s. 117, 162.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_14" href="#NtA_14">[14]</a> De Blainville, 'Ostéographie, + Canidæ.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_15" href="#NtA_15">[15]</a> Sir R. Schomburgk has given me + information on this head. <i>See</i> also 'Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.,' + vol. xiii., 1843, p. 65.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_16" href="#NtA_16">[16]</a> 'Domestication of Animals:' + Ethnological Soc., Dec. 22nd, 1863.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_17" href="#NtA_17">[17]</a> 'Journal of Researches,' + &c., 1845, p. 393. With respect to <i>Canis antarcticus</i>, + <i>see</i> p. 193. For the case of the antelope, <i>see</i> 'Journal + Royal Geograph. Soc.,' vol. xxiii. p. 94.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_18" href="#NtA_18">[18]</a> The authorities for the + foregoing statements are as follow:—Richardson, in 'Fauna + Boreali-Americana,' 1829, pp. 64, 75; Dr. Kane, 'Arctic Explorations,' + 1856, vol. i. pp. 398, 455; Dr. Hayes, 'Arctic Boat Journey,' 1860, p. + 167. Franklin's 'Narrative,' vol. i. p. 269, gives the case of three + whelps of a black wolf being carried away by the Indians. Parry, + Richardson, and others, give accounts of wolves and dogs naturally + crossing in the eastern parts of North America. Seeman, in his 'Voyage of + H.M.S. Herald,' 1853, vol. ii. p. 26, says the wolf is often caught by + the Esqimaux for the purpose of crossing with their dogs, and thus adding + to their size and strength. M. Lamare-Picquot, in 'Bull. de la Soc. + d'Acclimat.,' tom. vii., 1860, p. 148, gives a good account of the + half-bred Esquimaux dogs.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_19" href="#NtA_19">[19]</a> 'Fauna Boreali-Americana,' + 1829, pp. 73, 78, 80. Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' p. 383. The + naturalist and traveller Bartram is quoted by Hamilton Smith, in 'Nat. + Hist. Lib.,' vol. x. p. 156. A Mexican domestic dog seems also to + resemble a wild dog of the same country; but this may be the + prairie-wolf. Another capable judge, Mr. J. K. Lord ('The Naturalist in + Vancouver Island,' 1866, vol. ii. p. 218), says that the Indian dog of + the Spokans, near the Rocky Mountains, "is beyond all question nothing + more than a tamed Cayote or prairie-wolf," or <i>Canis latrans</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_20" href="#NtA_20">[20]</a> I quote this from Mr. R. + Hill's excellent account of the Alco or domestic dog of Mexico, in + Gosse's 'Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica,' 1851, p. 329.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_21" href="#NtA_21">[21]</a> 'Naturgeschichte der + Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 151.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_22" href="#NtA_22">[22]</a> Quoted in Humboldt's 'Aspects + of Nature' (Eng. transl.), vol. i. p. 108.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_23" href="#NtA_23">[23]</a> Paget's 'Travels in Hungary + and Transylvania,' vol. i. p. 501. Jeitteles, 'Fauna Hungariæ + Superioris,' 1862, s. 13. <i>See</i> Pliny, 'Hist. of the World' (Eng. + transl.), 8th book, ch. xl., about the Gauls crossing their dogs. + <i>See</i> also 'Hist. Animal.' lib. viii. c. 28. For good evidence about + wolves and dogs naturally crossing near the Pyrenees, <i>see</i> M. + Mauduyt, 'Du Loup et de ses Races,' Poitiers, 1851; also Pallas, in 'Acta + Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, part ii. p. 94.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_24" href="#NtA_24">[24]</a> I give this on excellent + authority, namely, Mr. Blyth (under the signature of Zoophilus), in the + 'Indian Sporting Review,' Oct. 1856, p. 134. Mr. Blyth states that he was + struck with the resemblance between a brush-tailed race of pariah-dogs, + north-west of Cawnpore, and the Indian wolf. He gives corroborative + evidence with respect to the dogs of the valley of the Nerbudda.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_25" href="#NtA_25">[25]</a> For numerous and interesting + details on the resemblance of dogs and jackals, <i>see</i> Isid. Geoffroy + St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' 1860, tom. iii. p. 101. <i>See</i> also + 'Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,' par Prof. Gervais, 1855, tom. ii. p. 60.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_26" href="#NtA_26">[26]</a> Güldenstädt, 'Nov. Comment. + Acad. Petrop.,' tom. xx., pro anno 1775, p. 449.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_27" href="#NtA_27">[27]</a> Quoted by De Blainville in his + 'Ostéographie, Canidæ,' pp. 79, 98.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_28" href="#NtA_28">[28]</a> <i>See</i> Pallas, in 'Act. + Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, part ii. p. 91. For Algeria, <i>see</i> + Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 177. In both + countries it is the male jackal which pairs with female domestic + dogs.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_29" href="#NtA_29">[29]</a> John Barbut's 'Description of + the Coast of Guinea in 1746.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_30" href="#NtA_30">[30]</a> 'Travels in South Africa,' + vol. ii. p. 272.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_31" href="#NtA_31">[31]</a> Selwyn, Geology of Victoria; + 'Journal of Geolog. Soc.,' vol. xiv., 1858, p. 536, and vol. xvi., 1860, + p. 148; and Prof M<sup>c</sup>Coy, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' + (3rd series), vol. ix., 1862, p. 147. The Dingo differs from the dogs of + the central Polynesian islands. Dieffenbach remarks ('Travels,' vol. ii. + p. 45) that the native New Zealand dog also differs from the Dingo.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_32" href="#NtA_32">[32]</a> 'Proceedings Zoolog. Soc.,' + 1833, p. 112. <i>See</i>, also, on the taming of the common wolf, L. + Lloyd, 'Scandinavian Adventures,' vol. i. p. 460, 1854. With respect to + the jackal, <i>see</i> Prof. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. Mamm.,' tom. ii. p. 61. + With respect to the aguara of Paraguay, <i>see</i> Rengger's work.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_33" href="#NtA_33">[33]</a> Roulin, in 'Mém. présent. par + divers Savans,' tom. vi. p. 341.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_34" href="#NtA_34">[34]</a> Martin, 'History of the Dog,' + p. 14.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_35" href="#NtA_35">[35]</a> Quoted by L. Lloyd in 'Field + Sports of North of Europe,' vol. i. p. 387.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_36" href="#NtA_36">[36]</a> Quatrefages, 'Soc. + d'Acclimat.,' May 11th, 1863, p. 7.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_37" href="#NtA_37">[37]</a> 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + Hist.,' vol. xv., 1845, p. 140.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_38" href="#NtA_38">[38]</a> Azara, 'Voyages dans l'Amér. + Mérid.,' tom. i. p. 381; his account is fully confirmed by Rengger. + Quatrefages gives an account of a bitch brought from Jerusalem to France + which burrowed a hole and littered in it. <i>See</i> 'Discours, + Exposition des Races Canines,' 1865, p. 3.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_39" href="#NtA_39">[39]</a> With respect to wolves + burrowing holes, <i>see</i> Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana,' p. 64; + and Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' b. i. s. 617.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_40" href="#NtA_40">[40]</a> <i>See</i> Poeppig, 'Reise in + Chile,' b. i. s. 290; Mr. G. Clarke, as above; and Rengger, s. 155.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_41" href="#NtA_41">[41]</a> Dogs, 'Nat. Library,' vol. x. + p. 121: an endemic South American dog seems also to have become feral in + this island. <i>See</i> Gosse's 'Jamaica,' p. 340.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_42" href="#NtA_42">[42]</a> Low, 'Domesticated Animals,' + p. 650.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_43" href="#NtA_43">[43]</a> 'The Naturalist Library,' + Dogs, vol. x. pp. 4, 19.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_44" href="#NtA_44">[44]</a> Quoted by Prof. Gervais, + 'Hist. Nat. Mamm.,' tom. ii. p. 66.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_45" href="#NtA_45">[45]</a> J. Hunter shows that the long + period of seventy-three days given by Buffon is easily explained by the + bitch having received the dog many times during a period of sixteen days + ('Phil. Transact.,' 1787, p. 253). Hunter found that the gestation of a + mongrel from wolf and dog ('Phil. Transact.,' 1759, p. 160) apparently + was sixty-three days, for she received the dog more than once. The period + of a mongrel dog and jackal was fifty-nine days. Fred. Cuvier found the + period of gestation of the wolf to be ('Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.,' tom. + iv. p. 8) two months and a few days, which agrees with the dog. Isid. G. + St. Hilaire, who has discussed the whole subject, and from whom I quote + Bellingeri, states ('Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 112) that in the + Jardin des Plantes the period of the jackal has been found to be from + sixty to sixty-three days, exactly as with the dog.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_46" href="#NtA_46">[46]</a> <i>See</i> Isid. Geoffroy St. + Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 112, on the odour of jackals. + Col. Ham. Smith, in 'Nat. Hist. Lib.,' vol. x. p. 289.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_47" href="#NtA_47">[47]</a> Quoted by Quatrefages in + 'Bull. Soc. d'Acclimat.,' May 11th, 1863.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_48" href="#NtA_48">[48]</a> 'Journal de la Physiologie,' + tom. ii. p. 385.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_49" href="#NtA_49">[49]</a> <i>See</i> Mr. R. Hill's + excellent account of this breed in Gosse's 'Jamaica,' p. 338; Rengger's + 'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 153. With respect to Spitz dogs, + <i>see</i> Bechstein's 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' 1801, b. i. s. 638. + With respect to Dr. Hodgkin's statement made before Brit. Assoc., + <i>see</i> 'The Zoologist,' vol. iv., for 1845-46, p. 1097.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_50" href="#NtA_50">[50]</a> 'Acta Acad. St. Petersburgh,' + 1780, part ii. pp. 84, 100.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_51" href="#NtA_51">[51]</a> M. Broca has shown ('Journal + de Physiologie,' tom. ii. p. 353) that Buffon's experiments have been + often misrepresented. Broca has collected (pp. 390-395) many facts on the + fertility of crossed dogs, wolves, and jackals.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_52" href="#NtA_52">[52]</a> 'De la Longévité Humaine,' par + M. Flourens, 1855, p. 143. Mr. Blyth says ('Indian Sporting Review,' vol. + ii. p. 137) that he has seen in India several hybrids from the pariah-dog + and jackal; and between one of these hybrids and a terrier. The + experiments of Hunter on the jackal are well known. See also Isid. + Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii, p. 217, who speaks of + the hybrid offspring of the jackal as perfectly fertile for three + generations.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_53" href="#NtA_53">[53]</a> On authority of F. Cuvier, + quoted in Bronn's 'Geschichte der Natur,' B. ii. s. 164.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_54" href="#NtA_54">[54]</a> W. C. L. Martin, 'History of + the Dog,' 1845, p. 203. Mr. Philip P. King, after ample opportunities of + observation, informs me that the Dingo and European dogs often cross in + Australia.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_55" href="#NtA_55">[55]</a> Rüppel, 'Neue Wirbelthiere von + Abyssinien,' 1835-40; 'Mammif.,' s. 39, pl. xiv. There is a specimen of + this fine animal in the British Museum.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_56" href="#NtA_56">[56]</a> Even Pallas admits this: + <i>see</i> 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, p. 93.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_57" href="#NtA_57">[57]</a> Quoted by I. Geoffroy, 'Hist. + Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 453.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_58" href="#NtA_58">[58]</a> F. Cuvier, in 'Annales du + Muséum,' tom. xviii. p. 337; Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. i. p. 342; and + Col. Ham. Smith, in 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. ix. p. 101.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_59" href="#NtA_59">[59]</a> Isid. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, + 'Hist. des Anomalies,' 1832, tom. i. p. 660. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des + Mammifères,' tom. ii., 1855, p. 66. De Blainville ('Ostéographie, + Canidæ,' p. 137) has also seen an extra molar on both sides.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_60" href="#NtA_60">[60]</a> 'Ostéographie, Canidæ,' p. + 137.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_61" href="#NtA_61">[61]</a> Würzburger, 'Medecin, + Zeitschrift,' 1860, B. i. s. 265.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_62" href="#NtA_62">[62]</a> Mr. Yarell, in 'Proc. Zoolog. + Soc.,' Oct. 8th, 1833. Mr. Waterhouse showed me a skull of one of these + dogs, which had only a single molar on each side and some imperfect + incisors.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_63" href="#NtA_63">[63]</a> Quoted in 'The Veterinary,' + London, vol. viii. p. 415.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_64" href="#NtA_64">[64]</a> 'Hist Nat. Général,' tom. iii. + p. 448.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_65" href="#NtA_65">[65]</a> W. Scrope, 'Art of + Deer-Stalking,' p. 354.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_66" href="#NtA_66">[66]</a> Quoted by Col. Ham. Smith in + 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. x. p. 79.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_67" href="#NtA_67">[67]</a> De Blainville, 'Ostéographie, + Canidæ,' p. 134. F. Cuvier, 'Annales du Muséum,' tom. xviii. p. 342. In + regard to mastiffs, see Col. Ham. Smith, 'Nat Lib.,' vol. x. p. 218. For + the Thibet mastiff, see Mr. Hodgson in 'Journal of As. Soc. of Bengal,' + vol. i., 1832, p. 342.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_68" href="#NtA_68">[68]</a> 'The Dog,' 1845, p. 186. With + respect to diseases, Youatt asserts (p. 167) that the Italian greyhound + is "strongly subject" to polypi in the matrix or vagina. The spaniel and + pug (p. 182) are most liable to bronchocele. The liability to distemper + (p. 232) is extremely different in different breeds. On the distemper, + <i>see</i> also Col. Hutchinson on 'Dog Breaking,' 1850, p. 279.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_69" href="#NtA_69">[69]</a> <i>See</i> Youatt on the Dog, + p. 15; 'The Veterinary,' London, vol. xi. p. 235.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_70" href="#NtA_70">[70]</a> 'Journal of As. Soc. of + Bengal,' vol. iii. p. 19.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_71" href="#NtA_71">[71]</a> 'Travels,' vol. ii. p. 15.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_72" href="#NtA_72">[72]</a> Hodgson, in 'Journal of As. + Soc. of Bengal,' vol. i. p. 342.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_73" href="#NtA_73">[73]</a> 'Field Sports of the North of + Europe,' vol. ii. p. 165.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_74" href="#NtA_74">[74]</a> 'Hist. Nat. des Mammif., 1855, + tom. ii. pp. 66, 67.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_75" href="#NtA_75">[75]</a> 'History of Quadrupeds,' 1793, + vol. i. p. 238.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_76" href="#NtA_76">[76]</a> 'Oriental Field Sports,' + quoted by Youatt, 'The Dog,' p. 15.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_77" href="#NtA_77">[77]</a> Quoted by Mr. Galton, + 'Domestication of Animals,' p. 13.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_78" href="#NtA_78">[78]</a> 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. + p. 450.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_79" href="#NtA_79">[79]</a> Mr. Greenhow on the Canadian + Dog, in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. vi., 1833, p. 511.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_80" href="#NtA_80">[80]</a> <i>See</i> Mr. C. O. + Groom-Napier on the webbing of the hind feet of Otter-hounds, in 'Land + and Water,' Oct. 13th, 1866, p. 270.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_81" href="#NtA_81">[81]</a> 'Fauna Boreali-Americana,' + 1829, p. 62.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_82" href="#NtA_82">[82]</a> 'The Horse in all his + Varieties,' &c., 1829, pp. 230, 234.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_83" href="#NtA_83">[83]</a> 'The Dog,' 1845, pp. 31, 35; + with respect to King Charles's spaniel, p. 45; for the setter, p. 90.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_84" href="#NtA_84">[84]</a> In the 'Encyclop. of Rural + Sports,' p. 557.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_85" href="#NtA_85">[85]</a> 'The Farrier,' 1828, vol. i. + p. 337.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_86" href="#NtA_86">[86]</a> <i>See</i> Col. Hamilton Smith + on the antiquity of the Pointer, in 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. x. p. + 195.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_87" href="#NtA_87">[87]</a> The Newfoundland dog is + believed to have originated from a cross between the Esquimaux dog and a + large French hound. <i>See</i> Dr. Hodgkin, 'Brit. Assoc.,' 1844; + Bechstein's 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' Band i. s. 574; 'Naturalist's + Library,' vol. x. p. 132; also Mr. Jukes' 'Excursion in and about + Newfoundland.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_88" href="#NtA_88">[88]</a> De Blainville, 'Ostéographie, + Felis,' p. 65, on the character of <i>F. caligulata</i>; pp. 85, 89, 90, + 175, on the other mummied species. He quotes Ehrenberg on <i>F. + maniculata</i> being mummied.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_89" href="#NtA_89">[89]</a> Asiatic Soc. of Calcutta; + Curator's Report, Aug. 1856. The passage from Sir W. Jardine is quoted + from this Report. Mr. Blyth, who has especially attended to the wild and + domestic cats of India, has given in this Report a very interesting + discussion on their origin.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_90" href="#NtA_90">[90]</a> 'Fauna Hungariæ Sup.,' 1862, + s. 12.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_91" href="#NtA_91">[91]</a> Isid. Geoffrey Saint Hilaire, + 'Hist. Nat. Gen.,' tom. iii. p. 177.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_92" href="#NtA_92">[92]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1863, p. + 184.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_93" href="#NtA_93">[93]</a> 'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' + 1830, s. 212.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_94" href="#NtA_94">[94]</a> 'Mem. présentés par divers + Savans: Acad. Roy. des Sciences,' tom. vi. p. 346. Gomara first noticed + this fact in 1554.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_95" href="#NtA_95">[95]</a> 'Narrative of Voyages,' vol. + ii. p. 180.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_96" href="#NtA_96">[96]</a> J. Crawfurd, 'Descript. Dict. + of the Indian Islands,' p. 255. The Madagascar cat is said to have a + twisted tail: <i>see</i> Desmarest, in 'Encyclop. Nat. Mamm.,' 1820, p. + 233, for some of the other breeds.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_97" href="#NtA_97">[97]</a> Admiral Lutké's Voyage, vol. + iii. p. 308.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_98" href="#NtA_98">[98]</a> 'Zoology of the Voyage of the + Beagle, Mammalia,' p. 20. Dieffenbach, 'Travels in New Zealand,' vol. ii. + p. 185. Ch. St. John, 'Wild Sports of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 49.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_99" href="#NtA_99">[99]</a> Quoted by Isid. Geoffroy, + 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 427.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_100" href="#NtA_100">[100]</a> Rütimeyer, 'Fauna der + Pfalbauten,' 1861, s. 122.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_101" href="#NtA_101">[101]</a> <i>See</i> Youatt on the + Horse: J. Lawrence on the Horse, 1829: W. C. L. Martin, 'History of the + Horse,' 1845: Col. Ham. Smith, in 'Naturalist's Library, Horses,' 1841, + vol. xii.: Prof. Veith, 'Die Naturgesch. Haussäugethiere,' 1856.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_102" href="#NtA_102">[102]</a> Crawfurd, 'Descript. Dict. + of Indian Islands,' 1856, p. 153. "There are many different breeds, every + island having at least one peculiar to it." Thus in Sumatra there are at + least two breeds; in Achin and Batubara one; in Java several breeds; one + in Bali, Lomboc, Sumbawa (one of the best breeds), Tambora, Bima, + Gunung-api, Celebes, Sumba, and Philippines. Other breeds are specified + by Zollinger in the 'Journal of the Indian Archipelago,' vol. v. p. 343, + &c.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_103" href="#NtA_103">[103]</a> 'The Horse,' &c., by + John Lawrence, 1829, p. 14.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_104" href="#NtA_104">[104]</a> 'The Veterinary,' London, + vol. v. p. 543.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_105" href="#NtA_105">[105]</a> Proc. Veterinary Assoc., in + 'The Veterinary,' vol. xiii. p. 42.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_106" href="#NtA_106">[106]</a> 'Bulletin de la Soc. + Géolog.,' tom. xxii., 1866, p. 22.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_107" href="#NtA_107">[107]</a> Mr. Percival, of the + Enniskillen Dragoons, in 'The Veterinary,' vol. i. p. 224: <i>see</i> + Azara, 'Des Quadrupèdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 313. The French + translator of Azara refers to other cases mentioned by Huzard as + occurring in Spain.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_108" href="#NtA_108">[108]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom + i. p. 378.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_109" href="#NtA_109">[109]</a> 'Ueber die Eigenschaften,' + &c., 1828, s. 10.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_110" href="#NtA_110">[110]</a> 'Domesticated Animals of + the British Islands,' pp. 527, 532. In all the veterinary treatises and + papers which I have read, the writers insist in the strongest terms on + the inheritance by the horse of all good and bad tendencies and + qualities. Perhaps the principle of inheritance is not really stronger in + the horse than in any other animal; but, from its value, the tendency has + been more carefully observed.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_111" href="#NtA_111">[111]</a> Andrew Knight crossed + breeds so different in size as a dray-horse and Norwegian pony: see A. + Walker on 'Intermarriage,' 1838, p. 205.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_112" href="#NtA_112">[112]</a> 'Naturalist's Library,' + Horses, vol. xii. p. 208.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_113" href="#NtA_113">[113]</a> Gervais, 'Hist Nat. Mamm.,' + tom. ii. p. 143. Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' p. 383.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_114" href="#NtA_114">[114]</a> 'Kenntniss der fossilen + Pferde,' 1863, s. 131.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_115" href="#NtA_115">[115]</a> Mr. W. C. L. Martin ('The + Horse,' 1845, p. 34), in arguing against the belief that the wild Eastern + horses are merely feral, has remarked on the improbability of man in + ancient times having extirpated a species in a region where it can now + exist in numbers.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_116" href="#NtA_116">[116]</a> 'Transact. Maryland + Academy,' vol. i. part i. p. 28.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_117" href="#NtA_117">[117]</a> Mr. Mackinnon on 'The + Falkland Islands,' p. 25. The average height of the Falkland horses is + said to be 14 hands 2 inches. <i>See</i> also my 'Journal of + Researches.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_118" href="#NtA_118">[118]</a> Pallas, 'Act. Acad. St. + Petersburgh,' 1777, part ii. p. 265. With respect to the tarpans scraping + away the snow, <i>see</i> Col. Hamilton Smith in 'Nat. Lib.,' vol. xii. + p. 165.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_119" href="#NtA_119">[119]</a> Franklin's 'Narrative,' + vol. i. p. 87; note by Sir J. Richardson.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_120" href="#NtA_120">[120]</a> Mr. J. H. Moor, 'Notices of + the Indian Archipelago:' Singapore, 1837, p. 189. A pony from Java was + sent ('Athenæum,' 1842, p. 718) to the Queen only 28 inches in height. + For the Loo Choo Islands, <i>see</i> Beechey's 'Voyage,' 4th edit., vol. + i. p. 499.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_121" href="#NtA_121">[121]</a> J. Crawford, 'History of + the Horse;' 'Journal of Royal United Service Institution,' vol. iv.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_122" href="#NtA_122">[122]</a> 'Essays on Natural + History,' 2nd series, p. 161.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_123" href="#NtA_123">[123]</a> 'Quadrupèdes du Paraguay,' + tom. ii. p. 333.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_124" href="#NtA_124">[124]</a> Prof. Low, 'Domesticated + Animals,' p. 546. With respect to the writer in India, <i>see</i> 'India + Sporting Review,' vol. ii. p. 181. As Lawrence has remarked ('The Horse,' + p. 9), "perhaps no instance has ever occurred of a three-part bred horse + (<i>i.e.</i> a horse, one of whose grand-parents was of impure blood) + saving his distance in running two miles with thoroughbred racers." Some + few instances are on record of seven-eighths racers having been + successful.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_125" href="#NtA_125">[125]</a> Prof. Gervais (in his + 'Hist. Nat. Mamm.,' tom. ii. p. 144) has collected many facts on this + head. For instance, Solomon (Kings, b. i. ch. x. v. 28) bought horses in + Egypt at a high price.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_126" href="#NtA_126">[126]</a> 'The Field,' July 13th, + 1861, p. 42.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_127" href="#NtA_127">[127]</a> E. Vernon Harcourt, + 'Sporting in Algeria,' p. 26.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_128" href="#NtA_128">[128]</a> I state this from my own + observations made during several years on the colours of horses. I have + seen cream-coloured, light-dun and mouse-dun horses dappled, which I + mention because it has been stated (Martin, 'History of the Horse,' p. + 134) that duns are never dappled. Martin (p. 205) refers to dappled + asses. In 'The Farrier' (London, 1828, pp. 453, 455) there are some good + remarks on the dappling of horses; and likewise in Col. Hamilton Smith on + 'The Horse.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_129" href="#NtA_129">[129]</a> Some details are given in + 'The Farrier,' 1828, pp. 452, 455. One of the least ponies I ever saw, of + the colour of a mouse, had a conspicuous spinal stripe. A small Indian + chesnut pony had the same stripe, as had a remarkably heavy chesnut + cart-horse. Race-horses often have the spinal stripe.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_130" href="#NtA_130">[130]</a> I have received + information, through the kindness of the Consul-General, Mr. J. R. Crowe, + from Prof. Boeck, Rasck, and Esmarck, on the colours of the Norwegian + ponies. <i>See</i>, also, 'The Field,' 1861, p. 431.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_131" href="#NtA_131">[131]</a> Col. Ham. Smith, 'Nat. + Lib.,' vol. xii. p. 275.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_132" href="#NtA_132">[132]</a> Mr. G. Clark, in 'Annal and + Mag. of Nat. History,' 2nd series, vol. ii., 1848, p. 363. Mr. Wallace + informs me that he saw in Java a dun and clay-coloured horse with spinal + and leg stripes.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_133" href="#NtA_133">[133]</a> <i>See</i>, also, on this + point, 'The Field,' July 27th, 1861, p. 91.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_134" href="#NtA_134">[134]</a> 'The Field,' 1861, pp. 431, + 493, 545.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_135" href="#NtA_135">[135]</a> 'Ueber die Eigenschaften,' + &c, 1828, s. 13, 14.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_136" href="#NtA_136">[136]</a> 'Naturalist's Library,' + vol. xii. (1841), pp. 109, 156 to 163, 280, 281. Cream-colour, passing + into Isabella (<i>i.e.</i> the colour of the dirty linen of Queen + Isabella), seems to have been common in ancient times. <i>See</i> also + Pallas's account of the wild horses of the East, who speaks of dun and + brown as the prevalent colours.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_137" href="#NtA_137">[137]</a> Azara, 'Quadrupèdes du + Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 307; for the colour of mules, <i>see</i> p. 350. + In North America, Catlin (vol. ii. p. 57) describes the wild horses, + believed to have descended from the Spanish horses of Mexico, as of all + colours, black, grey, roan, and roan pied with sorrel. F. Michaux + ('Travels in North America,' Eng. translat., p. 235) describes two wild + horses from Mexico as roan. In the Falkland Islands, where the horse has + been feral only between 60 and 70 years, I was told that roans and + iron-greys were the prevalent colours. These several facts show that + horses do not generally revert to any uniform colour.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_138" href="#NtA_138">[138]</a> Dr. Sclater, in 'Proc. + Zoolog. Soc.,' 1862, p. 164.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_139" href="#NtA_139">[139]</a> W. C. Martin, 'History of + the Horse,' 1845, p. 207.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_140" href="#NtA_140">[140]</a> Col. Sykes' Cat. of + Mammalia, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' July 12th, 1831. Williamson, 'Oriental + Field Sports,' vol. ii., quoted by Martin, p. 206.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_141" href="#NtA_141">[141]</a> Blyth, in 'Charlesworth's + Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. iv., 1840, p. 83. I have also been assured by a + breeder that this is the case.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_142" href="#NtA_142">[142]</a> One case is given by + Martin, 'The Horse,' p. 205.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_143" href="#NtA_143">[143]</a> 'Journal As. Soc. of + Bengal,' vol. xxviii. 1860, p. 231. Martin on the Horse, p. 205.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_144" href="#NtA_144">[144]</a> Hermann von Nathusius, 'Die + Racen des Schweines,' Berlin, 1860; and 'Vorstudien fur Geschichte,' + &c., 'Schweineschädel,' Berlin, 1864. Rütimeyer, 'Die Fauna der + Pfahlbauten,' Basel, 1861.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_145" href="#NtA_145">[145]</a> Nathusius, 'Die Racen des + Schweines,' Berlin, 1860. An excellent appendix is given with references + to published and trustworthy drawings of the breeds of each country.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_146" href="#NtA_146">[146]</a> For Europe, <i>see</i> + Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' 1801, b. i., s. 505. Several + accounts have been published on the fertility of the offspring from wild + and tame swine. <i>See</i> Burdach's 'Physiology,' and Godron, 'De + l'Espèce,' tom. i. p. 370. For Africa, 'Bull. de la Soc. d'Acclimat.,' + tom. iv. p. 389. For India, <i>see</i> Nathusius, 'Schweineschädel,' s. + 148.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_147" href="#NtA_147">[147]</a> Sir W. Elliot, Catalogue of + Mammalia, 'Madras Journal of Lit. and Science,' vol. x. p. 219.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_148" href="#NtA_148">[148]</a> 'Pfahlbauten,' s. 163 et + passim.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_149" href="#NtA_149">[149]</a> <i>See</i> Rütimeyer's Neue + Beitrage, ... Torfschweine, Verh. Naturfor. Gesell. in Basel, iv. i., + 1865, s. 139.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_150" href="#NtA_150">[150]</a> Stan. Julien, quoted by De + Blainville, 'Ostéographie,' p. 163.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_151" href="#NtA_151">[151]</a> Richardson, 'Pigs, their + Origin,' &c., p. 26.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_152" href="#NtA_152">[152]</a> 'Die Racen des Schweines,' + s. 47, 64.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_153" href="#NtA_153">[153]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861, + p. 263.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_154" href="#NtA_154">[154]</a> Sclater, in 'Proc. Zoolog. + Soc.,' Feb. 26th, 1861.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_155" href="#NtA_155">[155]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1862, + p. 13.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_156" href="#NtA_156">[156]</a> 'Journal of Voyages and + Travels from 1821 to 1829,' vol. i. p. 300.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_157" href="#NtA_157">[157]</a> Rev. G. Low, 'Fauna + Orcadensis,' p. 10. <i>See</i> also Dr. Hibbert's account of the pig of + the Shetland Islands.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_158" href="#NtA_158">[158]</a> 'Die Racen des Schweines,' + s. 70.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_159" href="#NtA_159">[159]</a> These woodcuts are copied + from engravings given in Mr. S. Sidney's excellent edition of 'The Pig,' + by Youatt, 1860. <i>See</i> pp. 1, 16, 19.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_160" href="#NtA_160">[160]</a> 'Schweineschädel,' s. 74, + 135.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_161" href="#NtA_161">[161]</a> Nathusius, 'Die Racen des + Schweines,' s. 71.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_162" href="#NtA_162">[162]</a> 'Die Racen des Schweines,' + s. 47. 'Schweineschädel,' s. 104. Compare, also, the figures of the old + Irish and the improved Irish breeds in Richardson on 'The Pig,' 1847.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_163" href="#NtA_163">[163]</a> Quoted by Isid. Geoffroy, + 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 441.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_164" href="#NtA_164">[164]</a> S. Sidney, 'The Pig,' p. + 61.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_165" href="#NtA_165">[165]</a> 'Schweineschädel,' s. 2, + 20.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_166" href="#NtA_166">[166]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1837, + p. 23. I have not given the caudal vertebræ, as Mr. Eyton says some might + possibly have been lost. I have added together the dorsal and lumbar + vertebræ, owing to Prof. Owen's remarks ('Journal Linn. Soc.,' vol. ii. + p. 28) on the difference between dorsal and lumbar vertebræ depending + only on the development of the ribs. Nevertheless the difference in the + number of the ribs in pigs deserves notice.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_167" href="#NtA_167">[167]</a> 'Edinburgh New Philosoph. + Journal,' April 1863. <i>See</i> also De Blainville's 'Ostéographie,' p. + 128, for various authorities on this subject.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_168" href="#NtA_168">[168]</a> Eudes-Deslongchamps, + 'Mémoires de la Soc. Linn. de Normandie,' vol. vii., 1842, p. 41. + Richardson, 'Pigs, their Origin, &c.,' 1847, p. 30. Nathusius, 'Die + Racen des Schweines,' 1860, s. 54.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_169" href="#NtA_169">[169]</a> D. Johnson's 'Sketches of + Indian Field Sports,' p. 272. Mr. Crawfurd informs me that the same fact + holds good with the wild pigs of the Malay peninsula.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_170" href="#NtA_170">[170]</a> For Turkish pigs, + <i>see</i> Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' 1820, p. 391. For those of + Westphalia, <i>see</i> Richardson's 'Pigs, their Origin,' &c., 1847, + p. 41.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_171" href="#NtA_171">[171]</a> With respect to the several + foregoing and following statements on feral pigs, <i>see</i> Roulin, in + 'Mém. présentés par divers Savans à l'Acad.,' &c., Paris, tom. vi., + 1835, p. 326. It should be observed that his account does not apply to + truly feral pigs; but to pigs long introduced into the country and living + in a half-wild state. For the truly feral pigs of Jamaica, <i>see</i> + Gosse's 'Sojourn in Jamaica,' 1851, p. 386; and Col. Hamilton Smith, in + 'Nat. Library,' vol. ix. p. 93. With respect to Africa, <i>see</i> + Livingstone's 'Expedition to the Zambesi,' 1865, p. 153. The most precise + statement with respect to the tusks of the West Indian feral boars is by + P. Labat (quoted by Roulin); but this author attributes the state of + these pigs to descent from a domestic stock which he saw in Spain. + Admiral Sulivan, R.N., had ample opportunities of observing the wild pigs + on Eagle Islet in the Falklands; and he informs me that they resembled + wild boars with bristly ridged backs and large tusks. The pigs which have + run wild in the province of Buenos Ayres (Rengger, 'Säugethiere,' s. 331) + have not reverted to the wild type. De Blainville ('Ostéographie,' p. + 132) refers to two skulls of domestic pigs sent from Patagonia by Al. + d'Orbigny, and he states that they have the occipital elevation of the + wild European boar, but that the head altogether is "plus courte et plus + ramassée." He refers, also, to the skin of a feral pig from North + America, and says, "il ressemble tout à fait à un petit sanglier, mais il + est presque tout noir, et peut-être un peu plus ramassé dans ses + formes."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_172" href="#NtA_172">[172]</a> Gosse's 'Jamaica,' p. 386, + with a quotation from Williamson's 'Oriental Field Sports.' Also Col. + Hamilton Smith, in 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. ix. p. 94.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_173" href="#NtA_173">[173]</a> S. Sidney's edition of + 'Youatt on the Pig,' 1860, pp. 7, 26, 27, 29, 30.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_174" href="#NtA_174">[174]</a> 'Schweineschädel,' s. + 140.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_175" href="#NtA_175">[175]</a> 'Die Fauna der + Pfahlbauten,' 1861, s. 109, 149, 222. <i>See</i> also Geoffroy Saint + Hilaire, in 'Mém. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat.,' tom. x. p. 172; and his son + Isidore, in 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 69. Vasey, in his + 'Delineations of the Ox Tribe,' 1851, p. 127, says the zebu has four, and + the common ox five, sacral vertebræ. Mr. Hodgson found the ribs either + thirteen or fourteen in number; <i>see</i> a note in 'Indian Field,' + 1858, p. 62.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_176" href="#NtA_176">[176]</a> 'The Indian Field,' 1858, + p. 74, where Mr. Blyth gives his authorities with respect to the feral + humped cattle. Pickering, also, in his 'Races of Man,' 1850, p. 274, + notices the peculiar character of the grunt-like voice of the humped + cattle.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_177" href="#NtA_177">[177]</a> Mr. H. E. Marquand, in 'The + Times,' June 23rd, 1856.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_178" href="#NtA_178">[178]</a> Vasey, 'Delineations of the + Ox-Tribe,' p. 124. Brace's 'Hungary,' 1851, p. 94. The Hungarian cattle + descend, according to Rütimeyer ('Zahmen. Europ. Rindes,' 1866, s. 13), + from <i>Bos primigenius</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_179" href="#NtA_179">[179]</a> Moll and Gayot, 'La + Connaissance Gén. du Bœuf,' Paris, 1860. Fig 82 is that of the + Podolian breed.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_180" href="#NtA_180">[180]</a> A translation appeared in + three parts in the 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd series, vol. iv., + 1849.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_181" href="#NtA_181">[181]</a> <i>See</i>, also, + Rütimeyer's 'Beitrage pal. Gesch. der Wiederkauer,' Basel, 1865, s. + 54.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_182" href="#NtA_182">[182]</a> Pictet's 'Paléontologie,' + tom. i. p. 365 (2nd edit.). With respect to B. trochoceros, <i>see</i> + Rütimeyer's 'Zahmen Europ. Rindes,' 1866, s. 26.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_183" href="#NtA_183">[183]</a> Owen, 'British Fossil + Mammals,' 1846, p. 510.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_184" href="#NtA_184">[184]</a> 'British Pleistocene + Mammalia,' by W. B. Dawkins and W. A. Sandford, 1866. p. xv.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_185" href="#NtA_185">[185]</a> W. R. Wilde, 'An Essay on + the Animal Remains, &c., Royal Irish Academy,' 1860, p. 29. Also + 'Proc. of R. Irish Academy,' 1858, p. 48.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_186" href="#NtA_186">[186]</a> 'Lecture: Royal Institution + of G. Britain,' May 2nd, 1856, p. 4. 'British Fossil Mammals,' p. + 513.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_187" href="#NtA_187">[187]</a> Nilsson, in 'Annals and + Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 1849, vol. iv. p. 354.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_188" href="#NtA_188">[188]</a> <i>See</i> W. R. Wilde, ut + supra; and Mr. Blyth, in 'Proc. Irish Academy,' March 5th, 1864.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_189" href="#NtA_189">[189]</a> Laing's 'Tour in Norway,' + p. 110.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_190" href="#NtA_190">[190]</a> Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, + 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 96.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_191" href="#NtA_191">[191]</a> Idem, tom. iii. pp. 82, + 91.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_192" href="#NtA_192">[192]</a> 'Quadrupèdes du Paraguay,' + tom. ii. p. 360.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_193" href="#NtA_193">[193]</a> Walther, 'Das Rindvieh,' + 1817, s. 30.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_194" href="#NtA_194">[194]</a> I am much indebted to the + present Earl of Tankerville for information about his wild cattle; and + for the skull which was sent to Prof. Rütimeyer. The fullest account of + the Chillingham cattle is given by Mr. Hindmarsh, together with a letter + by the late Lord Tankerville, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. + ii., 1839, p. 274. <i>See</i> Bewick, 'Quadrupeds,' 2nd edit., 1791, p. + 35, note. With respect to those of Duke of Queensberry, <i>see</i> + Pennant's 'Tour in Scotland,' p. 109. For those of Chartley, <i>see</i> + Low's 'Domesticated Animals of Britain,' 1845, p. 238. For those of + Gisburne, <i>see</i> Bewick's 'Quadrupeds, and Encyclop. of Rural + Sports,' p. 101.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_195" href="#NtA_195">[195]</a> Boethius was born in 1470; + 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii., 1839, p. 281; and vol. iv. + 1849, p. 424.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_196" href="#NtA_196">[196]</a> Youatt on Cattle, 1834, p. + 48: <i>See</i> also p. 242, on short-horn cattle. Bell, in his 'British + Quadrupeds,' p. 423, states that, after long attending to the subject, he + has found that white cattle invariably have coloured ears.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_197" href="#NtA_197">[197]</a> Azara, 'Des Quadrupèdes du + Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 361. Azara quotes Buffon for the feral cattle of + Africa. For Texas, <i>see</i> 'Times,' Feb. 18th, 1846.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_198" href="#NtA_198">[198]</a> Anson's Voyage. <i>See</i> + Kerr and Porter's 'Collection,' vol. xii. p. 103.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_199" href="#NtA_199">[199]</a> <i>See</i> also Mr. + Mackinnon's pamphlet on the Falkland Islands, p. 24.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_200" href="#NtA_200">[200]</a> 'The Age of the Ox, Sheep, + Pig,' &c., by Prof. James Simonds, published by order of the Royal + Agricult. Soc.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_201" href="#NtA_201">[201]</a> 'Ann. Agricult. France,' + April 1897. as quoted in 'The Veterinary,' vol. xii. p. 725. I quote + Tessier's observations from Youatt on Cattle, p. 527.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_202" href="#NtA_202">[202]</a> 'The Veterinary,' vol. + viii. p. 681, and vol. x. p. 268. Low's 'Domest. Animals of Great + Britain,' p. 297.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_203" href="#NtA_203">[203]</a> Mr. Ogleby, in 'Proc. + Zoolog. Soc.,' 1836, p. 138, and 1840, p. 4.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_204" href="#NtA_204">[204]</a> Leguat's Voyage, quoted by + Vasey in his 'Delineations of the Ox-tribe,' p. 132.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_205" href="#NtA_205">[205]</a> 'Travels in South Africa,' + pp. 317, 336.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_206" href="#NtA_206">[206]</a> 'Mém. de l'Institut + présent. par divers Savans,' tom. vi., 1835, p. 333. For Brazil, + <i>see</i> 'Comptes Rendus,' June 15th, 1846. <i>See</i> Azara, + 'Quadrupèdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. pp. 359, 361.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_207" href="#NtA_207">[207]</a> 'Schweineschädel,' 1864, s. + 104. Nathusius states that the form of skull characteristic of the niata + cattle occasionally appears in European cattle; but he is mistaken, as we + shall hereafter see, in supposing that these cattle do not form a + distinct race. Prof. Wyman, of Cambridge, United States, informs me that + the common cod-fish presents a similar monstrosity, called by the + fishermen the "bulldog cod." Prof. Wyman also concluded, after making + numerous inquiries in La Plata, that the niata cattle transmit their + peculiarities or form a race.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_208" href="#NtA_208">[208]</a> Ueber Art des Zahmen Europ. + Rindes, 1866, s. 28.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_209" href="#NtA_209">[209]</a> 'Descriptive Cat. of Ost. + Collect. of College of Surgeons,' 1853, p. 624. Vasey, in his + 'Delineations of the Ox-tribe,' has given a figure of this skull; and I + sent a photograph of it to Prof. Rütimeyer.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_210" href="#NtA_210">[210]</a> Loudon's 'Magazine of Nat. + Hist.,' vol. i., 1829, p. 113. Separate figures are given of the animal, + its hoofs, eye, and dewlap.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_211" href="#NtA_211">[211]</a> Low, 'Domesticated Animals + of the British Isles,' p. 264.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_212" href="#NtA_212">[212]</a> 'Mém. de l'Institut + présent. par divers Savans,' tom. vi., 1835, p. 332.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_213" href="#NtA_213">[213]</a> Idem, pp. 304, 368, + &c.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_214" href="#NtA_214">[214]</a> Youatt on Cattle, p. 193. A + full account of this bull is taken from Marshall.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_215" href="#NtA_215">[215]</a> Youatt on Cattle, p. 116. + Lord Spencer has written on this same subject.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_216" href="#NtA_216">[216]</a> Blyth on the genus Ovis, in + 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' vol. vii., 1841, p. 261: with respect + to the parentage of the breeds, see Mr. Blyth's excellent articles in + 'Land and Water,' 1867, pp. 134, 156. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des + Mammifères,' 1855, tom. ii. p. 191.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_217" href="#NtA_217">[217]</a> Dr. L. Fitzinger, 'Ueber + die Racen des Zahmen Schafes,' 1860, s. 86.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_218" href="#NtA_218">[218]</a> J. Anderson, 'Recreations + in Agriculture and Natural History,' vol. ii. p. 164.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_219" href="#NtA_219">[219]</a> 'Pfahlbauten,' s. 127, + 193.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_220" href="#NtA_220">[220]</a> Youatt on Sheep, p. + 120.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_221" href="#NtA_221">[221]</a> 'Journal of the Asiatic + Soc. of Bengal,' vol. xvi. pp. 1007, 1016.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_222" href="#NtA_222">[222]</a> Youatt on Sheep, pp. + 142-169.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_223" href="#NtA_223">[223]</a> 'Journal Asiat. Soc. of + Bengal,' vol. xvi., 1847, p. 1015.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_224" href="#NtA_224">[224]</a> 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. + iii. p. 435.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_225" href="#NtA_225">[225]</a> Youatt on Sheep, p. + 138.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_226" href="#NtA_226">[226]</a> 'Journal Asiat. Soc. of + Bengal,' vol. xvi., 1847, pp. 1015, 1016.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_227" href="#NtA_227">[227]</a> 'Racen des Zahmen Schafes,' + s. 77.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_228" href="#NtA_228">[228]</a> 'Rural Economy of Norfolk,' + vol. ii. p. 136.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_229" href="#NtA_229">[229]</a> Youatt on Sheep, p. 312. On + same subject, <i>see</i> excellent remarks in 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1858, p. 868. For experiments in crossing Cheviot sheep with Leicesters, + <i>see</i> Youatt, p. 325.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_230" href="#NtA_230">[230]</a> Youatt on Sheep, note, p. + 491.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_231" href="#NtA_231">[231]</a> 'The Veterinary,' vol. x. + p. 217.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_232" href="#NtA_232">[232]</a> A translation of his paper + is given in 'Bull. Soc. Imp. d'Acclimat.,' tom. ix., 1862, p. 723.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_233" href="#NtA_233">[233]</a> Erman's 'Travels in + Siberia' (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 228. For Pallas on the fat-tailed + sheep, I quote from Anderson's account of the 'Sheep of Russia,' 1794, p. + 34. With respect to the Crimean sheep, <i>see</i> Pallas' 'Travels' (Eng. + trans.), vol. ii. p. 454. For the Karakool sheep, <i>see</i> Burnes' + 'Travels in Bokhara,' vol. iii. p. 151.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_234" href="#NtA_234">[234]</a> <i>See</i> Report of the + Directors of the Sierra Leone Company, as quoted in White's 'Gradation of + Man,' p. 95. With respect to the change which sheep undergo in the West + Indies, <i>see</i> also Dr. Davy, in 'Edin. New. Phil. Journal,' Jan. + 1852. For the statement made by Roulin, <i>see</i> 'Mém. de l'Institut + présent. par divers Savans,' tom. vi., 1835, p. 347.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_235" href="#NtA_235">[235]</a> Youatt on Sheep, p. 69, + where Lord Somerville is quoted. <i>See</i> p. 117, on the presence of + wool under the hair. With respect to the fleeces of Australian sheep, p. + 185. On selection counteracting any tendency to change, <i>see</i> pp. + 70, 117, 120, 168.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_236" href="#NtA_236">[236]</a> Audubon and Bachman, 'The + Quadrupeds of North America,' 1846, vol. v. p. 365.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_237" href="#NtA_237">[237]</a> 'Journal of R. Agricult. + Soc. of England,' vol. xx., part ii. W. C. Spooner on Cross-Breeding.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_238" href="#NtA_238">[238]</a> 'Philosoph. Transactions,' + London, 1813, p. 88.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_239" href="#NtA_239">[239]</a> Isidore Geoffroy St. + Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Générale,' tom. iii. p. 87. Mr. Blyth ('Land and + Water,' 1867, p. 37) has arrived at a similar conclusion, but he thinks + that certain Eastern races may perhaps be in part descended from the + Asiatic markhor.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_240" href="#NtA_240">[240]</a> Rütimeyer, 'Pfahlbauten,' + s. 127.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_241" href="#NtA_241">[241]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + i. p. 402.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_242" href="#NtA_242">[242]</a> 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + History,' vol. ii. (2nd series), 1848, p. 363.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_243" href="#NtA_243">[243]</a> 'De l'Espèce,' tom. i. p. + 406. Mr. Clark also refers to differences in the shape of the mammæ. + Godron states that in the Nubian race the scrotum is divided into two + lobes; and Mr. Clark gives a ludicrous proof of this fact, for he saw in + the Mauritius a male goat of the Muscat breed purchased at a high price + for a female in full milk. These differences in the scrotum are probably + not due to descent from distinct species; for Mr. Clark states that this + part varies much in form.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_244" href="#NtA_244">[244]</a> Mr. Clark, 'Annals and Mag. + of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii. (2nd series), 1848, p. 361.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_245" href="#NtA_245">[245]</a> Desmarest, 'Encyclop. + Méthod. Mammalogie,' p. 480.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_246" href="#NtA_246">[246]</a> 'Journal of Asiatic Soc. of + Bengal,' vol. xvi., 1847, pp. 1020, 1025.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_247" href="#NtA_247">[247]</a> M. P. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. + des Mammifères, tom. i., 1854, p. 288.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_248" href="#NtA_248">[248]</a> U. Aldrovandi, 'De + Quadrupedibus digitatis,' 1637, p. 383. For Confucius and G. Markham, + <i>see</i> a writer who has studied the subject, in 'Cottage Gardener,' + Jan. 22nd, 1861, p. 250.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_249" href="#NtA_249">[249]</a> Owen, 'British Fossil + Mammals,' p. 212.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_250" href="#NtA_250">[250]</a> Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. + Deutschlands,' 1801, b. i. p. 1133. I have received similar accounts with + respect to England and Scotland.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_251" href="#NtA_251">[251]</a> 'Pigeons and Rabbits,' by + E. S. Delamer, 1854, p. 133. Sir J. Sebright ('Observations on Instinct,' + 1836, p. 10) speaks most strongly on the difficulty. But this difficulty + is not invariable, as I have received two accounts of perfect success in + taming and breeding from the wild rabbit. <i>See</i> also Dr. P. Broca, + in 'Journal de la Physiologie' tom. ii. p. 368.</p> + + <p><i>Transcriber's Note: this note and the previous one were + interchanged; corrected by Errata page.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt_252" href="#NtA_252">[252]</a> Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des + Mammifères,' tom. i. p. 292.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_253" href="#NtA_253">[253]</a> <i>See</i> Dr. P. Broca's + interesting memoir on this subject in Brown-Sequard's 'Journ. de Phys.' + vol. ii. p. 367.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_254" href="#NtA_254">[254]</a> They are briefly described + in the 'Journal of Horticulture,' May 7th, 1861, p. 108.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_255" href="#NtA_255">[255]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + 1861, p. 380.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_256" href="#NtA_256">[256]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + May 28th, 1861, p. 169.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_257" href="#NtA_257">[257]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + 1861, p. 327. With respect to the ears, <i>see</i> Delamer on 'Pigeons + and Rabbits,' 1854, p. 141; also 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 499, + and ditto for 1854, p. 586.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_258" href="#NtA_258">[258]</a> Delamer, 'Pigeons and + Rabbits,' p. 136. <i>See</i> also 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. + 375.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_259" href="#NtA_259">[259]</a> 'An Account of the + different Kinds of Sheep in the Russian Dominions,' 1794, p. 39.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_260" href="#NtA_260">[260]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' June + 23rd, 1857, p. 159.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_261" href="#NtA_261">[261]</a> 'Cottage Gardener,' 1857, + p. 141.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_262" href="#NtA_262">[262]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + April 9th, 1861, p. 35.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_263" href="#NtA_263">[263]</a> Mr. Bartlett, in 'Proc. + Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861. p. 40.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_264" href="#NtA_264">[264]</a> 'Phenomenon in Himalayan + Rabbits,' in 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1865, Jan. 27th, p. 102.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_265" href="#NtA_265">[265]</a> G. R. Waterhouse, 'Natural + History of Mammalia: Rodents,' 1846, pp. 52, 60, 105.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_266" href="#NtA_266">[266]</a> Delamer on 'Pigeons and + Rabbits,' p. 114.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_267" href="#NtA_267">[267]</a> Gosse's 'Sojourn in + Jamaica,' 1851, p. 441, as described by an excellent observer, Mr. R. + Hill. This is the only known case in which rabbits have become feral in a + hot country. They can be kept, however, at Loanda (<i>see</i> + Livingstone's 'Travels,' p. 407). In parts of India, as I am informed by + Mr. Blyth, they breed well.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_268" href="#NtA_268">[268]</a> Darwin's 'Journal of + Researches,' p. 193; and 'Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle: Mammalia,' + p. 92.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_269" href="#NtA_269">[269]</a> Kerr's 'Collection of + Voyages,' vol. ii. p. 177; p. 205 for Cada Mosto. According to a work + published in Lisbon in 1717, entitled 'Historia Insulana,' written by a + Jesuit, the rabbits were turned out in 1420. Some authors believe that + the island was discovered in 1413.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_270" href="#NtA_270">[270]</a> Something of the same kind + has occurred on the island of Lipari, where, according to Spallanzani + ('Voyage dans les deux Siciles,' quoted by Godron sur l'Espèce, p. 364), + a countryman turned out some rabbits which multiplied prodigiously, but, + says Spallanzani, "les lapins de l'ile de Lipari sont plus petits que + ceux qu'on élève en domesticité."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_271" href="#NtA_271">[271]</a> Waterhouse, 'Nat. Hist. + Mammalia,' vol. ii. p. 36.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_272" href="#NtA_272">[272]</a> These rabbits have run wild + for a considerable time in Sandon Park, and in other places in + Staffordshire and Shropshire. They originated, as I have been informed by + the gamekeeper, from variously-coloured domestic rabbits which had been + turned out. They vary in colour; but many are symmetrically coloured, + being white with a streak along the spine, and with the ears and certain + marks about the head of a blackish-grey tint. They have rather longer + bodies than common rabbits.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_273" href="#NtA_273">[273]</a> <i>See</i> Prof. Owen's + remarks on this subject in his paper on the 'Zoological Significance of + the Brain, &c., of Man, &c.,' read before Brit. Association, + 1862; with respect to Birds, <i>see</i> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Jan. 11th, + 1848, p. 8.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_274" href="#NtA_274">[274]</a> This standard is apparently + considerably too low, for Dr. Crisp ('Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861, p. 80) + gives 210 grains as the actual weight of the brain of a hare which + weighed 7lbs., and 125 grains as the weight of the brain of a rabbit + which weighed 3 lbs. 5 oz., that is, the same weight as the rabbit No. 1 + in my list. Now the contents of the skull of rabbit No. 1 in shot is in + my table 972 grains; and according to Dr. Crisp's ratio of 125 to 210, + the skull of the hare ought to have contained 1632 grains of shot, + instead of only (in the largest hare in my table) 1455 grains.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_275" href="#NtA_275">[275]</a> The Hon. C. Murray has sent + me some very valuable specimens from Persia; and H.M. Consul, Mr. Keith + Abbott, has given me information on the pigeons of the same country. I am + deeply indebted to Sir Walter Elliot for an immense collection of skins + from Madras, with much information regarding them. Mr. Blyth has freely + communicated to me his stores of knowledge on this and all other related + subjects. The Rajah Sir James Brooke sent me specimens from Borneo, as + has H.M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, from Amoy in China, and Dr. Daniell from + the west coast of Africa.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_276" href="#NtA_276">[276]</a> Mr. B. P. Brent, well known + for his various contributions to poultry literature, has aided me in + every way during several years; so has Mr. Tegetmeier, with unwearied + kindness. This latter gentleman, who is well known for his works on + poultry, and who has largely bred pigeons, has looked over this and the + following chapters. Mr. Bult formerly showed me his unrivalled collection + of Pouters, and gave me specimens. I had access to Mr. Wicking's + collection, which contained a greater assortment of many kinds than could + anywhere else be seen; and he has always aided me with specimens and + information given in the freest manner. Mr. Haynes and Mr. Corker have + given me specimens of their magnificent Carriers. To Mr. Harrison Weir I + am likewise indebted. Nor must I by any means pass over the assistance + received from Mr. J. M. Eaton, Mr. Baker, Mr. Evans, and Mr. J. Baily, + jun., of Mount-street—to the latter gentleman I have been indebted + for some valuable specimens. To all these gentlemen I beg permission to + return my sincere and cordial thanks.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_277" href="#NtA_277">[277]</a> 'Les Pigeons de Volière et + de Colombier,' Paris, 1824. During forty-five years the sole occupation + of M. Corbié was the care of the pigeons belonging to the Duchess of + Berry.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_278" href="#NtA_278">[278]</a> 'Coup d'Oeil sur l'Ordre + des Pigeons,' par Prince C. L. Bonaparte, Paris, 1855. This author makes + 288 species, ranked under 85 genera.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_279" href="#NtA_279">[279]</a> As I so often refer to the + size of the <i>C. livia</i>, or rock-pigeon, it may be convenient to give + the mean between the measurements of two wild birds, kindly sent me by + Dr. Edmondstone from the Shetland Islands:—</p> + + +<table width="68%" class="nobctr" summary="measurements of Pigeons" title="measurements of Pigeons"> + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right" colspan="3"> + <p>Inches.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Length from feathered base of beak to end of tail</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right; width:18%"> + <p>14.25</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; width:9%"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left; width:72%"> + <p> " " " to oil-gland</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9.5 </p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>from tip of beak to end of tail</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15.02</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>of tail-feathers</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4.62</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>from tip to tip of wing</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26.75</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>of folded wing</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9.25</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Beak.—Length from tip of beak to feathered base</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>.77</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thickness, measured vertically at further end of nostrils</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>.23</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Breadth, measured at same place</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>.16</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Feet.—Length from end of middle toe (without claw) to distal + end of tibia</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2.77</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Length from end of middle toe to end of hind toe (without + claws)</p> + </td> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2.02</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Weight 14¼ ounces.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="Nt_280" href="#NtA_280">[280]</a> This drawing was made from + a dead bird. The six following figures were drawn with great care by Mr. + Luke Wells from living birds selected by Mr. Tegetmeier. It may be + confidently asserted that the characters of the six breeds which have + been figured are not in the least exaggerated.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_281" href="#NtA_281">[281]</a> 'Das Ganze der + Taubenzucht:' Weimar, 1837, pl. 11 and 12.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_282" href="#NtA_282">[282]</a> Boitard and Corbié, 'Les + Pigeons,' &c., p. 177, pl. 6.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_283" href="#NtA_283">[283]</a> 'Die Taubenzucht,' Ulm, + 1824, s. 42.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_284" href="#NtA_284">[284]</a> This treatise was written + by Sayzid Mohammed Musari, who died in 1770: I owe to the great kindness + of Sir W. Elliot a translation of this curious treatise.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_285" href="#NtA_285">[285]</a> 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. + ii. p. 573.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_286" href="#NtA_286">[286]</a> 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + History,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 105.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_287" href="#NtA_287">[287]</a> This gland occurs in most + birds; but Nitzsch (in his 'Pterylographie,' 1840, p. 55) states that it + is absent in two species of Columba, in several species of Psittacus, in + some species of Otis, and in most or all birds of the Ostrich family. It + can hardly be an accidental coincidence that the two species of Columba, + which are destitute of an oil-gland, have an unusual number of + tail-feathers, namely 16, and in this respect resemble Fantails.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_288" href="#NtA_288">[288]</a> <i>See</i> the two + excellent editions published by Mr. J. M. Eaton in 1852 and 1858, + entitled 'A Treatise on Fancy Pigeons.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_289" href="#NtA_289">[289]</a> English translation, by F. + Gladwin, 4th edition, vol. i. The habit of the Lotan is also described in + the Persian treatise before alluded to, published about 100 years ago: at + this date the Lotans were generally white and crested as at present. Mr. + Blyth describes these birds in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. + xiv., 1847, p. 104: he says that they "may be seen at any of the Calcutta + bird-dealers."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_290" href="#NtA_290">[290]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + Oct. 22, 1861, p. 76.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_291" href="#NtA_291">[291]</a> <i>See</i> the account of + the House-tumblers kept at Glasgow, in the 'Cottage Gardener,' 1858, p. + 285. Also Mr. Brent's paper, 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. 76.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_292" href="#NtA_292">[292]</a> J. M. Eaton's 'Treatise on + Pigeons,' 1852, p. 9.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_293" href="#NtA_293">[293]</a> J. M. Eaton's Treatise, + edit. 1858, p. 76.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_294" href="#NtA_294">[294]</a> Neumeister,'Taubenzucht,' + Tab. 4, fig. i.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_295" href="#NtA_295">[295]</a> Riedel, 'Die Taubenzucht,' + 1824, s. 26. Bechstein, 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' Band iv. s. 36, + 1795.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_296" href="#NtA_296">[296]</a> Willoughby's 'Ornithology,' + edited by Ray.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_297" href="#NtA_297">[297]</a> J. M. Eaton's edition + (1858) of Moore, p. 98.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_298" href="#NtA_298">[298]</a> Pigeon Patu Plongeur. 'Les + Pigeons,' &c., p. 165.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_299" href="#NtA_299">[299]</a> 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' + Band iv. s. 47.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_300" href="#NtA_300">[300]</a> Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, + 'Journal of Horticulture,' Jan. 20th, 1863, p. 58.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_301" href="#NtA_301">[301]</a> 'Coup-d'œil sur + l'Ordre des Pigeons,' par C. L. Bonaparte; Comptes Rendus, 1854-55. Mr. + Blyth, in 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 41, mentions, as a + very singular fact, "that of the two species of Ectopistes, which are + nearly allied to each other, one should have fourteen tail-feathers, + while the other, the passenger pigeon of North America, should possess + but the usual number—twelve."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_302" href="#NtA_302">[302]</a> Described and figured in + the 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii., 1855, p. 82.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_303" href="#NtA_303">[303]</a> 'The Pigeon Book,' by Mr. + B. P. Brent, 1859, p. 41.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_304" href="#NtA_304">[304]</a> 'Die Staarhälsige Taube, + Das Ganze, &c.,' s. 21, tab. i. fig. 4.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_305" href="#NtA_305">[305]</a> 'A Treatise on the Almond + Tumbler,' by J. M. Eaton, 1852, p. 8, et passim.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_306" href="#NtA_306">[306]</a> A Treatise, &c, p. + 10.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_307" href="#NtA_307">[307]</a> Boitard and Corbié, 'Les + Pigeons,' &c. 1824, p. 173.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_308" href="#NtA_308">[308]</a> 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' + 1865, p. 87.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_309" href="#NtA_309">[309]</a> Prof. A. Newton ('Proc. + Zoolog. Soc.' 1865, p. 716) remarks that he knows no species which + presents any remarkable sexual distinction; but it is stated + ('Naturalist's Library, Birds,' vol. ix. p. 117) that the excrescence at + the base of the beak in the <i>Carpophaga oceanica</i> is sexual: this, + if correct, is an interesting point of analogy with the male Carrier, + which has the wattle at the base of its beak so much more developed than + in the female. Mr. Wallace informs me that in the sub-family of the + Treronidæ the sexes often differ in vividness of colour.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_310" href="#NtA_310">[310]</a> I am not sure that I have + designated the different kinds of vertebræ correctly: but I observe that + different anatomists follow in this respect different rules, and, as I + use the same terms in the comparison of all the skeletons, this, I hope, + will not signify.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_311" href="#NtA_311">[311]</a> J. M. Eaton's Treatise, + edit. 1858, p. 78.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_312" href="#NtA_312">[312]</a> In an analogous, but + converse, manner, certain natural groups of the Columbidæ, from being + more terrestrial in their habits than other allied groups, have larger + feet. <i>See</i> Prince Bonaparte's 'Coup-d'œil sur l'Ordre des + Pigeons.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_313" href="#NtA_313">[313]</a> It perhaps deserves notice + that besides these five birds two of the eight were barbs, which, as I + have shown, must be classed in the same group with the long-beaked + carriers and runts. Barbs may properly be called short-beaked carriers. + It would, therefore, appear as if, during the reduction of their beaks, + their wings had retained a little of that excess of length which is + characteristic of their nearest relations and progenitors.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_314" href="#NtA_314">[314]</a> Temminck, 'Hist. Nat. Gén. + des Pigeons et des Gallinacés,' tom. i., 1813, p. 170.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_315" href="#NtA_315">[315]</a> This term was used by John + Hunter for such differences in structure between the males and females, + as are not directly connected with the act of reproduction, as the tail + of the peacock, the horns of deer, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_316" href="#NtA_316">[316]</a> Temminck, 'Hist. Nat. Gén. + des Pigeons,' &c., tom. i. p. 191.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_317" href="#NtA_317">[317]</a> I have heard through Sir C. + Lyell from Miss Buckley, that some half-bred carriers kept during many + years near London regularly settled by day on some adjoining trees, and, + after being disturbed in their loft by their young being taken, roosted + on them at night.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_318" href="#NtA_318">[318]</a> 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + Hist.,' 2nd ser., vol. xx., 1857, p. 509; and in a late volume of the + Journal of the Asiatic Society.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_319" href="#NtA_319">[319]</a> In works written on the + pigeon by fanciers I have sometimes observed the mistaken belief + expressed that the species which naturalists call ground-pigeons (in + contradistinction to arboreal pigeons) do not perch and build on trees. + In these same works wild species resembling the chief domestic races are + often said to exist in various parts of the world, but such species are + quite unknown to naturalists.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_320" href="#NtA_320">[320]</a> Sir E. Schomburgk, in + 'Journal R. Geograph. Soc.,' vol. xiii., 1844, p. 32.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_321" href="#NtA_321">[321]</a> Rev. E. S. Dixon, + 'Ornamental Poultry,' 1848, pp. 63, 66.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_322" href="#NtA_322">[322]</a> Proc. Zoolog. Soc., 1859, + p. 400.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_323" href="#NtA_323">[323]</a> Temminck, 'Hist. Nat. Gén. + des Pigeons,' tom. i.; also 'Les Pigeons,' par Mad. Knip and Temminck. + Bonaparte however, in his 'Coup-d'œil,' believes that two closely + allied species are confounded together under this name. The <i>C. + leucocephala</i> of the West Indies is stated by Temminck to be a + rock-pigeon; but I am informed by Mr. Gosse that this is an error.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_324" href="#NtA_324">[324]</a> 'Handbuch der Naturgesch. + Vogel Deutschlands.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_325" href="#NtA_325">[325]</a> 'Tagebuch Reise nach Färo,' + 1830, s. 62.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_326" href="#NtA_326">[326]</a> 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + Hist.,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 102. This excellent paper on pigeons is well + worth consulting.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_327" href="#NtA_327">[327]</a> 'Natural History of + Ireland,' Birds, vol. ii. (1850), p. 11. For Graba, <i>see</i> previous + reference.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_328" href="#NtA_328">[328]</a> 'Coup-d'œil sur + l'Ordre des Pigeons,' Comptes Rendus, 1854-55.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_329" href="#NtA_329">[329]</a> 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' + Band iv., 1795, s. 14.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_330" href="#NtA_330">[330]</a> 'History of British Birds,' + vol. i. pp. 275-284. Mr. Andrew Duncan tamed a rock-pigeon in the + Shetland Islands. Mr. James Barclay, and Mr. Smith of Uyea Sound, both + say that the wild rock-pigeon can be easily tamed; and the former + gentleman asserts that the tamed birds breed four times a year. Dr. + Lawrence Edmondstone informs me that a wild rock-pigeon came and settled + in his dovecot in Balta Sound in the Shetland Islands, and bred with his + pigeons; he has also given me other instances of the wild rock-pigeon + having been taken young and breeding in captivity.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_331" href="#NtA_331">[331]</a> 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + History,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 103, and vol. for 1857, p. 512.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_332" href="#NtA_332">[332]</a> Domestic pigeons of the + common kind are mentioned as being pretty numerous in John Barbut's + 'Description of the Coast of Guinea' (p. 215), published in 1746; they + are said, in accordance with the name which they bear, to have been + imported.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_333" href="#NtA_333">[333]</a> With respect to feral + pigeons—for Juan Fernandez, <i>see</i> Bertero in 'Annal. des Sc. + Nat.,' tom. xxi. p. 351. For Norfolk Island, <i>see</i> Rev. E. S. Dixon + in the 'Dovecote,' 1851, p. 14, on the authority of Mr. Gould. For + Ascension I rely on MS. information given me by Mr. Layard. For the banks + of the Hudson, <i>see</i> Blyth in 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xx., + 1857, p. 511. For Scotland, <i>see</i> Macgillivray, 'British Birds,' + vol. i. p. 275; also Thompson's 'Nat. History of Ireland, Birds,' vol. + ii. p. 11. For ducks, <i>see</i> Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental Poultry,' + 1847, p. 122. For the feral hybrids of the common and musk-ducks, + <i>see</i> Audubon's 'American Ornithology,' and Selys-Longchamp's + 'Hybrides dans la Famille des Anatides.' For the goose, Isidore Geoffrey + St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 498. For guinea-fowls, + <i>see</i> Gosse's 'Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica,' p. 124; and his + 'Birds of Jamaica' for fuller particulars. I saw the wild guinea-fowl in + Ascension. For the peacock, <i>see</i> 'A Week at Port Royal,' by a + competent authority, Mr. R. Hill, p. 42. For the turkey I rely on oral + information; I ascertained that they were not Curassows. With respect to + fowls I will give the references in the next chapter.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_334" href="#NtA_334">[334]</a> I have drawn out a long + table of the various crosses made by fanciers between the several + domestic breeds, but I do not think it worth publishing. I have myself + made for this special purpose many crosses, and all were perfectly + fertile. I have united in one bird five of the most distinct races, and + with patience I might undoubtedly have thus united all. The case of five + distinct breeds being blended together with unimpaired fertility is + important, because Gärtner has shown that it is a very general, though + not, as he thought, universal rule, that complex crosses between several + species are excessively sterile. I have met with only two or three cases + of reported sterility in the offspring of certain races when crossed. Von + Pistor ('Das Ganze der Feld-taubenzucht,' 1831, s. 15) asserts that the + mongrels from barbs and fantails are sterile: I have proved this to be + erroneous, not only by crossing these hybrids with several other hybrids + of the same parentage, but by the more severe test of pairing brother and + sister hybrids <i>inter se</i>, and they were <i>perfectly</i> fertile. + Temminck has stated ('Hist. Nat. Gén. des Pigeons,' tom. i. p. 197) that + the turbit or owl will not cross readily with other breeds: but my + turbits crossed, when left free, with almond tumblers and with + trumpeters; the same thing has occurred (Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'The Dovecot,' + p. 107) between turbits and dovecots and nuns. I have crossed turbits + with barbs, as has M. Boitard (p. 34), who says the hybrids were very + fertile. Hybrids from a turbit and fantail have been known to breed + <i>inter se</i> (Riedel, Taubenzucht, s. 25, and Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. + Deutsch.' B. iv. s. 44). Turbits (Riedel, s. 26) have been crossed with + pouters and with jacobins, and with a hybrid jacobin-trumpeter (Riedel, + s. 27). The latter author has, however, made some vague statements (s. + 22) on the sterility of turbits when crossed with certain other crossed + breeds. But I have little doubt that the Rev. E. S. Dixon's explanation + of such statements is correct, viz. that individual birds both with + turbits and other breeds are occasionally sterile.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_335" href="#NtA_335">[335]</a> 'Das Ganze der + Taubenzucht,' s. 18.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_336" href="#NtA_336">[336]</a> 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. + 35.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_337" href="#NtA_337">[337]</a> Domestic pigeons pair + readily with the allied <i>C. oenas</i> (Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. + Deutschlands,' B. iv. s. 3); and Mr. Brent has made the same cross + several times in England, but the young were very apt to die at about ten + days old; one hybrid which he reared (from <i>C. oenas</i> and a male + Antwerp carrier) paired with a dragon, but never laid eggs. Bechstein + further states (s. 26) that the domestic pigeon will cross with <i>C. + palumbus</i>, <i>Turtur risoria</i>, and <i>T. vulgaris</i>, but nothing + is said of the fertility of the hybrids, and this would have been + mentioned had the fact been ascertained. In the Zoological Gardens (MS. + report to me from Mr. James Hunt) a male hybrid from <i>Turtur + vulgaris</i> and a domestic pigeon "paired with several different species + of pigeons and doves, but none of the eggs were good." Hybrids from <i>C. + oenas</i> and <i>gymnophthalmos</i> were sterile. In Loudon's 'Mag. of + Nat. Hist.' vol. vii. 1834, p. 154, it is said that a male hybrid (from + <i>Turtur vulgaris</i> male, and the cream-coloured <i>T. risoria</i> + female) paired during two years with a female <i>T. risoria</i>, and the + latter laid many eggs, but all were sterile. MM. Boitard and Corbié ('Les + Pigeons,' p. 235) state that the hybrids from these two turtle-doves are + invariably sterile both <i>inter se</i> and with either pure parent. The + experiment was tried by M. Corbié "avec une espèce d'obstination;" and + likewise by M. Manduyt, and by M. Vieillot. Temminck also found the + hybrids from these two species quite barren. Therefore, when Bechstein + ('Naturgesch. Vogel. Deutschlands,' B. 4, s. 101) asserts that the + hybrids from these two turtle-doves propagate <i>inter se</i> equally + well with pure species, and when a writer in the 'Field' newspaper (in a + letter dated Nov. 10th, 1858) makes a similar assertion, it would appear + that there must be some mistake; though what the mistake is I know not, + as Bechstein at least must have known the white <i>variety</i> of <i>T. + risoria</i>: it would be an unparalleled fact if the same two species + sometimes produced <i>extremely</i> fertile, and sometimes + <i>extremely</i> barren, offspring. In the MS. report from the Zoological + Gardens it is said that hybrids from <i>Turtur vulgaris</i> and + <i>suratensis</i>, and from <i>T. vulgaris</i> and <i>Ectopistes + migratorius</i>, were sterile. Two of the latter male hybrids paired with + their pure parents, viz. <i>Turtur vulgaris</i> and the Ectopistes, and + likewise with <i>T. risoria</i> and with <i>Columba oenas</i>, and many + eggs were produced, but all were barren. At Paris, hybrids have been + raised (Isid. Geoffrey Saint Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Générale,' tom. iii. p. + 180) from <i>Turtur auritus</i> with <i>T. cambayensis</i> and with <i>T. + suratensis</i>; but nothing is said of their fertility. At the Zoological + Gardens of London the <i>Goura coronata</i> and <i>victoriæ</i> produced + a hybrid, which paired with the pure <i>G. coronata</i>, and laid several + eggs, but these proved barren. In 1860 <i>Columba</i> + <i>gymnophthalmos</i> and <i>maculosa</i> produced hybrids in these same + gardens.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_338" href="#NtA_338">[338]</a> There is one exception to + the rule, namely in a sub-variety of the swallow of German origin, which + is figured by Neumeister, and was shown to me by Mr. Wicking. This bird + is blue, but has not the black wing-bars; for our object, however, in + tracing the descent of the chief races, this exception signifies the less + as the swallow approaches closely in structure to <i>C. livia</i>. In + many sub-varieties, the black bars are replaced by bars of various + colours. The figures given by Neumeister are sufficient to show that, if + the wings alone are blue, the black wing-bars appear.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_339" href="#NtA_339">[339]</a> I have observed blue birds + with all the above-mentioned marks in the following races, which seemed + to be perfectly pure, and were shown at various exhibitions. Pouters, + with the double black wing-bars, with white croup, dark bar to end of + tail, and white edging to outer tail-feathers. Turbits, with all these + same characters. Fantails, with the same; but the croup in some was + bluish or pure blue: Mr. Wicking bred blue fantails from two black birds. + Carriers (including the Bagadotten of Neumeister), with all the marks: + two birds which I examined had white, and two had blue croups; the white + edging to the outer tail-feathers was not present in all. Mr. Corker, a + great breeder, assures me that, if black carriers are matched for many + successive generations, the offspring become first ash-coloured, and then + blue with black wing-bars. Runts of the elongated breed had the same + marks, but the croup was pale blue; the outer tail-feathers had white + edges. Neumeister figures the great Florence Runt of a blue colour with + black bars. Jacobins are very rarely blue, but I have received authentic + accounts of at least two instances of the blue variety with black bars + having appeared in England: blue jacobins were bred by Mr. Brent from two + black birds. I have seen common tumblers, both Indian and English, and + short-faced tumblers, of a blue colour, with black wing-bars, with the + black bar at the end of the tail, and with the outer tail-feathers edged + with white; the croup in all was blue, or extremely pale blue, never + absolutely white. Blue barbs and trumpeters seem to be excessively rare; + but Neumeister, who may be implicitly trusted, figures blue varieties of + both, with black wing-bars. Mr. Brent informs me that he has seen a blue + barb; and Mr. H. Weir, as I am informed by Mr. Tegetmeier, once bred a + silver (which means very pale blue) barb from two yellow birds.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_340" href="#NtA_340">[340]</a> Mr. Blyth informs me that + all the domestic races in India have the croup blue; but this is not + invariable, for I possess a very pale blue Simmali pigeon with the croup + perfectly white, sent to me by Sir W. Elliot from Madras. A slaty-blue + and chequered Nakshi pigeon has some white feathers on the croup alone. + In some other Indian pigeons there were a few white feathers confined to + the croup, and I have noticed the same fact in a carrier from Persia. The + Java fantail (imported into Amoy, and thence sent me) has a perfectly + white croup.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_341" href="#NtA_341">[341]</a> 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. + 37.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_342" href="#NtA_342">[342]</a> 'Treatise on Pigeons,' + 1858, p. 145.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_343" href="#NtA_343">[343]</a> J. Moore's 'Columbarium,' + 1735, in J. M. Eaton's edition, 1852, p. 71.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_344" href="#NtA_344">[344]</a> I could give numerous + examples; two will suffice. A mongrel, whose four grandparents were a + white turbit, white trumpeter, white fantail, and blue pouter, was white + all over, except a very few feathers about the head and on the wings, but + the whole tail and tail-coverts were dark bluish-grey. Another mongrel, + whose four grandparents were a red runt, white trumpeter, white fantail, + and the same blue pouter, was pure white all over, except the tail and + upper tail-coverts, which were pale fawn, and except the faintest trace + of double wing-bars of the same pale fawn tint.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_345" href="#NtA_345">[345]</a> It deserves notice, as + bearing on the general subject of variation, that not only <i>C. + livia</i> presents several wild forms, regarded by some naturalists as + species and by others as sub-species or as mere varieties, but that the + species of several allied genera are in the same predicament. This is the + case, as Mr. Blyth has remarked to me, with Treron, Palumbus, and + Turtur.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_346" href="#NtA_346">[346]</a> 'Denkmaler,' Abth. ii. Bl. + 70.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_347" href="#NtA_347">[347]</a> The 'Dovecote,' by the Rev. + E. S. Dixon, 1851, pp. 11-13. Adolphe Pictet (in his 'Les Origines + Indo-Européennes,' 1859, p. 399) states that there are in the ancient + Sanscrit language between 25 and 30 names for the pigeon, and other 15 or + 16 Persian names; none of these are common to the European languages. + This fact indicates the antiquity of the domestication in the East of the + pigeon.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_348" href="#NtA_348">[348]</a> English translation, 1601, + book x. ch. xxxvii.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_349" href="#NtA_349">[349]</a> 'Ayeen Akbery,' translated + by F. Gladvin, 4to. edit., vol. i. p. 270.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_350" href="#NtA_350">[350]</a> J. M. Eaton, 'Treatise on + the Almond Tumbler,' 1851; Preface, p. vi.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_351" href="#NtA_351">[351]</a> As in the following + discussion I often speak of the present time, I should state that this + chapter was completed in the year 1858.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_352" href="#NtA_352">[352]</a> 'Ornithologie,' 1600, vol. + ii. p. 360.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_353" href="#NtA_353">[353]</a> 'A Treatise on Domestic + Pigeons,' dedicated to Mr. Mayor, 1765. Preface, p. xiv.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_354" href="#NtA_354">[354]</a> Mr. Blyth has given a + translation of part of the 'Ayeen Akbery' in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + Hist.,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 104.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_355" href="#NtA_355">[355]</a> 'L'Hist. de la Nature des + Oiseaux,' p. 314.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_356" href="#NtA_356">[356]</a> 'Treatise on Pigeons,' + 1852, p. 64.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_357" href="#NtA_357">[357]</a> J. M. Eaton's 'Treatise on + the Breeding and Managing of the Almond Tumbler,' 1851. Compare p. v. of + Preface, p. 9, and p. 32.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_358" href="#NtA_358">[358]</a> 'Treatise on Pigeons,' + 1852, p. 41.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_359" href="#NtA_359">[359]</a> Eaton's 'Treatise on + Pigeons,' 1858, p. 86.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_360" href="#NtA_360">[360]</a> <i>See</i> Neumeister's + figure of the Florence runt, tab. 13, in 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_361" href="#NtA_361">[361]</a> I have drawn up this brief + synopsis from various sources, but chiefly from information given me by + Mr. Tegetmeier. This gentleman has kindly looked through the whole of + this chapter; and from his well-known knowledge, the statements here + given may be fully trusted. Mr. Tegetmeier has likewise assisted me in + every possible way in obtaining for me information and specimens. I must + not let this opportunity pass without expressing my cordial thanks to Mr. + B. P. Brent, a well-known writer on poultry, for indefatigable assistance + and the gift of many specimens.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_362" href="#NtA_362">[362]</a> The best account of Sultans + is by Miss Watts in 'The Poultry Yard,' 1856, p. 79. I owe to Mr. Brent's + kindness the examination of some specimens of this breed.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_363" href="#NtA_363">[363]</a> A good description with + figures is given of this sub-breed in the 'Journal of Horticulture,' + June 10th, 1862, p. 206.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_364" href="#NtA_364">[364]</a> A description, with + figures, is given of this breed in 'Journal of Horticulture,' June 3rd, + 1862, p. 186. Some writers describe the comb as two-horned.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_365" href="#NtA_365">[365]</a> Mr. Crawfurd, 'Descript. + Dict. of the Indian Islands,' p. 113. Bantams are mentioned in an ancient + native Japanese Encyclopædia, as I am informed, by Mr. Birch of the + British Museum.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_366" href="#NtA_366">[366]</a> 'Ornamental and Domestic + Poultry,' 1848.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_367" href="#NtA_367">[367]</a> 'Ornamental and Domestic + Poultry,' 1848.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_368" href="#NtA_368">[368]</a> Ferguson's 'Illustrated + Series of Rare and Prize Poultry,' 1854, p. vi., Preface.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_369" href="#NtA_369">[369]</a> Rev. E. S. Dixon, in his + 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. 203, gives an account of Columella's work.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_370" href="#NtA_370">[370]</a> Mr. Crawfurd 'On the + Relation of the Domesticated Animals to Civilization,' separately + printed, p. 6; first read before the Brit. Assoc. at Oxford, 1860.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_371" href="#NtA_371">[371]</a> 'Quadrupèdes du Paraguay,' + tom. ii. p. 324.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_372" href="#NtA_372">[372]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc' 1832, + p. 151.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_373" href="#NtA_373">[373]</a> I have examined the + feathers of some hybrids raised in the Zoological Gardens between the + male <i>G. Sonneratii</i> and a red game-hen, and these feathers + exhibited the true character of those of <i>G. Sonneratii</i>, except + that the horny laminæ were much smaller.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_374" href="#NtA_374">[374]</a> See also an excellent + letter on the Poultry of India, by Mr. Blyth, in 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1851, p. 619.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_375" href="#NtA_375">[375]</a> Mr. S. J. Salter, in + 'Natural History Review,' April, 1863, p. 276.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_376" href="#NtA_376">[376]</a> <i>See</i> also Mr. + Layard's paper in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' 2nd Series, vol. + xiv. p. 62.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_377" href="#NtA_377">[377]</a> <i>See</i> also Mr. + Crawfurd's 'Descriptive Dict. of the Indian Islands,' 1856, p. 113.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_378" href="#NtA_378">[378]</a> Described by Mr. G. R. + Gray, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1849, p. 62.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_379" href="#NtA_379">[379]</a> The passage from Marsden is + given by Mr. Dixon in his 'Poultry Book,' p. 176. No ornithologist now + ranks this bird as a distinct species.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_380" href="#NtA_380">[380]</a> 'Coup-d'œil général + sur l'Inde Archipélagique,' tom. iii. (1849), p. 177; <i>see</i> also Mr. + Blyth in 'Indian Sporting Review,' vol. ii. p. 5, 1856.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_381" href="#NtA_381">[381]</a> Mr. Blyth, in 'Annals and + Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd ser., vol. i. (1848), p. 455.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_382" href="#NtA_382">[382]</a> Crawfurd, 'Desc. Dict. of + Indian Islands,' 1856, p. 112.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_383" href="#NtA_383">[383]</a> In Burmah, as I hear from + Mr. Blyth, the wild and tame poultry constantly cross together, and + irregular transitional forms may be seen.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_384" href="#NtA_384">[384]</a> Idem, p. 113.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_385" href="#NtA_385">[385]</a> Mr. Jerdon, in the 'Madras + Journ. of Lit. and Science,' vol. xxii. p. 2, speaking of <i>G. + bankiva</i>, says, "unquestionably the origin of most of the varieties of + our common fowls." For Mr. Blyth, <i>see</i> his excellent article in + 'Gardener's Chron.' 1851, p. 619; and in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' + vol. xx., 1847, p. 388.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_386" href="#NtA_386">[386]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1851, p. 619.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_387" href="#NtA_387">[387]</a> I have consulted an eminent + authority, Mr. Sclater, on this subject, and he thinks that I have not + expressed myself too strongly. I am aware that one ancient author, + Acosta, speaks of fowls as having inhabited S. America at the period of + its discovery; and more recently, about 1795, Olivier de Serres speaks of + wild fowls in the forests of Guiana; these were probably feral birds. Dr. + Daniell tells me, he believes that fowls have become wild on the west + coast of Equatorial Africa; they may, however, not be true fowls, but + gallinaceous birds belonging to the genus Phasidus. The old voyager + Barbut says that poultry are not natural to Guinea. Capt. W. Allen + ('Narrative of Niger Expedition,' 1848, vol. ii. p. 42) describes wild + fowls on Ilha dos Rollas, an island near St. Thomas's, on the west coast + of Africa: the natives informed him that they had escaped from a vessel + wrecked there many years ago; they were extremely wild, and had "a cry + quite different to that of the domestic fowl," and their appearance was + somewhat changed. Hence it is not a little doubtful, notwithstanding the + statement of the natives, whether these birds really were fowls. That the + fowl has become feral on several islands is certain. Mr. Fry, a very + capable judge, informed Mr. Layard, in a letter, that the fowls which + have run wild on Ascension "had nearly all got back to their primitive + colours, red and black cocks, and smoky-grey hens." But unfortunately we + do not know the colour of the poultry which were turned out. Fowls have + become feral on the Nicobar Islands (Blyth in the 'Indian Field,' 1858, + p. 62), and in the Ladrones (Anson's Voyage). Those found in the Pellew + Islands (Crawfurd) are believed to be feral; and lastly, it is asserted + that they have become feral in New Zealand, but whether this is correct I + know not.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_388" href="#NtA_388">[388]</a> Mr. Hewitt, in 'The Poultry + Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 248.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_389" href="#NtA_389">[389]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + Jan. 14th, 1862, p. 325.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_390" href="#NtA_390">[390]</a> 'Die Hühner und + Pfauenzucht.' Ulm, 1827, s. 17. For Mr. Hewitt's statement with respect + to the white Silk fowl, <i>see</i> the 'Poultry Book,' by W. B. + Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 222. I am indebted to Mr. Orton for a letter on the + same subject.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_391" href="#NtA_391">[391]</a> Dixon, 'Ornamental and + Domestic Poultry,' pp. 253, 324, 335. For game fowls, <i>see</i> Ferguson + on 'Prize Poultry,' p. 260.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_392" href="#NtA_392">[392]</a> 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. + ii. p. 71.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_393" href="#NtA_393">[393]</a> Dr. Pickering, in his + 'Races of Man,' 1850, p. 374, says that the head and neck of a fowl is + carried in a Tribute-procession to Thoutmousis III. (1445 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>); but Mr. Birch of the British Museum doubts + whether the figure can be identified as the head of a fowl. Some caution + is necessary with reference to the absence of figures of the fowl on the + ancient Egyptian monuments, on account of the strong and widely prevalent + prejudice against this bird. I am informed by the Rev. S. Erhardt that on + the east coast of Africa, from 4° to 6° south of the equator, most of the + pagan tribes at the present day hold the fowl in aversion. The natives of + the Pellew Islands would not eat the fowl, nor will the Indians in some + parts of S. America. For the ancient history of the fowl, see also Volz, + 'Beitrage zur Culturgeschichte,' 1852, s. 77; and Isid. Geoffroy St. + Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 61. Mr. Crawfurd has given an + admirable history of the fowl in his paper 'On the Relation of + Domesticated Animals to Civilisation,' read before the Brit. Assoc. at + Oxford in 1860, and since printed separately. I quote from him on the + Greek poet Theognis, and on the Harpy Tomb described by Sir C. Fellowes. + I quote from a letter of Mr. Blyth's with respect to the Institutes of + Manu.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_394" href="#NtA_394">[394]</a> 'Ornamental and Domestic + Poultry,' 1847, p. 185; for passages translated from Columella, + <i>see</i> p. 312. For Golden Hamburghs, <i>see</i> Albin's 'Natural + History of Birds,' 3 vols., with plates, 1731-38.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_395" href="#NtA_395">[395]</a> 'Ornamental and Domestic + Poultry,' p. 152.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_396" href="#NtA_396">[396]</a> Ferguson on 'Rare Prize + Poultry,' p. 297. This writer, I am informed, cannot generally be + trusted. He gives, however, figures and much information on eggs. + <i>See</i> pp. 34 and 235 on the eggs of the Game fowl.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_397" href="#NtA_397">[397]</a> <i>See</i> 'Poultry Book,' + by Mr. Tegetmeier, 1866, pp. 81 and 78.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_398" href="#NtA_398">[398]</a> 'The Cottage Gardener,' + Oct. 1855, p. 13. On the thinness of the eggs of Game-fowls, <i>see</i> + Mowbray on Poultry, 7th edit., p. 13.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_399" href="#NtA_399">[399]</a> My information, which is + very far from perfect, on chickens in the down, is derived chiefly from + Mr. Dixon's 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry.' Mr. B. P. Brent has also + communicated to me many facts by letter, as has Mr. Tegetmeier. I will in + each case mark my authority by the name within brackets. For the chickens + of white Silk-fowls, <i>see</i> Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. + 221.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_400" href="#NtA_400">[400]</a> As I hear from Mr. + Tegetmeier; <i>see</i> also 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1856, p. 366. On the + late development of the crest, <i>see</i> 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. + p. 132.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_401" href="#NtA_401">[401]</a> On these points, <i>see</i> + 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii. p. 166; and Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' + 1866, pp. 105 and 121.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_402" href="#NtA_402">[402]</a> Dixon, 'Ornamental and + Domestic Poultry,' p. 273.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_403" href="#NtA_403">[403]</a> Ferguson on Rare and Prize + Poultry, p. 261.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_404" href="#NtA_404">[404]</a> Mowbray on Poultry, 7th + edit. 1834, p. 13.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_405" href="#NtA_405">[405]</a> <i>See</i> the full + description of the varieties of the Game-breed, in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry + Book,' 1866, p. 131. For Cuckoo Dorkings, p. 97.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_406" href="#NtA_406">[406]</a> Mr. Hewitt in Tegetmeier's + 'Poultry Book,' 1866, pp. 246 and 156. For hen-tailed game-cocks, + <i>see</i> p. 131.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_407" href="#NtA_407">[407]</a> 'The Field,' April 20th, + 1861. The writer says he has seen half-a-dozen cocks thus sacrificed.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_408" href="#NtA_408">[408]</a> 'Proceedings of Zoolog. + Soc.' March, 1861, p. 102. The engraving of the hen-tailed cock just + alluded to was exhibited at the Society.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_409" href="#NtA_409">[409]</a> 'The Field,' April 20th, + 1861.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_410" href="#NtA_410">[410]</a> I am much indebted to Mr. + Brent for an account, with sketches, of all the variations of the comb + known to him, and likewise with respect to the tail, as presently to be + given.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_411" href="#NtA_411">[411]</a> The 'Poultry Book,' by + Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 234.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_412" href="#NtA_412">[412]</a> 'Die Hühner und + Pfauenzucht,' 1827, s. 11.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_413" href="#NtA_413">[413]</a> 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. + i. p. 595. Mr. Brent has informed me of the same fact. With respect to + the position of the spurs in Dorkings, <i>see</i> 'Cottage Gardener,' + Sept. 18th, 1860, p. 380.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_414" href="#NtA_414">[414]</a> Dixon, 'Ornamental and + Domestic Poultry,' p. 320.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_415" href="#NtA_415">[415]</a> Mr. Tegetmeier informs me + that Game hens have been found so combative, that it is now generally the + practice to exhibit each hen in a separate pen.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_416" href="#NtA_416">[416]</a> 'Naturgeschichte + Deutschlands,' Band iii. (1793), s. 339, 407.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_417" href="#NtA_417">[417]</a> On the Ornithology of + Ceylon in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' 2nd series, vol. xiv. + (1854), p. 63.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_418" href="#NtA_418">[418]</a> I quote Blumenbach on the + authority of Mr. Tegetmeier, who gives in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Nov. + 25th, 1856, a very interesting account of the skulls of Polish fowls. Mr. + Tegetmeier, not knowing of Bechstein's account, disputed the accuracy of + Blumenbach's statement. For Bechstein, <i>see</i> 'Naturgeschichte + Deutschlands,' Band iii. (1793), s. 399, note. I may add that at the + first exhibition of poultry at the Zoological Gardens, in May, 1845, I + saw some fowls, called Friezland fowls, of which the hens were crested, + and the cocks were furnished with a comb.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_419" href="#NtA_419">[419]</a> 'Cottage Gardener,' Jan. + 3rd, 1860, p. 218.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_420" href="#NtA_420">[420]</a> Mr. Williams, in a paper + read before the Dublin Nat. Hist. Soc., quoted in 'Cottage Gardener,' + 1856, p. 161.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_421" href="#NtA_421">[421]</a> 'De l'Espèce,' 1859, p. + 442. For the occurrence of black-boned fowls in South America, <i>see</i> + Roulin, in 'Mém. de l'Acad. des Sciences,' tom. vi. p. 351; and Azara, + 'Quadrupèdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 324. A frizzled fowl sent to me + from Madras had black bones.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_422" href="#NtA_422">[422]</a> Mr. Hewitt, in Tegetmeier's + 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 231.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_423" href="#NtA_423">[423]</a> Dr. Broca, in + Brown-Sequard's 'Journal de Phys.,' tom. ii. p. 361.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_424" href="#NtA_424">[424]</a> Dixon's 'Ornamental + Poultry,' p. 325.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_425" href="#NtA_425">[425]</a> 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. + i. p. 485. Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 41. On Cochins grazing, + idem, p. 46.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_426" href="#NtA_426">[426]</a> Ferguson on 'Prize + Poultry,' p. 187.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_427" href="#NtA_427">[427]</a> Col. Sykes in 'Proc. + Zoolog. Soc.,' 1832, p. 151. Dr. Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals,' vol. i. + p. 314.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_428" href="#NtA_428">[428]</a> <i>See</i> Mr. Tegetmeier's + account, with woodcuts, of the skull of Polish fowls, in 'Proc. Zoolog. + Soc.,' Nov. 25th, 1856. For other references, <i>see</i> Isid. Geoffroy + Saint Hilaire, 'Hist. Gén. des Anomalies,' tom. i. p. 287. M. C. Dareste + suspects ('Recherches sur les Condicions de la Vie,' &c., Lille, + 1863, p. 36) that the protuberance is not formed by the frontal bones, + but by the ossification of the dura mater.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_429" href="#NtA_429">[429]</a> 'Naturgeschichte + Deutschlands,' Band iii. (1793), s. 400.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_430" href="#NtA_430">[430]</a> The 'Field,' May 11th, + 1861. I have received communications to a similar effect from Messrs. + Brent and Tegetmeier.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_431" href="#NtA_431">[431]</a> It appears that I have not + correctly designated the several groups of vertebræ, for a great + authority, Mr. W. K. Parker ('Transact. Zoolog. Soc.,' vol. v. p. 198), + specifies 16 cervical, 4 dorsal, 15 lumbar, and 6 caudal vertebræ in this + genus. But I have used the same terms in all the following + descriptions.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_432" href="#NtA_432">[432]</a> Macgillivray, 'British + Birds,' vol. i. p. 25.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_433" href="#NtA_433">[433]</a> It may be well to explain + how the calculation has been made for the third column. In <i>G. + bankiva</i> the leg-bones are to the wing-bones as 86 : 54, or as + (neglecting decimals) 100 : 62;—in Cochins as 311 : 162, or as 100 + : 52;—in Dorkings as 557 : 248, or as 100 : 44; and so on for the + other breeds. We thus get the series of 62, 52, 44 for the + relative-weights of the wing-bones in <i>G. bankiva</i>, Cochins, + Dorkings, &c. And now taking 100, instead of 62, for the weight of + the wing-bones in <i>G. bankiva</i>, we get, by another rule of three, 83 + as the weight of the wing-bones in Cochins; 70 in the Dorkings; and so on + for the remainder of the third column in the table.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_434" href="#NtA_434">[434]</a> Mr. Blyth (in 'Annals and + Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd series, vol. i., 1848, p. 456) gives 3¼ lb. as + the weight of a full-grown male <i>G. bankiva</i>; but from what I have + seen of the skins and skeletons of various breeds, I cannot believe that + my two specimens of <i>G. bankiva</i> could have weighed so much.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_435" href="#NtA_435">[435]</a> The third column is + calculated on the same principle as explained in the previous foot-note, + p. 271.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_436" href="#NtA_436">[436]</a> 'Poultry Chronicle' (1854), + vol. ii. p.91, and vol. i. p. 330.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_437" href="#NtA_437">[437]</a> Dr. Turral, in 'Bull. Soc. + d'Acclimat.,' tom. vii., 1860, p. 541.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_438" href="#NtA_438">[438]</a> Willughby's 'Ornithology,' + by Ray, p. 381. This breed is also figured by Albin, in 1734, in his + 'Nat. Hist. of Birds,' vol. ii. p. 86.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_439" href="#NtA_439">[439]</a> F. Cuvier, in 'Annales du + Muséum,' tom. ix. p. 128, says that moulting and incubation alone stop + these ducks laying. Mr. B. P. Brent makes a similar remark in the + 'Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, vol. iii. p. 512.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_440" href="#NtA_440">[440]</a> Rev. E. S. Dixon, + 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry' (1848), p. 117. Mr. B. P. Brent, in + 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii., 1855, p. 512.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_441" href="#NtA_441">[441]</a> Crawfurd on the 'Relation + of Domesticated Animals to Civilisation,' read before the Brit. Assoc. at + Oxford, 1860.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_442" href="#NtA_442">[442]</a> Dureau de la Malle, in + 'Annales des Sciences Nat.,' tom. xvii. p. 164; and tom. xxi. p. 55. Rev. + E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. 118. Tame ducks were not known in + Aristotle's time, as remarked by Volz, in his 'Beiträge zur + Kulturgeschichte,' 1852, s. 78.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_443" href="#NtA_443">[443]</a> I quote this account from + 'Die Enten, Schwanen-zucht,' Ulm, 1828, s. 143. <i>See</i> Audubon's + 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. iii. p. 168, on the taming of ducks on + the Mississippi. For the same fact in England, <i>see</i> Mr. Waterton, + in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. viii., 1835, p. 542; and Mr. St. + John, 'Wild Sports and Nat. Hist. of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 129.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_444" href="#NtA_444">[444]</a> Mr. E. Hewitt, in 'Journal + of Horticulture,' 1862, p. 773; and 1863, p. 39.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_445" href="#NtA_445">[445]</a> I have met with several + statements on the fertility of the several breeds when crossed. Mr. + Yarrell assured me that Call and common ducks are perfectly fertile + together. I crossed Hook-billed and common ducks, and a Penguin and + Labrador, and the crossed ducks were quite fertile, though they were not + bred <i>inter se</i>, so that the experiment was not fully tried. Some + half-bred Penguins and Labradors were again crossed with Penguins, and + subsequently bred by me <i>inter se</i>, and they were extremely + fertile.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_446" href="#NtA_446">[446]</a> 'Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, + vol. iii. p. 512.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_447" href="#NtA_447">[447]</a> 'Journal of the Indian + Archipelago,' vol. v. p. 334.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_448" href="#NtA_448">[448]</a> 'The Zoologist,' vols. + vii., viii. (1849-1850), p. 2353.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_449" href="#NtA_449">[449]</a> 'Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, + vol. iii. p. 512.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_450" href="#NtA_450">[450]</a> 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. + iii., 1855, p. 312. With respect to Rouens, <i>see</i> ditto, vol. i., + 1854, p. 167.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_451" href="#NtA_451">[451]</a> Col. Hawker's 'Instructions + to young Sportsmen,' quoted by Mr. Dixon in his 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. + 125.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_452" href="#NtA_452">[452]</a> 'Cottage Gardener,' April + 9th, 1861.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_453" href="#NtA_453">[453]</a> These hybrids have been + described by M. Selys-Longchamps in the 'Bulletins (tom. xii. No. 10) + Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_454" href="#NtA_454">[454]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861, + p. 261.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_455" href="#NtA_455">[455]</a> 'Ceylon,' by Sir J. E. + Tennent, 1859, vol. i. p. 485; also J. Crawfurd on the 'Relation of + Domest. Animals to Civilisation,' read before Brit. Assoc., 1860. + <i>See</i> also 'Ornamental Poultry,' by Rev. E. S. Dixon, 1848, p. 132. + The goose figured on the Egyptian monuments seems to have been the Red + goose of Egypt.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_456" href="#NtA_456">[456]</a> Macgillivray's 'British + Birds,' vol. iv. p. 593.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_457" href="#NtA_457">[457]</a> Mr. A. Strickland ('Annals + and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 3rd Series, vol. iii. 1859, p. 122) reared some + young wild geese, and found them in habits and in all characters + identical with the domestic goose.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_458" href="#NtA_458">[458]</a> <i>See</i> also Hunter's + 'Essays,' edited by Owen, vol. ii. p. 322.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_459" href="#NtA_459">[459]</a> Yarrell's 'British Birds,' + vol. iii. p. 142. He refers to the Laplanders domesticating the + goose.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_460" href="#NtA_460">[460]</a> L. Lloyd, 'Scandinavian + Adventures,' 1854, vol. ii. p. 413, says that the wild goose lays from + five to eight eggs, which is a much fewer number than that laid by our + domestic goose.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_461" href="#NtA_461">[461]</a> The Rev. L. Jenyns seems + first to have made this observation in his 'British Animals.' <i>See</i> + also Yarrell, and Dixon in his 'Ornamental Poultry' (p. 139), and + 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1857, p. 45.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_462" href="#NtA_462">[462]</a> Mr. Bartlett exhibited the + head and neck of a bird thus characterised at the Zoological Soc., Feb. + 1860.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_463" href="#NtA_463">[463]</a> W. Thompson, 'Natural Hist. + of Ireland,' 1851, vol. iii. p. 31. The Rev. E. S. Dixon gave me some + information on the varying colour of the beak and legs.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_464" href="#NtA_464">[464]</a> Mr. A. Strickland, in + 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 3rd series, vol. iii., 1859, p. 122.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_465" href="#NtA_465">[465]</a> 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. + i., 1854, p. 498; vol. iii. p. 210.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_466" href="#NtA_466">[466]</a> 'The Cottage Gardener,' + Sept. 4th, 1860, p. 348.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_467" href="#NtA_467">[467]</a> 'L'Hist. de la Nature des + Oiseaux,' par P. Belon, 1555, p. 156. With respect to the livers of white + geese being preferred by the Romans, <i>see</i> Isid. Geoffroy St. + Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 58.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_468" href="#NtA_468">[468]</a> Mr. Sclater on the + black-shouldered peacock of Latham, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' April 24th, + 1860.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_469" href="#NtA_469">[469]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' April + 14th, 1835.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_470" href="#NtA_470">[470]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' April + 8th, 1856, p. 61. Prof. Baird believes (as quoted in Tegetmeier's + 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 269) that our turkeys are descended from a West + Indian species now extinct. But besides the improbability of a bird + having long ago become extinct in these large and luxuriant islands, it + appears (as we shall presently see) that the turkey degenerates in India, + and this fact indicates that it was not aboriginally an inhabitant of the + lowlands of the tropics.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_471" href="#NtA_471">[471]</a> Audubon's 'Ornithological + Biograph.,' vol. i., 1831, pp. 4-13; and 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. + xiv., Birds, p. 138.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_472" href="#NtA_472">[472]</a> F. Michaux, 'Travels in N. + America,' 1802, Eng. translat., p. 217.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_473" href="#NtA_473">[473]</a> 'Ornamental Poultry,' by + the Rev. E. S. Dixon, 1848, p. 34.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_474" href="#NtA_474">[474]</a> Rev. E. S. Dixon, id., p. + 35.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_475" href="#NtA_475">[475]</a> Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. + Deutschlands,' B. iii., 1793, s. 309.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_476" href="#NtA_476">[476]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1852, p. 699.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_477" href="#NtA_477">[477]</a> E. Blyth, in 'Annals and + Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 1847, vol. xx. p. 391.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_478" href="#NtA_478">[478]</a> Roulin makes this remark in + 'Mém. de divers Savans, l'Acad. des Sciences,' tom. vi., 1835, p. 349. + Mr. Hill, of Spanish Town, in a letter to me, describes five varieties of + the guinea-fowl in Jamaica. I have seen singular pale-coloured varieties + imported from Barbadoes and Demerara.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_479" href="#NtA_479">[479]</a> For St. Domingo, <i>see</i> + M. A. Salle, in 'Proc. Soc. Zoolog.,' 1857, p. 236. Mr. Hill remarks to + me, in his letter, on the colour of the legs of the feral birds in + Jamaica.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_480" href="#NtA_480">[480]</a> Mr. B. P. Brent, 'The + Canary, British Finches,' &c., pp. 21, 30.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_481" href="#NtA_481">[481]</a> 'Cottage Gardener,' Dec. + 11th, 1855, p. 184. An account is here given of all the varieties. For + many measurements of the wild birds, <i>see</i> Mr. E. Vernon Harcourt, + id., Dec. 25th, 1855, p. 223.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_482" href="#NtA_482">[482]</a> Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. der + Stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 243; <i>see</i> s. 252, on the inherited song of + Canary-birds. With respect to their baldness, <i>see</i> also W. Kidd's + 'Treatise on Song-Birds.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_483" href="#NtA_483">[483]</a> W. Kidd's 'Treatise on + Song-Birds,' p. 18.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_484" href="#NtA_484">[484]</a> The 'Indian Field,' 1858, + p. 255.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_485" href="#NtA_485">[485]</a> Yarrell's 'British Fishes,' + vol. i, p. 319.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_486" href="#NtA_486">[486]</a> Mr. Blyth, in the 'Indian + Field,' 1858, p. 255.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_487" href="#NtA_487">[487]</a> 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' May + 25th. 1842.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_488" href="#NtA_488">[488]</a> Yarrell's 'British Fishes,' + vol. i. p. 319.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_489" href="#NtA_489">[489]</a> 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. + Nat.,' tom. v. p. 276.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_490" href="#NtA_490">[490]</a> 'Observations in Nat. + Hist.,' 1846, p. 211. Dr. Gray has described, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + Hist.,' 1860, p. 151, a nearly similar variety, but destitute of a dorsal + fin.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_491" href="#NtA_491">[491]</a> 'De l'Espèce,' 1859, p. + 459. With respect to the bees of Burgundy, <i>see</i> M. Gérard, art. + 'Espèce,' in 'Dict. Univers. d'Hist. Nat.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_492" href="#NtA_492">[492]</a> <i>See</i> a discussion on + this subject, in answer to a question of mine, in 'Journal of + Horticulture,' 1862, pp. 225-242; also Mr. Bevan Fox, in ditto, 1862, p. + 284.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_493" href="#NtA_493">[493]</a> This excellent observer may + be implicitly trusted; <i>see</i> 'Journal of Horticulture,' July 14th, + 1863, p. 39.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_494" href="#NtA_494">[494]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + Sept. 9th, 1862, p. 463; <i>see</i> also Herr Kleine on same subject + (Nov. 11th, p. 643), who sums up, that, though there is some variability + in colour, no constant or perceptible differences can be detected in the + bees of Germany.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_495" href="#NtA_495">[495]</a> Mr. Woodbury has published + several such accounts in 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861 and 1862.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_496" href="#NtA_496">[496]</a> 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + Hist.,' 3rd series, vol. xi. p. 339.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_497" href="#NtA_497">[497]</a> 'The Cottage Gardener,' + May, 1860, p. 110; and ditto in 'Journal of Hort.' 1862, p. 242.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_498" href="#NtA_498">[498]</a> 'Transact. Entomolog. + Soc.,' 3rd series, vol. iii. pp. 143-173, and pp. 295-331.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_499" href="#NtA_499">[499]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' + 1859, tom. i. p. 460. The antiquity of the silk-worm in China is given on + the authority of Stanislas Julien.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_500" href="#NtA_500">[500]</a> <i>See</i> the remarks of + Prof. Westwood, General Hearsey, and others, at the meeting of the + Entomolog. Soc. of London, July, 1861.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_501" href="#NtA_501">[501]</a> <i>See</i>, for instance, + M. A. de Quatrefage's 'Etudes sur les Maladies actuelles du Ver à Soie,' + 1859, p. 101.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_502" href="#NtA_502">[502]</a> My authorities for these + statements will be given in the chapter on Selection.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_503" href="#NtA_503">[503]</a> 'Manuel de l'Educateur de + Vers à Soie,' 1848.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_504" href="#NtA_504">[504]</a> Robinet, idem, pp. 12, 318. + I may add that the eggs of N. American silk-worms taken to the Sandwich + Islands were very irregularly developed; and the moths thus raised + produced eggs which were even worse in this respect. Some were hatched in + ten days, and others not until after the lapse of many months. No doubt a + regular early character would ultimately have been acquired. <i>See</i> + review in Athenæum,' 1844, p. 329, of J. Jarves' 'Scenes in the Sandwich + Islands.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_505" href="#NtA_505">[505]</a> 'The Art of rearing + Silk-worms,' translated from Count Dandolo, 1825, p. 23.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_506" href="#NtA_506">[506]</a> 'Transact. Ent. Soc.,' ut + supra, pp. 153, 308.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_507" href="#NtA_507">[507]</a> Robinet, idem, p. 317.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_508" href="#NtA_508">[508]</a> Robinet, idem, pp. + 306-317.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_509" href="#NtA_509">[509]</a> 'Transact. Ent. Soc.,' ut + supra, p. 317.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_510" href="#NtA_510">[510]</a> Stephens' Illustrations, + 'Haustellala,' vol. ii. p. 35. <i>See</i> also Capt. Hutton, 'Transact. + Ent. Soc.' idem, p. 152.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_511" href="#NtA_511">[511]</a> 'Etudes sur les Maladies du + Ver à Soie,' 1859, pp. 304, 209.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_512" href="#NtA_512">[512]</a> Quatrefages, 'Etudes,' + &c., p. 214.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_513" href="#NtA_513">[513]</a> 'Transact. Ent. Soc.,' ut + supra, p. 151.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_514" href="#NtA_514">[514]</a> 'Manuel de l'Educateur,' + &c., p. 26.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_515" href="#NtA_515">[515]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' p. + 462.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_516" href="#NtA_516">[516]</a> Quatrefages, 'Etudes,' + &c., pp. 12, 209, 214.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_517" href="#NtA_517">[517]</a> Robinet, 'Manuel,' &c., + p. 303.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_518" href="#NtA_518">[518]</a> Robinet, idem, p. 15.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_519" href="#NtA_519">[519]</a> 'Géographie Botanique + Raisonnée,' 1855, pp. 810 to 991.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_520" href="#NtA_520">[520]</a> Review by Mr. Bentham in + 'Hort. Journal,' vol. ix. 1855, p. 133, entitled 'Historical Notes on + cultivated Plants,' by Dr. A. Targioni-Tozzetti. <i>See</i> also + 'Edinburgh Review,' 1866, p. 510.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_521" href="#NtA_521">[521]</a> 'Hist. Notes,' as above, by + Targioni-Tozzeti.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_522" href="#NtA_522">[522]</a> 'Considérations sur les + Céréales,' 1842, p. 37. 'Géographie Bot.,' 1855, p. 930. "Plus on suppose + l'agriculture ancienne et remontant à une époque d'ignorance, plus il est + probable que les cultivateurs avaient choisi des espèces offrant à + l'origine même un avantage incontestable."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_523" href="#NtA_523">[523]</a> Dr. Hooker has given me + this information. <i>See</i>, also, his 'Himalayan Journals,' 1851, vol. + ii. p. 49.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_524" href="#NtA_524">[524]</a> 'Travels in Central + Africa,' Eng. translat., vol. i. pp. 529 and 390; vol. ii. pp. 29, 265, + 270. Livingstone's 'Travels,' p. 551.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_525" href="#NtA_525">[525]</a> As in both North and South + America, Mr. Edgeworth ('Journal Proc. Linn. Soc.,' vol. vi. Bot., 1862, + p. 181) states that in the deserts of the Punjab poor women sweep up, "by + a whisk into straw baskets," the seeds of four genera of grasses, namely, + of Agrostis, Panicum, Cenchrus, and Pennisetum, as well as the seeds of + four other genera belonging to distinct families.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_526" href="#NtA_526">[526]</a> Prof. O. Heer, 'Die + Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten, 1865, aus dem Neujahr. Naturforsc. + Gesellschaft,' 1866; and Dr. H. Christ, in Rütimeyer's 'Die Fauna der + Pfuhlbauten,' 1861, s. 226.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_527" href="#NtA_527">[527]</a> 'Travels,' p. 535. Du + Chaillu, 'Adventures in Equatorial Africa,' 1861, p. 445.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_528" href="#NtA_528">[528]</a> In Tierra del Fuego the + spot where wigwams had formerly stood could be distinguished at a great + distance by the bright green tint of the native vegetation.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_529" href="#NtA_529">[529]</a> 'American Acad. of Arts and + Science,' April 10th, 1860, p. 413. Downing, 'The Fruits of America,' + 1845, p. 261.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_530" href="#NtA_530">[530]</a> 'Journals of Expeditions in + Australia,' 1841, vol. ii. p. 292.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_531" href="#NtA_531">[531]</a> Darwin's 'Journal of + Researches,' 1845, p. 215.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_532" href="#NtA_532">[532]</a> De Candolle has tabulated + the facts in the most interesting manner in his 'Géographie Bot.,' p. + 986.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_533" href="#NtA_533">[533]</a> 'Flora of Australia,' + Introduction, p. cx.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_534" href="#NtA_534">[534]</a> For Canada, <i>see</i> J. + Cartier's Voyage in 1534; for Florida, <i>see</i> Narvaez and Ferdinand + de Soto's Voyages. As I have consulted these and other old Voyages in + more than one general collection of Voyages, I do not give precise + references to the pages. <i>See</i> also, for several references, Asa + Gray, in the 'American Journal of Science,' vol. xxiv., Nov. 1857, p. + 441. For the traditions of the natives of New Zealand, <i>see</i> + Crawfurd's 'Grammar and Dict. of the Malay Language,' 1852, p. cclx.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_535" href="#NtA_535">[535]</a> <i>See</i>, for example, M. + Hewett C. Watson's remarks on our wild plums and cherries and crabs, + 'Cybele Britannica,' vol. i. pp. 330, 334, &c. Van Mons (in his + 'Arbres Fruitiers,' 1835, tom. i. p. 444) declares that he has found the + types of all our cultivated varieties in wild seedlings, but then he + looks on these seedlings as so many aboriginal stocks.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_536" href="#NtA_536">[536]</a> <i>See</i> A. De Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' 1855, p. 928 <i>et seq.</i> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' + 1859, tom. ii. p. 70; and Metzger, 'Die Getreidearten,' &c., + 1841.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_537" href="#NtA_537">[537]</a> Mr. Bentham, in his review, + entitled 'Hist. Notes on cultivated Plants,' by Dr. A. Targioni-Tozzetti, + in 'Journal of Hort. Soc.,' vol. ix. (1855), p. 133.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_538" href="#NtA_538">[538]</a> 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 928. + The whole subject is discussed with admirable fullness and knowledge.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_539" href="#NtA_539">[539]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. p. 72. A few years ago the excellent, though misinterpreted, + observations of M. Fabre led many persons to believe that wheat was a + modified descendant of Ægilops; but M. Godron (tom. i. p. 165) has shown + by careful experiments that the first step in the series, viz. <i>Ægilops + triticoides</i>, is a hybrid between wheat and <i>Æ. ovata</i>. The + frequency with which these hybrids spontaneously arise, and the gradual + manner in which the <i>Æ. triticoides</i> becomes converted into true + wheat, alone leave any doubt on the subject.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_540" href="#NtA_540">[540]</a> Report to British + Association for 1857, p. 207.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_541" href="#NtA_541">[541]</a> 'Considérations sur les + Céréales,' 1842-43, p. 29.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_542" href="#NtA_542">[542]</a> 'Travels in the Himalayan + Provinces,' &c., 1841, vol. i. p. 224.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_543" href="#NtA_543">[543]</a> Col. J. Le Couteur on the + 'Varieties of Wheat,' pp. 23, 79.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_544" href="#NtA_544">[544]</a> Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, + 'Consid. sur les Céréales,' p. 11.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_545" href="#NtA_545">[545]</a> <i>See</i> an excellent + review in Hooker's 'Journ. of Botany,' vol. viii. p. 82, note.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_546" href="#NtA_546">[546]</a> 'De l'Espèce,' tom. ii, p. + 73.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_547" href="#NtA_547">[547]</a> Idem, tom. ii. p. 75.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_548" href="#NtA_548">[548]</a> For Dalbret and Philippar, + <i>see</i> Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, 'Consid. sur les Céréales,' pp. 45, + 70. Le Couteur on Wheat, p. 6.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_549" href="#NtA_549">[549]</a> 'Varieties of Wheat,' + Introduction, p. vi. Marshall, in his 'Rural Economy of Yorkshire,' vol. + ii. p. 9, remarks that "in every field of corn there is as much variety + as in a herd of cattle."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_550" href="#NtA_550">[550]</a> 'Gardener's Chron. and + Agricult. Gazette,' 1862, p. 963.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_551" href="#NtA_551">[551]</a> 'Getreidearten,' 1841, s. + 66, 91, 92, 116, 117.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_552" href="#NtA_552">[552]</a> Quoted by Godron, 'De + l'Espèce,' vol. ii. p. 74. So it is, according to Metzger + ('Getreidearten,' s. 18), with summer and winter barley.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_553" href="#NtA_553">[553]</a> Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, + 'Céréales,' part ii. p. 224. Le Couteur, p. 70. Many other accounts could + be added.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_554" href="#NtA_554">[554]</a> 'Travels in North America,' + 1753-1761, Eng. translat., vol. iii. p. 165.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_555" href="#NtA_555">[555]</a> 'Céréales,' part ii. pp. + 179-183.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_556" href="#NtA_556">[556]</a> 'On the Varieties of + Wheat,' Introduct., p. vii. <i>See</i> Marshall, 'Rural Econ. of + Yorkshire,' vol. ii. p. 9. With respect to similar cases of adaptation in + the varieties of oats, <i>see</i> some interesting papers in the + 'Gardener's Chron. and Agricult. Gazette,' 1850, pp. 204, 219.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_557" href="#NtA_557">[557]</a> 'On the Varieties of + Wheat,' p. 59. Mr. Sheriff, and a higher authority cannot be given + ('Gard. Chron. and Agricult. Gazette,' 1862, p. 963), says, "I have never + seen grain which has either been improved or degenerated by cultivation, + so as to convey the change to the succeeding crop."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_558" href="#NtA_558">[558]</a> Alph. De Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 930.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_559" href="#NtA_559">[559]</a> 'Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten,' + 1866.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_560" href="#NtA_560">[560]</a> 'Les Céréales,' p. 94.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_561" href="#NtA_561">[561]</a> Quoted by Le Couteur, p. + 16.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_562" href="#NtA_562">[562]</a> A. De Candolle, 'Géograph. + Bot.,' p. 932.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_563" href="#NtA_563">[563]</a> O. Heer, 'Die Pflanzen der + Pfahlbauten,' 1866. The following passage is quoted from Dr. Christ, in + 'Die Fauna der Pfahlbauten von Dr. Rütimeyer,' 1861, s. 225.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_564" href="#NtA_564">[564]</a> Heer, as quoted by Carl + Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat., p. 355.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_565" href="#NtA_565">[565]</a> <i>See</i> Alph. De + Candolle's long discussion in his 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 942. With respect + to New England, <i>see</i> Silliman's 'American Journal,' vol. xliv. p. + 99.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_566" href="#NtA_566">[566]</a> 'Travels in Peru,' Eng. + translat., p. 177.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_567" href="#NtA_567">[567]</a> 'Geolog. Observ. on S. + America,' 1846, p. 49.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_568" href="#NtA_568">[568]</a> This maize is figured in + Bonafous' magnificent work, 'Hist. Nat. du Mais,' 1836, Pl. v. bis, and + in the 'Journal of Hort. Soc.,' vol. i., 1846, p. 115, where an account + is given of the result of sowing the seed. A young Guarany Indian, on + seeing this kind of maize, told Auguste St. Hilaire <i>(see</i> De + Candolle, 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 951) that it grew wild in the humid + forests of his native land. Mr. Teschemacher, in 'Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. + Hist.,' Oct. 19th, 1842, gives an account of sowing the seed.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_569" href="#NtA_569">[569]</a> Moquin-Tandon, 'Éléments de + Tératologie,' 1841, p. 126.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_570" href="#NtA_570">[570]</a> 'Die Getreidearten,' 1841, + s. 208. I have modified a few of Metzger's statements in accordance with + those made by Bonafous in his great work, 'Hist. Nat. du Maïs,' 1836.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_571" href="#NtA_571">[571]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. p. 80; Al. De Candolle, idem, p. 951.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_572" href="#NtA_572">[572]</a> 'Transact. Bot. Soc. of + Edinburgh,' vol. viii. p. 60.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_573" href="#NtA_573">[573]</a> 'Voyages dans l'Amérique + Méridionale,' torn. i. p. 147.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_574" href="#NtA_574">[574]</a> Bonafous' 'Hist. Nat. du + Maïs,' p. 31.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_575" href="#NtA_575">[575]</a> Idem, p. 31.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_576" href="#NtA_576">[576]</a> Metzger, 'Getreidearten,' + s. 206.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_577" href="#NtA_577">[577]</a> 'Description of Maize,' by + P. Kalm, 1752, in 'Swedish Acts,' vol. iv. I have consulted an old + English MS. translation.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_578" href="#NtA_578">[578]</a> 'Getreidearten,' s. + 208.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_579" href="#NtA_579">[579]</a> 'Cabbage Timber,' + 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1856, p. 744, quoted from Hooker's 'Journal of + Botany.' A walking-stick made from a cabbage-stalk is exhibited in the + Museum at Kew.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_580" href="#NtA_580">[580]</a> 'Journal de la Soc. Imp. + d'Horticulture,' 1855, p. 254, quoted from 'Gartenflora,' Ap. 1855.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_581" href="#NtA_581">[581]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. p. 52; Metzger, 'Syst. Beschreibung der Kult. Kohlarten,' 1833, s. + 6.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_582" href="#NtA_582">[582]</a> Regnier, 'De l'Économie + Publique des Celtes,' 1818, p. 438.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_583" href="#NtA_583">[583]</a> <i>See</i> the elder De + Candolle, in 'Transact. of Hort. Soc.,' vol. v.; and Metzger 'Kohlarten,' + &c.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_584" href="#NtA_584">[584]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1859, p. 992.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_585" href="#NtA_585">[585]</a> Alph. De Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' pp. 842 and 989.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_586" href="#NtA_586">[586]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' Feb. + 1858, p. 128.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_587" href="#NtA_587">[587]</a> 'Kohlarten,' s. 22.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_588" href="#NtA_588">[588]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii, p. 52; Metzger, 'Kohlarten,' s. 22.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_589" href="#NtA_589">[589]</a> 'Géograph, Bot.,' p. + 840.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_590" href="#NtA_590">[590]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. p. 54; Metzger, 'Kohlarten,' s. 10.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_591" href="#NtA_591">[591]</a> 'Gardener's Chron. and + Agricult. Gazette,' 1856, p. 729.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_592" href="#NtA_592">[592]</a> 'Gardener's Chron. and + Agricult. Gazette,' 1855, p. 730.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_593" href="#NtA_593">[593]</a> Metzger, 'Kohlarten,' s. + 51.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_594" href="#NtA_594">[594]</a> These experiments by + Vilmorin have been quoted by many writers. An eminent botanist, Prof. + Decaisne, has lately expressed doubts on the subject from his own + negative results, but these cannot be valued equally with positive + results. On the other hand, M. Carrière has lately stated ('Gard. + Chronicle,' 1865, p. 1154) that he took seed from a wild carrot, growing + far from any cultivated land, and even in the first generation the roots + of his seedlings differed in being spindle-shaped, longer, softer and + less fibrous than those of the wild plant. From these seedlings he raised + several distinct varieties.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_595" href="#NtA_595">[595]</a> Loudon's 'Encyclop. of + Gardening,' p. 835.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_596" href="#NtA_596">[596]</a> Alph. De Candolle + 'Géograph. Bot.,' 960. Mr. Bentham ('Hort. Journal,' vol. ix. (1855), p. + 141) believes that garden and field peas belong to the same species, and + in this respect he differs from Dr. Targioni.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_597" href="#NtA_597">[597]</a> 'Botanische Zeitung,' 1860, + s. 204.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_598" href="#NtA_598">[598]</a> 'Die Pflanzen der + Pfahlbauten,' 1866, s. 23.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_599" href="#NtA_599">[599]</a> A variety called the + Rouncival attains this height, as is stated by Mr. Gordon in 'Transact. + Hort. Soc.' (2nd series), vol. i., 1835, p. 374, from which paper I have + taken some facts.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_600" href="#NtA_600">[600]</a> 'Phil. Transact.,' 1799, p. + 196.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_601" href="#NtA_601">[601]</a> 'Gardener's Magazine,' vol. + i., 1826, p. 153.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_602" href="#NtA_602">[602]</a> 'Encyclopædia of + Gardening,' p. 823.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_603" href="#NtA_603">[603]</a> <i>See</i> Dr. Anderson to + the same effect in the 'Bath Soc. Agricultural Papers,' vol. iv. p. + 87.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_604" href="#NtA_604">[604]</a> I have published full + details of experiments on this subject in the 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1857, Oct. 25th.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_605" href="#NtA_605">[605]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1865, p. 387.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_606" href="#NtA_606">[606]</a> 'Bonplandia,' x., 1862, s. + 348.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_607" href="#NtA_607">[607]</a> O. Heer, 'Die Pflanzen der + Pfahlbauten,' 1866, s. 22.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_608" href="#NtA_608">[608]</a> Darwin, 'Journal of + Researches,' 1845, p. 285.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_609" href="#NtA_609">[609]</a> Synopsis of the vegetable + products of Scotland, quoted in Wilson's 'British Farming,' p. 317.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_610" href="#NtA_610">[610]</a> Sir G. Mackenzie, in + 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1845, p. 790.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_611" href="#NtA_611">[611]</a> 'Putsche und Vertuch, + Versuch einer Monographie der Kartoffeln,' 1819, s. 9, 15. <i>See</i> + also Dr. Anderson's 'Recreations in Agriculture,' vol. iv. p. 325.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_612" href="#NtA_612">[612]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1862, p. 1052.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_613" href="#NtA_613">[613]</a> 'Bath Society Agricult. + Papers,' vol. v. p. 127. And 'Recreations in Agriculture,' vol. v. p. + 86.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_614" href="#NtA_614">[614]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1863, p. 643.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_615" href="#NtA_615">[615]</a> Heer, 'Pflanzen der + Pfahlbauten,' 1866, s. 28.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_616" href="#NtA_616">[616]</a> Alph. De Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 872; Dr. A. Targioni-Tozzetti, in 'Jour. Hort. + Soc.,' vol. ix. p. 133. For the fossil vine found by Dr. G. Planchon, + <i>see</i> 'Nat. Hist. Review,' 1865, April, p. 224.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_617" href="#NtA_617">[617]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. p. 100.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_618" href="#NtA_618">[618]</a> <i>See</i> an account of M. + Vibert's experiments, by Alex. Jordan, in 'Mém. de l'Acad. de Lyon,' tom. + ii., 1852, p. 108.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_619" href="#NtA_619">[619]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1864, p. 488.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_620" href="#NtA_620">[620]</a> 'Arbres Fruitiers,' 1836, + tom. ii. 290.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_621" href="#NtA_621">[621]</a> Odart, 'Ampélographie + Universelle,' 1849.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_622" href="#NtA_622">[622]</a> M. Bouchardat, in 'Comptes + Rendus,' Dec. 1st, 1851, quoted in 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1852, p. 435.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_623" href="#NtA_623">[623]</a> 'Études sur les Maladies + actuelles du Ver à Soie,' 1859, p. 321.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_624" href="#NtA_624">[624]</a> 'Productive Resources of + India,' p. 130.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_625" href="#NtA_625">[625]</a> 'Traité du Citrus,' 1811. + 'Teoria della Riproduzione Vegetale,' 1816. I quote chiefly from this + second work. In 1839 Gallesio published in folio 'Gli Agrumi dei Giard. + Bot. di Firenze,' in which he gives a curious diagram of the supposed + relationship of all the forms.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_626" href="#NtA_626">[626]</a> Mr. Bentham, Review of Dr. + A. Targioni-Tozzetti, 'Journal of Hort. Soc.,' vol. ix. p. 133.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_627" href="#NtA_627">[627]</a> 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. + 863.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_628" href="#NtA_628">[628]</a> 'Teoria della + Riproduzione,' pp. 52-57.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_629" href="#NtA_629">[629]</a> Hooker's 'Bot. Misc.,' vol. + i. p. 302; vol. ii. p. 111.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_630" href="#NtA_630">[630]</a> 'Teoria della + Riproduzione,' p. 53.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_631" href="#NtA_631">[631]</a> Gallesio, 'Teoria della + Riproduzione,' p. 69.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_632" href="#NtA_632">[632]</a> Gallesio, idem, p. 67.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_633" href="#NtA_633">[633]</a> Gallesio, idem, pp. 75, + 76.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_634" href="#NtA_634">[634]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1841, p. 613.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_635" href="#NtA_635">[635]</a> 'Annales du Muséum,' tom. + xx. p. 188.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_636" href="#NtA_636">[636]</a> 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. + 882.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_637" href="#NtA_637">[637]</a> 'Transactions of Hort. + Soc.,' vol. iii. p. 1, and vol. iv. p. 369, and note to p. 370. A + coloured drawing is given of this hybrid.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_638" href="#NtA_638">[638]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1856, p. 532. A writer, it may be presumed Dr. Lindley, remarks on the + perfect series which may be formed between the almond and the peach. + Another high authority, Mr. Rivers, who has had such wide experience, + strongly suspects ('Gardener's Chronicle,' 1863, p. 27) that peaches, if + left to a state of nature, would in the course of time retrograde into + thick-fleshed almonds.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_639" href="#NtA_639">[639]</a> 'Journal of Hort. Soc.,' + vol. ix. p. 168.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_640" href="#NtA_640">[640]</a> Whether this is the same + variety as one lately mentioned ('Gard. Chron.' 1865, p. 1154) by M. + Carrière under the name of <i>Persica intermedia</i>, I know not: this + var. is said to be intermediate in nearly all its characters between the + almond and peach; it produces during successive years very different + kinds of fruit.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_641" href="#NtA_641">[641]</a> Quoted in 'Gard. Chron.' + 1866, p. 800.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_642" href="#NtA_642">[642]</a> Quoted in 'Journal de la + Soc. Imp. d'Horticulture,' 1855, p. 238.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_643" href="#NtA_643">[643]</a> 'Teoria della Riproduzione + Vegetale,' 1816, p. 86.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_644" href="#NtA_644">[644]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1862, p. 1195.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_645" href="#NtA_645">[645]</a> Mr. Rivers, 'Gardener's + Chron.,' 1859, p. 774.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_646" href="#NtA_646">[646]</a> Downing, 'The Fruits of + America,' 1845, pp. 475, 489, 492, 494, 496. <i>See</i> also F. Michaux, + 'Travels in N. America' (Eng. translat.), p. 228. For similar cases in + France <i>see</i> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. ii. p. 97.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_647" href="#NtA_647">[647]</a> Brickell's 'Nat. Hist. of + N. Carolina,' p. 102, and Downing's 'Fruit Trees,' p. 505.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_648" href="#NtA_648">[648]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1862, p. 1196.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_649" href="#NtA_649">[649]</a> The peach and nectarine do + not succeed equally well in the same soil: <i>see</i> Lindley's + 'Horticulture,' p. 351.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_650" href="#NtA_650">[650]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. 1859, p. 97.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_651" href="#NtA_651">[651]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. vi. p. 394.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_652" href="#NtA_652">[652]</a> Downing's 'Fruit Trees,' p. + 502.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_653" href="#NtA_653">[653]</a> 'Gardeners Chronicle,' + 1862, p. 1195.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_654" href="#NtA_654">[654]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + Feb. 6th, 1866, p. 102.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_655" href="#NtA_655">[655]</a> Mr. Rivers, in 'Gardener's + Chron.,' 1859, p.774; 1862, p. 1195; 1865, p.1059; and 'Journal of + Hort.,' 1866, p. 102.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_656" href="#NtA_656">[656]</a> 'Correspondence of + Linnæus,' 1821, pp. 7, 8, 70.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_657" href="#NtA_657">[657]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. i. p. 103.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_658" href="#NtA_658">[658]</a> Loudon's 'Gardener's Mag.,' + 1826, vol. i. p. 471.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_659" href="#NtA_659">[659]</a> Ibid., 1828, p. 53.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_660" href="#NtA_660">[660]</a> Ibid., 1830, p. 597.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_661" href="#NtA_661">[661]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1841, p. 617.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_662" href="#NtA_662">[662]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1844, p. 589.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_663" href="#NtA_663">[663]</a> 'Phytologist,' vol. iv. p. + 299.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_664" href="#NtA_664">[664]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1856, + p. 531.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_665" href="#NtA_665">[665]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. p. 97.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_666" href="#NtA_666">[666]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1856, + p. 531.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_667" href="#NtA_667">[667]</a> Alph. De Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 886.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_668" href="#NtA_668">[668]</a> Thompson, in Loudon's + 'Encyclop. of Gardening,' p. 911.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_669" href="#NtA_669">[669]</a> 'Catalogue of Fruit in + Garden of Hort. Soc.,' 1842, p. 105.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_670" href="#NtA_670">[670]</a> Dr. A. Targioni-Tozzetti, + 'Journal Hort. Soc.,' vol. ix. p. 167. Alph. De Candolle, 'Géograph. + Bot.,' p. 885.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_671" href="#NtA_671">[671]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. v. p. 554.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_672" href="#NtA_672">[672]</a> Loudon's 'Encyclop. of + Gardening,' p. 907.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_673" href="#NtA_673">[673]</a> M. Carrière, in 'Gard. + Chron.,' 1865, p. 1154.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_674" href="#NtA_674">[674]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. iii. p. 332. <i>See</i> also 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1865, p. 271, + to same effect. Also 'Journal of Horticulture,' Sept. 26th, 1865, p. + 254.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_675" href="#NtA_675">[675]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. iv. p. 512.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_676" href="#NtA_676">[676]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + Sept. 8th, 1863, p. 188.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_677" href="#NtA_677">[677]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. vi. p. 412.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_678" href="#NtA_678">[678]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1857, p. 216.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_679" href="#NtA_679">[679]</a> 'Journal of Hort. Soc.,' + vol. ii. p. 283.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_680" href="#NtA_680">[680]</a> Alph. De Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.', p. 879.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_681" href="#NtA_681">[681]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc' (2nd + series), vol. i. 1835, p. 56. <i>See</i> also 'Cat. of Fruit in Garden of + Hort. Soc.,' 3rd edit. 1842.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_682" href="#NtA_682">[682]</a> Downing,'The Fruits of + America,' 1845, p. 157; with respect to the Alberge apricot in France, + <i>see</i> p. 153.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_683" href="#NtA_683">[683]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1863, p. 364.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_684" href="#NtA_684">[684]</a> 'Travels in the Himalayan + Provinces,' vol. i, 1841, p. 295.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_685" href="#NtA_685">[685]</a> <i>See</i> an excellent + discussion on this subject in Hewett O. Watson's 'Cybele Britannica,' + vol. iv. p. 80.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_686" href="#NtA_686">[686]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1865, p. 27.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_687" href="#NtA_687">[687]</a> 'De l'Espèce,' tom. ii. p. + 94. On the parentage of our plums, <i>see</i> also Alph. De Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 878. Also Targioni-Tozetti, 'Journal Hort. Soc.,' + vol. ix. p. 164. Also Babington, 'Manual of Brit. Botany,' 1851, p. + 87.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_688" href="#NtA_688">[688]</a> 'Fruits of America,' pp. + 276, 278, 314, 284, 276, 310. Mr. Rivers raised ('Gard. Chron.,' 1863, p. + 27) from the Prune-pêche, which bears large, round, red plums on stout + robust shoots, a seedling which bears oval, smaller fruit on shoots that + are so slender as to be almost pendulous.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_689" href="#NtA_689">[689]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1855, p. 726.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_690" href="#NtA_690">[690]</a> Downing's 'Fruit Trees,' p. + 278.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_691" href="#NtA_691">[691]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1863, p. 27. Sageret, in his 'Pomologie Phys.,' p. 346, enumerates five + kinds which can be propagated in France by seed: <i>see</i> also + Downing's 'Fruit Trees of America,' p. 305, 312, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_692" href="#NtA_692">[692]</a> Compare Alph. De Candolle, + p. 248. 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 877; Bentham and Targioni-Tozzetti, in + 'Hort. Journal,' vol. ix. p. 163; Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. ii. p. + 92.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_693" href="#NtA_693">[693]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. v., 1824, p. 295.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_694" href="#NtA_694">[694]</a> Ibid., second series, vol. + i., 1835, p. 248.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_695" href="#NtA_695">[695]</a> Ibid., vol. ii. p. 138.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_696" href="#NtA_696">[696]</a> These several statements + are taken from the four following works, which may I believe, be trusted. + Thompson, in 'Hort. Transact.,' <i>see</i> above; Sageret's 'Pomologie + Phys.,' 1830, pp. 358, 364, 367, 379; 'Catalogue of the Fruit in the + Garden of Hort. Soc.,' 1842, pp. 57, 60; Downing, 'The Fruits of + America,' 1845, pp. 189, 195, 200.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_697" href="#NtA_697">[697]</a> Mr. Lowe states in his + 'Flora of Madeira' (quoted in 'Gard. Chron.,' 1862, p. 215) that the + <i>P. malus</i>, with its nearly sessile fruit, ranges farther south than + the long-stalked P. <i>acerba</i>, which is entirely absent in Madeira, + the Canaries, and apparently in Portugal. This fact supports the belief + that these two forms deserve to be called species. But the characters + separating them are of slight importance, and of a kind known to vary in + other cultivated fruit-trees.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_698" href="#NtA_698">[698]</a> <i>See</i> 'Journ. of Hort. + Tour,' by Deputation of the Caledonian Hort. Soc., 1823, p. 459.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_699" href="#NtA_699">[699]</a> H. C. Watson, 'Cybele + Britannica,' vol. i. p. 334.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_700" href="#NtA_700">[700]</a> Loudon's 'Gardener's Mag.,' + vol. vi., 1830, p. 83.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_701" href="#NtA_701">[701]</a> <i>See</i> 'Catalogue of + Fruit in Garden of Hort. Soc.,' 1842, and Downing's 'American Fruit + Trees.'</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_702" href="#NtA_702">[702]</a> Loudon's 'Gardener's + Magazine,' vol. iv., 1828, p. 112.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_703" href="#NtA_703">[703]</a> 'The Culture of the Apple,' + p. 43. Van Mons makes the same remark on the pear, 'Arbres Fruitiers,' + tom. ii., 1836, p. 414.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_704" href="#NtA_704">[704]</a> Lindley's 'Horticulture,' + p. 116. <i>See</i> also Knight on the Apple-Tree, in 'Transact. of Hort. + Soc.,' vol. vi. p. 229.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_705" href="#NtA_705">[705]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. i., 1812, p. 120.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_706" href="#NtA_706">[706]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + March 13th, 1866, p. 194.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_707" href="#NtA_707">[707]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. iv. p. 68. For Knight's case, <i>see</i> vol. vi. p. 547. When the + <i>coccus</i> first appeared in this country, it is said (vol. ii. p. + 163) that it was more injurious to crab-stocks than to the apples grafted + on them.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_708" href="#NtA_708">[708]</a> 'Mém. de la Soc. Linn. de + Paris,' tom. iii., 1825, p. 164; and Seringe, 'Bulletin Bot.,' 1830, p. + 117.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_709" href="#NtA_709">[709]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1849, p. 24.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_710" href="#NtA_710">[710]</a> R. Thompson, in 'Gardener's + Chron.,' 1850, p. 788.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_711" href="#NtA_711">[711]</a> Sageret, 'Pomologie + Physiologique,' 1830, p. 263. Downing's 'Fruit Trees,' pp. 130, 134, 139, + &c. Loudon's 'Gardener's Mag.,' vol. viii. p. 317. Alexis Jordan, 'De + l'Origine des diverses Variétés,' in 'Mém. de l'Acad. Imp. de Lyon,' tom. + ii., 1852, pp. 95, 114. 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1850, pp. 774, 788.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_712" href="#NtA_712">[712]</a> 'Comptes Rendus,' July 6th, + 1863.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_713" href="#NtA_713">[713]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1856, p. 804; 1857, p. 820; 1862, p. 1195.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_714" href="#NtA_714">[714]</a> Most of the largest + cultivated strawberries are the descendants of <i>F. grandiflora</i> or + <i>Chiloensis</i>, and I have seen no account of these forms in their + wild state. Methuen's Scarlet (Downing, 'Fruits,' p. 527) has "immense + fruit of the largest size," and belongs to the section descended from + <i>F. Virginiana</i>; and the fruit of this species, as I hear from Prof. + A. Gray, is only a little larger than that of <i>F. vesca</i>, or our + common wood strawberry.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_715" href="#NtA_715">[715]</a> 'Le Fraisier,' par le Comte + L. de Lambertye, 1864, p. 50.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_716" href="#NtA_716">[716]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. iii. 1820, p. 207.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_717" href="#NtA_717">[717]</a> <i>See</i> an account by + Prof. Decaisne, and by others in 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1862, p. 335, + and 1858, p. 172; and Mr. Barnet's paper in 'Hort. Soc. Transact.,' vol. + vi., 1826, p. 170.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_718" href="#NtA_718">[718]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. v., 1824, p. 294.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_719" href="#NtA_719">[719]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + Dec. 30th, 1862, p. 779. <i>See</i> also Mr. Prince to the same effect, + idem, 1863, p. 418.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_720" href="#NtA_720">[720]</a> For additional evidence + <i>see</i> 'Journal of Horticulture,' Dec. 9th, 1862, p. 721.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_721" href="#NtA_721">[721]</a> 'Le Fraisier,' par le Comte + L. de Lambertye, pp. 221, 230.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_722" href="#NtA_722">[722]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. vi. p. 200.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_723" href="#NtA_723">[723]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1858, + p. 173.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_724" href="#NtA_724">[724]</a> Godron 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + i. p. 161.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_725" href="#NtA_725">[725]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1851, + p. 440.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_726" href="#NtA_726">[726]</a> F. Gloede, in 'Gardener's + Chron.,' 1862, p. 1053.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_727" href="#NtA_727">[727]</a> Downing's 'Fruits,' p. + 532.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_728" href="#NtA_728">[728]</a> Barnet, in 'Hort. + Transact.,' vol. vi. p. 210.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_729" href="#NtA_729">[729]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1847, + p. 539.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_730" href="#NtA_730">[730]</a> For the several statements + with respect to the American strawberries, <i>see</i> Downing, 'Fruits,' + p. 524; 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1843, p. 188; 1847, p. 539; 1861, p. + 717.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_731" href="#NtA_731">[731]</a> Mr. D. Beaton, in 'Cottage + Gardener,' 1860, p. 86. <i>See</i> also 'Cottage Gardener,' 1855, p. 88, + and many other authorities. For the Continent, <i>see</i> F. Gloede, in' + Gardener's Chronicle,' 1862, p. 1053.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_732" href="#NtA_732">[732]</a> Rev. W. F. Radclyffe, in + 'Journal of Hort.,' March 14, 1865, p. 207.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_733" href="#NtA_733">[733]</a> Mr. H. Doubleday in + 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1862, p. 1101.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_734" href="#NtA_734">[734]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1854, p. 254.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_735" href="#NtA_735">[735]</a> Loudon's 'Encyclop. of + Gardening,' p. 930; and Alph. De Candolle, Géograph. Bot.,' p. 910.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_736" href="#NtA_736">[736]</a> Loudon's 'Gardener's + Magazine,' vol. iv. 1828, p. 112.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_737" href="#NtA_737">[737]</a> The fullest account of the + gooseberry is given by Mr. Thompson in 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' vol. i., + 2nd series, 1835, p. 218, from which most of the foregoing facts are + given.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_738" href="#NtA_738">[738]</a> 'Catalogue of Fruits of + Hort. Soc. Garden,' 3rd edit. 1842.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_739" href="#NtA_739">[739]</a> Mr. Clarkson, of + Manchester, on the Culture of the Gooseberry, in Loudon's 'Gardener's + Magazine,' vol. iv. 1828, p. 482.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_740" href="#NtA_740">[740]</a> Downing's 'Fruits of + America,' p. 213.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_741" href="#NtA_741">[741]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1844, p. 811, where a table is given; and 1845, p. 819. For the extreme + weights gained, <i>see</i> 'Journal of Horticulture,' July 26, 1864, p. + 61.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_742" href="#NtA_742">[742]</a> Mr. Saul, of Lancaster, in + Loudon's 'Gardener's Mag.,' vol. iii. 1828, p. 421; and vol. x. 1834, p. + 42.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_743" href="#NtA_743">[743]</a> 'Himalayan Journals,' 1854, + vol. ii. p. 334. Moorcroft ('Travels,' vol. ii. p. 146) describes four + varieties cultivated in Kashmir.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_744" href="#NtA_744">[744]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1850, p. 723.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_745" href="#NtA_745">[745]</a> Paper translated in + Loudon's 'Gardener's Mag.,' 1829, vol. v. p. 202.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_746" href="#NtA_746">[746]</a> Quoted in 'Gardener's + Chronicle,' 1849, p. 101.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_747" href="#NtA_747">[747]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1847, pp. 541 and 558.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_748" href="#NtA_748">[748]</a> The following details are + taken from the Catalogue of Fruits, 1842, in Garden of Hort. Soc., p. + 103; and from Loudon's 'Encyclop. of Gardening,' p. 943.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_749" href="#NtA_749">[749]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1860, + p. 956.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_750" href="#NtA_750">[750]</a> 'Annales des Sc. Nat. + Bot.,' 4th series, vol. vi. 1856, p. 5.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_751" href="#NtA_751">[751]</a> 'American Journ. of + Science,' 2nd ser. vol. xxiv. 1857, p. 442.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_752" href="#NtA_752">[752]</a> Gärtner, + 'Bastarderzeugung,' 1849, s. 87, and s. 169 with respect to Maize; on + Verbascum, idem, ss. 92 and 181; also his 'Kenntniss der Berfruchtung,' + s. 137. With respect to Nicotiana, <i>see</i> Kölreuter, 'Zweite Forts.,' + 1764, s. 53; though this is a somewhat different case.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_753" href="#NtA_753">[753]</a> 'De l'Espèce,' par M. + Godron, tom. ii. p. 64.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_754" href="#NtA_754">[754]</a> Naudin, in 'Annal. des Sci. + Nat.,' 4th ser. Bot. tom. xi. 1859, p. 28.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_755" href="#NtA_755">[755]</a> 'Mémoire sur les + Cucurbitacées,' 1826, pp. 6, 24.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_756" href="#NtA_756">[756]</a> 'Flore des Serres,' Oct. + 1861, quoted in 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1861, p. 1135. I have also + consulted and taken some facts from M. Naudin's Memoir on Cucumis in + 'Annal. des Sc. Nat.,' 4th series, Bot. tom. xi. 1859, p. 5.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_757" href="#NtA_757">[757]</a> <i>See</i> also Sageret's + 'Mémoire,' p. 7.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_758" href="#NtA_758">[758]</a> Loudon's 'Arboretum et + Fruticetum,' vol. ii. p. 1217.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_759" href="#NtA_759">[759]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1866, p. 1096.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_760" href="#NtA_760">[760]</a> 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. + 1096.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_761" href="#NtA_761">[761]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1842, + p. 36.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_762" href="#NtA_762">[762]</a> Loudon's 'Arboretum et + Fruticetum,' vol. iii. p. 1731.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_763" href="#NtA_763">[763]</a> Ibid., vol. iv. p. + 2489.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_764" href="#NtA_764">[764]</a> Godron ('De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. p. 91) describes four varieties of Robinia remarkable from their + manner of growth.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_765" href="#NtA_765">[765]</a> 'Journal of a Horticultural + Tour, by Caledonian Hort. Soc.,' 1823, p. 107. Alph. De Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 1083. Verlot, 'Sur la Production des Variétés,' + 1865, p. 55, for the Barberry.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_766" href="#NtA_766">[766]</a> Loudon's 'Arboretum et + Fruticetum,' vol. ii. p. 508.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_767" href="#NtA_767">[767]</a> Verlot, 'Des Variétés,' + 1865, p. 92.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_768" href="#NtA_768">[768]</a> Loudon's 'Arboretum et + Fruticetum,' vol. iii. p. 1376.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_769" href="#NtA_769">[769]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1841, p. 687.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_770" href="#NtA_770">[770]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. p. 89. In Loudon's 'Gardener's Mag.,' vol. xii. 1836, p. 371, a + variegated bushy ash is described and figured, as having simple leaves; + it originated in Ireland.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_771" href="#NtA_771">[771]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1861, + p. 575.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_772" href="#NtA_772">[772]</a> Quoted from Royal Irish + Academy in 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1841, p. 767.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_773" href="#NtA_773">[773]</a> Loudon's 'Arboretum et + Fruticetum:' for Elm, <i>see</i> vol. iii. p. 1376; for Oak, p. 1846.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_774" href="#NtA_774">[774]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1849, p. 822.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_775" href="#NtA_775">[775]</a> 'Arboretum et Fruticetum,' + vol. iv. p. 2150.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_776" href="#NtA_776">[776]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1852, + p. 693.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_777" href="#NtA_777">[777]</a> <i>See</i> 'Beiträge zur + Kentniss Europäischer Pinus-arten von Dr. Christ: Flora, 1864.' He shows + that in the Ober-Engadin <i>P. sylvestris</i> and <i>montana</i> are + connected by intermediate links.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_778" href="#NtA_778">[778]</a> 'Arboretum et Fruticetum,' + vol. iv. pp. 2159 and 2189.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_779" href="#NtA_779">[779]</a> Ibid., vol. ii. p. 830; + Loudon's 'Gardener's Magazine,' vol. vi. 1830, p. 714.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_780" href="#NtA_780">[780]</a> Loudon's 'Arboretum et + Fruticetum,' vol. ii. p. 834.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_781" href="#NtA_781">[781]</a> Loudon's 'Gardener's Mag.,' + vol. ix. 1833, p. 123.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_782" href="#NtA_782">[782]</a> Ibid., vol. xi. 1835, p. + 503.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_783" href="#NtA_783">[783]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1845, + p. 623.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_784" href="#NtA_784">[784]</a> D. Beaton, in 'Cottage + Gardener,' 1860, p. 377. <i>See</i> also Mr. Beck, on the habits of Queen + Mab, in 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1845, p. 226.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_785" href="#NtA_785">[785]</a> Moquin-Tandon, 'Eléments de + Tératologie,' 1841, p. 213.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_786" href="#NtA_786">[786]</a> <i>See</i> also 'Cottage + Gardener,' 1860, p. 133.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_787" href="#NtA_787">[787]</a> Quoted by Alph. de + Candolle, 'Bibl. Univ.,' November, 1862, p. 58.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_788" href="#NtA_788">[788]</a> Knight, 'Transact. Hort. + Soc.,' vol. iv. p. 322.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_789" href="#NtA_789">[789]</a> 'Botanical Magazine,' tab. + 5160, fig. 4; Dr. Hooker, in 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1860, p. 190; Prof. + Harvey, in 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1860, p. 145; Mr. Crocker, in 'Gardener's + Chron.,' 1861, p. 1092.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_790" href="#NtA_790">[790]</a> Alph. de Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 1083; 'Gard. Chronicle,' 1861, p. 433. The + inheritance of the white and golden zones in Pelargonium largely depends + on the nature of the soil. <i>See</i> D. Beaton, in 'Journal of + Horticulture,' 1861, p. 64.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_791" href="#NtA_791">[791]</a> 'Rose Amateur's Guide,' T. + Rivers, 1837, p. 21.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_792" href="#NtA_792">[792]</a> 'Journal Hort. Soc.,' vol. + ix. 1855, p. 182.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_793" href="#NtA_793">[793]</a> The Rev. W. F. Radclyffe, + in 'Journal of Horticulture,' March 14, 1865, p. 207.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_794" href="#NtA_794">[794]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1861, p. 46.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_795" href="#NtA_795">[795]</a> Mr. Sabine, in 'Transact. + Hort. Soc.,' vol. iv. p. 285.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_796" href="#NtA_796">[796]</a> 'An Encyclop. of Plants,' + by J. C. Loudon, 1841, p. 443.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_797" href="#NtA_797">[797]</a> Loudon's 'Gardener's + Magazine,' vol. xi. 1835, p. 427; also 'Journal of Horticulture,' April + 14, 1863, p. 275.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_798" href="#NtA_798">[798]</a> Loudon's 'Gardener's + Magazine,' vol. viii. p. 575; vol. ix. p. 689.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_799" href="#NtA_799">[799]</a> Sir J. E. Smith, 'English + Flora,' vol. i. p. 306. H. C. Watson, 'Cybele Britannica,' vol. i. 1847, + p. 181.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_800" href="#NtA_800">[800]</a> Quoted from 'Annales des + Sciences,' in the Companion to the 'Bot. Mag.,' vol. i. 1835, p. 159.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_801" href="#NtA_801">[801]</a> 'Cybele Britannica,' vol. + i. p. 173. <i>See</i> also Dr. Herbert on the changes of colour in + transplanted specimens, and on the natural variations of V. grandiflora, + in 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' vol. iv. p. 19.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_802" href="#NtA_802">[802]</a> Salisbury, in 'Transact. + Hort. Soc.,' vol. i. 1812, pp. 84, 92. A semi-double variety was produced + in Madrid in 1790.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_803" href="#NtA_803">[803]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. iii. 1820, p. 225.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_804" href="#NtA_804">[804]</a> Loudon's 'Gardener's Mag.,' + vol. vi. 1830, p. 77.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_805" href="#NtA_805">[805]</a> Loudon's 'Encyclop. of + Gardening,' p. 1035.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_806" href="#NtA_806">[806]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. i. p. 91; and Loudon's 'Gardener's Mag.,' vol. iii. 1828, p. + 179.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_807" href="#NtA_807">[807]</a> Mr. Wildman, in 'Gardener's + Chron.,' 1843, p. 87.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_808" href="#NtA_808">[808]</a> 'Cottage Gardener,' April + 8, 1856, p. 33.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_809" href="#NtA_809">[809]</a> The best and fullest + account of this plant which I have met with is by a famous + horticulturist, Mr. Paul of Waltham, in the 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1864, + p. 342.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_810" href="#NtA_810">[810]</a> 'Des Jacinthes, de leur + Anatomie, Reproduction, et Culture,' Amsterdam, 1768.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_811" href="#NtA_811">[811]</a> Alph. de Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 1082.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_812" href="#NtA_812">[812]</a> Alph. de Candolle, + 'Géograph. Bot.,' p. 983.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_813" href="#NtA_813">[813]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1854, + p. 821.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_814" href="#NtA_814">[814]</a> 'Lindley's Guide to + Orchard,' as quoted in 'Gard. Chronicle,' 1852, p. 821. For the <i>Early + mignonne peach</i>, <i>see</i> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1864, p. 1251.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_815" href="#NtA_815">[815]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. ii. p. 160.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_816" href="#NtA_816">[816]</a> <i>See</i> also 'Gardener's + Chron.,' 1863, p. 27.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_817" href="#NtA_817">[817]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1852, p. + 821.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_818" href="#NtA_818">[818]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1852, + p. 629; 1856, p. 648; 1864, p. 986. Other cases are given by Braun, + 'Rejuvenescence,' in 'Ray Soc. Bot. Mem.,' 1853, p. 314.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_819" href="#NtA_819">[819]</a> 'Ampélographie,' &c., + 1849, p. 71.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_820" href="#NtA_820">[820]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1866, p.970.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_821" href="#NtA_821">[821]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1855, pp. 597, 612.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_822" href="#NtA_822">[822]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1842, + p. 873; 1855, p. 646. In the 'Chronicle,' 1866, p. 876, Mr. P. Mackenzie + states that the bush still continues to bear the three kinds of fruit, + "although they have not been every year alike."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_823" href="#NtA_823">[823]</a> 'Revue Horticole,' quoted + in 'Gard. Chronicle,' 1844, p. 87.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_824" href="#NtA_824">[824]</a> 'Rejuvenescence in Nature,' + 'Bot. Memoirs Ray Soc.,' 1853, p. 314.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_825" href="#NtA_825">[825]</a> 'Comptes Rendus,' tom. + xli., 1855, p. 804. The second case is given on the authority of + Gaudichaud, idem, tom. xxxiv., 1852, p. 748.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_826" href="#NtA_826">[826]</a> This case is given in the + 'Gard. Chronicle,' 1867, p. 403.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_827" href="#NtA_827">[827]</a> 'Journal of Proc. Linn. + Soc.,' vol. ii. Botany, p. 131.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_828" href="#NtA_828">[828]</a> 'Gard. Chronicle,' 1847, p. + 207.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_829" href="#NtA_829">[829]</a> Herbert, 'Amaryllidaceæ,' + 1838, p. 369.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_830" href="#NtA_830">[830]</a> 'Gardener's Chronicle,' + 1843, p. 391.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_831" href="#NtA_831">[831]</a> Exhibited at Hort. Soc., + London. Report in 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1844, p. 337.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_832" href="#NtA_832">[832]</a> Mr. W. Bell, Bot. Soc. of + Edinburgh, May, 1863.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_833" href="#NtA_833">[833]</a> 'Revue Horticole,' quoted + in 'Gard. Chron.,' 1845, p. 475.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_834" href="#NtA_834">[834]</a> 'Bastarderzeugung,' 1849, + s. 76.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_835" href="#NtA_835">[835]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + 1861, p. 336.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_836" href="#NtA_836">[836]</a> W. P. Ayres, in 'Gardener's + Chron.,' 1842, p. 791.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_837" href="#NtA_837">[837]</a> W. P. Ayres, idem.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_838" href="#NtA_838">[838]</a> 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1861, + p. 968.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_839" href="#NtA_839">[839]</a> Idem, 1861, p. 945.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_840" href="#NtA_840">[840]</a> W. Paul, in 'Gardener's + Chron.,' 1861, p. 968.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_841" href="#NtA_841">[841]</a> Idem, p. 945.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_842" href="#NtA_842">[842]</a> For other cases of + bud-variation in this same variety, see 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1861, pp. + 578, 600, 925. For other distinct cases of bud-variation in the genus + Pelargonium, <i>see</i> 'Cottage Gardener,' 1860, p. 194.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_843" href="#NtA_843">[843]</a> Rev. W. T. Bree, in + Loudon's 'Gard. Mag.,' vol. viii., 1832, p. 93.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_844" href="#NtA_844">[844]</a> 'The Chrysanthemum, its + History and Culture,' by J. Salter, 1865, p. 41, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_845" href="#NtA_845">[845]</a> Bree, in Loudon's 'Gard. + Mag.,' vol. viii., 1832, p. 93.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_846" href="#NtA_846">[846]</a> Bronn, 'Geschichte der + Natur,' B. ii. s. 123.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_847" href="#NtA_847">[847]</a> T. Rivers, 'Rose Amateur's + Guide,' 1837, p. 4.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_848" href="#NtA_848">[848]</a> Mr. Shailer, quoted in + 'Gardener's Chron.,' 1848, p. 759.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_849" href="#NtA_849">[849]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. iv., 1822, p. 137; 'Gard. Chron.,' 1842, p. 422.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_850" href="#NtA_850">[850]</a> See also Loudon's + 'Arboretum,' vol. ii. p. 780.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_851" href="#NtA_851">[851]</a> All these statements on the + origin of the several varieties of the moss-rose are given on the + authority of Mr. Shailer, who, together with his father, was concerned in + their original propagation, in 'Gard. Chron.,' 1852, p. 759.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_852" href="#NtA_852">[852]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1845, p. + 564.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_853" href="#NtA_853">[853]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. ii. p. 242.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_854" href="#NtA_854">[854]</a> 'Schriften der Phys. Ökon. + Gesell. zu Königsberg,' Feb. 3, 1865, s. 4. <i>See</i> also Dr. Caspary's + paper in 'Transactions of the Hort. Congress of Amsterdam,' 1865.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_855" href="#NtA_855">[855]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1852, p. + 759.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_856" href="#NtA_856">[856]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. ii. p. 242.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_857" href="#NtA_857">[857]</a> Sir R. Schomburgk, 'Proc. + Linn. Soc. Bot.,' vol. ii. p. 132.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_858" href="#NtA_858">[858]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1862, p. + 619.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_859" href="#NtA_859">[859]</a> Hopkirk's 'Flora Anomala,' + p. 167.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_860" href="#NtA_860">[860]</a> 'Sur la Production et la + Fixation des Variétés,' 1865, p. 4.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_861" href="#NtA_861">[861]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + March, 1865, p. 233.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_862" href="#NtA_862">[862]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1843, p. + 135.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_863" href="#NtA_863">[863]</a> Ibid., 1842, p. 55.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_864" href="#NtA_864">[864]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1867, p. + 235.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_865" href="#NtA_865">[865]</a> Gärtner, + 'Bastarderzeugung,' s. 305.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_866" href="#NtA_866">[866]</a> Mr. D. Beaton, in 'Cottage + Gardener,' 1860, p. 250.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_867" href="#NtA_867">[867]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1850, p. + 536.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_868" href="#NtA_868">[868]</a> Braun, 'Ray Soc. Bot. + Mem.,' 1853, p. 315; Hopkirk's 'Flora Anomala,' p. 164; Lecoq, 'Géograph. + Bot. de l'Europe,' tom. iii., 1854, p. 405; and 'De la Fécondation,' + 1862, p. 303.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_869" href="#NtA_869">[869]</a> 'Des Variétés,' 1865, p. + 5.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_870" href="#NtA_870">[870]</a> W. Mason, in 'Gard. + Chron.,' 1843, p. 878.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_871" href="#NtA_871">[871]</a> Alex. Braun, 'Ray Soc. Bot. + Mem.,' 1853, p. 315; 'Gard. Chron.,' 1841, p. 329.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_872" href="#NtA_872">[872]</a> Dr. M. T. Masters, 'Royal + Institution Lecture,' March 16, 1860.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_873" href="#NtA_873">[873]</a> <i>See</i> Mr. W. K. + Bridgman's curious paper in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' December, + 1861; also Mr. J. Scott, 'Bot. Soc. Edinburgh,' June 12, 1862.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_874" href="#NtA_874">[874]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + 1861, p. 336; Verlot, 'Des Variétés,' p. 76.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_875" href="#NtA_875">[875]</a> <i>See</i> also Verlot, + 'Des Variétés,' p. 74.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_876" href="#NtA_876">[876]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1844, p. + 86.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_877" href="#NtA_877">[877]</a> Ibid., 1861, p. 968.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_878" href="#NtA_878">[878]</a> Ibid., 1861, p. 433. + 'Cottage Gardener,' 1860, p. 2.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_879" href="#NtA_879">[879]</a> M. Lemoine (quoted in + 'Gard. Chron.,' 1867, p. 74) has lately observed that the Symphitum with + variegated leaves cannot be propagated by division of the roots. He also + found that out of 500 plants of a Phlox with striped flowers, which had + been propagated by root-division, only seven or eight produced striped + flowers. See also, on striped Pelargoniums, 'Gard. Chron.' 1867, p. + 1000.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_880" href="#NtA_880">[880]</a> Anderson's 'Recreations in + Agriculture,' vol. v. p. 152.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_881" href="#NtA_881">[881]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1857, p. + 662.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_882" href="#NtA_882">[882]</a> Ibid., 1841, p. 814.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_883" href="#NtA_883">[883]</a> Ibid., 1857, p. 613.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_884" href="#NtA_884">[884]</a> Ibid., 1857, p. 679. + <i>See</i> also Phillips, 'Hist. of Vegetables,' vol. ii. p. 91, for + other and similar accounts.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_885" href="#NtA_885">[885]</a> 'Journal of Proc. Linn. + Soc.,' vol. ii. Botany, p. 132.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_886" href="#NtA_886">[886]</a> Loudon's 'Gard. Mag.,' vol. + viii., 1832, p. 94.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_887" href="#NtA_887">[887]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1850, p. + 536; and 1842, p. 729.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_888" href="#NtA_888">[888]</a> 'Des Jacinthes,' &c., + Amsterdam, 1768, p. 122.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_889" href="#NtA_889">[889]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1845, p. + 212.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_890" href="#NtA_890">[890]</a> Loudon's 'Encyclop. of + Gardening,' p. 1024.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_891" href="#NtA_891">[891]</a> 'Production des Variétés,' + 1865, p. 63.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_892" href="#NtA_892">[892]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1841, p. + 782; 1842, p. 55.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_893" href="#NtA_893">[893]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1849, p. + 565.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_894" href="#NtA_894">[894]</a> 'Transact. Linn. Soc.,' + vol. ii. p. 354.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_895" href="#NtA_895">[895]</a> Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. + ii. p. 84.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_896" href="#NtA_896">[896]</a> M. Carrière has lately + described, in the 'Révue Horticole' (Dec. 1, 1866, p. 457), an + extraordinary case. He twice inserted grafts of the <i>Aria vestita</i> + on thorn-trees (<i>épines</i>) growing in pots; and the grafts, as they + grew, produced shoots with bark, buds, leaves, petioles, petals, and + flower-stalks all widely different from those of the Aria. The grafted + shoots were also much hardier, and flowered earlier, than those on the + ungrafted Aria.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_897" href="#NtA_897">[897]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. ii. p. 160.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_898" href="#NtA_898">[898]</a> For the cases of oaks + <i>see</i> Alph. De Candolle in 'Bibl. Univers.,' Geneva, Nov. 1862; for + limes, &c., Loudon's 'Gard. Mag.,' vol. xi., 1835, p. 503.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_899" href="#NtA_899">[899]</a> For analogous facts, + <i>see</i> Braun, 'Rejuvenescence,' in 'Ray Soc. Bot. Mem.,' 1853, p. + 320; and 'Gard. Chron.,' 1842, p. 397.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_900" href="#NtA_900">[900]</a> 'Journal of Hort. Soc.,' + vol. ii., 1847, p. 100.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_901" href="#NtA_901">[901]</a> <i>See</i> 'Transact. of + Hort. Congress of Amsterdam,' 1865; but I owe most of the following + information to Prof. Caspary's letters.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_902" href="#NtA_902">[902]</a> 'Nouvelles Archives du + Muséum,' tom. i. p. 143.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_903" href="#NtA_903">[903]</a> <i>See</i> on this head, + Naudin, idem, p. 141.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_904" href="#NtA_904">[904]</a> The statement is believed + by Dr. Lindley in 'Gard. Chron.,' 1857, pp. 382, 400.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_905" href="#NtA_905">[905]</a> Braun, in 'Bot. Mem. Ray + Soc.,' 1853, p. xxiii.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_906" href="#NtA_906">[906]</a> This hybrid has never been + described. It is exactly intermediate in foliage, time of flowering, dark + striæ at the base of the standard petal, hairiness of the ovarium, and in + almost every other character, between <i>C. laburnum</i> and + <i>alpinus</i>; but it approaches the former species more nearly in + colour, and exceeds it in the length of the racemes. We have before seen + that 20.3 per cent. of its pollen-grains are ill-formed and worthless. My + plant, though growing not above thirty or forty yards from both + parent-species, during some seasons yielded no good seeds; but in 1866 it + was unusually fertile, and its long racemes produced from one to + occasionally even four pods. Many of the pods contained no good seeds, + but generally they contained a single apparently good seed, sometimes + two, and in one case three seeds. Some of the seeds germinated.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_907" href="#NtA_907">[907]</a> 'Annales de la Soc. de + Hort. de Paris,' tom. vii., 1830, p. 93.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_908" href="#NtA_908">[908]</a> 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + Hist.,' March, 1848.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_909" href="#NtA_909">[909]</a> 'Pomologie Physiolog.,' + 1830, p. 126.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_910" href="#NtA_910">[910]</a> Gallesio, 'Gli Agrumi dei + Giard. Bot. Agrar. di Firenze,' 1839, p. 11. In his 'Traité du Citrus,' + 1811, p. 146, he speaks as if the compound fruit consisted in part of + lemons, but this apparently was a mistake.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_911" href="#NtA_911">[911]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1855, p. + 628. <i>See</i> also Prof. Caspary, in 'Transact. Hort. Congress of + Amsterdam,' 1865.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_912" href="#NtA_912">[912]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1851, p. + 406.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_913" href="#NtA_913">[913]</a> Gärtner, + 'Bastarderzeugung,' s. 549. It is, however, doubtful whether these plants + should be ranked as species or varieties.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_914" href="#NtA_914">[914]</a> Gärtner, idem, s. 550.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_915" href="#NtA_915">[915]</a> 'Journal de Physique,' tom. + xxiii., 1783, p. 100. 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1781, part i. p. + 249.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_916" href="#NtA_916">[916]</a> 'Nouvelles Archives du + Muséum,' tom. i. p. 49.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_917" href="#NtA_917">[917]</a> L'Hermès, Jan. 14, 1837, + quoted in Loudon's 'Gard. Mag.,' vol. xiii. p. 230.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_918" href="#NtA_918">[918]</a> 'Comptes Rendus,' tom. + xxxiv., 1852, p. 746.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_919" href="#NtA_919">[919]</a> 'Géograph. Bot. de + l'Europe,' tom. iii., 1854, p. 405; and 'De la Fécondation,' 1862, p. + 302.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_920" href="#NtA_920">[920]</a> 'Traité du Citrus,' 1811, + p. 45.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_921" href="#NtA_921">[921]</a> 'Transact. Linn. Soc.,' + vol. ix. p. 268.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_922" href="#NtA_922">[922]</a> Gärtner + ('Bastarderzeugung,' s. 611) gives many references on this subject.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_923" href="#NtA_923">[923]</a> A nearly similar account + was given by Bradley, in 1724, in his 'Treatise on Husbandry,' vol. i. p. + 199.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_924" href="#NtA_924">[924]</a> Loudon's 'Arboretum,' vol. + iv. p. 2595.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_925" href="#NtA_925">[925]</a> 'Bastarderzeugung,' s. + 619.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_926" href="#NtA_926">[926]</a> Amsterdam, 1768, p. + 124.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_927" href="#NtA_927">[927]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1860, p. + 672, with a woodcut.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_928" href="#NtA_928">[928]</a> 'Philosophical Transact.,' + vol. xiiii., 1744-45, p. 525.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_929" href="#NtA_929">[929]</a> Mr. Swayne, in 'Transact. + Hort. Soc.,' vol. v. p. 234; and Gärtner, 'Bastarderzeugung,' 1849, s. 81 + and 499.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_930" href="#NtA_930">[930]</a> 'Gard. Chron.,' 1854, p. + 404.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_931" href="#NtA_931">[931]</a> Ibid., 1866, p. 900.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_932" href="#NtA_932">[932]</a> <i>See</i> also a paper by + this observer, read before the International Hort. and Bot. Congress of + London, 1866.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_933" href="#NtA_933">[933]</a> 'Traité du Citrus,' p. + 40.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_934" href="#NtA_934">[934]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. iv. p. 318. <i>See</i> also vol. v. p. 65.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_935" href="#NtA_935">[935]</a> Prof. Asa Gray, 'Proc. + Acad. Sc.,' Boston, vol. iv., 1860, p. 21.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_936" href="#NtA_936">[936]</a> For the French case, + <i>see</i> 'Proc. Hort. Soc.,' vol. i. new series, 1866, p. 50. For + Germany, <i>see</i> M. Jack, quoted in Henfrey's 'Botanical Gazette,' + vol. i. p. 277. A case in England has recently been alluded to by the + Rev. J. M. Berkeley before the Hort. Soc. of London.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_937" href="#NtA_937">[937]</a> 'Philosophical + Transactions,' vol. xlvii., 1751-52, p. 206.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_938" href="#NtA_938">[938]</a> Gallesio, 'Teoria della + Riproduzione,' 1816, p. 95.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_939" href="#NtA_939">[939]</a> It may be worth while to + call attention to the several means by which flowers and fruit become + striped or mottled. Firstly, by the direct action of the pollen of + another variety or species, as with the above-given cases of oranges and + maize. Secondly, in crosses of the first generation, when the colours of + the two parents do not readily unite, as in the cases of Mirabilis and + Dianthus given a few pages back. Thirdly, in crossed plants of a + subsequent generation, by reversion, through either bud or seminal + generation. Fourthly, by reversion to a character not originally gained + by a cross, but which had long been lost, as with white-flowered + varieties, which we shall hereafter see often become striped with some + other colour. Lastly, there are cases, as when peaches are produced with + a half or quarter of the fruit like a nectarine, in which the change is + apparently due to mere variation, through either bud or seminal + generation.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_940" href="#NtA_940">[940]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. v. p. 69.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_941" href="#NtA_941">[941]</a> 'Journal of Horticulture,' + Jan. 20, 1863, p. 46.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_942" href="#NtA_942">[942]</a> <i>See</i> on this head the + high authority of Prof. Decaisne, in a paper translated in 'Proc. Hort. + Soc.,' vol. i. new series, 1866, p. 48.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_943" href="#NtA_943">[943]</a> Vol. xliii., 1744-45, p. + 525; vol. xlv., 1747-48, p. 602.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_944" href="#NtA_944">[944]</a> 'Transact. Hort. Soc.,' + vol. v. pp. 63 and 68. Puvis also has collected ('De la Dégéneration,' + 1837, p. 36) several other instances; but it is not in all cases possible + to distinguish between the direct action of foreign pollen and + bud-variations.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_945" href="#NtA_945">[945]</a> T. de Clermont-Tonnerre, in + 'Mém. de la Soc. Linn. de Paris,' tom. iii., 1825, p. 164.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_946" href="#NtA_946">[946]</a> 'Transact. of Hort. Soc.,' + vol. v. p. 68.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_947" href="#NtA_947">[947]</a> 'Beitrage zur Kenntniss der + Befruchtung,' 1844, s. 347-351.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_948" href="#NtA_948">[948]</a> 'Die Fruchtbildung der + Orchideen, ein Beweis für die doppelte Wirkung des Pollen,' Botanische + Zeitung, No. 44 et seq., Oct. 30, 1863; and 1865, s. 249.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_949" href="#NtA_949">[949]</a> 'Philos. Transact.,' 1821, + p. 20.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_950" href="#NtA_950">[950]</a> Dr. Alex. Harvey on 'A + remarkable Effect of Cross-breeding,' 1851. On the 'Physiology of + Breeding,' by Mr. Reginald Orton, 1855. 'Intermarriage,' by Alex. Walker, + 1837. 'L'Hérédité Naturelle,' by Dr. Prosper Lucas, tom. ii. p. 58. Mr. + W. Sedgwick in 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review,' 1863, + July, p. 183. Bronn, in his 'Geschichte der Natur,' 1843, B. ii. s. 127, + has collected several cases with respect to mares, sows, and dogs. Mr. W. + C. L. Martin ('History of the Dog,' 1845, p. 104) says he can personally + vouch for the influence of the male parent of the first litter on the + subsequent litters by other fathers. A French poet, Jacques Savary, who + wrote in 1665 on dogs, was aware of this singular fact.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_951" href="#NtA_951">[951]</a> 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' + 1865, p. 59.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_952" href="#NtA_952">[952]</a> 'Flora Anomala,' p. + 164.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt_953" href="#NtA_953">[953]</a> 'Schriften der Phys.-Ökon. + Gesell. zu Königsberg,' Band vi., Feb. 3, 1865, s. 4.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Variation of Animals and Plants +Under Domestication, Vol. I., by Charles Darwin + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS *** + +***** This file should be named 24923-h.htm or 24923-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/9/2/24923/ + +Produced by Steven Gibbs, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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